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what stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone | Corpus luteum - wikipedia
The corpus luteum (Latin for "yellow body ''; plural corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure in female ovaries and is involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone, moderate levels of estradiol, inhibin A and small amounts of estrogen. It is the remains of the ovarian follicle that has released a mature ovum during a previous ovulation.
The corpus luteum is colored as a result of concentrating carotenoids (including lutein) from the diet and secretes a moderate amount of estrogen to inhibit further release of gonadotropin - releasing hormone (GnRH) and thus secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). A new corpus luteum develops with each menstrual cycle.
The corpus luteum develops from an ovarian follicle during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle or oestrous cycle, following the release of a secondary oocyte from the follicle during ovulation. The follicle first forms a corpus hemorrhagicum before it becomes a corpus luteum, but the term refers to the visible collection of blood, left after rupture of the follicle, that secretes progesterone. While the oocyte (later the zygote if fertilization occurs) traverses the Fallopian tube into the uterus, the corpus luteum remains in the ovary.
The corpus luteum is typically very large relative to the size of the ovary; in humans, the size of the structure ranges from under 2 cm to 5 cm in diameter.
Its cells develop from the follicular cells surrounding the ovarian follicle. The follicular theca cells luteinize into small luteal cells (thecal - lutein cells) and follicular granulosa cells luteinize into large luteal cells (granulosal - lutein cells) forming the corpus luteum. Progesterone is synthesized from cholesterol by both the large and small luteal cells upon luteal maturation. Cholesterol - LDL complexes bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of luteal cells and are internalized. Cholesterol is released and stored within the cell as cholesterol ester. LDL is recycled for further cholesterol transport. Large luteal cells produce more progesterone due to uninhibited / basal levels of protein kinase A (PKA) activity within the cell. Small luteal cells have LH receptors that regulate PKA activity within the cell. PKA actively phosphorylates steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and translocator protein to transport cholesterol from the outer mitochondrial membrane to the inner mitochondrial membrane.
The development of the corpus luteum is accompanied by an increase in the level of the steroidogenic enzyme P450scc that converts cholesterol to pregnenolone in the mitochondria. Pregnenolone is then converted to progesterone that is secreted out of the cell and into the blood stream. During the bovine estrous cycle, plasma levels of progesterone increase in parallel to the levels of P450scc and its electron donor adrenodoxin, indicating that progesterone secretion is a result of enhanced expression of P450scc in the corpus luteum.
The mitochondrial P450 system electron transport chain including adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin has been shown to leak electrons leading to the formation of superoxide radical. Apparently to cope with the radicals produced by this system and by enhanced mitochondrial metabolism, the levels of antioxidant enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase also increase in parallel with the enhanced steroidogenesis in the corpus luteum.
Like the previous theca cells, the theca lutein cells lack the aromatase enzyme that is necessary to produce estrogen, so they can only perform steroidogenesis until formation of androgens. The granulosa lutein cells do have aromatase, and use it to produce estrogens, using the androgens previously synthesized by the theca lutein cells, as the granulosa lutein cells in themselves do not have the 17α - hydroxylase or 17, 20 lyase to produce androgens. Once the corpus luteum regresses the remnant is known as corpus albicans.
The corpus luteum is essential for establishing and maintaining pregnancy in females. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which is a steroid hormone responsible for the decidualization of the endometrium (its development) and maintenance, respectively. It also produces relaxin, a hormone responsible for softening of the pubic symphysis which helps in parturition.
If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone and decays (after approximately 10 days in humans). It then degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is a mass of fibrous scar tissue.
The uterine lining (endometrium) is expelled through the vagina (in mammals that go through a menstrual cycle). In an estrous cycle, the lining degenerates back to normal size.
If the egg is fertilized and implantation occurs, the syncytiotrophoblast (derived from trophoblast) cells of the blastocyst secrete the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, or a similar hormone in other species) by day 9 post-fertilization.
Human chorionic gonadotropin signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick lining (endometrium) of the uterus and providing an area rich in blood vessels in which the zygote (s) can develop. From this point on, the corpus luteum is called the corpus luteum graviditatis.
The introduction of prostaglandins at this point causes the degeneration of the corpus luteum and the abortion of the fetus. However, in placental animals such as humans, the placenta eventually takes over progesterone production and the corpus luteum degrades into a corpus albicans without embryo / fetus loss.
Luteal support refers to the administration of medication (generally progestins) for the purpose of increasing the success of implantation and early embryogenesis, thereby complementing the function of the corpus luteum.
The yellow color and name of the corpus luteum, like that of the macula lutea of the retina, is due to its concentration of certain carotenoids, especially lutein. In 1968, a report indicated that beta - carotene was synthesized in laboratory conditions in slices of corpus luteum from cows. However, attempts have been made to replicate these findings, but have not succeeded. The idea is not presently accepted by the scientific community. Rather, the corpus luteum concentrates carotenoids from the diet of the mammal.
Similar structures and functions of the corpus luteum exist in some reptiles. Dairy cattle also follow a similar cycle.
Order of changes in ovary
Human ovary with fully developed corpus luteum
Luteinized follicular cyst. H&E stain.
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which of the following is not a factor that affects the search process | Search engine optimization - wikipedia
Search engine optimization (SEO) is the process of affecting the online visibility of a website or a web page in a web search engine 's unpaid results -- often referred to as "natural '', "organic '', or "earned '' results. In general, the earlier (or higher ranked on the search results page), and more frequently a website appears in the search results list, the more visitors it will receive from the search engine 's users; these visitors can then be converted into customers. SEO may target different kinds of search, including image search, video search, academic search, news search, and industry - specific vertical search engines. SEO differs from local search engine optimization in that the latter is focused on optimizing a business ' online presence so that its web pages will be displayed by search engines when a user enters a local search for its products or services. The former instead is more focused on national or international searches.
As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work, the computer programmed algorithms which dictate search engine behavior, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines, and which search engines are preferred by their targeted audience. Optimizing a website may involve editing its content, adding content, doing HTML, and associated coding to both increase its relevance to specific keywords and to remove barriers to the indexing activities of search engines. Promoting a site to increase the number of backlinks, or inbound links, is another SEO tactic. By May 2015, mobile search had surpassed desktop search. In 2015, it was reported that Google is developing and promoting mobile search as a key feature within future products. In response, many brands are beginning to take a different approach to their Internet marketing strategies.
Webmasters and content providers began optimizing websites for search engines in the mid-1990s, as the first search engines were cataloging the early Web. Initially, all webmasters needed only to submit the address of a page, or URL, to the various engines which would send a "spider '' to "crawl '' that page, extract links to other pages from it, and return information found on the page to be indexed. The process involves a search engine spider downloading a page and storing it on the search engine 's own server. A second program, known as an indexer, extracts information about the page, such as the words it contains, where they are located, and any weight for specific words, as well as all links the page contains. All of this information is then placed into a scheduler for crawling at a later date.
Website owners recognized the value of a high ranking and visibility in search engine results, creating an opportunity for both white hat and black hat SEO practitioners. According to industry analyst Danny Sullivan, the phrase "search engine optimization '' probably came into use in 1997. Sullivan credits Bruce Clay as one of the first people to popularize the term. On May 2, 2007, Jason Gambert attempted to trademark the term SEO by convincing the Trademark Office in Arizona that SEO is a "process '' involving manipulation of keywords and not a "marketing service. ''
Early versions of search algorithms relied on webmaster - provided information such as the keyword meta tag or index files in engines like ALIWEB. Meta tags provide a guide to each page 's content. Using meta data to index pages was found to be less than reliable, however, because the webmaster 's choice of keywords in the meta tag could potentially be an inaccurate representation of the site 's actual content. Inaccurate, incomplete, and inconsistent data in meta tags could and did cause pages to rank for irrelevant searches. Web content providers also manipulated some attributes within the HTML source of a page in an attempt to rank well in search engines. By 1997, search engine designers recognized that webmasters were making efforts to rank well in their search engine, and that some webmasters were even manipulating their rankings in search results by stuffing pages with excessive or irrelevant keywords. Early search engines, such as Altavista and Infoseek, adjusted their algorithms in an effort to prevent webmasters from manipulating rankings.
By relying so much on factors such as keyword density which were exclusively within a webmaster 's control, early search engines suffered from abuse and ranking manipulation. To provide better results to their users, search engines had to adapt to ensure their results pages showed the most relevant search results, rather than unrelated pages stuffed with numerous keywords by unscrupulous webmasters. This meant moving away from heavy reliance on term density to a more holistic process for scoring semantic signals. Since the success and popularity of a search engine is determined by its ability to produce the most relevant results to any given search, poor quality or irrelevant search results could lead users to find other search sources. Search engines responded by developing more complex ranking algorithms, taking into account additional factors that were more difficult for webmasters to manipulate. In 2005, an annual conference, AIRWeb, Adversarial Information Retrieval on the Web was created to bring together practitioners and researchers concerned with search engine optimization and related topics.
Companies that employ overly aggressive techniques can get their client websites banned from the search results. In 2005, the Wall Street Journal reported on a company, Traffic Power, which allegedly used high - risk techniques and failed to disclose those risks to its clients. Wired magazine reported that the same company sued blogger and SEO Aaron Wall for writing about the ban. Google 's Matt Cutts later confirmed that Google did in fact ban Traffic Power and some of its clients.
Some search engines have also reached out to the SEO industry, and are frequent sponsors and guests at SEO conferences, webchats, and seminars. Major search engines provide information and guidelines to help with website optimization. Google has a Sitemaps program to help webmasters learn if Google is having any problems indexing their website and also provides data on Google traffic to the website. Bing Webmaster Tools provides a way for webmasters to submit a sitemap and web feeds, allows users to determine the "crawl rate '', and track the web pages index status.
In 1998, two graduate students at Stanford University, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, developed "Backrub '', a search engine that relied on a mathematical algorithm to rate the prominence of web pages. The number calculated by the algorithm, PageRank, is a function of the quantity and strength of inbound links. PageRank estimates the likelihood that a given page will be reached by a web user who randomly surfs the web, and follows links from one page to another. In effect, this means that some links are stronger than others, as a higher PageRank page is more likely to be reached by the random web surfer.
Page and Brin founded Google in 1998. Google attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design. Off - page factors (such as PageRank and hyperlink analysis) were considered as well as on - page factors (such as keyword frequency, meta tags, headings, links and site structure) to enable Google to avoid the kind of manipulation seen in search engines that only considered on - page factors for their rankings. Although PageRank was more difficult to game, webmasters had already developed link building tools and schemes to influence the Inktomi search engine, and these methods proved similarly applicable to gaming PageRank. Many sites focused on exchanging, buying, and selling links, often on a massive scale. Some of these schemes, or link farms, involved the creation of thousands of sites for the sole purpose of link spamming.
By 2004, search engines had incorporated a wide range of undisclosed factors in their ranking algorithms to reduce the impact of link manipulation. In June 2007, The New York Times ' Saul Hansell stated Google ranks sites using more than 200 different signals. The leading search engines, Google, Bing, and Yahoo, do not disclose the algorithms they use to rank pages. Some SEO practitioners have studied different approaches to search engine optimization, and have shared their personal opinions. Patents related to search engines can provide information to better understand search engines. In 2005, Google began personalizing search results for each user. Depending on their history of previous searches, Google crafted results for logged in users.
In 2007, Google announced a campaign against paid links that transfer PageRank. On June 15, 2009, Google disclosed that they had taken measures to mitigate the effects of PageRank sculpting by use of the nofollow attribute on links. Matt Cutts, a well - known software engineer at Google, announced that Google Bot would no longer treat nofollowed links in the same way, in order to prevent SEO service providers from using nofollow for PageRank sculpting. As a result of this change the usage of nofollow leads to evaporation of PageRank. In order to avoid the above, SEO engineers developed alternative techniques that replace nofollowed tags with obfuscated Javascript and thus permit PageRank sculpting. Additionally several solutions have been suggested that include the usage of iframes, Flash and Javascript.
In December 2009, Google announced it would be using the web search history of all its users in order to populate search results. On June 8, 2010 a new web indexing system called Google Caffeine was announced. Designed to allow users to find news results, forum posts and other content much sooner after publishing than before, Google caffeine was a change to the way Google updated its index in order to make things show up quicker on Google than before. According to Carrie Grimes, the software engineer who announced Caffeine for Google, "Caffeine provides 50 percent fresher results for web searches than our last index... '' Google Instant, real - time - search, was introduced in late 2010 in an attempt to make search results more timely and relevant. Historically site administrators have spent months or even years optimizing a website to increase search rankings. With the growth in popularity of social media sites and blogs the leading engines made changes to their algorithms to allow fresh content to rank quickly within the search results.
In February 2011, Google announced the Panda update, which penalizes websites containing content duplicated from other websites and sources. Historically websites have copied content from one another and benefited in search engine rankings by engaging in this practice, however Google implemented a new system which punishes sites whose content is not unique. The 2012 Google Penguin attempted to penalize websites that used manipulative techniques to improve their rankings on the search engine. Although Google Penguin has been presented as an algorithm aimed at fighting web spam, it really focuses on spammy links by gauging the quality of the sites the links are coming from. The 2013 Google Hummingbird update featured an algorithm change designed to improve Google 's natural language processing and semantic understanding of web pages. Hummingbird 's language processing system falls under the newly recognised term of ' Conversational Search ' where the system pays more attention to each word in the query in order to better match the pages to the meaning of the query rather than a few words... With regards to the changes made to Search Engine Optimisation, for content publishers and writers, Hummingbird is going to resolve issues by getting rid of irrelevant content and spam, allowing Google to produce high - quality content and rely on them to be ' trusted ' authors.
The leading search engines, such as Google, Bing and Yahoo!, use crawlers to find pages for their algorithmic search results. Pages that are linked from other search engine indexed pages do not need to be submitted because they are found automatically. The Yahoo! Directory and DMOZ, two major directories which closed in 2014 and 2017 respectively, both required manual submission and human editorial review. Google offers Google Search Console, for which an XML Sitemap feed can be created and submitted for free to ensure that all pages are found, especially pages that are not discoverable by automatically following links in addition to their URL submission console. Yahoo! formerly operated a paid submission service that guaranteed crawling for a cost per click. this was discontinued in 2009.
Search engine crawlers may look at a number of different factors when crawling a site. Not every page is indexed by the search engines. Distance of pages from the root directory of a site may also be a factor in whether or not pages get crawled.
Today, most people are searching on Google using a mobile device. In November 2016, Google announced a major change to the way crawling websites and started to make their index mobile - first, which means the mobile version of your website becomes the starting point for what Google includes in their index.
To avoid undesirable content in the search indexes, webmasters can instruct spiders not to crawl certain files or directories through the standard robots. txt file in the root directory of the domain. Additionally, a page can be explicitly excluded from a search engine 's database by using a meta tag specific to robots. When a search engine visits a site, the robots. txt located in the root directory is the first file crawled. The robots. txt file is then parsed and will instruct the robot as to which pages are not to be crawled. As a search engine crawler may keep a cached copy of this file, it may on occasion crawl pages a webmaster does not wish crawled. Pages typically prevented from being crawled include login specific pages such as shopping carts and user - specific content such as search results from internal searches. In March 2007, Google warned webmasters that they should prevent indexing of internal search results because those pages are considered search spam.
A variety of methods can increase the prominence of a webpage within the search results. Cross linking between pages of the same website to provide more links to important pages may improve its visibility. Writing content that includes frequently searched keyword phrase, so as to be relevant to a wide variety of search queries will tend to increase traffic. Updating content so as to keep search engines crawling back frequently can give additional weight to a site. Adding relevant keywords to a web page 's meta data, including the title tag and meta description, will tend to improve the relevancy of a site 's search listings, thus increasing traffic. URL normalization of web pages accessible via multiple urls, using the canonical link element or via 301 redirects can help make sure links to different versions of the url all count towards the page 's link popularity score.
SEO techniques can be classified into two broad categories: techniques that search engine companies recommend as part of good design ("white hat ''), and those techniques of which search engines do not approve ("black hat ''). The search engines attempt to minimize the effect of the latter, among them spamdexing. Industry commentators have classified these methods, and the practitioners who employ them, as either white hat SEO, or black hat SEO. White hats tend to produce results that last a long time, whereas black hats anticipate that their sites may eventually be banned either temporarily or permanently once the search engines discover what they are doing.
An SEO technique is considered white hat if it conforms to the search engines ' guidelines and involves no deception. As the search engine guidelines are not written as a series of rules or commandments, this is an important distinction to note. White hat SEO is not just about following guidelines, but is about ensuring that the content a search engine indexes and subsequently ranks is the same content a user will see. White hat advice is generally summed up as creating content for users, not for search engines, and then making that content easily accessible to the online "spider '' algorithms, rather than attempting to trick the algorithm from its intended purpose. White hat SEO is in many ways similar to web development that promotes accessibility, although the two are not identical.
Black hat SEO attempts to improve rankings in ways that are disapproved of by the search engines, or involve deception. One black hat technique uses text that is hidden, either as text colored similar to the background, in an invisible div, or positioned off screen. Another method gives a different page depending on whether the page is being requested by a human visitor or a search engine, a technique known as cloaking. Another category sometimes used is grey hat SEO. This is in between black hat and white hat approaches, where the methods employed avoid the site being penalized, but do not act in producing the best content for users. Grey hat SEO is entirely focused on improving search engine rankings.
Search engines may penalize sites they discover using black hat methods, either by reducing their rankings or eliminating their listings from their databases altogether. Such penalties can be applied either automatically by the search engines ' algorithms, or by a manual site review. One example was the February 2006 Google removal of both BMW Germany and Ricoh Germany for use of deceptive practices. Both companies, however, quickly apologized, fixed the offending pages, and were restored to Google 's list.
SEO is not an appropriate strategy for every website, and other Internet marketing strategies can be more effective like paid advertising through pay per click (PPC) campaigns, depending on the site operator 's goals. Search engine marketing (SEM), is practice of designing, running, and optimizing search engine ad campaigns. Its difference from SEO is most simply depicted as the difference between paid and unpaid priority ranking in search results. Its purpose regards prominence more so than relevance; website developers should regard SEM with the utmost importance with consideration to PageRank visibility as most navigate to the primary listings of their search. A successful Internet marketing campaign may also depend upon building high quality web pages to engage and persuade, setting up analytics programs to enable site owners to measure results, and improving a site 's conversion rate. In November 2015, Google released a full 160 page version of its Search Quality Rating Guidelines to the public, which now shows a shift in their focus towards "usefulness '' and mobile search. In recent years the mobile market has exploded, overtaking the use of desktops as shown in by StatCounter in October 2016 where they analysed 2.5 million websites and 51.3 % of the pages were loaded by a mobile device. Google has been one of the companies that have utilised the popularity of mobile usage by encouraging websites to use their Google Search Console, the Mobile - Friendly Test, which allows companies to measure up their website to the search engine results and how user - friendly it is.
SEO may generate an adequate return on investment. However, search engines are not paid for organic search traffic, their algorithms change, and there are no guarantees of continued referrals. Due to this lack of guarantees and certainty, a business that relies heavily on search engine traffic can suffer major losses if the search engines stop sending visitors. Search engines can change their algorithms, impacting a website 's placement, possibly resulting in a serious loss of traffic. According to Google 's CEO, Eric Schmidt, in 2010, Google made over 500 algorithm changes -- almost 1.5 per day. It is considered wise business practice for website operators to liberate themselves from dependence on search engine traffic. In addition to accessibility in terms of web crawlers (addressed above), user web accessibility has become increasingly important for SEO.
Optimization techniques are highly tuned to the dominant search engines in the target market. The search engines ' market shares vary from market to market, as does competition. In 2003, Danny Sullivan stated that Google represented about 75 % of all searches. In markets outside the United States, Google 's share is often larger, and Google remains the dominant search engine worldwide as of 2007. As of 2006, Google had an 85 -- 90 % market share in Germany. While there were hundreds of SEO firms in the US at that time, there were only about five in Germany. As of June 2008, the marketshare of Google in the UK was close to 90 % according to Hitwise. That market share is achieved in a number of countries.
As of 2009, there are only a few large markets where Google is not the leading search engine. In most cases, when Google is not leading in a given market, it is lagging behind a local player. The most notable example markets are China, Japan, South Korea, Russia and the Czech Republic where respectively Baidu, Yahoo! Japan, Naver, Yandex and Seznam are market leaders.
Successful search optimization for international markets may require professional translation of web pages, registration of a domain name with a top level domain in the target market, and web hosting that provides a local IP address. Otherwise, the fundamental elements of search optimization are essentially the same, regardless of language.
On October 17, 2002, SearchKing filed suit in the United States District Court, Western District of Oklahoma, against the search engine Google. SearchKing 's claim was that Google 's tactics to prevent spamdexing constituted a tortious interference with contractual relations. On May 27, 2003, the court granted Google 's motion to dismiss the complaint because SearchKing "failed to state a claim upon which relief may be granted. ''
In March 2006, KinderStart filed a lawsuit against Google over search engine rankings. KinderStart 's website was removed from Google 's index prior to the lawsuit and the amount of traffic to the site dropped by 70 %. On March 16, 2007 the United States District Court for the Northern District of California (San Jose Division) dismissed KinderStart 's complaint without leave to amend, and partially granted Google 's motion for Rule 11 sanctions against KinderStart 's attorney, requiring him to pay part of Google 's legal expenses.
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where does love letters to the dead take place | Love Letters to the dead - wikipedia
Love Letters to the Dead (2014) is the first novel by American author Ava Dellaira, published in 2014. This is a young adult novel told through a series of letters written by a girl named Laurel who is grieving the recent mysterious death of her sister May. The novel is set in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Young adult novel
Epistolary novel
Farrar, Straus and Giroux (BYR), New York Hardcover March 2014 Ebook March 2014
Laurel has just started class at a new high school. She is a quiet student who still dresses like she 's in middle school. Mrs. Buster, her English teacher, gives the class an assignment to write a letter to a dead person. Laurel chooses Kurt Cobain and begins an ongoing relationship with the other dead people. "Confiding in dead geniuses helps a teen process her grief and rage. ''
Laurel lives with her father and every other week with her Aunt Amy, her mother 's older sister. Laurel 's mother, she reveals, has divorced her father in order to pursue a dream of acting and moves to California to do so after Laurel 's sister dies.
At the new school, Laurel makes friends and continues to write letters to dead people documenting the changes in her life as well as sharing her confusion and grief over the loss of her older sister.
With each letter, Laurel opens up a little more about the circumstances of her family life, her relationship with her older sister May and what happened the night May died. Finding other dead people to write to, Laurel explores how they died, what their childhoods were like and connects with each person 's story in different ways.
On the one year anniversary of May 's death, Laurel has reached the point in her letters to dead people and with her friends, that she tells the whole story of how May died. On that evening, she and May went to the theater, as they often did. May met her older boyfriend Paul, leaving Laurel with Paul 's friend Billy who took advantage of their times together to molest her. On this evening Billy sexually abused Laurel. On the way home from the theater May was agitated and wanted to stop at a bridge over a river where she and Laurel had played Pooh Sticks. There is friction between the sisters and Laurel tells May that Billy molests and abuses her. May goes out on the bridge railing, falls into the river and drowns. Laurel has struggled to understand if it was an accident or suicide.
Subplots include the rocky love story of Natalie who loves Hannah and is not afraid of acknowledging her sexual preference, and Hannah 's conflict in admitting she has an attraction to Natalie; dating heavily and experimenting sexually with boys in attempt to cover her desire to be with Natalie. There is also the relationship / love stories of Laurel and Sky, Laurel 's mother and father, Tristan and Kristan, Laurel and May, May and her progressively older and shadier boyfriends, and Aunt Amy and "the Jesus man '' (a very religious seeming man).
Elizabeth DeVita - Raeburn praised Ava Dellaira 's realistic treatment of grief in 2014, "Dellaira has either experienced sibling loss or done good research, because her themes ring true: the way younger survivors feel lost without the map of their older sibling 's precedent; the sense of being abandoned by their grieving parents; and the identity crisis that can come when the person they defined themselves against is gone. ''
Kirkus Reviews March 2014 noted, "The epistolary technique is perhaps too effective at building and sustaining narrative tension: Laurel so delays explaining her feelings of responsibility for May 's death that the resolution of her story feels rushed. A tighter hand would have given more balance to an otherwise effective and satisfyingly heartbreaking melodrama. ''
The Sunday News (Lancaster, Pennsylvania) compares Love Letters to the Dead to another popular young adult novel, "Did You Love "The Fault In Our Stars ''? Ready For Another Tearjerker? Grab Some Tissues... ''
Thom Barthelmess in The Horn Book Magazine stated, "Dellaira 's characters are authentically conceived and beautifully drawn. Teens meet situations of physical, sexual, and substance abuse with numbness, stoicism, and fury. Broken adults flail and try. With her epistolary confidants Laurel confronts the circumstances leading up to her sisters death, and makes peace with her place in it. She learns that, however dark our secrets, the only way out from the shadows is to stand in the light.
In 2014 Karen Coats, Bulletin of the Center for Children 's Books, found the book, "Reminiscent of Chbosky 's The Perks of Being a Wallflower,... powerfully emotional stuff ''
Jeanne Fredriksen, The Booklist stated in 2014, "Well paced and cleverly plotted, this debut uses a fresh, new voice to tell a sometimes sad, sometimes edgy, but always compelling narrative. '' She further recommended the book for "Fans of Sarah Dessen and Jenny Han. ''
YALSA 2015 Teens ' Top Ten Nominee (The Young Adult Library Services Association (YALSA), a division of the American Library Association)
One of YALSA 2015 Amazing Audiobooks for Young Adults (The Young Adult Library Services Association (YALSA), a division of the American Library Association (ALA))
In May 2015, Hollywood Reporter published and exclusive report that Catherine Hardwicke, who directed the first teen vampire film, Twilight, is in early talks to direct Love Letters to the Dead, a book adaption being produced by Twilight producers Temple Hill Entertainment. Dellaira will write the script.
Ava Dellaira was born in California and grew up in Albuquerque, New Mexico. She received her undergraduate degree from the University of Chicago and also graduated from the Iowa Writers ' Workshop, where she was a Truman Capote Fellow. She currently lives in Santa Monica.
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when do they go to penalty kicks in world cup | Penalty shoot - out (Association Football) - wikipedia
A penalty shoot - out (officially kicks from the penalty mark) is a method of determining which team is awarded victory in an association football match that can not end in a draw, when the score is tied after the regulation playing time as well as extra time (if used) have expired. In a penalty shoot - out, each team takes turns shooting at goal from the penalty mark, with the goal only defended by the opposing team 's goalkeeper. Each team has five shots which must be taken by different kickers; the team that makes more successful kicks is declared the victor. Shoot - outs finish as soon as one team has an insurmountable lead. If scores are level after five pairs of shots, the shootout progresses into additional "sudden - death '' rounds. Balls successfully kicked into the goal during a shoot - out do not count as goals for the individual kickers or the team, and are tallied separately from the goals scored during normal play (including extra time, if any). Although the procedure for each individual kick in the shoot - out resembles that of a penalty kick, there are some differences. Most notably, neither the kicker nor any player other than the goalkeeper may play the ball again once it has been kicked.
The penalty shoot - out is one of the three methods of breaking a draw that are currently approved by the Laws of the Game; the others are extra time and, for two - legged ties, the away goals rule. A shoot - out is usually used only after one or more of the other methods fail to produce a winner. The method of breaking a draw for a specific match is determined beforehand by the match organizing body. In most professional level competitions, two 15 - minute extra time periods are played if the score is tied at the end of regulation time, and a shoot - out is held if the score is still tied after the extra time periods.
Although widely employed in football since the 1970s, penalty shoot - outs are disliked by many followers of the game, due primarily to their perceived reliance on luck rather than skill and their dependence on individual duels between opposing players, which is arguably not in keeping with football as a team sport. Conversely, some believe the pressure and unpredictability involved makes it one of the most thrilling finales to any sport.
During a shoot - out, coaches and players other than the kicker and the goalkeepers must remain in the centre circle. The kicking team 's goalkeeper stands at the intersection of the goal line and the line marking the penalty area (18 yards / 16.5 m) near one of the assistant referees. Goals scored during the shoot - out are not commonly added to the goalscoring records of the players involved.
A draw is a common result in football. Shoot - outs are only used in competitions that require a match - winner at the end of the game -- this is predominantly in knockout "cup '' ties, as opposed to round - robin "leagues ''; they decide which team progresses to the next round of a tournament, or win it. Usually extra time has been played first, but this is not necessary; exceptions include the Copa Libertadores, Copa América (quarter - finals and semi-finals only), FA Community Shield and the Football League Trophy, all of which use shoot - outs straight after the end of normal time. Exceptionally, a shoot - out after a league or round - robin match may be provided for. This provision appears for occasions where opposing teams in a final - day match finish the group with identical records, which can result in an immediate shoot - out. This happened in Group A of the 2003 UEFA Women 's Under - 19 Championship. This rule is a recent innovation, and for example did not apply in Group F of the 1990 World Cup, where the Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands were separated by drawing of lots immediately after finishing their final - day match in a draw.
Several leagues, such as the J. League, have experimented with penalty shoot - outs immediately following a drawn league match, with the winner being awarded an extra point. In the United States and Canada, Major League Soccer initially also had a shoot - out immediately following the end of full - time, even during league matches, although these shoot - outs differed from standard penalty shoot - outs (see below).
A team that loses a penalty shoot - out is eliminated from the tournament but it does not count as a defeat, while the winning team in the shoot - out advances but does not get a match victory. For instance, the Netherlands are considered to have concluded the 2014 FIFA World Cup undefeated, despite being eliminated at the semi-final stage.
The following is a summary of the procedure for kicks from the penalty mark. The procedure is specified in Law 10 ("Determining the Outcome of a Match '') of the IFAB 's Laws of the Game document (p. 71).
Defending against a penalty kick is one of the most difficult tasks a goalkeeper can face. Some decide which way they will dive beforehand, giving themselves time to reach the side of the goalmouth. A 2011 study published in the journal Psychological Science found goalkeepers dived to the right 71 % of the time when their team was losing, but only 48 % when ahead and 49 % when tied, a phenomenon believed to be related to certain right - preferring behaviour in social mammals. Others try to read the kicker 's motion pattern. Kickers may attempt to feint, or delay their shot to see which way the keeper dives. Shooting high and centre, in the space that the keeper will evacuate, carries the highest risk of shooting above the bar. If a keeper blocks a penalty kick during a match, there is a danger the kicker or a teammate may score from the rebound; this is not relevant in the case of a shoot - out.
Since the entire shoot - out is conducted at the same goal, the crowd behind the goal may favour one team and try to distract the other team 's shooters. To forestall any potential advantage, in 2016 the Laws of the Game were modified to add a coin toss between the two teams prior to the shoot - out: the winner of the coin toss has the right to decide which goal is used for the shoot - out (previously, the decision was at the referee 's discretion). The referee may change the goal only for safety reasons or if the selected goal or pitch are unusable.
A goalkeeper may not use distracting gamesmanship such as cleaning his boots or asking the referee to see if the ball is placed properly; this risks a caution for unsporting conduct. Bruce Grobbelaar 's "wobbly legs '' clowning distracted Francesco Graziani in the 1984 European Cup Final shootout. The keeper is forbidden from moving off the goal line to narrow the shooter 's angle; the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final shootout caused controversy as replays showed that both keepers got away with this, as did Jerzy Dudek in the 2005 Champions League Final.
Before the introduction of shoot - outs, knock - out matches level after extra time would be decided by a replay or a coin toss. However, variants of the modern shoot - out were used before then in several domestic competitions and minor tournaments. Domestic examples include the Yugoslav Cup from 1952, the Coppa Italia from 1958 -- 59, and the Swiss inter-regional Youth Cup from 1959 -- 60. International examples include the 1962 Uhrencup (at the suggestion of its founder Kurt Weissbrodt), the final of the 1962 Ramón de Carranza Trophy (at the suggestion of journalist Rafael Ballester), and a silver medal playoff match between amateur teams representing Venezuela and Bolivia in the 1965 Bolivarian Games.
In major competitions, when a replay or playoff was not possible, ties were previously broken by drawing of lots. Examples include Italy 's win over the USSR in the semi-final of the 1968 European Championship (the final, also drawn, went to a replay).
Israeli Yosef Dagan is credited with originating the modern shoot - out, after watching the Israeli team lose a 1968 Olympic quarterfinal game against Bulgaria by drawing of lots in Mexico. Michael Almog, later president of the Israel FA, described Dagan 's proposal in a letter published in FIFA News in August 1969. Koe Ewe Teik, the Malaysian FA 's member of the referee 's committee, led the move for its adoption by FIFA. FIFA 's proposal was discussed on 20 February 1970 by a working party of the International Football Association Board (IFAB), which recommended its acceptance, although "not entirely satisfied '' with it. It was adopted by the IFAB 's annual general meeting on 27 June 1970. In 2006, Deutsche Presse - Agentur reported a claim by former referee Karl Wald (b. 1916), from Frankfurt am Main, that he had first proposed the shoot - out in 1970 to the Bavarian FA.
In England, the first penalty shoot - out in a professional match took place in 1970 at Boothferry Park, Hull, between Hull City and Manchester United during the semi-final of the Watney Cup, and was won by Manchester United. The first player to take a kick was George Best, and the first to miss was Denis Law. Ian McKechnie, who saved Law 's kick, was also the first goalkeeper to take a kick; his shot hit the crossbar and deflected over, putting Hull City out of the Cup.
Penalty shoot - outs were used to decide matches in UEFA 's European Cup and Cup Winners ' Cup in the 1970 -- 71 season. On 30 September 1970, after a 4 -- 4 aggregate draw in the first round of the Cup Winners ' Cup, Honvéd won the first shoot - out 5 -- 4 against Aberdeen, when Jim Forrest 's shot hit the bar. Five weeks later, on 4 November 1970, the first ever European Cup shoot out took place between Everton F.C. and Borussia Mönchengladbach, with the side from England this time being the winners 4 -- 3.
In the first round of the European Cup 1972 -- 73, the referee prematurely ended a shoot - out between CSKA Sofia and Panathinaikos, with CSKA leading 3 -- 2 but Panathinaikos having taken only four kicks. Panathinaikos complained to UEFA and the match was annulled and replayed the following month, with CSKA winning without the need for a shoot - out.
The final of the 1973 Campeonato Paulista ended in similar circumstances. Santos were leading Portuguesa 2 -- 0 with each team having taken three shoot - out kicks, when referee Armando Marques mistakenly (as each team still had two shots to take, and therefore Portuguesa still had a chance of leveling the scoreline) declared Santos the winners. Portuguesa manager Otto Glória quickly led his team out of the stadium; this was allegedly to ensure the shoot - out could not resume once the mistake was discovered, and that instead the match would be replayed, giving Portuguesa a better chance of victory. When Santos counter-objected to a replay, Paulista FA president Osvaldo Teixeira Duarte annulled the original match and declared both teams joint champions.
The first major international tournament to be decided by a penalty shoot - out was the 1976 European Championship final between Czechoslovakia and West Germany. UEFA had made provision for a final replay two days later, but the teams decided to use a shoot - out instead. Czechoslovakia won 5 -- 3, and the deciding kick was converted by Antonín Panenka with a "chip '' after Uli Hoeneß had put the previous kick over the crossbar.
The first penalty shoot - out in the World Cup was on 9 January 1977, in the first round of African qualifying, when Tunisia beat Morocco. The first shoot - out in the finals tournament was in 1982, when West Germany beat France in the semifinal. If the 1982 final had been drawn, penalties would not have applied unless the replay was also drawn; from 1986, penalties were scheduled after the final as for the earlier knockout rounds.
The finals of six major FIFA competitions, including two World Cups, have gone to penalty shoot - outs:
Goalkeepers have been known to win shoot - outs by their kicking. For example, in a UEFA Euro 2004 quarter - final match, Portugal goalkeeper Ricardo saved a kick (without gloves) from England 's Darius Vassell, and then scored the winning shot. Another example is Vélez Sársfield 's José Luis Chilavert in the Copa Libertadores 1994 finals (it should be noted that Chilavert had a reputation as a dead - ball specialist and scored 41 goals during his club career).
Antonín Panenka (Czechoslovakia) decided the penalty shoot - out at the final of the 1976 European Football Championship against West Germany with a famous chip to the middle of the goal.
England lost six (out of eight) penalty shoot - outs in major tournament finals, including losses to Germany in the semi-finals of the 1990 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 1996 (the latter following a win over Spain by the same method in the previous round). After Euro 1996, England lost four more shoot - outs in a row in major tournament finals, losing to Argentina at the 1998 World Cup, Portugal at Euro 2004 and the 2006 World Cup and Italy at Euro 2012, before finally breaking their losing streak at the 2018 World Cup against Colombia; this shootout also allowed England to progress into the quarter - finals for the first time in twelve years.
The Netherlands, meanwhile, lost four consecutive shoot - outs; against Denmark in Euro 1992, France in Euro 1996, Brazil in the 1998 World Cup, and Italy in Euro 2000, before finally winning one against Sweden in Euro 2004. In Euro 2000, the Netherlands had two penalty kicks during the match and four attempts in the shootout but only managed to convert one kick against Italian keeper Francesco Toldo. Frank de Boer had both a penalty kick and shootout kick saved by Toldo, who also saved from Paul Bosvelt to give Italy a 3 -- 1 shootout victory. The Netherlands ' fortunes seemed to have improved during the 2014 World Cup when they defeated Costa Rica on penalty kicks in their quarter - final, only to lose again on penalties in their semi-final against Argentina.
The Italians have lost six shoot - outs in major championships, notably being eliminated from three consecutive World Cups (1990 -- 1998, including the 1994 final) and the Euro 2016 quarter - finals on penalties. However, they have also won three shoot - outs, including the Euro 2000 semi-final against the Netherlands, the Euro 2012 quarter - final against England, and the 2006 World Cup Final against France.
On 16 November 2005, a place in the World Cup was directly determined by a penalty shoot - out for the first time. The 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying playoff between Australia and Uruguay ended 1 -- 1 on aggregate, with Uruguay winning the first leg 1 -- 0 at home and Australia winning the second leg at home by the same score. A scoreless 30 minutes of extra time was followed by a shoot - out, which Australia won 4 -- 2.
During the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, Switzerland set an unwanted new record in the round of 16 shoot - out against Ukraine by failing to convert any of their penalties, losing 3 -- 0. The goalkeeper Oleksandr Shovkovsky (Ukraine) became the first not to concede a single goal in the penalty shoot - out, saving two of the Swiss attempts, with another shot hitting the crossbar. The result meant that Switzerland became the first nation to be eliminated from the World Cup without conceding any goals (and, moreover, the only nation to participate in a World Cup finals tournament without conceding a goal).
The same competition featured a shoot - out between Germany and Argentina, the two most successful teams up to that point in terms of World Cup finals penalty shoot - outs: each team had competed in 3 shoot - outs and won all of them. Germany won this shoot - out, leaving Germany alone with a 4 -- 0 record in World Cup finals.
On 20 June 2007, a new UEFA record was established. The semi-final of the European under - 21 Championships in Heerenveen between the Netherlands and England team finished 1 -- 1. Thirty - two penalties had to be taken before the tie was broken. The Netherlands eventually won 13 -- 12.
In the FA Cup, penalty kicks were used in the 1972 edition of the short - lived third - place playoff. They were introduced more generally in the 1991 -- 92 season to decide matches still level after one replay and extra time. Previously there was no limit on the number of replays, which led to fixture disruption, especially disliked by the top clubs. Replays were often two or three days after the drawn match, which conflicted with the increased planning required after the Football Spectators Act 1989. The first team eliminated from the FA Cup on penalties was Scunthorpe United, beaten on 26 October 1991 by Rotherham United after a first - round replay. A shoot - out was first used in the FA Cup Final in 2005, when Arsenal beat Manchester United 5 -- 4. The following year, Liverpool beat West Ham United in the FA Cup Final 's second ever penalty shoot - out.
On 31 August 2005, a new English record was established when a shoot - out between Tunbridge Wells and Littlehampton Town in an FA Cup replay involved 40 kicks being taken, with Tunbridge Wells winning 16 -- 15.
Shoot - outs have been used to settle four Football League Cup finals to date. The first was in 2001 when Liverpool beat Birmingham City 5 -- 4 on penalties after a 1 -- 1 draw after extra time in the match. More recently the 2009 final between Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur ended goalless and was won 4 -- 1 on penalties by Manchester United. Then the 2012 final between Liverpool and Cardiff City finished 2 -- 2 after extra time, Liverpool winning 3 -- 2 on penalties. The 2016 final was won by Manchester City beating Liverpool 3 -- 1 on penalties, after a 1 -- 1 draw.
Penalty shoot - outs have been used for many years to settle drawn games in the earlier rounds of the Football League Cup, the earliest example being August 1976 when Doncaster Rovers beat Lincoln City 3 -- 2 on penalties after three drawn games in a row (1 -- 1, 1 -- 1, 2 -- 2) in a first round match. Shoot - outs tend to be quite rare in the semi-finals due to the away goal rule applying after extra time. However, a shoot - out was used in the 2013 -- 14 semi-final between Sunderland and Manchester United after both teams finished level over two legs; Sunderland won the shoot - out 2 -- 1.
The Community Shield is also settled using penalties, following the normal 90 minutes of play, but no extra time. Manchester United have won the shield three times via a shoot - out, beating Arsenal in 2003, Chelsea in 2007, and Portsmouth in 2008. Manchester United lost the 2009 match on penalties to Chelsea.
In 2008, the Turkish Cup Final featured two clubs outside of Istanbul 's Top Three for the first time in two decades, but penalty kicks decided the winner between Gençlerbirliği and Kayserispor, the latter having reached the final for the first time ever. After a scoreless 120 minutes, 28 penalty kicks were needed to decide the outcome, and Kayserispor, thanks to the goal scoring and goal saving heroics of Dimitar Ivankov, won its first Turkish Cup 11 -- 10.
In the 2008 -- 09 Greek Cup final AEK took a 3 -- 2 lead at 89 ' with a goal by Scocco; however Olympiacos came back from the dead at the dying seconds of stoppage time (90'+ 6) with a goal by Derbyshire, to force an overtime. While Olympiacos took a 4 -- 3 lead in overtime with a goal by Galletti, the scorer was sent off with a second yellow card for taking his shirt off while celebrating. Later on, Avraam Papadopoulos also got a second yellow leaving Olympiacos with 9 players. AEK managed to tie the game at 4 -- 4 forcing a penalty shoot out.
AEK was shooting first. Both AEK and Olympiacos scored in the first 4 penalties. Majstorovic of AEK hit the horizontal crossbar in the 5th penalty giving the chance to Djordjevic (for whom it was the closing game of his career) to seal the victory for Olympiacos. However, his shot was blocked by AEK 's Argentinian goalkeeper Saha. Hence, the shooting continued. Both teams scored their 6th and 7th penalties. Center - back Antzas was slotted to hit the 8th penalty for Olympiacos, but keeper Nikopolidis took the initiative and took the penalty instead tying the score to 7 -- 7. Nikopolidis blocked the subsequent (9th) penalty by Georgeas for AEK but Antzas missed the penalty for Olympiacos (saved by Saha) and failed to finish the shoot - out.
Since Olympiacos had only 9 players in the field, the shooters had to rotate, going back to those that shoot the very first penalties. All 7 subsequent penalty takers for both teams scored, leading to a penalty shoot out that was at 14 -- 14 with 32 (!) penalty shots having been taken. However, Pelletieri of AEK had a bad penalty shot that was easily deflected by Nikopolidis, who then took the 34th penalty shot against the other goalkeeper, Saha, scoring, and ending this saga with a 15 -- 14 win for Olympiacos in penalty shoot out and an overall score of 19 -- 18. (2008 -- 09 Greek Cup).
The first penalty shoot - out in a European Cup final occurred in the 1984 European Cup Final as Liverpool defeated A.S. Roma. The match is best known for the antics of Liverpool keeper Bruce Grobbelaar. As Roma 's Bruno Conti prepared to take his kick, Grobbelaar walked towards the goal smiling confidently at the cameras lined - up behind, then proceeded to bite the back of the net, in imitation of eating spaghetti. Conti sent his spot kick over the bar. Grobbelaar then produced a similar performance before Francesco Graziani took his kick, famously wobbling his legs in mock terror. Graziani duly missed and Liverpool went on to win the shootout 4 -- 2.
In the 1986 European Cup Final between FC Steaua Bucharest and FC Barcelona, Steaua keeper Helmuth Duckadam saved all four of Barca 's penalties, for which he was dubbed "the hero of Seville. Steaua also missed two, but still prevailed 2 -- 0 in the shoot - out to become the only Romanian club side to win the title.
In the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final the penalty - shoot out has caused controversy among many fans as replays showed that Dida was off his goal line when saving penalties from Trezeguet, Zalayeta and Montero. Buffon was also off his goal line when saving penalties from Seedorf and Kaladze.
In the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final between A.C. Milan and Liverpool F.C., Liverpool keeper Jerzy Dudek used tactics similar to Bruce Grobbelaar in 1984 (known as the "Dudek dance '' in 2005) to distract the Milan shootout takers which resulted in a victory for his team.
The 2008 UEFA Champions League Final between Manchester United and Chelsea went to penalties, when John Terry missed a penalty which would have won Chelsea the match (and the Champions League). His standing leg slipped as he took his kick, and the ball hit the post. Chelsea lost the shoot - out 6 -- 5, to which Terry reacted by breaking down in tears. Terry was not originally the penalty taker, however, striker Didier Drogba had been sent off shortly before extra time ended.
In the semi-finals of the UEFA Champions League between Real Madrid and Bayern Munich, Iker Casillas and Manuel Neuer each saved two spot kicks. Neuer kept out penalties from Cristiano Ronaldo (£ 80 million) and Kaká (£ 65 million), then the most expensive footballers in history from their transfer fees.
On 19 May 2012 Chelsea defeated Bayern Munich 4 -- 3 on penalties in the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final. Chelsea had never previously won a shoot - out in the competition, and had lost the 2008 final and 2007 semi-final on penalties. Bayern had never lost a shoot - out in Europe; their wins included the 2001 final against Valencia and the 2012 semi-final against Real Madrid. Didier Drogba dispatched the winning penalty, having been unable to take the fifth kick (missed by Terry) in the 2008 final due to a red card in extra time. The following day, many British newspapers made reference to the fact that an English team had finally beaten a German team on penalties.
On 17 July 2011, during the 2011 Copa América tournament in Argentina, Brazil missed 4 penalties in a row in the quarter - final, which allowed Paraguay to reach the semi-finals 2 -- 0.
The current World Record for the most penalties scored consecutively in a shoot out stands at 29, in a Hampshire Senior Cup second - round game between Brockenhurst and Andover Town on 9 October 2013, in which the 30th penalty was saved allowing Brockenhurst to win 15 -- 14. This beat the previous record of 27, in a Johnstones Paint Trophy first round match between Leyton Orient F.C. and Dagenham & Redbridge F.C. on 7 September 2011, in which the 28th penalty was saved allowing Dagenham to win the shootout.
During the final of the 1992 African Cup of Nations played in Senegal, Ivory Coast won the penalty shootout 11 -- 10. After the second set of five penalty kicks still being tied at 10 -- 10, it went to sudden death, where the last penalty was missed by Anthony Baffoe, the stand in Ghanaian captain. This is the most penalties in the final match of a major international tournament, and the last time a second set of 5 kicks was implemented in the rules. The penalty shootout was significant in that it was the first in the final of a major international tournament that every player on the pitch took a penalty.
Fourteen years later, the Ivory Coast and Cameroon needed 24 penalties to decide who would advance to the semi-finals of the 2006 African Cup of Nations. The Ivory Coast advanced by winning 12 -- 11 after Samuel Eto'o missed his second attempt, as his was the only miss of the penalty shootout.
The current world record for the longest penalty shoot - out in a first class match is 48 penalties during the 2005 Namibian Cup when KK Palace beat Civics 17 -- 16. However, the record for the highest score in a penalty shoot out was set in the 1988 Argentine Championship, when Argeninos Juniors beat Racing Club 20 -- 19 after 44 penalties.
On 3 June 2015 Sundsøre IF beat Nykøbing Mors 20 -- 19 in a penalty shoot out in a preliminary round of the Danish FA Cup.
On the 11 December 2012, Bradford City set the record for most consecutive penalty shootout wins. They have won 9 penalty shootouts since 2009 and that has included wins against Arsenal and local rivals Huddersfield Town.
A shoot - out is usually considered for statistical purposes to be separate from the match which preceded it. In the case of a two - legged fixture, the two matches are still considered either as two draws or as one win and one loss; in the case of a single match, it is still considered as a draw. This contrasts with a fixture won in extra time, where the score at the end of normal time is superseded. Converted shoot - out penalties are not considered as goals scored by a player for the purposes of their individual records, or for "golden boot '' competitions.
The NCAA rules book, which governs most college soccer in the United States, takes a similar approach. With the exception of the national championship game, if the score of any game remains tied following the sudden death overtime (or golden goal), the game is recorded as a tie, regardless of the result of the shoot - out tiebreaker. In a national championship game, the result of the shoot - out tiebreaker also determines the result of the game for statistical purposes. Until 2001, all NCAA games in which the shoot - out tiebreaker was used to determine advancement or a champion were recorded as a tie. In 2002, the rule was modified such that all games in which the shoot - out tiebreaker was used would also decide the winner of the game for statistical purposes. The rule was again changed in 2003 to match the pre-2002 rule with the newly - added exception that a shoot - out tiebreaker in a national championship game would be decisive for all purposes, including the record.
In the calculation of UEFA coefficients, shoot - outs are ignored for club coefficients, but not national team coefficients, where the shoot - out winner gets 20,000 points: more than the shoot - out loser, who gets 10,000 (the same as for a draw) but less than the 30,000 points for winning a match outright. In the FIFA World Rankings, the base value of a win is three points; a win on penalties is two; a draw and a loss on penalties are one; a loss is zero. The more complicated ranking system FIFA used from 1999 to 2006 gave a shoot - out winner the same points as for a normal win and a shoot - out loser the same points as for a draw; goals in the match proper, but not the shoot - out, were factored into the calculation.
As a way to decide a football match, shoot - outs have been seen variously as a thrilling climax or as an unsatisfactory cop - out.
Paul Doyle describes shoot - outs as "exciting and suspense - filled '' and the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final shoot - out as "the perfect way to end a wonderful... final ''. Richard Williams compares the spectacle to "a public flogging in the market square ''.
The result is often seen as a lottery rather than a test of skill; managers Luiz Felipe Scolari and Roberto Donadoni described them as such after their teams had respectively won and lost shoot - outs. Others disagree. Mitch Phillips called it "the ultimate test of nerve and technique ''. Paul Doyle emphasised the psychological element.
Only a small subset of a footballer 's skills is tested by a shoot - out. Ian Thomsen likened deciding the 1994 World Cup using a penalty shoot - out to deciding the Masters golf tournament via a minigolf game. The shoot - out is a test of individuals which may be considered inappropriate in a team sport; Sepp Blatter has said "Football is a team sport and penalties is not a team, it is the individual ''.
Inferior teams are tempted to play for a scoreless draw, calculating that a shoot - out offers their best hope of victory. Red Star Belgrade 's performance beating Olympique Marseille in the 1991 European Cup Final is often condemned for having "played for penalties '' from the kick - off; a tactic coach Ljupko Petrović freely admitted to. On the other hand, the increased opportunity for giant - killing may also be seen as an advantage, increasing the romance of a competition like the FA Cup. Some teams have regarded, or been accused of regarding, a loss on penalties as an honourable result or "no defeat at all ''.
The Economist reported on the advantage of the team kicking first usually wins and on the players aiming higher usually score a goal.
Ignacio Palacios - Huerta has suggested that the alternating kick sequence gives an unfair advantage to the team kicking first, with statistical evidence showing that the team kicking first wins in 60 % of the cases, likely due to the team kicking second being under more pressure when trailing in the shoot - out. As a remedy, he proposed using the Thue - Morse sequence to determine the kicking order.
As part of a trial to reduce this advantage, the IFAB sanctioned in March 2017 to test a different sequence of taking penalties, known as "ABBA '', that mirrors the serving sequence in a tennis tiebreak (team A kicks first, team B kicks second):
The trial was initially scheduled at the 2017 UEFA European Under - 17 Championship and the 2017 UEFA Women 's Under - 17 Championship in May 2017 if a penalty shoot - out would be needed. The trial was extended in June 2017 to include the 2017 UEFA European Under - 19 Championship and the 2017 UEFA Women 's Under - 19 Championship.
The penalty shoot - out in the Women 's Under - 17 Championship semi-final between Germany and Norway was the first ever to implement this new system. It was also used in the 2017 FA Community Shield on 6 August 2017.
Various tie - break methods have been proposed, both before and since shoot - outs were introduced.
Historically, one of the first tie - breaking procedures was contained in the Sheffield Rules between 1862 and 1871, with the concept of the rouge, scorable when the ball went narrowly wide off the goal. Rule 14 stated "A goal outweighs any number of rouges. Should no goals or an equal number be obtained, the match is decided by rouges ''. Similarly, the try in rugby football was used from 1875 as a tie - breaker if teams were level on goals.
A drawn result may be allowed to stand, unless the fixture determines which team qualifies for a later round. Before 1993 (except in 1974) the FA Charity Shield was shared if the match was drawn. When the third place playoff of the 1972 Olympic tournament between the USSR and East Germany ended 2 -- 2 after extra time, the bronze medal was shared by the two teams.
During the qualification process for the 1962 World Cup, Morocco and Tunisia formed a two - team group. They both won 2 -- 1 at home, so they played a third match at a neutral location. When this ended in a 1 -- 1 draw after extra time, Morocco advanced on a coin toss to the next round of qualification. This scenario was repeated in during the qualification process for the 1970 World Cup, when the same two teams were tied after three matches and extra time. Again, Morocco advanced on a coin toss. Tunisia did have better luck with the coin toss in the intervening years; during the 1965 African Cup of Nations, they reached the final at the expense of Senegal by winning a coin toss after three group matches had left Tunisia and Senegal tied with a win (over Ethiopia) and a draw (against each other).
Current alternatives include replaying a match that has ended in a draw. This still occurs in the fifth (last sixteen) round and earlier rounds of the English FA Cup. Until 1991, any number of replays were permitted, with a record of five. (Since then, a draw in the (first) replay has been resolved by a penalty - shoot - out.) Only once, in 1974, did the European Cup final go to a replay.
Other suggestions have included using elements of match play such as most shots on goal, most corner kicks awarded, fewest cautions and sendings - off, or having ongoing extra time with teams compelled to remove players at progressive intervals (similar to regular season play in the National Hockey League, where players play 3 - on - 3 in the extra time). These proposals have not yet been authorised by the International Football Association Board. However, after the 2006 World Cup, Sepp Blatter stated that he wants no more penalty shoot - outs in the Final of the World Cup, tentatively suggesting either a replay or "Maybe to take players away and play golden goal ''.
Henry Birtles ' "Advantage '' proposal is for the shoot - out to be held before extra-time, and only acting as a tiebreak if the game remains a draw after the full 120 minutes. Proponents of this idea state that it would lead to a more offensive extra-time as one of the teams would know they have to score and there would never be a match in which both teams are simply waiting for penalties. Another advantage is that players who have missed would have a chance to redeem themselves in extra-time. The obvious flaw is that the team that wins the penalty shoot - out would be inclined to play defensively in extra time in the knowledge that a draw would put them through. However, this flaw is not so clear because a single goal makes the difference between winning and losing, as opposed to a team which defends a single - goal lead more comfortably because a conceded goal is the difference between winning and drawing.
Another alternative is Attacker Defender Goalkeeper (ADG), which features a series of ten contests, in which an attacker has thirty seconds to score a goal against a defender and goalkeeper. At the completion of the ten contests, the team with the most goals is the winner.
The North American Soccer League (NASL) in the 1970s and 1980s, then Major League Soccer (MLS) for its first four seasons (1996 -- 1999) experimented with a variation of the shoot - out procedure.
Instead of a straight penalty kick, the shoot - out started 35 yards (32 m) from the goal and having five seconds to attempt a shot. The player could make as many moves as he could in a breakaway situation in the five seconds, then attempt a shot. This procedure is similar to that used in an ice hockey penalty shot. As with a standard shoot - out, this variation used a best - of - five - kicks model, and if the score was still level, the tiebreaker would head to an extra round of one attempt per team.
This format rewarded player skills, as players were able to attempt to deceive goalkeepers and play the ball in an attempt to make the shot, as in a one - on - one skills contest, and goalkeepers could take on the attackers without restrictions that are normally implemented in penalty shootouts. Soccer Bowl ' 81, the NASL 's 1981 championship final, was decided by this format.
From its inception in 1968, the NASL used an unconventional point system in determining the league standings. Teams were awarded six points for a win and three points for a draw. In addition, teams earned one bonus point for each goal scored in a game up to a maximum of three per game. Thus, a team that lost 5 -- 3 would earn three points. However, a team that lost 1 -- 0 would earn no points. Also, a team that won 5 -- 4 would earn nine points (the same as a 3 -- 0 win). But a team that won 2 -- 0 would earn only eight points. In the league 's second season (1969), the Kansas City Spurs were the league champions with 10 wins, 2 losses and 4 ties even though the Atlanta Chiefs had 11 wins, 2 losses and 3 ties, because Kansas City earned more bonus points. Starting with 1971 postseason playoff matches, the NASL used a golden goal rule, and every match had a winner decided from the run of play. Extra-time sessions were 15 minutes long before a brief break and change of ends. Game 1 of the 1971 NASL semifinal series between the Rochester Lancers and the Dallas Tornado went six extra-time periods with Rochester scoring the game - winning goal in the 176th minute. Game 3 of that same series went four extra time periods with Dallas scoring in the 148th minute to win the match and the series. In 1975, the NASL adopted a conventional penalty - kick shootout system for all regular - season and postseason playoff matches, and there were no longer any NASL matches that ended in ties. In the standings, a team that won in regulation time was awarded six points. A team that won in a penalty - kick shootout was awarded one point. Bonus points continued to be awarded for each goal scored up to a maximum of three per game. In 1977, the NASL adopted the experimental North American shootout procedure described above. If a match was tied after 90 minutes, a maximum of two golden goal extra time periods of 7.5 minutes each were played. If neither team scored, the shootout was held to determine the winner of the match. In the standings, a team that won was awarded six points whether the win came in regulation time, extra time or by shootout. Bonus points continued to be awarded for each goal scored up to a maximum of three per game. No bonus points were awarded for goals scored in extra time. Postseason playoff games were decided in the same manner. In 1981, the number of points awarded to a team that won a game in a shootout was reduced from six to four. This remained the system until the NASL 's final season in 1984.
From its inception in 1996, MLS used the shootout system that had been used by the NASL to determine winners of matches. No regular - season or postseason playoff games ended in a tie. In general, no extra time was played; the shootout commenced immediately after 90 minutes had been played. The only exception was in the MLS Cup Final in which a match tied after 90 minutes would be followed by a maximum of two 15 - minute extra time sessions on a golden goal basis. In the regular - season standings, a team that won a match in regulation was awarded three points. A team that won a match in a shootout was awarded one point. There were no bonus points or points awarded to teams that lost whether in regulation time or a shootout. In the playoffs, the conference semifinals and conference finals were organized as best - of - three matches series. A shootout win counted as a win. Thus, a team could win two of the three matches by shootout and lose the other match in regulation and still advance to the next round. This was inconsistent with how the teams were rewarded during the regular season when the team with one win would have earned three points, and the team with two wins would have earned only two points. In 1999, a maximum of two 15 - minute golden goal extra time periods were added for matches that were tied after 90 minutes of regulation play. If neither team scored during extra time, the match was decided by a shootout. MLS abandoned the North American style shootout starting with the 2000 season. If penalties are required to determine a winner during the playoffs, MLS now uses the shoot - out procedure specified by the International Football Association Board.
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the pollution of love canal in new york was caused by ____ | Love Canal - wikipedia
Love Canal is a neighborhood within Niagara Falls, New York. The neighborhood is infamously known as the location of a 70 - acre (28 ha) landfill that became the epicenter of a massive environmental pollution disaster harming the health of hundreds of residents, culminating in an extensive Superfund cleanup operation.
Originally intended as a model planned community, Love Canal served as a residential area before being purchased by Hooker Chemical Company, now, Occidental Chemical Corporation. After its sale, under threat of eminent domain, to the local school district, Love Canal attracted national attention for the public health problem originated from the massive dumping of toxic waste on the grounds. This event displaced numerous families, leaving them with long - standing health issues and symptoms of high white blood cell counts and leukemia. Subsequently, the federal government passed the Superfund law. The resulting Superfund cleanup operation demolished the neighborhood, wrapping up in 2004.
New York State Health Department Commissioner at the time, David Axelrod, called the Love Canal incident a "national symbol of a failure to exercise a sense of concern for future generations ''. The Love Canal incident was especially significant as a situation where the inhabitants "overflowed into the wastes instead of the other way around ''. The University at Buffalo University Archives houses a number of primary documents, photographs, and news clippings pertaining to the Love Canal environmental disaster; many items have been digitized and are viewable online.
Love Canal is a neighborhood located in the city of Niagara Falls in the northwestern region of New York state. The neighborhood covers 36 square blocks in the far southeastern corner of the city, stretching from the 93rd street making up the western border to the 100th street in the east border and the 103rd street in the northeast. Bergholtz Creek defines the north border with the Niagara River marking the southern border one - quarter mile (400 m) away. The LaSalle Expressway splits an uninhabited portion of the south from the north. The canal covers 16 acres (6.5 ha) of land in the central eastern portion.
In 1890, William T. Love, an ambitious entrepreneur from the Western Railroad Corporation, envisioned a perfect urban area called "Model City ''. He prepared plans to construct a community of parks and residences on the banks of Lake Ontario, believing it would serve the area 's burgeoning industries with much - needed hydroelectricity. He gave his name to the ensuing project, envisioning a perfect urban area.
After 1892, Love 's plan incorporated a shipping lane that would bypass the Niagara Falls. Love quickly lined up backing from financial banks and giants in New York City, Chicago, and England. In October 1893, the first factory opened for business. In May 1894, work on the canal had begun. Steel companies and other manufacturers lined up for the chance of opening plants along the Love Canal. He began digging the canal and built a few streets and houses. However, the Panic of 1893 caused investors to drop sponsorship of the project. In addition, Congress passed a law barring the removal of water from the Niagara River, to preserve Niagara Falls. Only one mile (1.6 km) of the canal was dug, about 50 feet (15 m) wide and 10 -- 40 feet (3 -- 12 m) deep, stretching northward from the Niagara River.
However, the Panic of 1907 proved economically disastrous as Love had to abandon the project. The deathblow came with the development of the transmission of electrical power economically over great distances by means of an alternating current. No longer was it necessary for the industry to locate near the source of electrical power.
Love 's financial backers deserted him, and the last piece of the properties owned by his corporation was subjected to mortgage foreclosure and sold at public auction in 1910.
With the project abandoned, the canal gradually filled with water. The local children swam there in the summer and skated during the winter. In the 1920s, the canal became a dump site for the City of Niagara Falls, with the city regularly unloading its municipal refuse into the landfill.
Industry and tourism grew steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century due to a high demand for industrial products and the increased mobility of people to travel. Paper, rubber, plastics, petrochemicals, carbon insulators, and abrasives composed the city 's major industries. This prosperity would end by the late 1960s as aging industrial plants moved to less expensive locations.
At the time of the dump 's closure in 1952, Niagara Falls was entering an economic boom, and the population began expanding dramatically, growing by 33 % in twenty years (1940 - 1960) from 78,020 to 102,394.
By the turn of the 1940s, Hooker Chemical Company was searching for a place to dispose its large quantity of chemical waste. The Niagara Power and Development Company granted permission to Hooker in 1942 to dump wastes into the canal. The canal was drained and lined with thick clay. Into this site, Hooker began placing 55 - US - gallon (210 l) metal or fiber barrels. In 1947, Hooker bought the canal and the 70 - foot - wide (21 m) banks on either side of the canal. It subsequently converted it into a 16 - acre (6.5 ha) landfill.
In 1948, the City of Niagara Falls ended self - sufficient disposal of refuse and Hooker Chemical became the sole user and owner of the site.
In early 1952, when it became apparent that the site would likely be developed for construction, Hooker ceased use of Love Canal as a dumpsite. During its 10 - year lifespan, the landfill served as the dumping site of 21,800 short tons (19,800 t) of chemicals, mostly composed of products such as "caustics, alkalines, fatty acid and chlorinated hydrocarbons resulting from the manufacturing of dyes, perfumes, and solvents for rubber and synthetic resins ''. These chemicals were buried at a depth of twenty to twenty - five feet (6 to 7.5 m). Upon its closure, the canal was covered with a clay seal to prevent leakage. Over time, vegetation settled and began to grow atop the dump site.
By the 1950s, the city of Niagara Falls was experiencing a population boom. With a growing population, the Niagara Falls City School District needed land to build new schools and attempted to purchase the property from Hooker Chemical. The population reached over 98,000 by the 1950 census.
In March 1951, the school board prepared a plan showing a school being built over the canal and listing condemnation values for each property that would need to be acquired. In March 1952, the superintendent of Niagara Falls School Board approached Hooker with regard to purchasing the Love Canal property for the purpose of constructing a new school. Following this initial approach, in an internal company memo dated March 27, 1952, Bjarne Klaussen, Hooker 's vice president, wrote to the works manager that "it may be advisable to discontinue using the Love Canal property for a dumping ground. '' In April 1952, after discussing the sale of the land with Ansley Wilcox II, Hooker 's in - house legal counsel, Klaussen then wrote to the company president, R.L. Murray, suggesting that the sale could alleviate them from future liabilities for the buried chemicals:
The more we thought about it, the more interested Wilcox and I became in the proposition, and finally came to the conclusion that the Love Canal property is rapidly becoming a liability because of housing projects in the near vicinity of our property. A school, however, could be built in the center unfilled section (with chemicals underground). We became convinced that it would be a wise move to turn this property over to the schools provided we could not be held responsible for future claims or damages resulting from underground storage of chemicals.
While the school board condemned some nearby properties, Hooker agreed to sell its property to the school board for $1. Hooker 's letter to the board agreeing to enter into negotiations noted that "in view of the nature of the property and the purposes for which it has been used, it will be necessary for us to have special provisions incorporated into the deed with respect to the use of the property and other pertinent matters. '' However, the board rejected the company 's proposal that the deed requires the land to be used for park purposes only, with the school itself to be built nearby.
As "a means of avoiding liability by relinquishing control of the site '', Hooker deeded the site to the school board in 1953 for $1 with a liability limitation clause. The sale document signed on April 28, 1953, included a seventeen - line caveat purporting to release the company from all legal obligations should lawsuits arise in the future.
Prior to the delivery of this instrument of conveyance, the grantee herein has been advised by the grantor that the premises above described have been filled, in whole or in part, to the present grade level thereof with waste products resulting from the manufacturing of chemicals by the grantor at its plant in the City of Niagara Falls, New York, and the grantee assumes all risk and liability incident to the use thereof. It is therefore understood and agreed that, as a part of the consideration for this conveyance and as a condition thereof, no claim, suit, action or demand of any nature whatsoever shall ever be made by the grantee, its successors or assigns, against the grantor, its successors or assigns, for injury to a person or persons, including death resulting therefrom, or loss of or damage to property caused by, in connection with or by reason of the presence of said industrial wastes. It is further agreed as a condition hereof that each subsequent conveyance of the aforesaid lands shall be made subject to the foregoing provisions and conditions.
Critics of Hooker 's actions believe that, in the words of Craig E. Colton and Peter N. Skinner, "Hooker assigned the board with a continuing duty to protect property buyers from chemicals when the company itself accepted no such ' moral obligation '. '' Moreover, the transfer effectively ended what provision of security and maintenance for the hazardous waste had existed before and placed all responsibility in clearly unqualified hands. It was this attempt to evade their responsibility, Colten and Skinner contend, that would "ultimately come back to haunt not only Hooker but all other chemical producers in the United States through the strict liability provisions of Superfund legislation. '' On the other hand, Eric Zeusse writes that Hooker 's decision to sell the property rather than allowing the school board to condemn it stemmed from a desire to document its warnings. "Had the land been condemned and seized, says Hooker, the company would have been unable to air its concerns to all future owners of the property. It is difficult to see any other reason for what it did. ''
Not long after having taken control of the land, the Niagara Falls School Board proceeded to develop the land, including construction activity that substantially breached containment structures in a number of ways, allowing previously trapped chemicals to seep out.
The resulting breaches combined with particularly heavy rainstorms released and spread the chemical waste, leading to a public health emergency and an urban planning scandal. In what became a test case for liability clauses, Hooker Chemical was found to be "negligent '' in their disposal of waste, though not reckless in the sale of the land. The dumpsite was discovered and investigated by the local newspaper, the Niagara Falls Gazette, from 1976 through the evacuation in 1978.
Despite the disclaimer, the School Board began construction of the "99th Street School '' in its originally intended location. In January 1954, the school 's architect wrote to the education committee informing them that during excavation, workers discovered two dump sites filled with 55 - US - gallon (210 l; 46 imp gal) drums containing chemical wastes. The architect also noted it would be "poor policy '' to build in that area since it was not known what wastes were present in the ground, and the concrete foundation might be damaged. The school board then moved the school site eighty to eighty - five feet (24 to 26 m) further north. The kindergarten playground also had to be relocated because it was directly on top of a chemical dump.
Upon completion in 1955, 400 children attended the school, and it opened along with several other schools that had been built to accommodate students. That same year, a twenty - five - foot area crumbled exposing toxic chemical drums, which then filled with water during rainstorms. This created large puddles that children enjoyed playing in. In 1955, a second school, the 93rd Street School, was opened six blocks away.
In 1957, the City of Niagara Falls constructed sewers for a mixture of low - income and single family residences to be built on lands adjacent to the landfill site. The school district had sold the remaining land, resulting in homes constructed by private developers, as well as the Niagara Falls Housing Authority. In total, 800 private houses and 240 low - income apartments were constructed. The sale came despite the warning of a Hooker attorney, Arthur Chambers, that, as paraphrased in the minutes of a board meeting, "due to chemical waste having been dumped in that area, the land was not suitable for construction where underground facilities would be necessary. He stated that his company could not prevent the Board from selling the land or from doing anything they wanted to with it but, however, it was their intent that this property be used for a school and for parking. He further stated that they feel the property should not be divided for the purpose of building homes and hoped that no one will be injured. '' While building the gravel sewer beds, construction crews broke through the clay seal, breaching the canal walls. Specifically, the local government removed part of the protective clay cap to use as fill dirt for the nearby 93rd Street School, and punched holes in the solid clay walls to build water lines and the LaSalle Expressway. This allowed the toxic wastes to escape when rainwater, no longer kept out by the partially removed clay cap, washed them through the gaps in the walls. Hence, the buried chemicals could migrate and seep from the canal.
The land where the homes were being built was not part of the agreement between the school board and Hooker; thus, none of these residents knew the canal 's history. There was no monitoring or evaluating of the chemical wastes stored under the ground. Additionally, the clay cover of the canal which was supposed to be impermeable began to crack. The subsequent construction of the LaSalle Expressway restricted groundwater from flowing to the Niagara River. After the exceptionally wet winter and spring of 1962, the elevated expressway turned the breached canal into an overflowing pool. People reported having puddles of oil or colored liquid in yards or basements. There were 410 children in the school in 1978.
Residents were suspicious of black fluid that flowed out of the Love Canal. For years, residents had complained about odors and substances on their yards or the public playgrounds. Finally the city acted and hired a consultant, Calspan Corporation, to do a massive study. In 1977, a harsh winter storm dumped 33 -- 45 inches (84 -- 114 cm) of snow, significantly raising the water table. The excess water got into the ground water and raised the elevation of the dioxins, which began erupting in residents ' backyards. In the spring of 1977, the State Departments of Health and Environmental Conservation launched an intensive air, soil, and groundwater sampling and analysis program following qualitative identification of a number of organic compounds in the basements of 11 homes adjacent to the Love Canal. It was also revealed that the standards at the time did not require the installation of a liner to prevent leaching; this became very common among companies.
Numerous contaminants dumped in the landfill included chlorinated hydrocarbon residues, processed sludge, fly ash, and other materials, including residential municipal garbage.
Data showed unacceptable levels of toxic vapors associated with more than 80 compounds were emanating from the basements of numerous homes in the first ring directly adjacent to the Love Canal. Ten of the most prevalent and most toxic compounds - including benzene, a known human carcinogen - were selected for evaluation purposes and as indicators of the presence of other chemical constituents.
Laboratory analyses of soil and sediment samples from the Love Canal indicate the presence of more than 200 distinct organic chemical compounds; approximately 100 of these have been identified to date.
Numerous other chemicals seeped through the ground. Some of the chemicals and toxic materials found included benzene, chloroform, toluene, dioxin, and various kinds of PCB.
(Lindane)
ug / l - microgram per liter
ug / m - microgram per cubic meter
In 1976, two reporters for the Niagara Falls Gazette, David Pollak and David Russell, tested several sump pumps near Love Canal and found toxic chemicals in them. The Gazette published reports, once in October 1976 and once in November 1976, of chemical analyses of residues near the old Love Canal dumpsite indicated presence of 15 organic chemicals, including three toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons. The matter went quiet for more than a year and was resurrected by reporter Michael Brown, who then investigated potential health effects by carrying forth an informal door - to - door survey in early 1978, finding birth defects and many anomalies such as enlarged feet, heads, hands, and legs. He advised the local residents to create a protest group, which was led by resident Karen Schroeder, whose daughter had many (about a dozen) birth defects. The New York State Health Department followed suit and found an abnormal incidence of miscarriages.
By 1978, Love Canal had become a national media event with articles referring to the neighborhood as "a public health time bomb '', and "one of the most appalling environmental tragedies in American history ''. Brown, working for the local newspaper, the Niagara Gazette, is credited with not only breaking open the case, but establishing toxic chemical wastes as a nationwide issue as well. Brown 's book, Laying Waste, examined the Love Canal disaster and many other toxic waste catastrophes nationwide.
The dumpsite was declared an unprecedented state emergency on August 2, 1978. Brown, who wrote more than a hundred articles on the dump, tested the groundwater and later found the dump was three times larger than originally thought, with possible ramifications beyond the original evacuation zone. He was also to discover that highly toxic dioxins were there.
(This section requires additional support and verification) Activism at Love Canal was initially led by community residents Lois Gibbs and Tom Heiser, with Lois Gibbs emerging as the "face '' of the movement. Gibbs ' strategies emphasized concerns for children and families of the affected area, with women taking the most prominent public and active roles. Although women 's activism at Love Canal was not explicitly linked to or directly informed by the wider women 's movement of the time, resistance to change within the household led at times to strain within families. Many men also supported women in these efforts, though not always publicly. Men who were hesitant to oppose Hooker Chemical openly for example, were able to contribute to the movement through increased contributions to family labor in the absence of their activist wives.
In addition to community organizing and pressuring authorities for appropriate responses, direct - action forms of activism were employed. Tactics included protests and rallies, which were intentionally timed and planned in an effort to maximize media attention. Such events included "controversial '' methods such as mothers protesting while pushing strollers, marching by pregnant women, and children holding protest signs. Notably, two EPA employees were also held hostage by activists for approximately five hours at the LCHA office, in order to bring their demands to the attention of federal government.
Numerous organizations were formed in response to the crisis at Love Canal, with members ' activism emphasizing variously overlapping interests. In addition to the Love Canal Homeowners Association (LCHA), other key organizations are the Ecumenical Taskforce (ETF), National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Concerned Love Canal Renters Association (CLCRA). These organizations are often overlooked in the story of Love Canal, according to research by Elizabeth Blum in ' ' Love Canal Revisited ' '.
The Ecumenical Taskforce (ETF) was a religious organization comprised of volunteers from the surrounding area (verification and details required). In conjunction with other citizens ' groups such as LCHA and LCARA, the ETF used their resources and platforms to promote environmental health and gender, class, and racial equality.
The NAACP became involved with the Love Canal issue after William Abrams Sr., president of the Niagara Falls chapter drew concerns to his wife 's fatal liver failure. Abrams involvement drew attention to racial inequality present in the community and concerns about how this could affect comprehensive relocation efforts. Abrams contacted the regional NAACP director who announced that discrimination against minorities at Love Canal would be met with legal action. This involvement inspired additional support and activism, particularly on behalf of members of the renting community, many of whom were also members of the African - American and immigrant communities at the site. (this section needs clarification / support)
Another subgroup of local residents formed the Love Canal Renters Association (CLCRA). This group 's action sought to address the needs of the (largely, but not exclusively, African - American) renter community, whose interests were at times perceived to be in conflict with those held by some members of the (predominantly white) property owners represented through the LCHA.
In 1980 Lois Gibbs established the Center for Health, Environment, and Justice as a continuation of her activism at Love Canal.
On August 2, 1978, Lois Gibbs, a local mother who called an election to head the Love Canal Homeowners ' Association, began to rally homeowners. Her son, Michael Gibbs, began attending school in September 1977. He developed epilepsy in December, suffered from asthma and a urinary tract infection, and had a low white blood cell count, all associated with his exposure to the leaking chemical waste. Gibbs had learned from Brown that her neighborhood sat atop the buried chemical waste.
In the following years, Gibbs led an effort to investigate community concerns about the health of its residents. She and other residents made repeated complaints of strange odors and "substances '' that surfaced in their yards. In Gibbs ' neighborhood, there was a high rate of unexplained illnesses, miscarriages, and intellectual disability. Basements were often covered with a thick, black substance, and vegetation was dying. In many yards, the only vegetation that grew were shrubby grasses. Although city officials were asked to investigate the area, they did not act to solve the problem. Niagara Falls mayor Michael O'Laughlin infamously stated that there was "nothing wrong '' in Love Canal.
With further investigation, Gibbs discovered the chemical danger of the adjacent canal. This began her organization 's two - year effort to demonstrate that the waste buried by Hooker Chemical was responsible for the health problems of local residents. Throughout the ordeal, homeowners ' concerns were ignored not only by Hooker Chemical (now a subsidiary of Occidental Petroleum), but also by members of government. These parties argued that the area 's endemic health problems were unrelated to the toxic chemicals buried in the Canal. Since the residents could not prove the chemicals on their property had come from Hooker 's disposal site, they could not prove liability. Throughout the legal battle, residents were unable to sell their properties and move away.
On August 7, 1978, United States President Jimmy Carter announced a federal health emergency, called for the allocation of federal funds, and ordered the Federal Disaster Assistance Agency to assist the City of Niagara Falls to remedy the Love Canal site. This was the first time in American history that emergency funds were used for a situation other than a natural disaster. Carter had trenches built that would transport the wastes to sewers and had home sump pumps sealed off.
Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), better known as the Superfund Act. Love Canal became the first entry on the list. CERCLA created a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and provided broad Federal authority to respond directly to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger public health or the environment. CERCLA also created a National Priorities List, a shortened list of the sites that has priority in cleanup. Love Canal was the first Superfund site on that list. Eventually, the site was cleaned up and deleted off the list in 2004. Because the Superfund Act contained a "retroactive liability '' provision, Occidental was held liable for cleanup of the waste even though it had followed all applicable U.S. laws when disposing of it.
At first, scientific studies did not conclusively prove the chemicals were responsible for the residents ' illnesses yet scientists were divided on the issue, even though eleven known or suspected carcinogens had been identified, one of the most prevalent being benzene. Also present was dioxin (polychlorinated dibenzodioxins) in the water, a very hazardous substance. Dioxin pollution is usually measured in parts per trillion; at Love Canal, water samples showed dioxin levels of 53 parts per billion. Geologists were recruited to determine whether underground swales were responsible for carrying the chemicals to the surrounding residential areas. Once there, chemicals could leach into basements and evaporate into household air.
In 1979, the EPA announced the result of blood tests which showed high white blood cell counts, a precursor to leukemia, and chromosome damage in Love Canal residents. 33 % of the residents had undergone chromosomal damage. In a typical population, chromosomal damage affects 1 % of people. Other studies were unable to find harm. The United States National Research Council (NRC) surveyed Love Canal health studies in 1991. The NRC noted the major exposure of concern was the groundwater rather than drinking water; the groundwater "seeped into basements '' and then led to exposure through air and soil noted several studies reported higher levels of low - birth weight babies and birth defects among the exposed residents with some evidence the effect subsided after the exposure was eliminated. The National Research Council also noted a study which found exposed children were found to have an "excess of seizures, learning problems, hyperactivity, eye irritation, skin rashes, abdominal pain, and incontinence '' and stunted growth. Voles in the area were found to have significantly increased mortality compared to controls (mean life expectancy in exposed animals "23.6 and 29.2 days, respectively, compared to 48.8 days '' for control animals). New York State also has an ongoing health study of Love Canal residents. In that year, the Albert Elia Building Co., Inc., now Sevenson Environmental Services, Inc., was selected as the principal contractor to safely re-bury the toxic waste at the Love Canal Site.
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1979, residents exhibited a "disturbingly high rate of miscarriages... Love Canal can now be added to a growing list of environmental disasters involving toxics, ranging from industrial workers stricken by nervous disorders and cancers to the discovery of toxic materials in the milk of nursing mothers. '' In one case, two out of four children in a single Love Canal family had birth defects; one girl was born deaf with a cleft palate, an extra row of teeth, and slight retardation, and a boy was born with an eye defect.
When Eckhardt C. Beck (EPA Administrator for Region 2, 1977 -- 1979) visited Love Canal in the late 1970s, he discerned the presence of toxic substances in the community:
I visited the canal area at that time. Corroding waste - disposal drums could be seen breaking up through the grounds of backyards. Trees and gardens were turning black and dying. One entire swimming pool had been popped up from its foundation, afloat now on a small sea of chemicals. Puddles of noxious substances were pointed out to me by the residents. Some of these puddles were in their yards, some were in their basements, others yet were on the school grounds. Everywhere the air had a faint, choking smell. Children returned from play with burns on their hands and faces.
Robert Whalen, then - New York 's Health Commissioner, also visited Love Canal and believed that the Canal constituted an emergency, stating: "Love Canal Chemical Waste Landfill constitutes a public nuisance and an extremely serious threat and danger to the health, safety and welfare of those using it, living near it or exposed to the conditions emanating from it, consisting among other things, of chemical wastes lying exposed on the surface in numerous places pervasive, pernicious and obnoxious chemical vapors and fumes affecting both the ambient air and the homes of certain residents living near such sites. '' Whalen also instructed people to avoid going into their basements as well as to avoid fruits and vegetables grown in their gardens. People became very worried because many had consumed produce from their gardens for several years. Whalen urged that all pregnant women and children under the age of two be removed from Love Canal as soon as possible.
The 99th Street School, on the other hand, was located within the former boundary of the Hooker Chemical landfill site. The school was closed and demolished, but both the school board and the chemical company refused to accept liability. The 93rd Street School was closed some two years later because of concerns about seeping toxic waste.
The lack of public interest in Love Canal made matters worse for the homeowners ' association, which was opposed by two organizations that sought to disprove negligence. Initially, members of the association had been frustrated by the lack of a public entity that could advise and defend them. Gibbs met with public resistance from a number of residents within the community. Eventually, the federal government relocated more than 800 families and reimbursed them for the loss of their homes. The state government and federal government used $15 million to purchase 400 homes closest to Love Canal and demolished several rings of houses.
In 1994, Federal District Judge John Curtin ruled that Hooker / Occidental had been negligent, but not reckless, in its handling of the waste and sale of the land to the Niagara Falls School Board. Curtin 's decision also contains a detailed history of events leading up to the Love Canal disaster. Occidental Petroleum was sued by the EPA and in 1995 agreed to pay $129 million in restitution. Out of that federal lawsuit came money for a small health fund and $3.5 million for the state health study. Residents ' lawsuits were also settled in the years following the Love Canal disaster.
The Department of Justice published a report that noted the sites have been successfully remediated is ready again for use. The Love Canal Area Revitalization Authority sold a few abandoned homes to private citizens. Virtually all remedial activities of the site, other than the operation of the leachate collection system, were completed by 1989.
Houses in the residential areas on the east and west sides of the canal were demolished. All that remains on the west side are abandoned residential streets. Some older east side residents, whose houses stand alone in the demolished neighborhood, chose to stay. It was estimated that fewer than 90 of the original 900 families opted to remain. They were willing to remain as long as they were guaranteed that their homes were in a relatively safe area. On June 4, 1980, the state government founded the Love Canal Area Revitalization Agency (LCARA) to restore the area. The area north of Love Canal became known as Black Creek Village. LCARA wanted to resell 300 homes that had been bought by New York when the residents were relocated. The homes are farther away from where the chemicals were dumped. The most toxic area (16 acres (65,000 m)) was reburied with a thick plastic liner, clay and dirt. A 2.4 - metre (7 ft 10 in) high barbed wire fence was installed around the area. It has been calculated that 248 separate chemicals, including 60 kilograms (130 lb) of dioxin, have been unearthed from the canal.
In 1998, Dr. Elizabeth Whelan, founder of American Council on Science and Health, wrote an editorial about the Canal in which she stated that the media started calling the Canal a "public health time bomb '', an editorial that created minor hysteria. She declared that people were not falling ill because of exposure to chemical waste, but from stress caused by the media. Besides double the rate of birth defects to children born while living on Love Canal, a follow - up study two decades after the incident "showed increased risks of low birth weight, congenital malformations and other adverse reproductive events ''. However, the same report found a slight decrease in the incidence of cancer rates, and cautions, "It is important not to over emphasize any single finding but instead to search for interpretable, coherent patterns of findings, since these are more likely to indicate valid and meaningful associations. ''
Love Canal, along with Times Beach, Missouri and the Valley of the Drums, Kentucky, are important in United States environmental history as three sites that significantly contributed to the passing of the CERCLA. Love Canal "become the symbol for what happens when hazardous industrial products are not confined to the workplace but ' hit people where they live ' in inestimable amounts ''.
Love Canal was not an isolated case. Eckardt C. Beck suggested that there are probably hundreds of similar dumpsites. President Carter declared that discovering these dumpsites was "one of the grimmest discoveries of the modern era ''. Had the residents of Love Canal been aware that they were residing on toxic chemicals, most would not have moved there in the first place. Beck noted that one main problem remains that ownership of such chemical companies can change over the years, making liability difficult to assign (a problem that would be addressed by CERCLA, or the Superfund Act). Beck contended that increased commitment was necessary to develop controls that would "defuse future Love Canals ''.
The free market environmentalist movement has often cited the Love Canal incident as a consequence of government decision - makers not taking responsibility for their decisions. Stroup writes, "The school district owning the land had a laudable but narrow goal: it wanted to provide education cheaply for district children. Government decision makers are seldom held accountable for broader social goals in the way that private owners are by liability rules and potential profits. ''
In 2004, federal officials announced that the superfund cleanup has ended, although the actual cleanup ended years earlier. The entire process took 21 years and $400 million. About 260 homes north of the canal have been renovated and sold to new owners, and about 150 acres (61 ha) east of the canal have been sold to commercial developers for light industrial uses. In total, 950 families had been evacuated. The site was removed from the Superfund list.
The Niagara Sanitation landfill covers 18.7 acres (7.6 ha) in Wheatfield, New York. The state Department of Transportation moved approximately 1,600 cubic yards (1,200 m) of material from the Love Canal landfill to Niagara Sanitation. Residents of North Tonawanda and Wheatfield suffering severe health problems say the waste was subsequently disturbed during the construction of the LaSalle Expressway in Niagara Falls. The New York Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) contends there is no proof the landfill leaks. A lawsuit asserts that Hooker 's creation of a brine pipeline along the edge of the landfill used to move brine from Wyoming County to its Niagara Falls plant location, may have created a conduit for the landfilled waste to leak out.
The legacy of the disaster inspired a fictionalized 1982 made - for - TV film entitled Lois Gibbs and the Love Canal. An award - winning documentary by Lynn Corcoran entitled In Our Own Backyard was released in the U.S. in 1983. Modern Marvels retold the disaster in 2004.
Joyce Carol Oates included the story of Love Canal in her 2004 novel The Falls, but changed the time period of the disaster to the 1960s. The latest history of Love Canal, Love Canal: A Toxic History From Colonial Times To The Present, written by Richard S. Newman, was published by Oxford University Press in 2016.
The film Tootsie has a character attempting to produce a play called "Return To Love Canal ''. In response to the pitch for the play, Sydney Pollack tells Dustin Hoffman that "Nobody wants to produce a play about a couple that moved back to Love Canal. Nobody wants to pay twenty dollars to see people living next to chemical waste. They can see that in New Jersey. ''
"Love Canal '' was also a segment in the premiere episode of Michael Moore 's TV series TV Nation, which featured realtors attempting to lure prospective residents to the area.
In the 1998 First - person shooter video game, Blood II: The Chosen, the sixth level of the second episode, which takes place in part of the water system of a housing project built by the villains over a pit of radioactive waste, is called "Love Canal '' in reference to the disaster.
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where does south africa get its money from | Economy of South Africa - Wikipedia
$280.37 billion (2017 est.) (nominal; List of countries by GDP (nominal))
$5,101 (2017 est) (nominal; 88th)
The economy of South Africa is the second largest in Africa, after Nigeria. It is the most industrialized in Africa. South Africa accounts for 35 percent of Africa 's gross domestic product (PPP), and it is ranked as an upper - middle - income economy by the World Bank -- one of only four such countries in Africa (alongside Botswana, Gabon and Mauritius). Since 1996, at the end of over twelve years of international sanctions, South Africa 's Gross Domestic Product has almost tripled to $400 billion, and foreign exchange reserves have increased from $3 billion to nearly $50 billion creating a diversified economy with a growing and sizable middle class, within two decades of ending apartheid. In 2016 the top five challenges to doing business in the country were inefficient government bureaucracy, restrictive labour regulations, a shortage of educated workers, political instability, and corruption, whilst the country 's strong banking sector was rated as a strongly positive feature of the economy. The nation is amongst the G - 20, and is the only African member of the group.
The formal economy of South Africa has its beginnings in the arrival of Dutch settlers in 1652, originally sent by the Dutch East India Company to establish a provisioning station for passing ships. As the colony increased in size, with the arrival of French Huguenots and German citizens, some of the colonists were set free to pursue commercial farming, leading to the dominance of agriculture in the economy.
At the end of the 18th century, the British annexed the colony. This led to the Great Trek, spreading farming deeper into the mainland, as well as the establishment of the independent Boer Republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
In 1870 diamonds were discovered in Kimberley, while in 1886 some of the world 's largest gold deposits were discovered in the Witwatersrand region of Transvaal, quickly transforming the economy into a resource - dominated one. The British annexed the area as a result of the Boer War which witnessed the placement of Boer women and children in British - built concentration camps. The country also entered a period of industrialization during this time, including the organization of the first South African trade unions.
The country soon started putting laws distinguishing between different races in place. In 1948 the National Party won the national elections, and immediately started implementing an even stricter race - based policy named Apartheid, effectively dividing the economy into a privileged white one, and an impoverished black one. The policy was widely criticised and led to crippling sanctions being placed against the country in the 1980s.
South Africa held its first multi-racial elections in 1994, leaving the newly elected African National Congress (ANC) government the daunting task of trying to restore order to an economy harmed by sanctions, while also integrating the previously disadvantaged segment of the population into it. The 1994 government inherited an economy wracked by long years of internal conflict and external sanctions.
The government refrained from resorting to economic populism. Inflation was brought down, public finances were stabilised, and some foreign capital was attracted. However, growth was still subpar. At the start of 2000, then President Thabo Mbeki vowed to promote economic growth and foreign investment by relaxing restrictive labour laws, stepping up the pace of privatisation, raising governmental spending and cutting interest rates sharply from 1998 levels. His policies faced strong opposition from organised labour. From 2004 onward economic growth picked up significantly; both employment and capital formation increased.
In April 2009, amid fears that South Africa would soon join much of the rest of the world in the late - 2000s recession, Reserve Bank Governor Tito Mboweni and Finance Minister Trevor Manuel differed on the matter: whereas Manuel foresaw a quarter of economic growth, Mboweni predicted further decline: "technically, '' he said, "that 's a recession. '' In 2009 the Nobel - Prize - winning economist Joseph Stiglitz warned South Africa that inflation targeting should be a secondary concern amid the global financial crisis of 2007 -- 2009.
South Africa, unlike other emerging markets, has struggled through the late 2000s recession, and the recovery has been largely led by private and public consumption growth, while export volumes and private investment have yet to fully recover. The long - term potential growth rate of South Africa under the current policy environment has been estimated at 3.5 %. Per capita GDP growth has proved mediocre, though improving, growing by 1.6 % a year from 1994 to 2009, and by 2.2 % over the 2000 -- 09 decade, compared to world growth of 3.1 % over the same period.
The high levels of unemployment, at over 25 %, and inequality are considered by the government and most South Africans to be the most salient economic problems facing the country. These issues, and others linked to them such as crime, have in turn hurt investment and growth, consequently having a negative feedback effect on employment. Crime is considered a major or very severe constraint on investment by 30 % of enterprises in South Africa, putting crime among the four most frequently mentioned constraints.
In April 2017, political tensions in the country arose over the sacking of nine cabinet members including Finance Minister Pravin Gordhan by the president Jacob Zuma. The finance minister was seen as central to efforts to restore confidence in South Africa. As a result of the tensions, S&P Global cut South Africa 's credit rating to junk status on Monday 3 April 2017. Fitch Ratings followed suit on Friday 7 April 2017 and cut the country 's credit status to the sub-investment grade of BBB -. The South African rand lost more than 11 % in the week following the cabinet reshuffling.
This is a chart of the trend of South Africa 's gross domestic product (GDP) at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund:
South Africa has a comparative advantage in the production of agriculture, mining and manufacturing products relating to these sectors. South Africa has shifted from a primary and secondary economy in the mid-twentieth century to an economy driven primarily by the tertiary sector in the present day which accounts for an estimated 65 % of GDP or $230 billion in nominal GDP terms. The country 's economy is reasonably diversified with key economic sectors including mining, agriculture and fisheries, vehicle manufacturing and assembly, food processing, clothing and textiles, telecommunication, energy, financial and business services, real estate, tourism, transportation, and wholesale and retail trade.
Mining has been the main driving force behind the history and development of Africa 's most advanced economy. Large - scale and profitable mining started with the discovery of a diamond on the banks of the Orange River in 1867 by Erasmus Jacobs and the subsequent discovery and exploitation of the Kimberley pipes a few years later. Gold rushes to Pilgrim 's Rest and Barberton were precursors to the biggest discovery of all, the Main Reef / Main Reef Leader on Gerhardus Oosthuizen 's farm Langlaagte, Portion C, in 1886, the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the subsequent rapid development of the gold field there, the biggest of them all.
South Africa is one of the world 's leading mining and mineral - processing countries. Though mining 's contribution to the national GDP has fallen from 21 % in 1970 to 6 % in 2011, it still represents almost 60 % of exports. The mining sector accounts for up to 9 % of value added.
In 2008, South Africa 's estimated share of world platinum production amounted to 77 %; kyanite and other materials, 55 %; chromium, 45 %; palladium, 39 %; vermiculite, 39 %; vanadium, 38 %; zirconium, 30 %; manganese, 21 %; rutile, 20 %; ilmenite, 19 %; gold, 11 %; fluorspar, 6 %; aluminium, 2 %; antimony, 2 %; iron ore, 2 %; nickel, 2 %; and phosphate rock, 1 %. South Africa also accounted for nearly 5 % of the world 's polished diamond production by value. The country 's estimated share of world reserves of platinum group metals amounted to 89 %; hafnium, 46 %; zirconium, 27 %; vanadium, 23 %; manganese, 19 %; rutile, 18 %; fluorspar, 18 %; gold, 13 %; phosphate rock, 10 %; ilmenite, 9 %; and nickel, 5 %. It is also the world 's third largest coal exporter.
The mining sector has a mix of privately owned and state - controlled mines, the latter including African Exploration Mining and Finance Corporation.
The agricultural industry contributes around 10 % of formal employment, relatively low compared to other parts of Africa, as well as providing work for casual labourers and contributing around 2.6 % of GDP for the nation. However, due to the aridity of the land, only 13.5 % can be used for crop production, and only 3 % is considered high potential land. The sector continues to face problems, with increased foreign competition and crime being two of the major challenges for the industry. The government has been accused of either putting in too much effort, or not enough effort, to tackle the problem of farm attacks as opposed to other forms of violent crime.
Maize production, which contributes to a 36 % majority of the gross value of South Africa 's field crops, has also experienced negative effects due to climate change. The estimated value of loss, which takes into consideration scenarios with and without the carbon dioxide fertilisation effect, ranges between tens and hundreds of millions of Rands.
According to FAOSTAT, South Africa is one of world 's largest producers of: chicory roots (4th); grapefruit (4th); cereals (5th); green maize and maize (7th); castor oil seed (9th); pears (9th); sisal (10th); fibre crops (10th). In the first quarter of 2010, the agricultural sector earned export revenues for R10. 1 billion and used R8. 4 billion to pay for imported agricultural products, therefore earning a positive trade balance of R1. 7 billion.
The most important agricultural exports of South Africa include: edible fruit and nuts, beverages, preserved food, tobacco, cereals, wool not carded or combed, miscellaneous food, sugar, meat, milling products, malt and starch. These products accounted for over 80 % of agricultural export revenue in the first quarter of 2010. The most important agricultural imports, which accounted for over 60 % of agricultural import value during the same period, include: cereals, meat, soya - bean oil cake, beverages, soya - bean oil and its fractions, tobacco, palm oil and its fractions, miscellaneous food, spices, coffee, tea, and preserved food.
The dairy industry consists of around 4,300 milk producers providing employment for 60,000 farm workers and contributing to the livelihoods of around 40,000 others.
The food sub-sector is the largest employer within the agro-processing sector -- contributing 1.4 % to total employment, and 11.5 % within the manufacturing sector. In 2006, the agro-processing sector represented 24.7 % of the total manufacturing output. Although the economy as a whole gained 975,941 jobs between 1995 and 2006, the agro-processing sector lost 45,977 jobs. The competitive pressures from abroad, particularly from China and India, played a role in the decline of exports for the food, textiles and paper sub-sectors, as firms in these sectors increasingly compete with lower cost producers. Increased exports from the beverages, tobacco, wood and leather sub-sectors over the period are probably due to the presence of large dominant firms within these sectors in South Africa, that have managed to remain competitive.
The manufacturing industry 's contribution to the economy is relatively small, providing just 13.3 % of jobs and 15 % of GDP. Labour costs are low, but not nearly as low as in most other emerging markets, and the cost of the transport, communications and general living is much higher.
The South African automotive industry accounts for about 10 % of South Africa 's manufacturing exports, contributes 7.5 % to the country 's GDP and employs around 36,000 people. Annual production in 2007 was 535,000 vehicles, out of a global production of 73 million units in the same year. Vehicle exports were in the region of 170,000 units in 2007, exported mainly to Japan (about 29 % of the value of total exports), Australia (20 %), the UK (12 %) and the US (11 %). South Africa also exported ZAR 30.3 billion worth of auto components in 2006.
BMW, Ford, Volkswagen, Daimler - Chrysler, General Motors, Nissan and Toyota all have production plants in South Africa. Large component manufacturers with bases in the country are Arvin Exhaust, Bloxwitch, Corning and Senior Flexonics. There are also about 200 automotive component manufacturers in South Africa, and more than 150 others that supply the industry on a non-exclusive basis. The industry is concentrated in two provinces, the Eastern Cape and Gauteng. Companies producing in South Africa can take advantage of the low production costs and the access to new markets as a result of trade agreements with the European Union and the Southern African Development Community.
After a steep decline of 10.4 % in 2009, the manufacturing sector performed well in 2010, growing by 5 %, though this rebound was limited to the automotive, basic chemicals, iron and steel and food and beverages industries. The performance of this sector remains curtailed by the low demand in South Africa 's main export markets in the developed world.
The domestic telecommunications infrastructure provides modern and efficient service to urban areas, including cellular and internet services. In 1997, Telkom, the South African telecommunications parastatal, was partly privatised and entered into a strategic equity partnership with a consortium of two companies, including SBC, a U.S. telecommunications company. In exchange for exclusivity (a monopoly) to provide certain services for 5 years, Telkom assumed an obligation to facilitate network modernisation and expansion into the unserved areas. A Second Network Operator was to be licensed to compete with Telkom across its spectrum of services in 2002, although this license was only officially handed over in late 2005 and has recently begun operating under the name, Neotel. Five mobile - phone companies provide service to over 20 million subscribers, with South Africa considered to have the 4th most advanced mobile telecommunications network worldwide. The five major cellular providers are Vodacom, MTN, Cell C, 8ta (owned by the parastatal, Telkom) and Virgin Mobile.
Over the last few decades, South Africa and particularly the Cape Town region has established itself as a successful call centre and business process outsourcing destination. With a highly talented pool of productive labour and with Cape Town sharing cultural affinity with Britain, large overseas firms such as Lufthansa, Amazon.com, ASDA, The Carphone Warehouse, Delta Airlines and many more have established inbound call centres within Cape Town as a means of utilising Cape Town 's low labour costs and talented labour force.
South Africa is a popular tourist destination, with around 860,000 arrivals per month (March 2008) of which around 210,000 is from outside the African continent. In 2012 South Africa received 9.2 million international arrivals. In August 2017 3.5 million travellers came to South Africa. According to the World Travel & Tourism Council, travel and tourism directly contributed ZAR102 billion to South African GDP in 2012 and supports 10.3 % of jobs in the country. Among the main attractions are the diverse and picturesque landscape, the game reserves and the highly regarded local wines.
South Africa has a sophisticated financial structure with the JSE Securities Exchange, a large and active stock exchange that ranks 18th in the world in terms of total market capitalisation as of March 2009.
The banking industry, overseen by the South African Reserve Bank, is dominated by four local players: Nedbank, ABSA, Standard Bank and First Rand. These banks provide both retail and investment banking services as the sector has become highly competitive with the re-entry of many experienced foreign banks, which returned to the market in the mid-1990s, having left in the late 1980s. Banks operating in South Africa, when left short of liquidity, need to borrow from the SARB at a fluctuating repo rate, which in turn allows the central bank to monitor liquidity positions.
South Africa 's informal sector contributes 8 % of the country 's GDP and supports 27 % of all working people. The South African Local Economic Development Network values the informal economy at 28 % of SA 's GDP. Given the relevance of this input, there is a constant interest in developing actions on an inclusive urban planning for the working poor.
Principal international trading partners of South Africa -- besides other African countries -- include Germany, the United States, China, Japan, the United Kingdom and Spain. Chief exports include corn, diamonds, fruits, gold, metals and minerals, sugar, and wool. Machinery and transportation equipment make up more than one - third of the value of the country 's imports. Other imports include chemicals, manufactured goods, and petroleum.
As a result of a November 1993 bilateral agreement, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) can assist US investors in the South African market with services such as political risk insurance and loans and loan guarantees. In July 1996, the US and South Africa signed an investment fund protocol for a $120 million OPIC fund to make equity investments in South and Southern Africa. OPIC is establishing an additional fund -- the Sub-Saharan Africa Infrastructure Fund, capitalised at $350 million -- to investment in infrastructure projects. The Trade and Development Agency also has been actively involved in funding feasibility studies and identifying investment opportunities in South Africa for U.S. businesses.
Despite the numerous positive economic achievements since 1994, South Africa has struggled to attract significant foreign direct investment. The situation may have started to change however, with 2005 seeing the largest single FDI into South Africa when Barclays bought a majority share in local bank Absa Group Limited. Deals between the British - based Vodafone and South Africa 's Vodacom have taken place in 2006. In 2010, two multibillion - dollar deals, one by HSBC to acquire Nedbank and one by Walmart to acquire Massmart Holdings, fell through. (Walmart did eventually buy Massmart in 2011)
South Africa has been riven by arguments over whether the state should take over mineral resources. A study commissioned by the African National Congress recommended against the policy, saying nationalisation would be an "economic disaster. '' However, the ANC Youth Employment supporters disagree and state that it will give the government direct control over the mining sector which is also in alignment with the Freedom Charter signed in 1995.
The government aimed to transfer 30 % of the 82 million hectares presumed to be in the hands of white farmers by Gugile Nkwinti, Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform, amounting to 24.5 million hectares, to black farmers by 2014. 6.7 million hectares had been transferred by early 2012 via redistribution and restitution.
The land reform program has been criticised both by farmers ' groups and by landless workers, the latter alleging that the pace of change has not been fast enough, and the former alleging anti white racist treatment with threats of genocide, voiced openly on multiple occasions by the ANC, including the former president Zuma, and expressing concerns that a similar situation to Zimbabwe 's land reform policy may develop, a fear exacerbated by comments made by former deputy president Phumzile Mlambo - Ngcuka.
South Africa has an extreme and persistent high unemployment rate of over 25 %, which interacts with other economic and social problems such as inadequate education, poor health outcomes and crime. The poor have limited access to economic opportunities and basic services. According to a 2013 Goldman Sachs report, that number increases to 35 % when including people who have given up looking for work. A quarter of South Africans live on less than US $1.25 a day.
South Africa 's mass unemployment dates back to the 1970s, and continued to rise through the 1980s and 1990s. Unemployment has increased substantially since the African National Congress came to power in 1994, going from 15.6 % in 1995 to 30.3 % in 2001. In the second quarter of 2010, the jobless rate increased to 25.3 %, and the number of people with work fell by 61,000 to 12.7 million. The biggest decline in employment was recorded in the manufacturing industry, which shed 53,000 workers. Agriculture lost 32,000 jobs, employment in the construction industry fell by 15,000. In the third quarter of 2010, 29.80 % of blacks were officially unemployed, compared with 22.30 % of coloureds, 8.60 of Asians and 5.10 % of whites.
The official unemployment rate, though very high by international standards, understates its magnitude because it includes only adults who are actively looking for work, excluding those who have given up looking for jobs. Only 41 % of the population of working age have any kind of job (formal or informal). This rate is 30 % points lower than that of China, and about 25 % lower than that of Brazil or Indonesia. The relatively generous social grants reduces the political cost of unemployment. There is some evidence that households view paid employment and social grants as substitutes at the margin: households that lose a pension - eligible member subsequently report increased labour force participation.
The unemployment problem is characterised by its lengthy duration: in the mid-1990s nearly two thirds of the unemployed had never worked for pay. The 2005 Labour Force Survey found that 40 % of unemployed individuals have been unemployed for more than three years, while 59 % have never had a job at all. The unemployment rate has fuelled crime, inequality and social unrest. The global economic downturn has made the problem worse, wiping out more than a million jobs. In September 2010, over a third of South Africa 's workforce were out of work, and so were more than half of blacks aged 15 -- 34, three times the level for whites.
Some experts contend that higher wages negotiated by politically powerful trade unions have suppressed job growth. According to a study by Dani Rodrik, the shrinkage of the non-mineral tradable sector since the early 1990s and the weakness of the export - oriented manufacturing were more to blame for the low level of employment.
There has been a large degree of human capital flight from South Africa in recent years. South Africa 's Bureau of Statistics estimates that between 1 million and 1.6 million people in skilled, professional, and managerial occupations have emigrated since 1994 and that, for every emigrant, 10 unskilled people lose their jobs. There are a range of causes cited for the migration of skilled South Africans.
In mid-1998, the Southern African Migration Project (SAMP) undertook a study to examine and assess the range of factors that contribute to skilled South Africans ' desire to leave the country: over two - thirds of the sample said that they had given the idea of emigration some thought while 38 % said they had given it a "great deal of thought ''. Among the reasons cited for wishing to leave the country was the declining quality of life and high levels of crime. Furthermore, the government 's affirmative action policy was identified as another factor influencing the emigration of skilled white South Africans. The results of the survey indicate that skilled whites are strongly opposed to this policy and the arguments advanced in support of it.
However, flight of human capital in South Africa should not be attributed solely to regional factors. For example, the demand for skilled labourers in the UK, US, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia has led to active recruitment programs by those countries in South Africa. These countries accounted for 75 % (by volume) of recent skilled emigration with the UK receiving approximately half of annual skilled South African emigration from 1990 to 1996. It has been suggested that the role of domestic socio - political variables may be negligible. The health sector has been hit particularly hard.
A widespread skills drain in South Africa and in the developing world in general is generally considered to be a cause for concern.
For the medical sector, the loss of returns from investment for all doctors emigrating is $1.41 bn for South Africa. The benefit to destination countries is huge: $2.7 bn for the United Kingdom alone.
In a case of reverse brain drain a net 359,000 high - skilled South Africans have returned to South Africa from foreign work assignments over a five - year period from 2008 to 2013. This was catalysed by the global financial crisis of 2007 - 8 and perceptions of higher quality of life in South Africa relative to the countries from which they first emigrated to. It is estimated that around 37 % of those returning are professionals such as lawyers, doctors, engineers and accountants.
Refugees from poorer neighbouring countries include many immigrants from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi and others, representing a large portion of the informal sector. With high unemployment levels amongst poorer South Africans, xenophobia is prevalent and many South Africans feel resentful of immigrants who are seen to be depriving the native population of jobs, a feeling which has been given credibility by the fact that many South African employers have employed migrants from other countries for lower pay than South African citizens, especially in the construction, tourism, agriculture and domestic service industries. Illegal immigrants are also heavily involved in informal trading. However, many immigrants to South Africa continue to live in poor conditions, and the South African immigration policy has become increasingly restrictive since 1994.
Since 2007 the South African unions representing public sector workers recurrently went on strike, demanding pay rises significantly above inflation, in a practice that some experts argue is suppressing job growth, harming millions of South Africans who are out of a job.
In August and September 2010, South African unions organised a crippling four - week national strike involving 1.3 million public sector workers, demanding an 8.6 % wage increase. The strike ended after the government had raised its 5.2 % wage increase to 7.5 %. The deal swelled state spending by about 1 %.
Protesters sought to block hospitals, and South African media have reported numerous acts of violence against health and education staff who insisted on going to work. Volunteers and army medics were called in to help at hospitals, and some patients were moved to private medical facilities.
There is a persistent wage differential between unionised and non-unionised workers in South Africa, suggesting that unions are keeping wages higher for their members, thereby posing additional challenges to the unemployment problem.
In July 2014 amidst a national strike by 220,000 metalworkers, General Motors temporarily shut down its vehicle assembly plant, frustrating its plans to build 50,000 cars a year in the country. "The ongoing labour disruptions are harming the South African economy and are affecting the country 's image around the globe, '' the company said in a statement at the time.
The demise of apartheid in 1994 left a skewed racial economic hierarchy that placed whites firmly at the top, followed by Indians, coloureds, and then blacks. Since then the African National Congress government has made Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) a policy centre - piece, but by the party 's own admission it has failed to improve the lot of the vast majority of black South Africans and has taken much opportunity from the white minority, who are mainly a skilled minority. As of 2014 roughly ten percent of the Top 100 companies on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange were directly held by black investors though Black Economic Empowerment schemes. Black Economic Empowerment policies have been credited with creating a class of black South Africans with a level of wealth on the same order of magnitude as very rich white South Africans.
Black Economic Empowerment -- its purpose the "economic empowerment of all black people, including women, workers, youth, people with disabilities and people living in rural areas '' -- requires the Minister of Trade and Industry to develop and publish Codes of Good Practice, aimed at setting guidelines for the process of BEE in the whole economy. A scorecard is used by the Department to measure compliance with the BEE requirements, and is used for public procurement, public - private partnerships, sale of state - owned enterprises, when licenses are applied for, and for any other relevant economic activity.
The government 's Black Economic Empowerment policies have drawn criticism from the Development Bank of Southern Africa for focusing "almost exclusively on promoting individual ownership by black people (which) does little to address broader economic disparities, though the rich may become more diverse. '' The System has also been criticised for placing lesser educated people in more important positions in the workplace and their failure to perform to the standards required has had an immense impact on the economy. Another criticism also includes that the system goes against the constitution 's preaching of equality by having preference over people, not on merit, but for their skin colour and is considered the opposite of what many people fought for during the Apartheid era. Official affirmative action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth and an emerging black middle class. An increasing number of black candidates who are supposed to be beneficiaries of affirmative action are dissociating themselves from it, largely because of the perception that the appointments are not based on merit. The policy has also been criticized for having a negative impact on employment levels as it is viewed as being more of an additional burden for employees than as a transformative agent for the unemployed. Particularity in an economy where a major cause of inequality has been a growing disparity of income within the majority black population divided along lines of employment.
South Africans, in general, regardless of race, hold what would be considered "traditional '' stances on gender roles for men and women. The majority of the workforce is composed of males, while the majority of women do not participate. This viewpoint on males as "breadwinners '' is very much in line with traditional African values across the continent. Additionally, females face a problem in terms of earnings, with 77 % of women earning the same as their male counterparts. However, more women are becoming part of the agricultural workforce (55 %) as of 2012, marking a move towards modernization for women ' participation in the economy.
South African legislation is strongly geared to promoting gender equality in the work place. This is characterized by several comprehensive government programs and organizations that provide resources and services to females, both adult and adolescent. Such initiatives include the Employment Equity Act, No. 55 of 1988 (aimed at promoting women 's participation in mainly private sector jobs). UNFPA South Africa is one such promoter of these policies and programs. Internally, the South African government has founded the Commission for Gender Equality. The commissions main focus is on securing adequate education and job training for women who are disenfranchised or otherwise at a disadvantage when attempting to enter the workforce.
Not uncommon in Africa, gender equality seems to be a very cogent problem in the South African work force. According to Bain & Company, around 31 % of companies have no form of female leadership, either in management or executive positions. 22 % of board directors are women, however, only 7 % were designated as "executives ''. Additionally, the number of females in executive positions is significantly lower than the global average of 12 %. Additionally, the eNPE (Employee Net Promoter Score) for women is a net negative (- 4) as compared to men (8), according to a survey conducted of 1000 participants. This indicated a low level of actual economic promotion for women, despite public and international initiative towards the contrary.
After years of sub-standard maintenance and the South African government 's inability to manage strategic resources, the state - owned power supplier Eskom started experiencing deficiency in capacity in the electrical generating and reticulation infrastructure in 2007. Such lack led to inability to meet the routine demands of industry and consumers, resulting in countrywide rolling blackouts. Initially, the lack of capacity was triggered by a failure at Koeberg nuclear power station, but a general lack of capacity due to increased demand and lack of government planning soon came to light. The supplier and the South African government has been widely criticised for failing to adequately plan for and construct sufficient electrical generating capacity, although ultimately the government has admitted that it was at fault for refusing to approve funding for investment in infrastructure.
The crisis was resolved within a few months, but the margin between national demand and available capacity is still low (particularly in peak hours), and power stations are under strain, such that another phase of rolling blackouts is probable if parts of the supply are halted for whatever reason. The government and Eskom are currently planning new power stations, at cost to the South African consumer. The power utility plans to have 20,000 megawatts of nuclear power in its grid by 2025.
Some predictions show surface water supply could decrease by 60 % by the year 2070 in parts of the Western Cape.
The South African government planned to spend R69 billion on water infrastructure between 2008 and 2015. This involves building new dams and ancillary infrastructure, and repairing existing infrastructure. South Africa has an estimated total water capacity of 38 billion cubic metres, but will need 65 billion by 2025 if the economy is to keep on growing. The massive urban migration has placed further strain on the country 's ageing water infrastructure and created a large backlog.
As part of an international attempt to modernize infrastructure, South Africa has faced increasing pressure to invest government funds into its water and electricity sectors. At current, these sectors are underfunded by approximately 464 billion USD (This is according to the G20 GI Hub).
South Africa has extreme differences in incomes and wealth. The good level of economic growth in the post-apartheid period has led to a measurable decline in income poverty, but inequality has increased. The high level of overall income inequality has further accentuated: the country 's Gini coefficient increased by four percentage points, from 0.66 to 0.70, between 1993 and 2008, and income has become increasingly concentrated in the top decile. Inequality between urban and rural areas is changing: while rural poverty rates remain substantially higher than those in urban areas, urban poverty rates are rising and rural rates seem to be falling.
While between - race inequality is slowly falling, an increase in intra-race inequality is preventing the aggregate measures from declining. Despite that, between - race inequality remains a central issue: real incomes have been rising for all groups, but many blacks in the country still live in poverty. At any poverty line, blacks are very much poorer than coloureds, who are very much poorer than Indians, who are poorer than whites. In 2002, according to one estimate, 62 % of Black Africans, 29 % of Coloureds, 11 % of Asians, and 4 % of Whites lived in poverty.
The mean per - capita income has risen from R10, 741 in 1993 to R24, 409 in 2008, but these figures hide large differences in household welfare, both within and across population groups: the average Black income increased from R6, 018 in 1993 to R9, 718 in 2008; for Coloured households, the increase was from R7, 498 to R25, 269; for Whites, the increase was from R29, 372 to R110, 195. While mean income rose about 130 % from 1993 to 2008, the median income rose just 15 % over the same period, from R4, 444 to R5, 096, indicating that the increases are being driven by a small number of very large incomes, especially for Whites.
In 2000 the average white household was earning six times more than the average black household. In 2004, 29.8 % of all households had an income (at constant 2001 prices) of less than R9, 600 per annum, while 10.3 % of all households enjoyed an annual income (at constant 2001 prices) of more than R153, 601 per annum.
One study using calculations based on National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS) data suggests that 47 % of South Africans live below the poverty line: 56 % of blacks live in poverty compared to 2 % of whites, using an arbitrary income poverty line of R502 per capita. The United Nations Development Program 's Human Development Index (HDI) ranked South Africa 110 out of 169 countries in 2010. The report notes, however, that the region 's assessment has improved slowly since 1980. The HDI includes a Human Poverty Index (HPI - 1), which ranked South Africa 85 out of 135 countries.
The number of South Africans living below the poverty line, identified according to Apartheid - era social categories, was calculated in one study as 56 % "black '', 27 % "coloured '', 9 % "Indian '', and 2 % "white ''. In the past inequality in South Africa was largely defined along race lines, but it has become increasingly defined by inequality within population groups as the gap between rich and poor within each group has increased substantially.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development proposals for addressing income inequality included: encouraging more saving and investment; a liberalisation of product - market regulation; easier access to credit for small businesses; greater co-ordination in wage bargaining; and measures to tackle the high level of youth unemployment. Some proposals have included wage subsidies for people being trained, a minimum wage differentiated by age, and extended periods of probation for young workers.
A 2011 study published by the University of Cape Town about the richest 10 % found that nearly 40 % are black, where this group had once been almost exclusively white. While only 29 % of the absolute wealthiest South Africans are black, this jumps to 50 % among the "entry - level '' rich (defined as earning more than $4,000 per month). Factors that were found to be common among those in the entry - level rich group include being young, entrepreneurial and having some post-secondary education.
According to one estimate, 10.4 % of South Africans belonged to the "higher middle class '' in 2004, defined as having a per capita income of over R40, 000 (in 2000 Rand).
The top rate of personal income tax rate in South Africa is 45 %; the corporate tax rate is 28 %. Other taxes include a value - added tax and a capital gains tax, with the overall tax burden amounting to 23.4 % of total domestic income.
South Africa has about three times as many recipients of social benefits as it has income tax - payers, an extremely high ratio by international standards. After 1994 resources have been rapidly reallocated to black households: while approximately 40 % of aggregate social spending was directed to whites and 43 % to blacks in the mid-1980s, by the late 1990s fully 80 % of total social spending was assigned to blacks and less than 10 % to whites.
The Unemployment Insurance Fund is financed out of premiums, contributions and benefits depend on earnings, and focuses on insuring workers against the risk of income loss.
Social assistance grants are non-contributory, income - tested benefits provided by the state to the poor, and are financed out of general tax revenues without any links between contributions and benefits. They are provided in the form of: grants for older persons; disability grants; war veterans grants; care dependency grants; foster child grants; child support grants; grant - in - aid; social relief of distress.
The state old age pension, received by over 80 % of the elderly, is a non-contributory pension and pays more than twice median per capita Black income, thus representing an important source of income for a third of all Black households in the country. It pays R820 (as of September 2007) to people who reach pension age without access to private pensions.
The child support grant provides R330 per month (as of August 2015) for every child in the household younger than 15, and benefited 9.1 million children by April 2009.
The war veterans grant is provided to former soldiers who fought in the Second World War or the Korean War, and pays a maximum amount of R1, 190 per month (as of April 2011).
According to a December 2010 article by the South African Government Communication and Information System 's now - defunct BuaNews news service, South Africa was said to compare well to other emerging markets on affordability and availability of capital, financial market sophistication, business tax rates and infrastructure, but to fare poorly on the cost and availability of labour, education, and the use of technology and innovation.
Released in early December 2010 and no longer available online, the survey by Brazil 's National Confederation of Industry, "Competitividade Brasil 2010: Comparaçao com Paises Selecionados ", (Competition Brazil: A comparison with selected countries), found South Africa to have the second most sophisticated financial market and the second - lowest effective business tax rate (business taxes as a percentage of company profits), out of 14 surveyed countries. The country was also ranked fourth for ease of accessing capital, fourth for cost of capital, sixth for its transport infrastructure (at the time considered better than that of China, India, Mexico, Brazil and Poland, but behind that of Korea and Chile), and seventh for foreign direct investment as a percentage of GDP: in 2008 it was over 3 % of the GDP.
Nevertheless, South Africa is falling behind other emerging markets, such as India and China, owing to several factors: the country is relatively small, without the advantage of a huge domestic customer base; it has had for decades an unusually low rate of saving and investment, partly because of political uncertainties; an inadequate education system results in an acute shortage of skilled manpower; a strong and volatile currency deters investors and makes its exports less competitive; the infrastructure, though far better than in the rest of Africa, suffers from severe bottlenecks, including power shortages, and urgently needs upgrading.
In 2011, after a year of observer status, South Africa officially joined the BRICS group of now - five emerging - market nations at the summit held in Sanya, Hainan, China.
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who's the starting quarterback for the atlanta falcons | List of Atlanta Falcons Starting quarterbacks - wikipedia
These quarterbacks have started at least one game for the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League. They are listed in order of the date of each player 's first start at quarterback for the Falcons.
The number of games they started during the season is listed to the right:
These quarterbacks have the most starts for the Falcons in regular season games (as of Week 1 of 2017 season).
(As of Week 1 of 2017 season)
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who can removed by the president without parliament resolution | President of India - wikipedia
The President of the Republic of India is the head of state of India and the commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President is indirectly elected by an electoral college comprising the Parliament of India (both houses) and the Legislative Assemblies of each of India 's states and territories, who themselves are all directly elected.
Although the Article 53 of the Constitution of India states that the President can exercise his powers directly or by subordinate authority, with few exceptions, all of the executive powers vested in the President are, in practice, exercised by the Prime Minister (a subordinate authority) with the help of the Council of Ministers. The President is bound by the constitution to act on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet as long as the advice is not violating the constitution.
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Urban bodies:
India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor - general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, undertook the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country. The Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor - general were replaced by the new office of President of India, with Rajendra Prasad as the first incumbent.
The constitution of the Republic of India (Articles 53, 74 (2), 79 & 111) gave the President the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after President 's assent. The president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution (Article 60), who has pre-emptive power for ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the executive or legislature. The role of the judiciary in upholding the constitution of India is the second line of defence in nullifying any unconstitutional actions of the executive and legislative entities of the Indian Union.
The primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath (Article 60 of Indian constitution). The President is the common head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations (Article 3, Article 111, Article 274, etc.) and supervisory powers (Article 74 (2), Article 78 c, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution. There is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law.
Legislative power is constitutionally vested by the Parliament of India of which the President is the head, to facilitate the law making process per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.). The President of the Republic summons both the Houses (The House of the People and ' The Council of States ') of the Parliament and prorogues them. He can dissolve the Lok Sabha.
The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87 (1). The Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.
All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President per Article 111. After a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. President may be of view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of parliament is violating the constitution, he can send back the bill with his recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the Article 368 procedure. When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the President, with or without amendments, the President can not withhold his assent from it. The President can also withhold his assent to a bill when it is initially presented to him (rather than return it to Parliament) thereby exercising a pocket veto on the advice of prime minister or council of ministers per Article 74 if it is inconsistent to the constitution. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the Supreme Court about the constitutional validity of any issue. The President shall assent to constitutional amendment bills without power to withhold the bills per Article 368 (2).
When either of the two Houses of the Parliament of India is not in session, and if the government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the President can promulgate ordinances which have the same force and effect as an act passed by Parliament under its legislative powers. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Under Article 123, the President as the upholder of the constitution shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the union cabinet and he is confident that the government commands majority support in the Parliament needed for the passing of the ordinance into an act and Parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of Parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the President to withdraw the ordinance as soon as the reasons for promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and President, but the provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate action is inevitable when the extant provisions of law are inadequate. Re-promulgation of an ordinance after failing to get approval within the stipulated time of both houses of parliament is an unconstitutional act by the President. The President should not incorporate any matter in an ordinance which violates the constitution or requires amendment to the constitution. The President should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved by the Parliament or violates the constitution.
Per Article 53, the executive power of the country is vested in the President and is exercised by President either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the Constitution. When parliament thinks fit it may accord additional executive powers to the president per Article 70 which may be further delegated by the president to the governors of states per Article 160. Union cabinet with Prime Minister as its head, should aid and advice the President in performing his functions. Per Article 74 (2), the council of ministers or Prime Minister are not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the President but it is the sole responsibility of the President to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing his duties. President or his subordinate officers is bound by the provisions of the constitution notwithstanding any advice by union cabinet.
Per Article 142, it is the duty of President to enforce the decrees of Supreme Court.
The primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per Article 60. The President appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on the advice of the Chief Justice. He dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass resolutions to that effect by a two - thirds majority of the members present.
Attorney General for India who is the Indian government 's chief legal advisor, is appointed by the President of India under Article 76 (1) and holds office during the pleasure of the President. If the President considers a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen, he can also ask for the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court per Article 143. Per Article 88, President can ask the Attorney General to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any.
The President appoints, as Prime Minister, the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers remains in power at the ' pleasure ' of the President.
The President appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. President may nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian community as Lok Sabha members per Article 331
Governors of States are also appointed by the President who shall work at the pleasure of the President. Per Article 156, President is empowered to dismiss a governor who has violated the constitution in his acts.
The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the President. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the Prime Minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the Parliament. The President represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The President may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from the Indian Foreign Service. The President is the first citizen of the country.
The President is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The President can declare war or conclude peace, on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. All important treaties and contracts are made in the President 's name. He also appoints the chiefs of the service branches of the armed forces.
As mentioned in Article 72 of the Indian Constitution, the President is empowered with the powers to grant pardons in the following situations:
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the President are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the President exercises his executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister and the cabinet.
The President can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles 352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123.
A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo - China war), 1971 (Indo - Pakistan war), and 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi).
Under Article 352 of the India Constitution, the President can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the cabinet of ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the Parliament with two thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval - there is no maximum duration.
In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty can not be suspended (Article 21).
The President can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the President for approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of Parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.
National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times in India till date. It was declared first in 1962 by President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, during the Sino - Indian War. This emergency lasted through the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 and up to 1968. It was revoked in 1968. The second emergency in India was proclaimed in 1971 by President V.V. Giri on the eve of the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971. The first two emergencies were in the face of external aggression and War. They were hence external emergencies. Even as the second emergency was in progress, another internal emergency was proclaimed by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, with Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister in 1975. In 1977, the second and the third emergencies were together revoked.
If the President is fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the Governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state can not be carried out according to the provisions in the Constitution, he can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of 2 months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
During such an emergency, the President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation).
A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a maximum of three years via extensions after each 6 - month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if
The Sarkaria Commission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments although there was no constitutional break down in the states. During 2005, President 's rule was imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections.
There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president 's rule in a state when the earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president 's rule was first imposed on 1 March 2014 and it ceased to operate on 30 April 2014. President 's rule was promulgated after being fully aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible in the end of May 2014 after the general elections. It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on 28 April 2014 by the president.
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the states for public purpose. Article 293 gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the union government. However union government can insist for compliance of its loan terms when a state has outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India.
Under article 360 of the constitution, President can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the finance commission or by the central government.
Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months by simple majority. It has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President.
The President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for approval. He can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.
Article 58 of the Constitution sets the principle qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the President. A President must be:
A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office - holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
In the event that the Vice-President, a State Governor or a Minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.
A member of Parliament or of a State Legislature can seek election to the office of the President but if he is elected as President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in Parliament or State Legislature on the date on which he enters upon his office as President (Article 59 (1)).
Article 57 provides that a person who holds, or who has held, office as President shall, subject to the other provisions of this Constitution, be eligible for re-election to that office.
Under The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, a candidate to be nominated for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for his name to appear on the ballot.
Article 56 (1) of the Constitution provides that the President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. According to Article 62, an election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the term. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by reason of his death, resignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as possible after, and in no case later than six months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy; and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the provisions of Article 56, be entitled to hold office for the full term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. To meet the contingency of an election to the office of President not being completed in time due to unforeseen circumstances like countermanding of election due to death of a candidate or on account of postponement of the poll for any valid reason, Article 56 (1) (c) provides that the President shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office until his successor enters upon his office.
Certain conditions, per Article 59 of the Constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are:
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new President is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of Parliament (M.P.s), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies (M.L.A.s) of two Union Territories (i.e., National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi and Union Territory of Puducherry). The election process of President is more extensive process than Prime Minister who is also elected indirectly (not elected by people directly) by the Lok Sabha members only. Whereas President being constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and rule of law in a constitutional democracy with constitutional supremacy, is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and state legislative assemblies in a secret ballot procedure.
The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the President must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. Each candidate has to make a security deposit of ₹ 15,000 (US $230) in the Reserve Bank of India. The security deposit is liable to be forfeited in case the candidate fails to secure one - sixth of the votes polled.
The election is held in accordance to the system of Proportional representation by means of the Single transferable vote method. The voting takes place by secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55 of the Constitution.
Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by Members of Parliament equals the total number of votes cast by State Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in a state matters; if a state has few legislators, then each legislator has more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes.
The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state 's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament.
Although Indian presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs and MLAs, they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties.
The President is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the Chief Justice of India (or in his absence, the senior-most Judge of the Supreme Court), an oath or affirmation that he / she shall protect, preserve and defend the Constitution as follows:
I, (name), do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President (or discharge the functions of the President) of the Republic of India, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law, and that I will devote myself to the service and well - being of the people of the Republic of India.
The President of India used to receive ₹ 10,000 (US $200) per month per the Second Schedule of the Constitution. This amount was increased to ₹ 50,000 (US $800) in 1998. On 11 September 2008 the Government of India increased the salary of the President to ₹ 1.5 lakh (US $2,300). This amount was further increased to ₹ 5 lakh (US $7,700) in the 2018 Union budget of India. However, almost everything that the President does or wants to do is taken care of by the annual ₹ 225 million (US $3.4 million) budget that the Government allots for his or her upkeep. Rashtrapati Bhavan, the President 's official residence, is the largest Presidential Palace in the world. The Rashtrapati Nilayam at Bolarum, Hyderabad and Retreat Building at Chharabra, Shimla are the official Retreat Residences of the President of India. The official state car of the President is a custom - built heavily armoured Mercedes Benz S600 (W221) Pullman Guard.
The former presidents and spouses of deceased Presidents are eligible for pension, furnished accommodation, security, various allowances, etc.
Rashtrapati Bhavan, official residence of the President, located at New Delhi
Rashtrapati Nilayam is the official retreat of the President located in Hyderabad.
The President 's Bodyguards is an elite household cavalry regiment of the Indian Army.
Presidential state car
Air India One is the call sign of any aircraft carrying the President. The aircraft are operated as VIP flights by the Indian Air Force.
A chopper of IAF 's special VIP fleet, meant for carrying the President of India
Supreme Court shall inquire and decide regarding all doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a President per Article 71 (1) of the constitution. Supreme Court can remove the president for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be Lok Sabha member under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Subject to Article 71 (3), Parliament made applicable rules / procedure to petition the Supreme Court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the president but not the doubts that arise from his unconstitutional actions / deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of president which may violate the requisite election qualifications.
The President may also be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India. The process may start in either of the two houses of the Parliament. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the President. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the President and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.
A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a two - third majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the President has the right to defend oneself through an authorised counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by special majority again, the President stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. No president has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used.
Under Article 361 of the constitution, though president can not be summoned for questioning except on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions taken by the president would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the union government for the president 's role. As clarified by the Supreme Court in the case ' Rameshwar Prasad & Ors vs Union Of India & Anr on 24 January 2006 ', though president can not be prosecuted and imprisoned during his term of office, he can be prosecuted after he / she steps down from the post for the guilty committed during the term of presidency as declared earlier by the courts. No president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his unconstitutional decisions by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their unconstitutional acts though many decisions taken during the term of presidency had been declared by Supreme Court as unconstitutional, mala fides, void, ultra vires, etc.
The Office of the President falls vacant in the following scenarios:
Article 65 of the Indian Constitution says that the Vice-President of India will have to discharge the duties, if the Office falls vacant due to any reason other than expiry of the term. The Vice-President reverts to office when a new President is elected and enters office. When the President is unable to act because of absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice-President discharges the President 's functions until the President resumes the duties.
A Vice-President who acts as or discharges the functions of the President has all the powers and immunities of the President and is entitled to the same emoluments as the President. When the Vice-President discharges the duties of the President, he / she does not function as the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
The Indian Parliament has enacted the law (The President (Discharge of Functions) Act, 1969) for the discharge of the functions of the President when vacancies occur in the offices of the President and of the Vice-President simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the Chief Justice, or in his absence, the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court of India available discharges the functions of the President until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice-President begins to act as President under Article 65 of the Constitution, whichever is the earlier. For example, in 1969, when President Zakir Husain died in Office, Vice-President V.V. Giri served as the acting President of India. However, later, V.V Giri resigned from both posts (Acting President of India and Vice-President of India) as he became a candidate in the 1969 Presidential election in India. In this event, the then Chief Justice of India, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah served as the acting President of India until the next President was elected.
The President 's role as defender of the Constitution and the powers as Head of State, especially in relation to those exercised by the Prime Minister as leader of the government, have changed over time. In particular, Presidents have made a number of interventions into government and lawmaking, which have established and challenged some conventions concerning Presidential intervention.
In 1979, the Prime Minister, Charan Singh, did not enjoy a Parliamentary majority. He responded to this by simply not advising the President to summon Parliament. Since then, Presidents have been more diligent in directing incoming Prime Ministers to convene Parliament and prove their majority within reasonable deadlines (2 to 3 weeks). In the interim period, the Prime Ministers are generally restrained from making policy decisions.
Since the 1990s, Parliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of parties having a distinct majority, until the 2014 Lok Sabha elections when BJP received a clear majority. In such cases, Presidents have used their discretion and directed Prime Ministerial aspirants to establish their credentials before being invited to form the government. Typically, the aspirants have been asked to produce letters from various party leaders, with the signatures of all the MPs who are pledging support to their candidature. This is in addition to the requirement that a Prime Minister prove he has the support of the Lok Sabha (by a vote on the floor of the House) within weeks of being sworn into office.
Since the Indian Constitution does not provide any time limit within which the President is to declare his assent or refusal, the President could exercise a "pocket veto '' by not taking any action for an indefinite time. The veto was used in 1986 by President Zail Singh over the Postal Bill. The President did not give assent to the bill, arguing that its scope was too sweeping and would give the government arbitrary powers to intercept postal communications indiscriminately.
In the late 1990s, President K.R. Narayanan introduced explaining to the nation (by means of Rashtrapati Bhavan communiqués), the thinking that led to the various decisions he took while exercising his discretionary powers; this has led to openness and transparency in the functioning of the President.
The constitution gives the President the power to return a bill unsigned but it circumscribes the power to send it back only once for reconsideration. If the Parliament sends back the bill with or without changes, the President is obliged to sign it. In mid-2006, President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam sent back a controversial bill regarding the exclusion of certain offices from the scope of ' offices of profit ', the holding of which would disqualify a person from being a member of parliament. The combined opposition, the NDA, hailed the move. The UPA chose to send the bill back to the president without any changes and, after 17 days, Kalam gave his assent on 18 August 2006.
Arunachal Pradesh governor who was earlier appointed by the ruling party at the centre, has been sacked by the President after the Supreme Court has quashed his unconstitutional acts.
There are two living former Indian Presidents:
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who is st christina the patron saint of | Christina the Astonishing - wikipedia
Christina the Astonishing (c. 1150 -- 24 July 1224), also known as Christina Mirabilis, was a Christian holy - woman born in Brustem (near Sint - Truiden), Belgium. She was considered a saint in her own time, and for centuries following her death, as noted by her appearance in the Fasti Mariani Calendar of Saints of 1630, and Butler 's Lives of the Saints - Concise Edition published in the 18th Century.
Her notoriety began when she was 21 years old. About to be buried and already in the church resting in an open coffin, according to the custom of the time, during the Agnus Dei of her funeral Mass she arose, stupefying with amazement the whole city of St. Trond, which had witnessed this wonder. She died at the age of seventy - four.
Christina receives attention today for the strange descriptions of her miracles as much as for her faith. Her memorial day is 24 July.
Christina was born to a religious family, the youngest of three daughters. After being orphaned at the age of fifteen, she worked taking the herds to pasture. She suffered a massive seizure when she was in her early 20s. Her condition was so severe that witnesses assumed she had died. A funeral was held, but during the service, she "arose full of vigor, stupefying with amazement the whole city of Sint - Truiden, which had witnessed this wonder. "She levitated up to the rafters, later explaining that she could not bear the smell of the sinful people there. ''
She related that she had witnessed Heaven, Hell and Purgatory. She said that as soon as her soul was separated from her body, angels conducted it to a very gloomy place, entirely filled with souls whose torments endured there were such that it was impossible for them to describe. She claimed that she had been offered a choice either to remain in heaven or return to earth to perform penance to deliver souls from the flames of Purgatory. Christina agreed to return to life and arose that same moment. She told those around her that for the sole purpose of relief of the departed and conversion of sinners did she return. Christina renounced all comforts of life, reduced herself to extreme destitution, dressed in rags, lived without home or hearth, and not content with privations she eagerly sought all that could cause her suffering. At first, she fled human contact; and suspected of being possessed, was jailed. Upon her release, she took up the practice of extreme penance.
Thomas of Cantimpré, then a canon regular who was a professor of theology, wrote a report eight years after her death, based on accounts of those who knew her. Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, who met with her, said that she would throw herself into burning furnaces and there suffered great tortures for extended times, uttering frightful cries, yet coming forth with no sign of burns upon her. In winter she would plunge into the frozen Meuse River for hours and even days and weeks at a time, all the while praying to God and imploring God 's mercy. She sometimes allowed herself to be carried by the currents downriver to a mill where the wheel "whirled her round in a manner frightful to behold, '' yet she never suffered any dislocations or broken bones. She was chased by dogs which bit her.
After being incarcerated a second time, she moderated her approach somewhat, upon her release. Christina died at the Dominican Monastery of Saint Catherine in Sint - Truiden, of natural causes, aged 74. The prioress there later testified that, despite her behavior, Christina would humbly and fully obey any command given her by the prioress.
"We have, '' says St. Robert Bellarmine, "reason for believing his testimony, since he has for guarantee another grave author, James de Vitry, Bishop and Cardinal, and because he relates what happened in his own time, and even in the province where he lived. Besides, the sufferings of this admirable virgin were not hidden. Every one could see that she was in the midst of the flames without being consumed, and covered with wounds, every trace of which disappeared a few moments afterwards. But more than this was the marvellous life she led for forty - two years after she was raised from the dead, God clearly showing that the wonders wrought in her by virtue from on high. The striking conversions which she effected, and the evident miracles which occurred after her death, manifestly proved the finger of God, and the truth of that which, after her resurrection, she had revealed concerning the other life. ''
Thus, argues Bellarmine, "God willed to silence those libertines who make open profession of believing in nothing, and who have the audacity to ask in scorn, Who has returned from the other world? Who has ever seen the torments of Hell or Purgatory? Behold two witnesses. They assure us that they have seen them, and that they are dreadful. What follows, then, if not that the incredulous are inexcusable, and that those who believe and nevertheless neglect to do penance are still more to be condemned? ''
One person 's opinion has held that Christina 's Vita is an example of credulous medieval superstition. Historian Barbara Newman finds that there is reason to understand Christina 's behavior in terms of hysteria, though Newman fails to account for the assertion that Christina flew from the floor to the rafters of the church after being resurrected from the dead.
St. Christina the Astonishing has been recognized as a saint since the 12th century. She was placed in the calendar of the saints by at least two bishops of the Catholic Church in two different centuries (17th & 19th) that also recognized her life in a religious order and preservation of her relics. The Catholic Church allows and recognizes veneration of saints upheld by the laity; canonization is understood as a re-affirming of the more notable examples of Christian life as mentioned in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, and Saint Christina the Astonishing, having early Church recognition, is due her title of Saint as stated by the Church 's Magisterium and Sacred Tradition.
Veneration of Christina the Astonishing has never been formally approved by the Catholic Church, but there remains a strong devotion to her in her native region of Limburg. Prayers are traditionally said to Christina to seek her intercession for millers, for those suffering from mental illness, and for mental health workers.
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who is first chief minister of uttar pradesh | List of chief ministers of Uttar Pradesh - Wikipedia
The Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh (UP), a North Indian state, is the head of the Government of Uttar Pradesh. As per the Constitution of India, the governor is the state 's de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given that he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief minister 's term is for five years and is subject to no term limits.
On 26 January 1950 Govind Ballabh Pant, Premier of United Provinces, became the first Chief Minister of the newly renamed Uttar Pradesh. Including him, 11 out of UP 's 21 chief ministers belonged to the Indian National Congress. Among these is V.P. Singh, a future Prime Minister of India, as was Charan Singh of the Rashtriya Lok Dal. UP has also had two women chief ministers -- Sucheta Kriplani and Mayawati. On ten occasions, most recently in 2002, the state has come under President 's rule, leaving the office of chief minister vacant.
Yogi Adityanath of the Bharatiya Janata Party has served as the incumbent chief minister since 19 March 2017.
The United Provinces, headquartered in Allahabad was a province of British India that comprised present day Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Under the Government of India Act, 1935, a bicameral legislature was set up with a legislative assembly and a legislative council.
((File: Yogi Adityanath. jpg 150px Yogi Adityanath the 21st chief minister of uttar pradesh, he was elected MP from Gorakhpur (Lok Sabha Constituency) from 1998 to 2017.
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who directed the fast and the furious movies | The Fast and the Furious - wikipedia
The Fast and the Furious (also known as Fast & Furious) is an American franchise based on a series of action films that is largely concerned with illegal street racing, heists and espionage, and includes material in various other media that depicts characters and situations from the films. Distributed by Universal Pictures, the series was established with the 2001 film titled The Fast and the Furious; this was followed by seven sequels, two short films that tie into the series, and as of May 2017, it has become Universal 's biggest franchise of all time, currently the sixth - highest - grossing film series of all time with a combined gross of over $5 billion.
The film is based on an article, titled "Racer X '', about New York street clubs that race Japanese cars late at night, although the film is set primarily in Los Angeles. While elite street racer and ex-convict Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) and his crew: Jesse (Chad Lindberg), Leon (Johnny Strong), Vince (Matt Schulze) and Letty Ortiz (Michelle Rodriguez), are under suspicion of stealing expensive electronic equipment by hijacking moving trucks, Brian O'Conner (Paul Walker) is an undercover police officer who attempts to find out who exactly is stealing the equipment. He works for FBI agent Bilkins (Thom Barry) and LAPD Sgt. Tanner (Ted Levine).
Falling for Dominic 's younger sister, Mia Toretto (Jordana Brewster), Brian confesses to her his status as an undercover police officer and convinces her to come with him to save her brother and his friends from the truck drivers, who have now armed themselves to combat the robberies. He tracks Dominic 's location by triangulating his cell phone signal and they arrive at the hijacking in progress to find Letty, badly injured in a car accident, and Vince critically wounded, having lacerated his arm and been shot by a truck driver. Brian and Mia work together with Dominic, Leon and Letty to rescue Vince. Brian then makes the difficult decision to blow his cover to the crew by phoning in for a medivac. The revelation enrages Dominic, who flees with Leon, Letty, and Mia as the medivac arrives for Vince.
Brian soon follows Dominic to his house and holds him at gunpoint to prevent him from fleeing further. Jesse arrives shortly afterwards, apologizing for his actions at Race Wars and pleading for Dominic 's help with Johnny Tran (Rick Yune). Moments later, Tran and his cousin Lance Nguyen (Reggie Lee) perform a drive - by shooting, killing Jesse. Brian and Dominic chase them, with Dominic driving his late father 's modified 1970 Dodge Charger. Dominic forces Lance 's motorcycle off the road, severely injuring him, while Brian shoots and kills Tran. Afterwards, Brian and Dominic engage in an impromptu street race, narrowly avoiding a passing train. However, Dominic collides with a semitruck and rolls his car twice, injuring himself, and rendering the Charger undrivable. Instead of arresting him, Brian hands over the keys to his Supra and lets Dominic escape, using the line "I owe you a ten - second car. ''
Watched by undercover Customs Agent Monica Fuentes (Eva Mendes), Brian is caught by US Customs agents and given a deal by FBI Agent Bilkins and Customs Agent Markham (James Remar) to go undercover and try to bring down drug lord Carter Verone (Cole Hauser) in exchange for the erasure of his criminal record. Brian agrees but only if he is given permission to choose his partner, refusing to partner with the agent assigned to watch him. Brian heads home to Barstow, California, where he recruits Roman Pearce (Tyrese Gibson), a childhood friend of Brian who had served jail time and is under house arrest, to help him. Pearce agrees, but only for the same deal Brian was offered, and with the help of Monica, Brian and Roman work together to take down Verone. After acquiring confiscated vehicles and being hired by Verone as his drivers, the duo return to a Customs / FBI hideout, where Roman confronts Markham over the latter 's interference with the mission. After the situation is cooled down, Brian tells Bilkins and Markham that Verone plans to smuggle the money into his private jet and fly off, but also suspects something wrong with Monica 's role in the mission.
Later, Brian and Roman race two of Verone 's drivers for their cars and begin to devise a personal back up plan if the operation goes awry. Roman confronts Brian about his attraction to Monica and the constant threat of Verone 's men. On the day of the mission, Brian and Roman begin transporting duffel bags of Verone 's money, with two of Verone 's men Enrique (Mo Gallini) and Roberto (Roberto Sanchez) riding along to watch Brian and Roman. Before the 15 - minute window is set, the detective in charge, Whitworth (Mark Boone Junior), decides to call in the police to move in for the arrest, resulting in a high - speed chase across the city. The duo lead the police to a warehouse, where a scramble by dozens of street racers disorient the police. Following the scramble, police manage to pull over the Evo and the Eclipse, only to find out that they were driven by two members of Brian 's new crew, friends, Tej Parker (Ludacris) and Suki (Devon Aoki).
As Brian approaches the destination point in a Yenko Camaro, Enrique tells him to make a detour away from the airfield. Meanwhile, Roman gets rid of Roberto by using an improvised ejector seat in his (orange) Dodge Challenger powered by nitrous oxide. At the airfield, Customs Agents have Verone 's plane and convoy surrounded, only to discover they are duped into a decoy maneuver while Verone is at a boatyard several miles away. As he knew Monica was an undercover agent, he gave her the wrong information on the destination point and plans to use her as leverage. When Brian arrives at the intended drop - off point, Enrique prepares to kill him when Roman suddenly appears and the both of them dispatch Enrique. Verone makes his escape aboard his private yacht, but Brian and Roman use the Yenko Camaro and drive off a ramp, crashing on top of the yacht. The duo manage to apprehend Verone and save Monica.
With their crimes pardoned, Brian and Roman ponder on what to do next other than to settle in Miami when the former mentions starting a garage. Roman asks how they would afford that and Brian reveals that he took some of the money, as Roman also reveals that his pockets are n't empty, having taken money for himself.
This film 's story occurs sometime after Fast & Furious 6 with a scene that was later made concurrent with events in Furious 7.
After totaling his car in an illegal street race, Sean Boswell (Lucas Black) is sent to live in Tokyo, Japan, with his father, a U.S. Navy officer, in order to avoid juvenile detention or even jail.
While in school, he befriends Twinkie (Bow Wow), a "military brat '' who introduces him to the world of drift racing in Japan. Though forbidden to drive, he decides to race against Takashi (Brian Tee) aka D.K. (Drift King). He borrows a Nissan Silvia from Han Lue (Sung Kang), now a business partner to Takashi, and loses, totaling the car because of his lack of knowledge of drifting. To repay his debt for the car he destroyed, Sean works for Han. Later on, Han becomes friends with Sean and teaches him how to drift.
Takashi 's uncle Kamata (Sonny Chiba) (the head of the Yakuza) reprimands Takashi for allowing Han to steal from him. Takashi confronts Han, Sean and Neela (Nathalie Kelley), and in doing so, they flee. During the chase, Han is killed in a car accident when his car catches fire. Takashi, Sean, and his father become involved in an armed standoff which is resolved by Neela agreeing to leave with Takashi. Twinkie gives his money to Sean to replace the money Han stole, which Sean then returns to Kamata.
Sean proposes a race against Takashi to determine who must leave Tokyo. Sean and Han 's friends then build a 1967 Ford Mustang, with an inline - 6 engine and other parts salvaged from Han 's Silvia that Sean had destroyed. Sean wins the race and is later challenged by Dominic Toretto.
Fast & Furious, as well as its succeeding films, takes place before the events of The Fast and The Furious: Tokyo Drift.
About five years after the events of the first film, Dominic and his new crew (Letty, Han, Leo, Santos and Cara) have been hijacking fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic. When their trail gets too hot, Dominic disbands the crew. However, he is later informed that Letty has been murdered. Dominic returns to Los Angeles where he finds traces of nitro - methane at the crash site, and tracks the buyer of the gas to David Park. Meanwhile, Brian O'Conner, who has been working as an FBI agent, is tracking down a drug trafficker named Arturo Braga. When Brian and Dominic cross paths at David Park 's apartment, Dominic is about to drop David out the window. But Brian intervenes, and works a scheme where he enters a street race where the winner would join Braga 's team of drivers. Although Dominic wins the four - car race by bumping Brian 's car, Brian later joins the team by replacing one of Braga 's other drivers.
The team meets Fenix Calderon (Laz Alonso) who directs them to drive the heroin across the border using underground tunnels to avoid detection. Brian realizes that the drivers are to be killed following the mission, and when Fenix reveals to Dominic that he killed Letty, Dominic detonates the nitrous in his car, blowing up a bunch of vehicles. In the chaos, Brian hijacks the Hummer that is carrying the heroin. Dominic and Brian drive back to Los Angeles, hiding the heroin in an impound lot. When Dominic learns Brian was the last person to contact Letty, he attacks him until Brian reveals that Letty was working undercover for Brian, tracking down Braga in exchange for clearing Dominic 's name. Brian negotiates with the agency to free Dominic if they can lure Braga into personally coming to exchange the heroin for cash. However, at the drop site, it is revealed that the Braga they arrested was a decoy, and that the real Braga (John Ortiz) has escaped, fleeing to Mexico.
Suspended from duty, Brian joins Dominic to go to Mexico and in hopes of catching Braga. Although Braga agreeably surrenders, they are pursued by Braga 's men through town and then the tunnels. Fenix T - bones Brian 's car right outside the tunnel exit, but before he can kill Brian, Dominic drives into and kills Fenix. As the police arrive, Dominic refuses to escape, saying he is tired of running. Despite Brian 's request for clemency, the judge sentences Dominic to 25 years to life. During the prison bus ride to Lompoc penitentiary, Brian and Mia, along with Leo and Santos, arrive in their cars and intercept the bus.
When Dominic "Dom '' Toretto is being transported to Lompoc Prison by bus, his sister Mia Toretto and friend Brian O'Conner lead an assault on the bus, causing it to crash and freeing Dom. While the authorities search for them, the trio escapes to Rio de Janeiro. Awaiting Dom 's arrival, Mia and Brian join their friend Vince and other participants on a job to steal three cars from a train. Brian and Mia discover that agents from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) are also on the train and that the cars are seized property. When Dom arrives with the rest of the participants, he realizes that the lead participant, Zizi, is only interested in stealing one car - a Ford GT40. Dom has Mia steal the car herself before he and Brian fight Zizi and his henchmen, during which Zizi kills the DEA agents assigned to the vehicles. Dom and Brian are captured and brought to crime lord Hernan Reyes, the owner of the cars and Zizi 's boss. Reyes orders the pair be interrogated to discover the location of the car, but they manage to escape and retreat to their safehouse.
While Brian, Dom, and Mia examine the car to discover its importance, Vince arrives and is caught trying to remove a computer chip from it. He admits he was planning to sell the chip to Reyes on his own, and Dom forces him to leave. Brian investigates the chip and discovers it contains the complete financial details of Reyes ' criminal empire, including the locations of US $100 million in cash.
Diplomatic Security Service agent Luke Hobbs and his team arrive in Rio to arrest Dom and Brian. With the help of local officer Elena Neves, they travel to Dom 's safehouse, but find it under assault by Reyes ' men. Brian, Dom and Mia escape; Dom suggests they split up and leave Rio, but Mia announces she is pregnant with Brian 's child. Dom agrees to stick together and suggests they steal the money from Reyes to start a new life. They organize a team to perform the heist: Han, Roman, Tej, Gisele, Leo, and Santos. Vince later joins the team after saving Mia from being captured by Reyes ' men.
Hobbs and his team eventually find and arrest Dom, Mia, Brian, and Vince. While transporting them to the airport for extradition to the United States, the convoy is attacked by Reyes ' men, who kill Hobbs ' team. Hobbs and Elena are saved by Dom, Brian, Mia, and Vince as they fight back and escape, but Vince is shot in the process and dies. Wanting to avenge his murdered team, Hobbs and Elena agree to help with the heist. The gang break into the police station and tear the vault holding Reyes ' money from the building using their cars, dragging it through the city. After an extensive police chase, Dom makes Brian continue without him while he attacks the police and the pursuing Reyes, using the vault attached to his car to smash their vehicles. Brian returns and kills Zizi while Reyes is badly injured by Dom 's assault. Hobbs arrives on the scene and executes Reyes to avenge his team. Though Hobbs refuses to let Dom and Brian go free, he gives them a 24 - hour head start to escape on the condition they leave the vault as it is. However, the vault is empty as it had been switched during the chase. After splitting the cash (Vince 's share is given to his family), they go their separate ways.
On a tropical beach, Brian and a visibly pregnant Mia relax. They are met by Dom and Elena. Brian challenges Dom to a final, no - stakes race to prove who is the better driver.
In a mid-credits scene, Hobbs is given a file by Monica Fuentes concerning the hijack of a military convoy in Berlin, where he discovers a recent photo of Dom 's former girlfriend Letty, who had been presumed dead.
Following their successful heist in Brazil, Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and his professional criminal crew have fled around the world: Dom lives with Elena; his sister Mia lives with Brian O'Conner and their son, Jack; Gisele and Han live together; and Roman and Tej live in luxury. Meanwhile, DSS agent Luke Hobbs and Riley Hicks investigate the destruction of a Russian military convoy by a crew led by former British SAS Major and special ops soldier Owen Shaw. Hobbs persuades Dom to help capture Shaw by showing him a photo of the supposedly long - dead Letty Ortiz, Dom 's former lover. Dom and his crew accept the mission in exchange for their amnesty, allowing them to return to the United States.
In London, Shaw 's hideout is found, but this is revealed to be a trap, distracting them and the police while Shaw 's crew performs a heist at an Interpol building. Shaw flees by car, detonating his hideout and disabling most of the police, leaving Dom, Brian, Tej, Han, Gisele, Hobbs, and Riley to pursue him. Letty arrives to help Shaw, shooting Dom without hesitation before escaping. Back at their headquarters, Hobbs tells Dom 's crew that Shaw is stealing components to create a deadly device, intending to sell it to the highest bidder. Meanwhile, Shaw 's investigation into the opposing crew reveals Letty 's relationship with Dom, but she is revealed to be suffering from amnesia. Dominic 's crew learns that Shaw is connected to a drug lord who was imprisoned by Brian, Arturo Braga. Brian returns to Los Angeles as a prisoner to question Braga, who says Letty survived the explosion that seemingly killed her; Shaw took her in after discovering her amnesia. With FBI help, Brian is released from prison, regrouping with the team in London.
Dom challenges Letty in a street racing competition; afterwards, he returns her cross necklace he had kept. After Letty leaves, Shaw offers Dom a chance to walk away, threatening to otherwise hurt his family, but Dom refuses. Tej tracks Shaw 's next attack to a Spanish NATO base. Shaw 's crew assaults a highway military convoy carrying a computer chip to complete his deadly device. Dom 's crew interferes while Shaw, accompanied by Letty, commandeers a tank, destroying cars en route. Brian and Roman manage to flip the tank before it causes further damage, resulting in Letty being thrown from the vehicle and Dom risking his life to save her. Shaw and his crew are captured, but reveal Mia has been kidnapped by Shaw. Hobbs is forced to release Shaw, and Riley, revealed to be Shaw 's covert accomplice, leaves with him; Letty chooses to remain with Dom.
Shaw 's group board a large moving aircraft on a runway as Dom 's crew gives chase. Dom, Letty, and Brian board the craft; Brian rescues Mia, escaping in an onboard car. The plane attempts to take - off, but is held down by excess weight as the rest of the team tether the plane to their vehicles. Gisele sacrifices herself to save Han from Shaw 's henchman; Letty kills Riley and escapes to safety, but Dom pursues Shaw and the computer chip. As the plane crashes into the ground, Shaw is thrown from it, seriously injuring him, and Dom drives a car out of the exploding plane. Dom reunites with his crew, and gives the chip to Hobbs to secure their pardons. Dom and the others return to his old family home in Los Angeles. Hobbs and Elena, now working together, arrive to confirm the crew 's freedom; Elena accepts that Dom loves Letty. As Roman says grace over the crew 's meal, Dom asks Letty if the gathering feels familiar; she answers "no, but it feels like home. ''
In a mid-credits scene, which takes place in Tokyo, Han is involved in a car chase when he is suddenly broadsided by an oncoming car. The driver walks away from the scene after leaving Letty 's cross necklace by the crash, and calls Dom as Han 's car fatally explodes, saying, "You do n't know me. You 're about to. ''
After defeating Owen Shaw and his crew and securing amnesty for their past crimes, Dominic "Dom '' Toretto, Brian O'Conner and the rest of their team have returned to the United States to live normal lives again. Brian begins to accustom himself to life as a father, while Dom tries to help Letty Ortiz regain her memory. Meanwhile, Owen 's older brother, Deckard Shaw, breaks into the secure hospital that the comatose Owen is being held in and swears vengeance against Dom and his team, before breaking into Luke Hobbs ' Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) office to extract profiles of Dom 's crew. After revealing his identity, Shaw engages Hobbs in a fight, and escapes when he detonates a bomb that severely injures Hobbs. Dom later learns from his sister Mia that she is pregnant again and convinces her to tell Brian. However, a bomb, disguised in a package sent from Tokyo, explodes and destroys the Toretto house just seconds after Han, a member of Dom 's team, is killed by Shaw in Tokyo. Dom later visits Hobbs in a hospital, where he learns that Shaw is a rogue special forces assassin seeking to avenge his brother. Dom then travels to Tokyo to claim Han 's body, and meets and races Sean Boswell, a friend of Han 's who gives him personal items found at Han 's crash site.
Back at Han 's funeral in Los Angeles, Dom notices a car observing them, and after a chase, confronts its driver, who is revealed to be Shaw. Both prepare to fight, but Shaw flees when a covert ops team arrives and opens fire, led by Mr. Nobody. Nobody says that he will assist Dom in stopping Shaw if he helps him obtain God 's Eye, a computer program that uses digital devices to track down a person, and save its creator, a hacker named Ramsey, from a mercenary named Mose Jakande. Dom, Brian, Letty, Roman Pearce, and Tej Parker then airdrop their cars over the Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, ambush Jakande 's convoy, and rescue Ramsey. The team then heads to Abu Dhabi, where a billionaire has acquired the flash drive containing God 's Eye, and manages to steal it from the owner. With God 's Eye near telecommunications repeaters, the team tracks down Shaw, who is waiting at a remote factory. Dom, Brian, Nobody and his team attempt to capture Shaw, but are ambushed by Jakande and his men and forced to flee while Jakande obtains God 's Eye. At his own request, the injured Nobody is left behind to be evacuated by helicopter while Brian and Dom continue without him. To reduce their disadvantage, the crew returns to Los Angeles to fight Shaw, Jakande and his men. Meanwhile, Brian promises Mia that once they deal with Shaw, he will retire and fully dedicate himself to their family.
While Jakande pursues Brian and the rest of the team with a stealth helicopter and an aerial drone, Ramsey attempts to hack into God 's Eye. Hobbs, seeing the team in trouble, leaves the hospital and destroys the drone with an ambulance. Brian engages Jakande 's henchman Kiet and throws him down an elevator shaft, allowing Ramsey to regain control of God 's Eye and shut it down. Dom and Shaw engage in a one - on - one brawl on top of a public parking garage, before Jakande intervenes and attacks them both. Shaw is defeated when part of the parking garage collapses beneath him. Dom then launches his vehicle at Jakande 's helicopter, tossing Shaw 's bag of grenades onto its skids, before injuring himself when his car lands and crashes. Hobbs then shoots the bag of grenades from ground level, destroying the helicopter and killing Jakande. Dom is pulled from the wreckage of his car, believed to be dead. As Letty cradles Dom 's body in her arms, she reveals that she has regained her memories, and that she remembers their wedding. Dom regains consciousness soon after, remarking, "It 's about time ''.
Shaw is taken into custody by Hobbs and locked away in a secret, high - security prison. At a beach, Brian and Mia play with their son while Dom, Letty, Roman, Tej, and Ramsey observe, acknowledging that Brian is better off retired with his family. Dom silently leaves, Ramsey asks if he 's gon na say goodbye. Dom says, "It 's never goodbye. '' He drives away, but Brian catches up with him at a crossroad. As Dom remembers the times that he had with Brian, they bid each other farewell and drive off in separate directions, as the screen fades to "For Paul '' written on a white title screen.
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom 's cousin Fernando gets in trouble owing money to local racer Raldo. Sensing Raldo is a loan shark, Dom challenges Raldo to a race, pitting Fernando 's reworked car against Raldo 's, and wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car.
The next day, Dom is approached by the elusive cyberterrorist Cipher who coerces him into working for her. Shortly afterwards, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high - security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, Deckard and Hobbs are recruited by intelligence operative Mr. Nobody and his protégé to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher. Deckard reveals that Cipher had hired his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and Mose Jakande to steal God 's Eye, Ramsey 's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as the latter two attack the base and steal God 's Eye. When Dom questions Cipher 's motives, she reveals that she has been holding hostage Dom 's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves -- as well as their son, of whose existence Dom was previously unaware. Elena tells Dom that she wanted him to decide the child 's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.
In New York City, Cipher sends Dom to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Prior to the theft, Dom briefly evades Cipher and persuades Deckard and Owen 's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help him. Cipher hacks into the electronics systems of a large number of cars, causing them to drive automatically and taking out the convoy so that Dom can take the football. The team intercepts Dom, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher 's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes execute Elena in front of Dom.
Dom infiltrates a base in Russia to use the EMP device to disable their security and then to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, who attempt to shut down the sub, and then drive out toward the gates that would prevent the sub from leaving into open waters. Meanwhile, Deckard, whose death was apparently faked, teams up with Owen, and under Magdalene 's behest, infiltrates Cipher 's plane to rescue Dom 's son. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena 's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher fires an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts a defeated Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.
Mr. Nobody and his protégé visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large in Athens. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard delivers Dom his son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs. Dom names his son Brian, after his friend and brother - in - law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.
In February 2016, Diesel announced the ninth film and tenth film would be released on April 10, 2020, and April 2, 2021, respectively, and that the tenth film would serve as the final film in the series. Justin Lin is reportedly in line to direct the ninth installment. It was also announced that Jordana Brewster would return for the ninth installment.
In May 2018, Daniel Casey from Kin, was announced to write a screenplay for the ninth film, making the first film in the franchise without long - time screenwriter Chris Morgan.
Vin Diesel announced in an interview with Variety that potential spin - offs were in the early stages of development. A spin - off film centered around two characters Luke Hobbs and Deckard Shaw was announced by Universal and set with release date of July 26, 2019, with Variety reporting that Shane Black was being considered to direct and Morgan returning to write the script. The announcement of the spin - off provoked a response on Instagram by Tyrese Gibson, criticizing Johnson for causing the ninth Fast & Furious film to be delayed for another year.
On October 23, 2017, Dwayne Johnson posted a video on Instagram which showed the finished script for the spin - off, titled Hobbs and Shaw. In February 2018, David Leitch entered talks to direct the film, which was confirmed later that April. In March 2018, it was reported that the film would start production in September 2018. In May 2018, the release date of the film was pushed back a week to August 2, 2019.
On April 23, 2018, it was announced that Universal and DreamWorks Animation are creating an animated series based on the franchise that will be launched on Netflix.
The short film was included on a new print of the DVD of the first film in June 2003 to bridge the first two films.
Brian O'Conner packs his bags and leaves Los Angeles, before the LAPD gets a chance to arrest him for letting Dominic escape. While the FBI launch a national manhunt for him, Brian travels across Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, winning every street race he participates in, with his red Dodge Stealth. However, he is forced to ditch his car at a motel in San Antonio when police officers are notified of his presence. When they collect the car, he manages to hitch a ride from an unknown woman (Minka Kelly), despite her knowing who he really is. She drops him at a used car lot, with him realizing she knows that he is a wanted man. There, he buys a green Nissan Skyline GT - R R34. Later, collecting money from street races, he modifies the car with new rims and repaints it silver before traveling eastbound and winning more races on the way. Upon reaching Jacksonville, Florida, Brian heads south toward Miami, where he sees Slap Jack 's Toyota Supra and Orange Julius ' Mazda RX - 7 (both 2 Fast 2 Furious characters) before the screen reads "2 be continued... ''.
Tego Leo (Tego Calderón) is in a Dominican Republic prison, ranting about corporations holding back the electric car and starting wars for oil. Meanwhile, on the streets, Rico Santos (Don Omar) chats to an old man unable to find enough gas. Han Lue (Sung Kang) arrives and is collected from the airport by Cara (Mirtha Michelle) and Malo (F. Valentino Morales). They drive him back to Santos ' house, where his aunt Rubia (Adria Carrasco) is struggling with rising prices linked to the cost of gasoline and Dominic is working on his car. The team then enjoy a welcome meal with the family. After breaking Leo out of prison, they head to a club, where Han and Cara flirt, while Dominic meets up with local politician Elvis (Juan Fernandez), who informs them of a window of opportunity to hijack a gasoline shipment. While relaxing at the club afterwards, Dominic is surprised by the arrival of Letty, who has tracked him from Mexico. The two drive together to the beach, where they "rekindle their relationship ''.
Below is a table of all films, both short and feature length, in chronological order. Real world release dates are also noted.
Universal has incorporated several theme park attractions involving the Fast & Furious franchise. Universal Studios Hollywood and its Studio Tour has featured several of the picture car vehicles. From 2006 to 2013, The Fast & The Furious: Extreme Close - Up attraction was part of the Studio Tour. On June 25, 2015, Universal Studios Hollywood allotted the final portion of their Studio Tour for the dark ride Fast and Furious: Supercharged. Universal Orlando announced the development of a ride of the same name to open in 2018.
Fast & Furious Live is a live show that combines stunt drivers, pyrotechnics and projection mapping. The show had two preview shows on January 11 -- 12 at Liverpool 's Echo Arena. It officially began its tour at London 's The O2 Arena on January 19, 2018, followed by a worldwide tour until later in 2018. On March 1, 2018, it was revealed on the tour 's website that five new dates had been released for September.
The following list is sourced from the tour 's website.
The film series has spawned several racing video games for various systems. The arcade game The Fast and the Furious (known as Wild Speed in Japan) was released by Raw Thrills in 2004. In 2006, the video game The Fast and the Furious was released for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable. Several games (The Fast and the Furious: Pink Slip, Fast & Furious, Fast Five, Fast & Furious: Adrenaline, Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy) have all been released for iOS and are available on the iTunes App Store; for Android devices there is an official version of Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy. In 2013, Fast & Furious: Showdown was released for the PC (Windows OS), Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U and Nintendo 3DS. Various cars, locations and characters from the series have also appeared in the Facebook game Car Town. In 2015, in a deal with Microsoft Studios, a standalone expansion of Forza Horizon 2 for Xbox One and Xbox 360 was released titled Forza Horizon 2 Presents Fast & Furious.
Racing Champions released diecast metal replicas of the film 's cars in different scales from 1 / 18 to 1 / 64. RadioShack sold ZipZaps micro RC versions of the cars in 2002. 1 / 24 scale plastic model kits of the hero cars were manufactured by AMT Ertl. Johnny Lightning, under the JL Full Throttle Brand, released 1 / 64th and 1 / 24th models of the cars from Tokyo Drift. These models were designed by Diecast Hall of Fame designer Eric Tscherne. Greenlight has also sold cars from the new films in the series and some from the previous films. Hot Wheels has released 1 / 64 models since 2013.
The Fast and the Furious franchise was filmed in a number of countries including: Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Spain, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and the United States.
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where are deep subcutaneous and subserous fascia located | Fascia - wikipedia
A fascia (/ ˈfæʃə /, / ˈfæʃiə /; plural fasciae / ˈfæʃɪ. i /; adjective fascial; from Latin: "band '') is a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, beneath the skin that attaches, stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs. Fascia is classified by layer, as superficial fascia, deep fascia, and visceral or parietal fascia, or by its function and anatomical location.
Like ligaments, aponeuroses, and tendons, fascia is made up of fibrous connective tissue containing closely packed bundles of collagen fibers oriented in a wavy pattern parallel to the direction of pull. Fascia is consequently flexible and able to resist great unidirectional tension forces until the wavy pattern of fibers has been straightened out by the pulling force. These collagen fibers are produced by fibroblasts located within the fascia.
Fasciae are similar to ligaments and tendons as they have collagen as their major component. They differ in their location and function: ligaments join one bone to another bone, tendons join muscle to bone, and fasciae surround muscles or other structures.
There exists some controversy about what structures are considered "fascia '', and how fascia should be classified. The two most common systems are:
Superficial fascia is the lowermost layer of the skin in nearly all of the regions of the body, that blends with the reticular dermis layer. It is present on the face, over the upper portion of the sternocleidomastoid, at the nape of the neck, and overlying the breastbone. It consists mainly of loose areolar, and fatty adipose connective tissue and is the layer that primarily determines the shape of a body. In addition to its subcutaneous presence, superficial fascia surrounds organs and glands, neurovascular bundles, and is found at many other locations where it fills otherwise unoccupied space. It serves as a storage medium of fat and water; as a passageway for lymph, nerve and blood vessels; and as a protective padding to cushion and insulate.
Superficial fascia is present, but does not contain fat, in the eyelid, ear, scrotum, penis and clitoris.
Due to its viscoelastic properties, superficial fascia can stretch to accommodate the deposition of adipose that accompanies both ordinary and prenatal weight gain. After pregnancy and weight loss, the superficial fascia slowly reverts to its original level of tension.
Visceral fascia (also called subserous fascia) suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in layers of connective tissue membranes. Each of the organs is covered in a double layer of fascia; these layers are separated by a thin serous membrane.
Visceral fascia is less extensible than superficial fascia. Due to its suspensory role of the organs, it needs to maintain its tone rather consistently. If it is too lax, it contributes to organ prolapse, yet if it is hypertonic, it restricts proper organ motility.
Deep fascia is a layer of dense fibrous connective tissue which surrounds individual muscles, and also divide groups of muscles into fascial compartments. This fascia has a high density of elastin fibre that determines its extensibility or resilience. Deep fascia was originally considered to be essentially avascular. However, more recent investigations confirmed a rich presence of thin blood vessels. Deep fascia is also richly supplied with sensory receptors. Examples of deep fascia are fascia lata, fascia cruris, brachial fascia, plantar fascia, thoracolumbar fascia and Buck 's fascia.
Fasciae were traditionally thought of as passive structures that transmit mechanical tension generated by muscular activities or external forces throughout the body. An important function of muscle fasciae is to reduce friction of muscular force. In doing so, fasciae provide a supportive and movable wrapping for nerves and blood vessels as they pass through and between muscles. Fascial tissues are frequently innervated by sensory nerve endings. These include myelinated as well as unmyelinated nerves. Based on this a proprioceptive, nociceptive as well as interoceptive function of fascia has been postulated. Fascial tissues - particularly those with tendinous or aponeurotic properties - are also able to store and release kinetic energy. This is utilized in Fascia Training.
Fascia becomes important clinically when it loses stiffness, becomes too stiff or has decreased shearing ability. When inflammatory fasciitis or trauma causes fibrosis and adhesions, fascial tissue fails to differentiate the adjacent structures effectively. This can happen after surgery where the fascia has been incised and healing includes a scar that traverses the surrounding structures.
A fascial compartment is a section within the body that contains muscles and nerves and is surrounded by fascia. In the human body, the limbs can each be divided into two segments -- the upper limb can be divided into the arm and the forearm and the sectional compartments of both of these -- the fascial compartments of the arm and the fascial compartments of the forearm contain an anterior and a posterior compartment. Likewise, the lower limbs can be divided into two segments -- the leg and the thigh and these contain the fascial compartments of the leg and the fascial compartments of the thigh.
A fasciotomy may be used to relieve compartment syndrome as a result of high pressure within a fascial compartment.
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are there any gold mines in the uk | Category: gold mines in the United Kingdom - wikipedia Help
This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total.
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how to skip a grade in junior high | Grade skipping - wikipedia
Grade skipping is a form of academic acceleration, often used for academically talented students, that involves the student entirely skipping the curriculum of one or more years of school. This is done when a student is sufficiently advanced in all school subjects, so that he or she can move forward in all subjects, rather than in only one or two areas.
Grade acceleration is easiest to implement through an early start to school by either entering kindergarten a year early or skipping kindergarten into first grade directly. By starting the child ahead, many of the problems associated with grade skipping, such as leaving friends behind or knowledge gaps, are avoided.
Sometimes the grade skip occurs at the end of an academic year, such that the student advances two grades. Grade skips are also successful at mid-year.
Other key factors to a successful grade skip include the desire of the student, the receptivity of the receiving teacher, and whether a sibling is in the old or new grade. All these factors have been studied and organized into a survey called The Iowa Acceleration Scale, which when completed yields a recommendation on whether or not to accelerate.
Grade skipping is one of the most cost - effective ways of addressing the needs of a profoundly gifted student, as it requires very little more than assigning the child to a different classroom, without the expense of special materials, tutoring or separate programs. The cost of educating the gifted child in a regular classroom with typical same - age peers is the same as the cost of educating that child in a regular classroom with typical somewhat older students, so using grade skipping is essentially cost - free. Students may benefit financially from grade skipping, with recent research showing that children who skipped a grade earn higher incomes in adulthood than similar non-skipping students.
Many academic administrators and the general public carry misconceptions about grade skipping, believing that children are often harmed by being placed in an environment for which they are academically ready but emotionally or socially not.
The time that the student skips may create a knowledge gap if the child has not self - studied the material already taught to the students in the grade being entered. While the student is bridging this gap they will likely find the new material challenging. It may be demoralizing to leave a situation in which they are top performers into a situation where they are struggling with the material. Knowledge gaps are smaller in earlier school years. Students almost always successfully catch up to match their peers.
Students entering a new grade after being in school are taken out of their existing peer group and put into a new group, essentially leaving friends behind and being forced to make new friends. Although this is perceived as a problem, and certainly being displaced is a trial for the student, it is often the case with gifted children that they are more easily able to relate to older children than children their age. Regardless, there will likely be a period of stress while the student integrates into the new class.
Students in the new class may view the skipping student as different. This may result in additional social problems such as teasing or perceived preferential treatment. For boys, skipping students who are large in stature and athletically oriented is an advantage in that they have a smaller likelihood of being teased or picked on. In the adolescent years when most students are "discovering '' sexual feelings, the young skipping student may have problems. The skipping adolescent 's hormone development might not yet have created sexual interest in their peers, while most of the classmates can be preoccupied with socializing. Skipping boys tend to have more of a social problem than skipping girls. Boys who are a year younger are frequently rejected by older classmates. Girls can pair up with, date, and / or befriend older people, but it is much harder for boys to do so given the norms, expectations, and the fact that girls tend to mature sexually earlier than boys.
By the beginning of the 21st century, many American parents were using a strategy of holding children back, starting school later and / or not advancing a grade. The reason is that with the extra year or so of physical and social maturity, the child will more likely become a leader and have more peer approval. Skipping a student is just the opposite. A skipped child may enter a class that includes a few children who have been held back and are two years older and more mature.
Skipping involves a trade - off. Not skipping may produce boredom and prevent the gifted student from advancing their learning aspirations and skill sets. Skipping decreases the likelihood of a youngster being dominant and a leader, and growing up with that self - image. However, there are exceptions both ways. In some public and private schools, alternatives other than skipping are utilized. One example is Montgomery County, Maryland. At the elementary and junior high school levels, gifted students can remain with their peers but take additional special advanced classes that are provided so that a gifted 6th or 7th - grade student may be given high school level algebra experience via a special class or e-learning. High schools in that county all have advanced classes with many qualifying for advanced placement. They also arrange with college professors from the surrounding universities to come to the high school and teach regular college courses. The result is that a gifted student, without skipping, can complete and get credit for a year or more of college, so that upon college admission, the student could take sophomore level courses or beyond. Schools that implement this kind of alternative are in the minority; parents do not often have this alternative and, with a very gifted child, must choose between skipping or not, unless they have the resources for and can arrange private tutoring. Sometimes there is an older college student relative who could do some formal tutoring. In some schools, the faculty may not be in favor of skipping and in others there can be a disagreement between the school personnel and parents as to whether the child is a good candidate for skipping.
Advancing in a class is not necessarily grade skipping. Rather, it is more for people who show a much higher level of intelligence, while the other students are left in the grade - level class. For example, an eighth - grade student who is doing very well in his advanced algebra classes, but finds them too easy for him, may be given an option to take a test, and if he passes the test, he may be moved up to geometry or whatever the next level up mathematically may be while still in eighth grade. His schedule does change, but usually only one class is substituted.
Grade skipping allows students to learn at a level appropriate, for their cognitive abilities. For the majority of gifted students, grade skipping is beneficial both academically and socially.
American schools commonly oppose grade skipping, or limit it to one or at the most two grades, regardless of the student 's academic and social situation. There is no research that supports these limits, and the decision to limit grade skipping is mostly based on the intuition of school personnel or the administration 's lack of knowledge regarding possible academic and social benefits. Refusing to promote the student to an appropriate level can result in social isolation and educational underachievement.
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what is the proper name of a foot doctor | Podiatrist - wikipedia
A podiatrist, also known as a podiatric physician (/ poʊˈdaɪətrɪst / poh - dye - eh - trist) or "foot and ankle surgeon '', is a medical doctor devoted to the study and medical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle and lower extremity. The term originated in North America, but has now become the accepted term in the English - speaking world for all practitioners of podiatric medicine. Podiatrists are the only medical professionals who exclusively specialize in treating the foot and ankle.
In the United States, Doctors of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) are doctors who practice on the lower extremities, primarily on feet and ankles. The preparatory education of most podiatrists includes four years of undergraduate work, followed by four years in an accredited podiatric medical school, followed by a three or four - year hospital - based surgical residency. Podiatrists are licensed in all 50 states.
Worldwide, in many countries the term podiatrist refers to allied health professionals who specialize in the treatment of the lower extremity, particularly the foot. Podiatrists in these countries are specialists in the diagnosis and treatment of foot pathology, but not through surgical means. In some circumstances these practitioners will further specialise and, following further training, perform reconstructive foot and ankle surgery.
In contrast, American podiatrists who hold a Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) complete surgical residencies, and thus all practitioners are trained in surgical treatments of the foot and ankle. Though the title chiropodist was previously used in the United States to designate what is now known as a podiatrist, it is now considered to be an antiquated and etymologically incorrect term. The median annual Podiatry salary is $197,012, as of June 20, 2018, with a range usually between $162,774 - $260,857 which can vary widely depending on many factors.
Podiatrists treat a wide variety of foot and lower extremity conditions, through nonsurgical and surgical approaches. The American Board of Podiatric Medicine (ABPM) offers a comprehensive board qualification and certification process in podiatric medicine and orthopedics. Podiatric Medicine and Orthopedics is the medical specialty concerned with the comprehensive and continuous foot health care of patients. There are those podiatric physicians who also specialize (i.e., specialists) in such fields of practice of podiatric medical specialties as:
In Australia, there is now an option to be a podiatric assistant. The qualification is a Certificate IV in Allied Health Assistance specialising in podiatry. They work as a part of a podiatric medical team in a variety of clinical and non clinical settings. There are currently developing strategies to further utilise these skilled workers. Worldwide, there are common professional accreditation pathways to becoming a podiatric assistant. There are many fields such as:
Podiatric surgery is a specialist field in the podiatry profession in most western countries, including Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom. Podiatric surgery is defined as "the surgical treatment of conditions affecting the foot, ankle and related lower extremity structures by accredited and qualified specialist podiatrists ''. Podiatric surgeons are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the foot and ankle. Podiatric surgeons are qualified to care for bone, joint, ligament, muscle and tendon pathology of the foot and ankle, such as:
Podiatrists ' roles include dealing with the conditions resulting from bone and joint disorders such as arthritis and soft - tissue and muscular pathologies as well as neurological and circulatory diseases. Podiatrists are also able to diagnose and treat any complications of the above which affect the lower limb, including skin and nail disorders, corns, calluses and ingrown toenails. Foot injuries and infections gained through sport or other activities are also diagnosed and treated by podiatrists.
Australian podiatrists complete an undergraduate degree of Bachelor of Podiatry or Podiatric Medicine ranging from 3 to 4 years of education. The first 2 years of this program are generally focused on various biomedical science subjects including anatomy, medical chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, pathophysiology, sociology and patient psychology, similar to the medical curriculum. The following two years will then be spent focusing on podiatry specific areas such as podiatric biomechanics and human gait, podiatric orthopaedics or the non-surgical management of foot abnormalities, pharmacology & prescribing, general medicine, general pathology, local and general anaesthesia, and surgical procedural techniques such as partial and total nail avulsions, matricectomy, cryotherapy, wound debridement and care, enucleation, and other cutaneous and electro - surgical procedures such as electro - desiccation, fulagaration and electrosection. Postgraduate courses in podiatric therapeutics and prescribing are required for having endorsements in scheduled medicines. All podiatrists are required to register with AHPRA prior to be licensed to practice in Australia. Registration is required annually. There is a minimum of continuing professional development (CPD) hours a podiatrist must undertake to maintain said registration. Podiatric surgeons are specialist podiatrists who have completed extensive, post graduate medical and surgical training and perform reconstructive surgery of the foot and ankle. The qualifications of podiatric surgeons are recognised by Australian State and Federal Governments. It is an approved specialty by the Australian Health Practitioners Regulation Agency. Podiatric surgeons are included within both the Health Insurance Act and the National Health Act.
The Podiatry Board of Australia recognizes 3 pathways to attain specialist registration as a Podiatric Surgeon:
Podiatric surgical qualifications are a post-graduate speciality of the podiatric profession. Before attaining a podiatric surgical fellowship qualification, a podiatrist must complete an extensive training program, including: 1. Bachelor of Applied Science degree, majoring in Podiatry (4 years) 2. Minimum of 2 years post-graduate clinical practice 3. Master of Podiatry (2 years full - time university degree) 4. A 3 - stage surgical fellowship training under supervision of the ACPS (4 to 6 years) 5. International residency training (usually in the UK and USA) 6. Demonstrated mastery of knowledge in foot and ankle surgery by passing oral and written examinations administered by the ACPS
There is only one university that offers the training to become a podiatrist. Podiatrists must have a Bachelor of Health Science majoring in podiatry from Auckland University of Technology (AUT), or an overseas qualification recognised by the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand, be registered with the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand and have a current Annual Practising Certificate.
In Canada, the definition and scope of the practice of podiatry varies provincially. For instance, in some provinces like British Columbia and Alberta, the standards are the same as in the United States where the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) is the accepted qualification.
Quebec, too, has recently changed to the DPM level of training, although other academic designations may also register. Also in Quebec, in 2004, Université du Québec à Trois - Rivières started the first program of Podiatric Medicine in Canada based on the American definition of podiatry. In the prairie and Atlantic provinces, the standard was originally based on the British model now called podiatry (chiropody). That model of podiatry is currently the accepted model for most of the world including the United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa.
The province of Ontario has been registering Chiropodists since July 1993 (when the Ontario Government imposed a cap on new podiatrists). If a registered podiatrist from outside of Ontario relocates to Ontario they are required to register with the province and practice as a chiropodist. Podiatrists who were practicing in Ontario previous to the imposed provincial cap were ' grandfathered ' and allowed to keep the title of podiatrist as a subclass of chiropody. The scope of these ' grandfathered ' (mostly American trained) podiatrists includes boney procedures of the forefoot and the ordering of x-rays in addition to the scope of the chiropodist.
In Ontario, podiatrists are required to have a "Doctor of Podiatric Medicine / DPM '' degree (a post-baccalaureate, four - year degree), where the majority of chiropodists currently practicing hold a post-secondary diploma in chiropody, although many also have some university level schooling or a baccalaureate degree in the sciences or in another field. Podiatrists may bill OHIP for their services; chiropodists may not. Podiatrists may "communicate a diagnosis '' to their patients (or to their patients ' representatives) and perform surgical procedures on the bones of the forefoot; chiropodists may do neither.
Chiropodists and podiatrists are regulated by the College of Chiropodists of Ontario, which had 594 chiropodists and 65 podiatrists registered as of 29 July 2015.
The only English - speaking Chiropody program in Canada, in which also has a working Chiropody Clinic on campus for students to treat patients under the supervision of licensed Chiropodists is The Michener Institute. According to The Michener Institute website, Chiropody is a branch of medical science that involves the assessment and management of foot and lower limb disorders. This includes the management of a wide variety of disorders, injuries, foot deformities, infections and local manifestations of systemic conditions. A Chiropodist is a primary care professional practicing in podiatric medicine in Ontario that specializes in assessment, management and prevention of diseases and disorders of the foot. An essential member of the inter professional healthcare team, the Chiropodist is skilled in assessing the needs of their patients and of managing both chronic and acute conditions affecting foot and lower limb function. As a primary care provider capable of independent clinical practice, these skills are often practiced independent of medical referral and medical supervision.
In the UK, podiatrists usually undertake a 3 - year undergraduate Bachelor of Science (Podiatry). Podiatric Surgeons have undertaken fellowships and postgraduate training. The scope of practice of a podiatrist falls into four key categories: General clinics, Biomechanics, High risk patient management and Surgery. There are two levels of surgical practice. As part of general podiatric care, podiatrists as HPC (Health Professions Council) registered practitioners are involved with nail and minor soft tissue surgical procedures and qualified to administer local anaesthetics. From 1 August 2012, the HPC is being rebranded to the HCPC (Health & Care Professions Council) as they are expanding their remit to include Social Workers. The old term of "State Registered '' has been defunct for some time and is no longer used since the creation of the HPC. Some podiatrists go on to develop and train as podiatric surgeons, who surgically manage bone and joint disorders within the foot. It is to this latter group (Podiatric Surgeons) that the guidelines apply. Fellowship requires a minimum of six years postgraduate training. This includes a two or three year surgical residency with an approved centre. Podiatric surgeons acquire comprehensive knowledge of related subjects including pharmacology, regional anaesthetic techniques and radiographic interpretation, as well as in - depth knowledge of foot surgery. The surgical faculty of the College of Podiatrists has set the standards for fellowship.
In the United States, medical and surgical care of the foot and ankle is mainly provided by two groups of professionals: podiatrists (Doctor of Podiatric Medicine or DPM) and orthopedists (MDs or DOs). The first year of podiatric medical school is similar to training that either Doctors of Medicine (M.D.) or Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) receive, but with an emphasized scope on foot, ankle, and lower extremity. Being classified as a second entry degree, in order to be considered for admission an applicant must first complete a minimum of 90 semester hours at the university level or more commonly, complete a bachelor 's degree with emphasis on general / organic chemistry, biochemistry, biology, etc. In addition, potential students are required to take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). The DPM degree itself takes a minimum of four years to complete. To enter a college of podiatric medicine, the student must first complete at least three years or 90 semester hours of college credit at an accredited institution. Biology, Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Physics (all science courses require a lab) and English are among the required classes. Over 95 % of the students who enter a college of podiatric medicine have a bachelor 's degree. Many have also completed some graduate study. Before entering a college of podiatric medicine, the student must take the MCAT (Medical College Admissions Test). There are nine colleges of podiatric medicine in the United States. They all receive accreditation from the Council on Podiatric Medical Education, which is recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education and the Council on Higher Education Accreditation. All of the colleges grant the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM).
The four - year podiatric medical school is followed by a surgical based residency, which is hands - on post-doctoral training. There are two standard residencies: Podiatric Medicine & Surgery and Podiatric Medicine & Surgery with Rearfoot Reconstruction and Ankle (PM&SR or PM&SR / RRA). Podiatric residents rotate through core areas of medicine and surgery. They work alongside their MD and DO counterparts in such rotations as emergency medicine, internal medicine, infectious disease, behavioral medicine, physical medicine & rehabilitation, vascular surgery, general surgery, orthopedic surgery, plastic surgery, dermatology and of course podiatric surgery and medicine. Fellowship training is available after residency in such fields such as foot & ankle traumatology or limb salvage.
Upon completion of their residency, podiatrists can decide to become board certified by a number of specialty boards including the more common American Board of Podiatric Orthopedics and Primary Podiatric Medicine and / or the American Board of Podiatric Surgery. The ABPMS or The American Board of Podiatric Medical Specialties has been certifying podiatrists since 1998. Within the American Board of Podiatric Surgery, PM&S 24 graduates can sit for Board Certification in Foot Surgery and those that complete PM&S 36 can sit for Board Certification in Foot Surgery and Board Certification in Reconstructive Rearfoot & Ankle Surgery. Both boards in ABPS are examined as separate tracks. Though the ABPS and ABPOPPM are more common, other boards are equally challenging and confer board qualified / certified status. Many hospitals and insurance plans do not require board eligibility or certification to participate.
The DPM superseded the historical DSC (Doctor of Surgical Chiropody) degree in the 1960s.
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when was the first legally ordered autopsy performed | Autopsy - wikipedia
An autopsy (post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause and manner of death, to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present or research or educational purposes. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist. In most cases, a medical examiner or coroner can determine cause of death and only a small portion of deaths require an autopsy.
Autopsies are performed for either legal or medical purposes. For example, a forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is reconstituted by sewing it back together.
The principal aim of an autopsy is to determine the cause of death, the state of health of the person before he or she died, and whether any medical diagnosis and treatment before death was appropriate.
In most Western countries the number of autopsies performed in hospitals has been decreasing every year since 1955. Critics, including pathologist and former JAMA editor George D. Lundberg, have charged that the reduction in autopsies is negatively affecting the care delivered in hospitals, because when mistakes result in death, they are often not investigated and lessons therefore remain unlearned.
When a person has given permission in advance of their death, autopsies may also be carried out for the purposes of teaching or medical research.
An autopsy is frequently performed in cases of sudden death, where a doctor is not able to write a death certificate, or when death is believed to result from an unnatural cause. These examinations are performed under a legal authority (Medical Examiner or Coroner or Procurator Fiscal) and do not require the consent of relatives of the deceased. The most extreme example is the examination of murder victims, especially when medical examiners are looking for signs of death or the murder method, such as bullet wounds and exit points, signs of strangulation, or traces of poison. Some religions including Judaism and Islam usually discourage the performing of autopsies on their adherents. Organizations such as ZAKA in Israel and Misaskim in the United States generally guide families how to ensure that an unnecessary autopsy is not made.
Autopsies are used in clinical medicine to identify medical error, or a previously unnoticed condition that may endanger the living, such as infectious diseases or exposure to hazardous materials.
A study that focused on myocardial infarction (heart attack) as a cause of death found significant errors of omission and commission, i.e. a sizable number cases ascribed to myocardial infarctions (MIs) were not MIs and a significant number of non-MIs were actually MIs.
A systematic review of studies of the autopsy calculated that in about 25 % of autopsies a major diagnostic error will be revealed. However, this rate has decreased over time and the study projects that in a contemporary US institution, 8.4 % to 24.4 % of autopsies will detect major diagnostic errors.
A large meta - analysis suggested that approximately one - third of death certificates are incorrect and that half of the autopsies performed produced findings that were not suspected before the person died. Also, it is thought that over one fifth of unexpected findings can only be diagnosed histologically, i.e., by biopsy or autopsy, and that approximately one quarter of unexpected findings, or 5 % of all findings, are major and can similarly only be diagnosed from tissue.
One study found that (out of 694 diagnoses) "Autopsies revealed 171 missed diagnoses, including 21 cancers, 12 strokes, 11 myocardial infarctions, 10 pulmonary emboli, and 9 endocarditis, among others ''.
Focusing on intubated patients, one study found "abdominal pathologic conditions -- abscesses, bowel perforations, or infarction -- were as frequent as pulmonary emboli as a cause of class I errors. While patients with abdominal pathologic conditions generally complained of abdominal pain, results of examination of the abdomen were considered unremarkable in most patients, and the symptom was not pursued ''.
There are four main types of autopsies:
A forensic autopsy is used to determine the cause and manner of death. Forensic science involves the application of the sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system.
Medical examiners attempt to determine the time of death, the exact cause of death, and what, if anything, preceded the death, such as a struggle. A forensic autopsy may include obtaining biological specimens from the deceased for toxicological testing, including stomach contents. Toxicology tests may reveal the presence of one or more chemical "poisons '' (all chemicals, in sufficient quantities, can be classified as a poison) and their quantity. Because post-mortem deterioration of the body, together with the gravitational pooling of bodily fluids, will necessarily alter the bodily environment, toxicology tests may overestimate, rather than underestimate, the quantity of the suspected chemical.
Following an in - depth examination of all the evidence, a medical examiner or coroner will assign one of the manners of death provided for in the fact - finder 's jurisdiction and will detail the evidence on the mechanism of the death.
In most United States jurisdictions, each death is categorized as taking place in one of five "manners of death '':
Most states require the state medical examiner to complete an autopsy report, and many mandate that the autopsy be videotaped.
Although England and Wales use the "accident '' designation, in those jurisdictions the term applies to deaths resulting from a risk that is either a) reasonable (whether assumed deliberately or not) or b) neither i) voluntarily assumed nor ii) intentionally created by another party. For deaths resulting from deliberate assumption of unreasonable risk, England and Wales use the category "misadventure. ''
Some jurisdictions place deaths in absentia, such as deaths at sea and missing persons declared dead in a court of law, in the "Undetermined '' category on the grounds that due to the fact - finder 's lack of ability to examine the body, the examiner has no personal knowledge of the manner of (assumed) death; others classify such deaths in an additional category "Other, '' reserving "Undetermined '' for deaths in which the fact - finder has access to the body, but the information provided by the body and examination of it is insufficient to provide sufficient grounds for a determination.
Clinical autopsies serve two major purposes. They are performed to gain more insight into pathological processes and determine what factors contributed to a patient 's death. Autopsies are also performed to ensure the standard of care at hospitals. Autopsies can yield insight into how patient deaths can be prevented in the future.
Within the United Kingdom, clinical autopsies can be carried out only with the consent of the family of the deceased person, as opposed to a medico - legal autopsy instructed by a Coroner (England & Wales) or Procurator Fiscal (Scotland) to which the family can not object.
Over time, autopsies have not only been able to determine the cause of death, but also lead to discoveries of various diseases such as fetal alcohol syndrome, Legionnaire 's disease, and even viral hepatitis.
In 2004 in England and Wales, there were 514,000 deaths of which 225,500 were referred to the coroner. Of those, 115,800 (22.5 % of all deaths) resulted in post-mortem examinations and there were 28,300 inquests, 570 with a jury.
The rate of consented (hospital) autopsy in the UK and worldwide has declined rapidly over the past 50 years. Turnbull and colleagues from Imperial College London showed that in the UK in 2013 only 0.7 % of inpatient adult deaths were followed by consented autopsy.
In the United States, autopsy rates fell from 17 % in 1980 to 14 % in 1985 and 11.5 % in 1989, although the figures vary notably from county to county.
The body is received at a medical examiner 's office or hospital in a body bag or evidence sheet. A new body bag is used for each body to ensure that only evidence from that body is contained within the bag. Evidence sheets are an alternative way to transport the body. An evidence sheet is a sterile sheet that covers the body when it is moved. If it is believed there may be any significant evidence on the hands, for example, gunshot residue or skin under the fingernails, a separate paper sack is put around each hand and taped shut around the wrist.
There are two parts to the physical examination of the body: the external and internal examination. Toxicology, biochemical tests or genetic testing / molecular autopsy often supplement these and frequently assist the pathologist in assigning the cause or causes of death.
At many institutions the person responsible for handling, cleaning, and moving the body is called a diener, the German word for servant. In the UK this role is performed by an Anatomical Pathology Technologist who will also assist the pathologist in eviscerating the body and reconstruction after the autopsy. After the body is received, it is first photographed. The examiner then notes the kind of clothes and their position on the body before they are removed. Next, any evidence such as residue, flakes of paint or other material is collected from the external surfaces of the body. Ultraviolet light may also be used to search body surfaces for any evidence not easily visible to the naked eye. Samples of hair, nails and the like are taken, and the body may also be radiographically imaged. Once the external evidence is collected, the body is removed from the bag, undressed, and any wounds present are examined. The body is then cleaned, weighed, and measured in preparation for the internal examination. The scale used to weigh the body is often designed to accommodate the cart that the body is transported on; its weight is then deducted from the total weight shown to give the weight of the body.
If not already within an autopsy room at the city, county or state morgue, the body is transported to one and placed on a table. A general description of the body as regards ethnic group, sex, age, hair color and length, eye color and other distinguishing features (birthmarks, old scar tissue, moles, tattoos, etc.) is then made. A voice recorder or a standard examination form is normally used to record this information.
In some countries, e.g., France, Germany, and Canada, an autopsy may comprise an external examination only. This concept is sometimes termed a "view and grant ''. The principle behind this is that the medical records, history of the deceased and circumstances of death have all indicated as to the cause and manner of death without the need for an internal examination.
If not already in place, a plastic or rubber brick called a "body block '' is placed under the back of the body, causing the arms and neck to fall backward while stretching and pushing the chest upward to make it easier to cut open. This gives the prosector, a pathologist or assistant, maximum exposure to the trunk. After this is done, the internal examination begins. The internal examination consists of inspecting the internal organs of the body by dissection for evidence of trauma or other indications of the cause of death. For the internal examination there are a number of different approaches available:
In all of the above cases the cut then extends all the way down to the pubic bone (making a deviation to either side of the navel).
Bleeding from the cuts is minimal, or non-existent, because the pull of gravity is producing the only blood pressure at this point, related directly to the complete lack of cardiac functionality. However, in certain cases there is anecdotal evidence that bleeding can be quite profuse, especially in cases of drowning.
At this point, shears are used to open the chest cavity. It is also possible to utilise a simple scalpel blade. The prosector uses the tool to saw through the ribs on the lateral sides of the chest cavity to allow the sternum and attached ribs to be lifted as one chest plate; this is done so that the heart and lungs can be seen in situ and that the heart, in particular the pericardial sac is not damaged or disturbed from opening. A scalpel is used to remove any soft tissue that is still attached to the posterior side of the chest plate. Now the lungs and the heart are exposed. The chest plate is set aside and will be eventually replaced at the end of the autopsy.
At this stage the organs are exposed. Usually, the organs are removed in a systematic fashion. Making a decision as to what order the organs are to be removed will depend highly on the case in question. Organs can be removed in several ways: The first is the en masse technique of Letulle whereby all the organs are removed as one large mass. The second is the en bloc method of Ghon. The most popular in the UK is a modified version of this method, which is divided into four groups of organs. Although these are the two predominant evisceration techniques, in the UK variations on these are widespread.
One method is described here: The pericardial sac is opened to view the heart. Blood for chemical analysis may be removed from the inferior vena cava or the pulmonary veins. Before removing the heart, the pulmonary artery is opened in order to search for a blood clot. The heart can then be removed by cutting the inferior vena cava, the pulmonary veins, the aorta and pulmonary artery, and the superior vena cava. This method leaves the aortic arch intact, which will make things easier for the embalmer. The left lung is then easily accessible and can be removed by cutting the bronchus, artery, and vein at the hilum. The right lung can then be similarly removed. The abdominal organs can be removed one by one after first examining their relationships and vessels.
Some pathologists, however, prefer to remove the organs all in one "block ''. Then a series of cuts, along the vertebral column, are made so that the organs can be detached and pulled out in one piece for further inspection and sampling. During autopsies of infants, this method is used almost all of the time. The various organs are examined, weighed and tissue samples in the form of slices are taken. Even major blood vessels are cut open and inspected at this stage. Next the stomach and intestinal contents are examined and weighed. This could be useful to find the cause and time of death, due to the natural passage of food through the bowel during digestion. The more area empty, the longer the deceased had gone without a meal before death.
The body block that was used earlier to elevate the chest cavity is now used to elevate the head. To examine the brain, an incision is made from behind one ear, over the crown of the head, to a point behind the other ear. When the autopsy is completed, the incision can be neatly sewn up and is not noticed when the head is resting on a pillow in an open casket funeral. The scalp is pulled away from the skull in two flaps with the front flap going over the face and the rear flap over the back of the neck. The skull is then cut with a circular (or semicircular) bladed reciprocating saw to create a "cap '' that can be pulled off, exposing the brain. The brain is then observed in situ. Then the brain 's connection to the cranial nerves and spinal cord are severed, and the brain is lifted out of the skull for further examination. If the brain needs to be preserved before being inspected, it is contained in a large container of formalin (15 percent solution of formaldehyde gas in buffered water) for at least two, but preferably four weeks. This not only preserves the brain, but also makes it firmer, allowing easier handling without corrupting the tissue.
An important component of the autopsy is the reconstitution of the body such that it can be viewed, if desired, by relatives of the deceased following the procedure. After the examination, the body has an open and empty thoracic cavity with chest flaps open on both sides, the top of the skull is missing, and the skull flaps are pulled over the face and neck. It is unusual to examine the face, arms, hands or legs internally.
In the UK, following the Human Tissue Act 2004 all organs and tissue must be returned to the body unless permission is given by the family to retain any tissue for further investigation. Normally the internal body cavity is lined with cotton wool or an appropriate material, the organs are then placed into a plastic bag to prevent leakage and returned to the body cavity. The chest flaps are then closed and sewn back together and the skull cap is sewed back in place. Then the body may be wrapped in a shroud and it is common for relatives to not be able to tell the procedure has been done when the body is viewed in a funeral parlor after embalming.
The term "autopsy '' derives from the Ancient Greek αὐτοψία autopsia, "to see for oneself '', derived from αὐτός (autos, "oneself '') and ὄψις (opsis, "sight, view ''). The word "autopsy '' has been used since around the 17th century, it refers to the examination of inside the dead human body to discover diseases and cause of death. Around 3000 BC ancient Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to practice the removal and examination of the internal organs of humans in the religious practice of mummification.
Autopsies that opened the body to determine the cause of death were attested at least in the early third millennium BC, although they were opposed in many ancient societies where it was believed that the outward disfigurement of dead persons prevented them from entering the afterlife (as with the Egyptians, who removed the organs through tiny slits in the body). Notable Greek autopsists were Galen (AD 129 - c. 200 / 216), Erasistratus and Herophilus of Chalcedon, who lived in 3rd century BC Alexandria, but in general, autopsies were rare in ancient Greece. In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was the subject of an official autopsy after his murder by rival senators, the physician 's report noting that the second stab wound Caesar received was the fatal one. Julius Caesar had been stabbed a total of 23 times. By around 150 BC, ancient Roman legal practice had established clear parameters for autopsies.
The dissection of human remains for medical or scientific reasons continued to be practiced irregularly after the Romans, for instance by the Arab physicians Avenzoar and Ibn al - Nafis. In Europe they were done with enough regularity to become skilled, as early as 1200, and successful efforts to preserve the body, by filling the veins with wax and metals. Until recently, it was thought that the modern autopsy process derived from the anatomists of the Renaissance. Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682 -- 1771), celebrated as the father of anatomical pathology, wrote the first exhaustive work on pathology, De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis (The Seats and Causes of Diseases Investigated by Anatomy, 1769).
In the mid-1800s, Carl von Rokitansky and colleagues at the Second Vienna Medical School began to undertake dissections as a means to improve diagnostic medicine, for the first time applying scientific techniques.
In 1543 Andreas Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of a former criminal. He asserted and articulated the bones, this became the worlds oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical museum at the University of Basel.
The 19th - century medical researcher Rudolf Virchow, in response to a lack of standardization of autopsy procedures, established and published specific autopsy protocols (one such protocol still bears his name). He also developed the concept of pathological processes.
Post-mortem examination, or necropsy, is far more common in veterinary medicine than in human medicine. For many species that exhibit few external symptoms (sheep), or that are not suited to detailed clinical examination (poultry, cage birds, zoo animals), it is a common method used by veterinary physicians to come to a diagnosis. A necropsy is mostly used like an autopsy to determine cause of death. The entire body is examined at the gross visual level, and samples are collected for additional analyses.
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when did the movie pet sematary come out | Pet Sematary (film) - wikipedia
Pet Sematary (sometimes referred to as Stephen King 's Pet Sematary) is a 1989 American horror film adaptation of Stephen King 's novel of the same name. Directed by Mary Lambert and written by King, the film features Dale Midkiff as Louis Creed, Denise Crosby as Rachel Creed, Blaze Berdahl as Ellie Creed, Miko Hughes as Gage Creed, and Fred Gwynne as Jud Crandall. Andrew Hubatsek was cast for Zelda 's role. King, who scripted from his own book, also has a cameo as a minister.
A sequel, Pet Sematary Two, was met with less financial and critical success.
The Creed family -- Louis, Rachel, and their children Ellie and Gage -- move from Chicago to rural Ludlow, Maine, after Louis is offered a job as a doctor with the University of Maine. They befriend their elderly neighbor Jud Crandall, who takes them to an isolated pet cemetery in the forest behind the Creeds ' new home.
On his first day at work, Louis meets Victor Pascow, a jogger who is brought in with severe injuries from a car accident. He warns Louis about the pet cemetery before he dies, calling Louis by name despite the fact they have not previously met. After he dies, Pascow comes to Louis in the night and leads him to the Pet Sematary, warning him not to cross the barrier because the ground beyond is "sour ''. Louis awakens assuming it was a dream, but notices his feet are covered in dirt.
During Thanksgiving while the family is gone, Ellie 's cat, Church, is run down on the highway in front of the house. Realizing that Ellie will be devastated, Jud takes Louis beyond the cemetery and deep into the woods, where they reach an abandoned Micmac burial ground. Without explanation Jud instructs Louis to bury the cat and warns him not to tell anyone else about what they have done. The next day Church comes back to life, though a shell of what he was before; he stinks, moves sluggishly, and is vicious towards Louis. Jud explains that he himself revived his beloved pet dog in the Micmac ground as a boy, and that although the cat might be different, it will save Ellie the grief of losing her favorite pet.
Sometime later, Gage is killed by a truck along the same highway. The family is devastated, and Jud anticipates that Louis is considering burying his son in the Micmac ground, although Louis denies it. Jud believes that introducing Louis to the ritual ground aroused the malevolent forces present there, which caused Gage 's death.
He tells him the story of a local named Bill Baterman who buried his son Timmy in the Micmac ground after he was killed in World War II. Timmy returned as a malevolent zombie, terrifying the townsfolk. A group of men including Jud tried destroying Timmy by lighting the Baterman house on fire, only for the deranged Bill to perish with his son. Jud insists that the burial ground is evil and Louis must never try to bury his son there.
After the funeral, Rachel and Ellie leave for Chicago while Louis remains home. Despite Pascow and Jud 's warnings, Louis exhumes his son 's body and buries him at the ritual site. In Chicago, Pascow appears to Ellie in a dream and warns her that Louis is about to do something terrible. Rachel is unnerved by her daughter 's dream, but is only able to reach Jud when she calls, who tells her Louis is not home. She decides to return to Maine, much to Jud 's alarm.
That night, Gage returns home and steals a scalpel from his father 's bag. He taunts Jud before slashing his Achilles tendon and throat, killing him. Rachel returns home and is lured into Jud 's house by the voice and specter of her dead sister Zelda, only to discover that she is actually seeing Gage, holding a scalpel. In shock and disbelief, Rachel reaches down to hug her son and he kills her.
Waking up from his sleep, Louis notices Gage 's muddy footprints in the house and discovers that his scalpel is missing. Receiving a phone call from Gage that he has "played '' with Jud and Mommy, he fills two syringes with morphine and heads to Jud 's house. Encountering Church, he kills the cat with an injection before entering the house. Gage taunts him further and Louis is startled by Rachel 's corpse falling hanged from the attic before he is attacked by his son.
After a brief battle, Louis kills Gage with the morphine injection. He then lights the house on fire, leaving it to burn as he carries Rachel 's body from the fire. Pascow appears and warns Louis not to "make it worse '' but Louis, now grief - stricken to the point of insanity, believes that because Rachel was not dead as long as Gage was, burying her "will work this time ''. Pascow cries out in frustration and vanishes as Louis passes through him.
That night, the horribly mutilated Rachel returns to Louis and the couple embrace. Rachel takes a large knife from the counter; Louis screams as the screen cuts to black.
The film rights were sold to George A. Romero in 1984 for $10,000. King had previously declined several other offers for a film adaptation. Romero eventually had to pull out of the production, as he was busy with Monkey Shines. As stipulated by King when selling the rights to Paramount, Pet Sematary was shot in Maine where the story was set. The house used for the Creeds ' home is a private residence near Hancock, while Jud 's house across the street was actually a facade constructed around an existing house that was insulated with fireproof material for film 's climax. Other locations included an abandoned granite quarry on Mount Desert Island in Acadia National Park, where the burial ground was constructed, a forest near Ellsworth for the pet sematary, and Mount Hope Cemetery in Bangor for the graveyard scenes.
Initially, Paramount executives wanted a pair of twins to play the role of Gage, like those chosen to play Ellie, which was the more cost - effective option. However, Lambert was very impressed with three - year old Miko Hughes, whom she felt was a natural talent despite his young age, so she lobbied the studio to accept her choice. She also cast Andrew Hubatsek in the role of Zelda, because she felt having a grown man playing the role of a teenage girl deformed by spinal meningitis made the character more frightening.
Pet Sematary was director Mary Lambert 's second feature film. She was better known for her work directing music videos, especially those for Madonna including "Like a Prayer '' and "Material Girl ''. Through her work in the music industry Lambert was friends with The Ramones, who were one of Stephen King 's favorite bands. She approached them about recording a song for the film and they agreed to write and perform Pet Sematary, which is featured in the closing credits.
The original cut of the film delivered to Paramount 's executives was judged to be too long, so excess footage had to be removed. They also decided that the closing scene was too tame and at their request it was re-shot to be more graphic.
The film 's score was written by Elliot Goldenthal. The film features two songs by the Ramones, one of Stephen King 's favorite bands: "Sheena Is a Punk Rocker '' appears in a scene, and "Pet Sematary '', a new track written specially for the movie, plays over the credits.
The song "Pet Sematary '' became one of the Ramones ' biggest charting hits, reaching number four on Billboard 's "Modern Rock Tracks '' list, despite being, in the words of AMG, "reviled by most of the band 's hardcore fans ''.
In 2002, New York horrorcore rapper Cage wrote the song "Ballad of Worms '' which was featured on the album Eastern Conference All Stars II for the independent hip - hop label Eastern Conference Records. Before thought to be about his relationship and struggle with the hip - hop community, he later revealed it was a love song dedicated to the Pet Sematary character Zelda.
The Los Angeles Times wrote that the film "defied the critics and opened at blockbuster levels ''. The film grossed $57 million in North America. Released in 1989 by Paramount Home Video, Pet Sematary was a best - selling video. Paramount released it on DVD in 2006 and on Blu - ray in 2012.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 48 % of 25 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating was 5.2 / 10. Variety called it "undead schlock dulled by a slasher - film mentality ''. Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that the film "has some effectively ghoulish moments '' but "fails mostly because it does n't trust the audience to do any of the work ''. Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Lambert goes for strong, succinct images and never stops to worry whether there 's a lack of credibility or motivation. '' Richard Harrington of The Washington Post called it "bland, cliched, cheap ''. Harrington criticized Gage 's actions as disturbing and the climax as "an ugly payoff to an inept setup ''. Bloody Disgusting rated it 4.5 / 5 stars and wrote, "The plot alone would make for a scary movie, but by injecting excellent atmosphere, capable acting and generally nightmarish scenes, Pet Sematary is a truly effective horror flick and well worth the price of admission. '' At Dread Central, Steve Barton rated it 4 / 5 stars and called it one of the best King adaptations; Jason Jenkins rated it 3.5 / 5 stars and called it "one of the better King adaptations of the period ''.
A sequel, Pet Sematary Two, was released in 1992 to poor reviews and a disappointing box office. The film has acquired a cult following in recent years, and members of the cast occasionally appear at horror conventions to discuss it.
A documentary, Unearthed & Untold: The Path to Pet Sematary, premiered in September 2014, and was released in January 2017.
Pet Sematary was ranked # 16 on IFC 's list of the best Stephen King film and television adaptations, and also placed at 16 on Rolling Stone 's Top 30 King adaptations.
There has been intermittent buzz about a possible remake of Pet Sematary, but as of 2017 none has been commissioned. Juan Carlos Fresnadillo was announced as directing the remake in October 2013.
In August 2017, the brother - sister team behind the 2017 remake of Stephen King 's It, Andrés and Barbara Muschietti, told the Toronto Sun that they hoped to adapt Pet Sematary after they finished part two of It.
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who played guitar on old time rock and roll | Old Time rock and Roll - wikipedia
"Old Time Rock and Roll '' is a song written by George Jackson and Thomas E. Jones III, and recorded by Bob Seger for his 1978 album Stranger in Town. It was also released as a single in 1979. It is a sentimentalized look back at the music of the original rock ' n ' roll era. The song gained renewed popularity after being featured in the 1983 film Risky Business. It has since become a standard in popular music and was ranked number two on the Amusement & Music Operators Association 's survey of the Top 40 Jukebox Singles of All Time in 1996. It was also listed as one of the Songs of the Century in 2001 and ranked No. 100 in the American Film Institute 's 100 Years... 100 Songs poll in 2004 of the top songs in American cinema.
The Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section, who often backed Seger in his studio recordings, sent Seger a demo of the song during the recording of Stranger in Town. He said in 2006 (and also on the "Stranger in Town '' episode of the US radio show In the Studio with Redbeard a few years earlier):
All I kept from the original was: "Old time rock and roll, that kind of music just soothes the soul, I reminisce about the days of old with that old time rock and roll ''. I rewrote the verses and I never took credit. That was the dumbest thing I ever did. And Tom Jones (Thomas E. Jones) and George Jackson know it, too. But I just wanted to finish the record (Stranger in Town). I rewrote every verse you hear except for the choruses. I did n't ask for credit. My manager said: "You should ask for a third of the credit. '' And I said: "Nah. Nobody 's gon na like it. '' I 'm not credited on it so I could n't control the copyright either. Meanwhile it got into a Hardee 's commercial because I could n't control it. Oh my God, it was awful! ''
However, George Stephenson of Malaco Records claimed:
"Old Time Rock and Roll '' is truly (George) Jackson 's song, and he has the tapes to prove it, despite Seger 's claims that he altered it. Bob had pretty much finished his recording at Muscle Shoals and he asked them if they had any other songs he could listen to for the future... ''
The song was recorded at the Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama and Sound Suite Studios in Detroit, Michigan. Originally, the Silver Bullet Band was displeased with its inclusion on Stranger in Town, claiming, according to Seger, that the song was not "Silver Bullety ''. However, upon hearing audience reactions to it during their tour in Europe, the band grew to like the song.
In 1990, Seger joined Billy Joel on one occasion and Don Henley on another to play the song during their concerts in Auburn Hills, Michigan. He also performed the song at his Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony.
The song was featured in the 1983 film Risky Business, starring Tom Cruise. Cruise 's character, Joel Goodson, famously lip - syncs and dances in his underwear as this song plays after his parents leave him home alone. In 1986, the song was also featured in the TV series "ALF '', in a caricature of the before mentioned Tom cruise scene, in which Alf has similarly been left home alone and trashed the house. Activision created a series of Guitar Hero: World Tour television commercials directed by Brett Ratner based on the scene, each featuring a different set of celebrities lip - sync to the lyrics while using the new instrument controllers. The first ad included athletes Kobe Bryant, Tony Hawk, Alex Rodriguez, and Michael Phelps. The song is also featured in The Nanny, The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air and The Flash.
"Old Time Rock and Roll '' achieved substantial album - oriented rock radio airplay and as the fourth single from Stranger in Town, it reached number 28 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1979. It was re-released in 1983 after its inclusion in the film Risky Business and reached number 48 on the Billboard chart. The song remains a staple on classic rock radio.
In Australia, the song was released twice and charted for a total of 55 weeks. The first run was in 1983 after its use in the film Risky Business, reaching number 53 on the charts. The second run saw it reach number 3 in late 1987.
Singer Johnny Hallyday released a French language version, as "Le Bon Temps du Rock and Roll '' in 1979 on his album Hollywood.
In 2000, the British rock band Status Quo recorded a version of this song for their album Famous in the Last Century. They played it on Top of the Pops and released it as a single which charted in the UK (No. 83) and Norway (No. 4).
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rokka braves of the six flowers anime season 2 | Rokka: Braves of the Six Flowers - Wikipedia
Rokka: Braves of the Six Flowers (六花 の 勇者, Rokka no Yūsha, lit. "Heroes of the Six Flowers '') is a Japanese light novel series written by Ishio Yamagata, with illustrations by Miyagi. Shueisha has published six volumes since August 2011. A manga adaptation by Kei Toru began serialization in Shueisha 's Super Dash & Go! magazine in February 2012. Both the light novels and their manga adaptation are licensed in North America by Yen Press. An anime television series produced by Passione and directed by Takeo Takahashi aired in Japan from July 4 to September 19, 2015.
Six people called Braves of the Six Flowers are chosen by the Goddess of Fate to defeat the Demon God (魔神, Majin). However, when they gather, there are seven heroes present, leading them to believe that one is an impostor and on the side of the Demon God.
Rokka no Yūsha began as a light novel series written by Ishio Yamagata, with illustrations by Miyagi. Shueisha published the first novel on August 25, 2011 under their Super Dash Bunko imprint. With the introduction of Dash X Bunko on November 11, 2014, the fifth volume of the light novel was released. Six volumes have been released as of July 24, 2015. North American publisher Yen Press announced their license to the series at Anime Expo 2016.
A manga adaptation, illustrated by Kei Toru, began serialization in Shueisha 's Super Dash & Go! with the April 2012 issue sold on February 25. After the magazine ended its publication in print in April 2013, the manga continued serialization online until November 20, 2014. Four tankōbon volumes were published from October 25, 2012 to July 24, 2015. Yen Press announced their license to the manga adaptation at Anime Expo 2016 and released them all in 2017.
An anime television series adaptation of the first novel volume, produced by Passione and directed by Takeo Takahashi aired from July 4 to September 19, 2015. The series is licensed in North America by Ponycan USA and by Anime Limited in the UK. Five pieces of theme music were used for the episodes: two opening themes and three ending themes. From episodes 1 - 4 and 12, "Cry for the Truth '' was used as the first opening theme, and from episodes 1 - 3, 8 and 12, "Secret Sky '' was used as the first ending theme, both performed by Michi. The second opening theme "Black Swallowtail '' by Uroboros was used from episodes 5 - 11, and the second ending theme used from episodes 4 - 5 and 10 is "Dance in the Fake '' by Yoko Hikasa. From episodes 6 - 7, 9 and 11, "Nameless Heart '' by Aoi Yūki was used as the third ending theme.
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how did the blockade affect the southern economy | Union blockade - wikipedia
The Union blockade in the American Civil War was a naval strategy by the United States to prevent the Confederacy from trading.
The blockade was proclaimed by President Abraham Lincoln in April 1861, and required the monitoring of 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of Atlantic and Gulf coastline, including 12 major ports, notably New Orleans and Mobile. Those blockade runners fast enough to evade the Union Navy could only carry a small fraction of the supplies needed. They were operated largely by British citizens, making use of neutral ports such as Havana, Nassau and Bermuda. The Union commissioned around 500 ships, which destroyed or captured about 1,500 blockade runners over the course of the war.
On April 19, 1861, President Lincoln issued a Proclamation of Blockade Against Southern Ports:
Whereas an insurrection against the Government of the United States has broken out in the States of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and the laws of the United States for the collection of the revenue can not be effectually executed therein comformably to that provision of the Constitution which requires duties to be uniform throughout the United States:
And whereas a combination of persons engaged in such insurrection, have threatened to grant pretended letters of marque to authorize the bearers thereof to commit assaults on the lives, vessels, and property of good citizens of the country lawfully engaged in commerce on the high seas, and in waters of the United States: And whereas an Executive Proclamation has been already issued, requiring the persons engaged in these disorderly proceedings to desist therefrom, calling out a militia force for the purpose of repressing the same, and convening Congress in extraordinary session, to deliberate and determine thereon:
Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, with a view to the same purposes before mentioned, and to the protection of the public peace, and the lives and property of quiet and orderly citizens pursuing their lawful occupations, until Congress shall have assembled and deliberated on the said unlawful proceedings, or until the same shall ceased, have further deemed it advisable to set on foot a blockade of the ports within the States aforesaid, in pursuance of the laws of the United States, and of the law of Nations, in such case provided. For this purpose a competent force will be posted so as to prevent entrance and exit of vessels from the ports aforesaid. If, therefore, with a view to violate such blockade, a vessel shall approach, or shall attempt to leave either of the said ports, she will be duly warned by the Commander of one of the blockading vessels, who will endorse on her register the fact and date of such warning, and if the same vessel shall again attempt to enter or leave the blockaded port, she will be captured and sent to the nearest convenient port, for such proceedings against her and her cargo as prize, as may be deemed advisable.
And I hereby proclaim and declare that if any person, under the pretended authority of the said States, or under any other pretense, shall molest a vessel of the United States, or the persons or cargo on board of her, such person will be held amenable to the laws of the United States for the prevention and punishment of piracy.
In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington, this nineteenth day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty - one, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty - fifth.
In his Memoirs of Service Afloat, Raphael Semmes contended that the announcement of a blockade carried de facto recognition of the Confederate States of America as an independent national entity since countries do not blockade their own ports but rather close them (See Boston Port Act). Under international law and maritime law, however, nations had the right to stop and search neutral ships in international waters if they were suspected of violating a blockade, something port closures would not allow. In an effort to avoid conflict between the United States and Britain over the searching of British merchant vessels thought to be trading with the Confederacy, the Union needed the privileges of international law that came with the declaration of a blockade.
However, by effectively declaring the Confederate States of America to be belligerents -- rather than insurrectionists, who under international law were not eligible for recognition by foreign powers -- Lincoln opened the way for Britain and France to recognize the Confederacy. Britain 's proclamation of neutrality was consistent with the Lincoln Administration 's position -- that under international law the Confederates were belligerents -- and helped legitimize the Confederate States of America 's national right to obtain loans and buy arms from neutral nations. The British proclamation also formally gave Britain the diplomatic right to discuss openly which side, if any, to support.
A joint Union military - navy commission, known as the Blockade Strategy Board, was formed to make plans for seizing major Southern ports to utilize as Union bases of operations to expand the blockade. It first met in June 1861 in Washington, D.C., under the leadership of Captain Samuel F. Du Pont.
In the initial phase of the blockade, Union forces concentrated on the Atlantic Coast. The November 1861 capture of Port Royal in South Carolina provided the Federals with an open ocean port and repair and maintenance facilities in good operating condition. It became an early base of operations for further expansion of the blockade along the Atlantic coastline, including the Stone Fleet. Apalachicola, Florida, received Confederate goods traveling down the Chattahoochee River from Columbus, Georgia, and was an early target of Union blockade efforts on Florida 's Gulf Coast. Another early prize was Ship Island, which gave the Navy a base from which to patrol the entrances to both the Mississippi River and Mobile Bay. The Navy gradually extended its reach throughout the Gulf of Mexico to the Texas coastline, including Galveston and Sabine Pass.
With 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of Confederate coastline and 180 possible ports of entry to patrol, the blockade would be the largest such effort ever attempted. The United States Navy had 42 ships in active service, and another 48 laid up and listed as available as soon as crews could be assembled and trained. Half were sailing ships, some were technologically outdated, most were at the time patrolling distant oceans, one served on Lake Erie and could not be moved into the ocean, and another had gone missing off Hawaii. At the time of the declaration of the blockade, the Union only had three ships suitable for blockade duty. The Navy Department, under the leadership of Navy Secretary Gideon Welles, quickly moved to expand the fleet. U.S. warships patrolling abroad were recalled, a massive shipbuilding program was launched, civilian merchant and passenger ships were purchased for naval service, and captured blockade runners were commissioned into the navy. In 1861, nearly 80 steamers and 60 sailing ships were added to the fleet, and the number of blockading vessels rose to 160. Some 52 more warships were under construction by the end of the year. By November 1862, there were 282 steamers and 102 sailing ships. By the end of the war, the Union Navy had grown to a size of 671 ships, making it the largest navy in the world.
By the end of 1861, the Navy had grown to 24,000 officers and enlisted men, over 15,000 more than in antebellum service. Four squadrons of ships were deployed, two in the Atlantic and two in the Gulf of Mexico.
Blockade service was attractive to Federal seamen and landsmen alike. Blockade station service was considered the most boring job in the war but also the most attractive in terms of potential financial gain. The task was for the fleet to sail back and forth to intercept any blockade runners. More than 50,000 men volunteered for the boring duty, because food and living conditions on ship were much better than the infantry offered, the work was safer, and especially because of the real (albeit small) chance for big money. Captured ships and their cargoes were sold at auction and the proceeds split among the sailors. When Eolus seized the hapless blockade runner Hope off Wilmington, North Carolina, in late 1864, the captain won $13,000 ($203,409 today), the chief engineer $6,700, the seamen more than $1,000 each, and the cabin boy $533, compared to infantry pay of $13 ($203 today) per month. The amount garnered for a prize of war widely varied. While the little Alligator sold for only $50, bagging the Memphis brought in $510,000 ($7,979,872 today) (about what 40 civilian workers could earn in a lifetime of work). In four years, $25 million in prize money was awarded.
While a large proportion of blockade runners did manage to evade the Union ships, as the blockade matured, the type of ship most likely to find success in evading the naval cordon was a small, light ship with a short draft -- qualities that facilitated blockade running but were poorly suited to carrying large amounts of heavy weaponry, metals, and other supplies badly needed by the South. To be successful in helping the Confederacy, a blockade runner had to make many trips; eventually, most were captured or sunk. Nonetheless, five out of six attempts to evade the Union blockade were successful. During the war, some 1,500 blockade runners were captured or destroyed.
Ordinary freighters were too slow and visible to escape the Navy. The blockade runners therefore relied mainly on new steamships built in Britain with low profiles, shallow draft, and high speed. Their paddle - wheels, driven by steam engines that burned smokeless anthracite coal, could make 17 kn (31 km / h; 20 mph). Because the South lacked sufficient sailors, skippers and shipbuilding capability, the runners were built, commanded and manned by British officers and sailors. Private British investors spent perhaps £ 50 million on the runners ($250 million in U.S. dollars, equivalent to about $2.5 billion in 2006 dollars). The pay was high: a Royal Navy officer on leave might earn several thousand dollars (in gold) in salary and bonus per round trip, with ordinary seamen earning several hundred dollars.
The blockade runners were based in the British islands of Bermuda and the Bahamas, or Havana, in Spanish Cuba. The goods they carried were brought to these places by ordinary cargo ships, and loaded onto the runners. The runners then ran the gauntlet between their bases and Confederate ports, some 500 -- 700 mi (800 -- 1,130 km) apart. On each trip, a runner carried several hundred tons of compact, high - value cargo such as cotton, turpentine or tobacco outbound, and rifles, medicine, brandy, lingerie and coffee inbound. Often they also carried mail. They charged from $300 to $1,000 per ton of cargo brought in; two round trips a month would generate perhaps $250,000 in revenue (and $80,000 in wages and expenses).
Blockade runners preferred to run past the Union Navy at night, either on moonless nights, before the moon rose, or after it set. As they approached the coastline, the ships showed no lights, and sailors were prohibited from smoking. Likewise, Union warships covered all their lights, except perhaps a faint light on the commander 's ship. If a Union warship discovered a blockade runner, it fired signal rockets in the direction of its course to alert other ships. The runners adapted to such tactics by firing their own rockets in different directions to confuse Union warships.
In November 1864, a wholesaler in Wilmington asked his agent in the Bahamas to stop sending so much chloroform and instead send "essence of cognac '' because that perfume would sell "quite high ''. Confederate patriots held rich blockade runners in contempt for profiteering on luxuries while the soldiers were in rags. On the other hand, their bravery and initiative were necessary for the nation 's survival, and many women in the back country flaunted imported $10 gewgaws and $50 hats as patriotic proof that the "damn yankees '' had failed to isolate them from the outer world. The government in Richmond, Virginia, eventually regulated the traffic, requiring half the imports to be munitions; it even purchased and operated some runners on its own account and made sure they loaded vital war goods. By 1864, Lee 's soldiers were eating imported meat. Blockade running was reasonably safe for both sides. It was not illegal under international law; captured foreign sailors were released, while Confederates went to prison camps. The ships were unarmed (the weight of cannon would slow them down), so they posed no danger to the Navy warships.
One example of the lucrative (and short - lived) nature of the blockade running trade was the ship Banshee, which operated out of Nassau and Bermuda. She was captured on her seventh run into Wilmington, North Carolina, and confiscated by the U.S. Navy for use as a blockading ship. However, at the time of her capture, she had turned a 700 % profit for her English owners, who quickly commissioned and built Banshee No. 2, which soon joined the firm 's fleet of blockade runners.
In May 1865, CSS Lark became the last Confederate ship to slip out of a Southern port and successfully evade the Union blockade when she left Galveston, Texas, for Havana.
The Union blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of very few lives. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Ordinary freighters had no reasonable hope of evading the blockade and stopped calling at Southern ports. The interdiction of coastal traffic meant that long - distance travel depended on the rickety railroad system, which never overcame the devastating impact of the blockade. Throughout the war, the South produced enough food for civilians and soldiers, but it had growing difficulty in moving surpluses to areas of scarcity and famine. Lee 's army, at the end of the supply line, nearly always was short of supplies as the war progressed into its final two years.
When the blockade began in 1861, it was only partially effective. It has been estimated that only one in ten ships trying to evade the blockade were intercepted. However, the Union Navy gradually increased in size throughout the war, and was able to drastically reduce shipments into Confederate ports. By 1864, one in every three ships attempting to run the blockade were being intercepted. In the final two years of the war, the only ships with a reasonable chance of evading the blockade were blockade runners specifically designed for speed.
The blockade almost totally choked off Southern cotton exports, which the Confederacy depended on for hard currency. Cotton exports fell 95 %, from 10 million bales in the three years prior to the war to just 500,000 bales during the blockade period. The blockade also largely reduced imports of food, medicine, war materials, manufactured goods, and luxury items, resulting in severe shortages and inflation. Shortages of bread led to occasional bread riots in Richmond and other cities, showing that patriotism was not sufficient to satisfy the daily demands of the people. Land routes remained open for cattle drovers, but after the Union seized control of the Mississippi River in summer 1863, it became impossible to ship horses, cattle and swine from Texas and Arkansas to the eastern Confederacy. The blockade was a triumph of the Union Navy and a major factor in winning the war.
The southern cotton industry began to heavily influence the British economy. On the eve of the war, 1,390,938,752 pounds weight of cotton were imported into Great Britain in 1860. Of this, the United States supplied 1,115,890,608 pounds, or about five - sixths of the whole. Not only was Great Britain aware of the impact of Southern cotton, but so was the South. They were confident that their industry held large power, so much, that they referred to their industry as "King Cotton. '' This slogan was used to declare its supremacy in America. On the floor of the U.S. Senate, Senator James Henry Hammond declaimed (March 4, 1858): "You dare not make war upon cotton! No power on earth dares make war upon it. Cotton is king. '' The South proclaimed that many domestic and even some international markets depended so heavily on their cotton, that no one would dare spark tensions with the South. They also viewed this slogan as their reasoning behind why they should achieve their efforts in seceding from the Union. The Southern Cotton industry was so confident in the power of cotton diplomacy, that without warning, they refused to export cotton for one day.
Imagining an overwhelming response of pleas for their cotton, the Southern cotton industry experienced quite the opposite. With the decisions of Lincoln and the lack of intervention on Great Britain 's part, the South was officially blockaded. Following the U.S. announcement of its intention to establish an official blockade of Confederate ports, foreign governments began to recognize the Confederacy as a belligerent in the Civil War. Great Britain declared belligerent status on May 13, 1861, followed by Spain on June 17 and Brazil on August 1. This was the first glimpse of failure for the Confederate South.
The decision to blockade Southern port cities took a large toll on the British economy but they weighed their consequences. Great Britain had a good amount of cotton stored up in warehouses in several locations that would provide for their textile needs for some time. But eventually Great Britain began to see the effects of the blockade, "the blockade had a negative impact on the economies of other countries. Textile manufacturing areas in Britain and France that depended on Southern cotton entered periods of high unemployment... '' in the so - called Lancashire Cotton Famine. The article written in the New York Times further proves that Great Britain was aware of the influence of cotton in their empire, "Nearly one million of operatives are employed in the manufacture of cotton in Great Britain, upon whom, at least five or six millions more depend for their daily subsistence. It is no exaggeration to say, that one - quarter of the inhabitants of England are directly dependent upon the supply of cotton for their living. '' Despite these consequences, Great Britain concluded that their decision was crucial in terms of reaching abolition of slavery in the United States.
The Confederacy constructed torpedo boats, tending to be small, fast steam launches equipped with spar torpedoes, to attack the blockading fleet. Some torpedo boats were refitted steam launches; others, such as the CSS David class, were purpose - built. The torpedo boats tried to attack under cover of night by ramming the spar torpedo into the hull of the blockading ship, then backing off and detonating the explosive. The torpedo boats were not very effective and were easily countered by simple measures such as hanging chains over the sides of ships to foul the screws of the torpedo boats, or encircling the ships with wooden booms to trap the torpedoes at a distance.
One historically notable naval action was the attack of the Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley, a hand - powered submarine launched from Charleston, South Carolina, against Union blockade ships. On the night of 17 February 1864, Hunley attacked Housatonic. The Housatonic sank with the loss of five crew; the Hunley also sank, taking her crew of eight to the bottom.
The first victory for the U.S. Navy during the early phases of the blockade occurred on 24 April 1861, when the sloop Cumberland and a small flotilla of support ships began seizing Confederate ships and privateers in the vicinity of Fort Monroe off the Virginia coastline. Within the next two weeks, Flag Officer Garrett J. Pendergrast had captured 16 enemy vessels, serving early notice to the Confederate War Department that the blockade would be effective if extended.
Early battles in support of the blockade included the Blockade of the Chesapeake Bay, from May to June 1861, and the Blockade of the Carolina Coast, August -- December 1861. Both enabled the Union Navy to gradually extend its blockade southward along the Atlantic seaboard.
In early March 1862, the blockade of the James River in Virginia was gravely threatened by the first ironclad, CSS Virginia in the dramatic Battle of Hampton Roads. Only the timely entry of the new Union ironclad Monitor forestalled the threat. Two months later, Virginia and other ships of the James River Squadron were scuttled in response to the Union Army and Navy advances.
The port of Savannah, Georgia was effectively sealed by the reduction and surrender of Fort Pulaski on 11 April.
The largest Confederate port, New Orleans, Louisiana, was ill - suited to blockade running since the channels could be sealed by the U.S. Navy. From 16 -- 22 April, the major forts below the city, Forts Jackson and St. Philip were bombarded by David Dixon Porter 's mortar schooners. On 22 April, Flag Officer David Farragut 's fleet cleared a passage through the obstructions. The fleet successfully ran past the forts on the morning of 24 April. This forced the surrender of the forts and New Orleans.
The Battle of Mobile Bay on 5 August 1864 closed the last major Confederate port in the Gulf of Mexico.
In December 1864, Union Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles sent a force against Fort Fisher, which protected the Confederacy 's access to the Atlantic from Wilmington, North Carolina, the last open Confederate port. The first attack failed, but with a change in tactics (and Union generals), the fort fell in January 1865, closing the last major Confederate port.
As the Union fleet grew in size, speed and sophistication, more ports came under Federal control. After 1862, only three ports -- Wilmington, North Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; and Mobile, Alabama -- remained open for the 75 -- 100 blockade runners in business. Charleston was shut down by Admiral John A. Dahlgren 's South Atlantic Blockading Squadron in 1863. Mobile Bay was captured in August 1864 by Admiral David Farragut. Blockade runners faced an increasing risk of capture -- in 1861 and 1862, one sortie in 9 ended in capture; in 1863 and 1864, one in three. By war 's end, imports had been choked to a trickle as the number of captures came to 50 % of the sorties. Some 1,100 blockade runners were captured (and another 300 destroyed). British investors frequently made the mistake of reinvesting their profits in the trade; when the war ended they were stuck with useless ships and rapidly depreciating cotton. In the final accounting, perhaps half the investors took a profit, and half a loss.
The Union victory at Vicksburg, Mississippi, in July 1863 opened up the Mississippi River and effectively cut off the western Confederacy as a source of troops and supplies. The fall of Fort Fisher and the city of Wilmington, North Carolina, early in 1865 closed the last major port for blockade runners, and in quick succession Richmond was evacuated, the Army of Northern Virginia disintegrated, and General Lee surrendered. Thus, most economists give the Union blockade a prominent role in the outcome of the war. (Elekund, 2004)
The Union naval ships enforcing the blockade were divided into squadrons based on their area of operation.
The Atlantic Blockading Squadron was a unit of the United States Navy created in the early days of the American Civil War to enforce a blockade of the ports of the Confederate States. It was originally formed in 1861 as the Coast Blockading Squadron before being renamed May 17, 1861. It was split the same year for the creation of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron and the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron.
The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron was based at Hampton Roads, Virginia, and was tasked with coverage of Virginia and North Carolina. Its official range of operation was from the Potomac River to Cape Fear in North Carolina. It was tasked primarily with preventing Confederate ships from supplying troops and with supporting Union troops. It was created when the Atlantic Blockading Squadron was split between the North and South Atlantic Blockading Squadrons on 29 October 1861. After the end of the war, the squadron was merged into the Atlantic Squadron on 25 July 1865.
The South Atlantic Blockading Squadron was tasked primarily with preventing Confederate ships from supplying troops and with supporting Union troops operating between Cape Henry in Virginia down to Key West in Florida. It was created when the Atlantic Blockading Squadron was split between the North and South Atlantic Blockading Squadrons on 29 October 1861. After the end of the war, the squadron was merged into the Atlantic Squadron on 25 July 1865.
The Gulf Blockading Squadron was a squadron of the United States Navy in the early part of the War, patrolling from Key West to the Mexican border. The squadron was the largest in operation. It was split into the East and West Gulf Blockading Squadrons in early 1862 for more efficiency.
The East Gulf Blockading Squadron, assigned the Florida coast from east of Pensacola to Cape Canaveral, was a minor command. The squadron was headquartered in Key West and was supported by a U.S. Navy coal depot and storehouse built during 1856 - 61.
The West Gulf Blockading Squadron was tasked primarily with preventing Confederate ships from supplying troops and with supporting Union troops along the western half of the Gulf Coast, from the mouth of the Mississippi to the Rio Grande and south, beyond the border with Mexico. It was created early in 1862 when the Gulf Blockading Squadron was split between the East and West. This unit was the main military force deployed by the Union in the capture and brief occupation of Galveston, Texas in 1862.
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which african kingdom was not conquered during the scramble for africa | Scramble for Africa - wikipedia
The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and Liberia still being independent. There were multiple motivations including the quest for national prestige, tensions between pairs of European powers, religious missionary zeal and internal African native politics.
The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the ultimate point of the scramble for Africa. Consequent to the political and economic rivalries among the European empires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning, or splitting up of Africa was how the Europeans avoided warring amongst themselves over Africa. The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism '' (hegemony), by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule, bringing about colonial imperialism.
By 1840 European powers had established small trading posts along the coast, but seldom moved inland. In the middle decades of the 19th century, European explorers had mapped areas of East Africa and Central Africa.
Even as late as the 1870s, European states still controlled only ten percent of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coast. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control.
Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steamships, railways and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans.
Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism '', was also attractive to Europe 's ruling elites for economic, political and social reasons. During a time when Britain 's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873 -- 96), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall.
Surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials, especially copper, cotton, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. Additionally, Britain wanted the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India. However, in Africa -- excluding the area which became the Union of South Africa in 1910 -- the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents. Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes 's De Beers Mining Company. Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself; Léopold II of Belgium later, and with considerable brutality, exploited the Congo Free State.
These events might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbyists such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets. John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism '' period. William Easterly, however, disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism, arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state - led development rather than "corporate '' development. He has stated that "imperialism is not so clearly linked to capitalism and the free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism / imperialism and state - led approaches to development. ''
The rivalry between Britain, France, Germany, and the other European powers accounts for a large part of the colonization.
While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond - rich southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was under political pressure to secure lucrative markets against encroaching rivals in China and its eastern colonies, most notably India, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it was crucial to secure the key waterway between East and West -- the Suez Canal. However, a theory that Britain sought to annex East Africa during the 1880 onwards, out of geostrategic concerns connected to Egypt (especially the Suez Canal), has been challenged by historians such as John Darwin (1997) and Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).
The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for the acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defense bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal.
Colonies were also seen as assets in "balance of power '' negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of British Indian and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would do so again in the coming World Wars). In the age of nationalism there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness '' became linked with the sense of duty underlying many nations ' strategies.
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the Kingdom of Kongo for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have it as his personal Congo Free State (see section below). France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German - Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal fealty to the Ottoman Empire), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection; and France occupied Guinea. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa in 1910.
Germany was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, but would eagerly participate in this race. Fragmented in various states, Germany was only unified under Prussia 's rule after the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz and the 1870 Franco - Prussian War. A rising industrial power close on the heels of Britain, Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s. After isolating France by the Dual Alliance with Austria - Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference, which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Weltpolitik (world policy) was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, with the aim of transforming Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy.
Some Germans, claiming themselves of Friedrich List 's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and Timor; others proposed to set themselves up in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. At the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy, backed by mercantilist thesis. In 1881, Hübbe - Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent overseas policy ''. Pan-Germanism was thus linked to the young nation 's imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Generally, Bismarck was opposed to widespread German colonialism, but he had to resign at the insistence of the new German Emperor Wilhelm II on 18 March 1890. Wilhelm II instead adopted a very aggressive policy of colonisation and colonial expansion.
Germany 's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second - largest naval force in the world (roughly three - fifths the size of the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, implying that imperialism was supported by the rising middle classes.
Germany became the third - largest colonial power in Africa. Nearly all of its overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometres and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914 was found in its African possessions of Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the British Empire, Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France 's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the Agadir Crisis in 1911. Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and Britain, this succession of international crises reveals the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialist nations, which ultimately led to World War I.
Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. Following its defeat in the First Italo -- Ethiopian War (1895 -- 1896), it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889 -- 90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). In 1919 Enrico Corradini -- who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF) -- developed the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimise Italy 's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism:
We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject... to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.
The Second Italo - Abyssinian War (1935 -- 36), ordered by the Fascist Benito Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonise a foreign country, as opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia -- which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia.
David Livingstone 's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley, excited imaginations with Stanley 's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the International African Association (the Congo Society). From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State. Léopold II personally owned the colony from 1885 and used it as a source of ivory and rubber.
While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the Franco - Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today 's Republic of the Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society 's access to the Atlantic.
By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated its control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville, and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At the same time, the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes was expanding north from the Limpopo River, sending the Pioneer Column (guided by Frederick Selous) through Matabeleland, and starting a colony in Mashonaland.
To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was Katanga, site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri. Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area, and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves -- and rumors of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga was a prime example of the period. Rhodes and the BSAC sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe, who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson, who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four CFS expeditions. First, the Le Marinel Expedition could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The Delcommune Expedition was rebuffed. The well - armed Stairs Expedition was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri 's consent. Msiri refused, was shot, and the expedition cut off his head and stuck it on a pole as a "barbaric lesson '' to the people. The Bia Expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence '' in Katanga. Thus, the half million square kilometers of Katanga came into Leopold 's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a terror regime on the colonised people, including mass killings and forced labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association, ended Leopold II 's rule and annexed it in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo.
The brutality of King Leopold II of Belgium in his former colony of the Congo Free State, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908. According to the former Irish diplomat Roger Casement, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war '', starvation, reduction of births and diseases. Sleeping sickness ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.
Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Casement 's report set it at three million. William Rubinstein wrote: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible. '' See Congo Free State for further details including numbers of victims.
A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring French Congo. Most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50 percent of the indigenous population. The French government appointed a commission, headed by de Brazza, in 1905 to investigate the rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical '' report was neither acted upon nor released to the public. In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced labourers died building a railroad through the French territory.
French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, in 1854 -- 56, to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000, but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera. Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under its Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt 's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate, and installing his eldest son Tewfik Pasha in his place. The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention.
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, severing Tewfik 's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his own Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi Revolt. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain 's administration of Egypt. A joint British - Egyptian military force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898. Thereafter, Britain (rather than Egypt) seized effective control of Sudan.
The occupation of Egypt, and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided.
Britain 's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was overrun by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never an actual colony); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal) in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years. In 1879, after the Anglo - Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880 -- 81). British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self - government to the Boers in the Transvaal. The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the Johannesburg Reform Committee to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War, fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of the gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (or Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.
The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a huge desert covering most of present - day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from the Niger River to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin.
The Sudan (which in those days included most of present - day Uganda) was the key to the fulfillment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This "red line '' through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner, the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo '' empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral - rich Southern part of the continent by rail. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling African empire.
If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes 's dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea.
A French force under Jean - Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899, the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.
Although the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists. The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the British Empire on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, which countered the influence of the European powers of the Triple Alliance. As a result, the new German Empire decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield.
Thus, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France 's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser 's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation - minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up until the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906.
The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present, the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria - Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, the US, Russia, Italy and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas.
However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain 's naval supremacy -- the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther 's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic.
The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France 's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911 a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France 's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).
France and Spain subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (30 March 1912), ending what remained of the country 's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo - German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War.
Following the Berlin Conference at the end of the 19th century, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands owned by the Somalis such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate and the Gobroon Dynasty.
The Dervish movement was a state established by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader who gathered Muslim soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and united them into a loyal army known as the Dervishes. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands sought after by the Ethiopians and the European powers. The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish movement was recognised as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.
After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain 's use of aircraft.
Between 1904 and 1908, Germany 's colonies in German South - West Africa and German East Africa were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories the threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large - scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the Herero rebels in German South - West Africa being defeated at the Battle of Waterberg and the Maji - Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to guerrilla warfare. German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South - West Africa then resulted in a genocide of the population.
In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80 % of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50 % of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as Shark Island Concentration Camp between 1904 and 1908. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of the population 's wells whilst they were trapped in the Namib Desert.
In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as Gladstone, opposed colonisation in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885 he could not resist the colonial lobby in his cabinet, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism '' (John A. Hobson). In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonisation was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges '' mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace - Lorraine region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry 's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted the unity of the nation state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonised people, as they may be considered as "citizens '' of the nation state, and the imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonising countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration when left to itself; as described in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness (1899) -- published around the same time as Kipling 's The White Man 's Burden -- or in Louis - Ferdinand Céline 's Journey to the End of the Night (1932).
Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimise the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain, the middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market 's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like Enrico Corradini claimed a "place in the sun '' for so - called "proletarian nations '', bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism.
However, by the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural '' populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos '' could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (visited by René Caillié, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin 's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892.
Geoffroy de Saint - Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organise two "ethnological spectacles '', presenting Nubians and Inuit. The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions '' were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation. "Negro villages '' would be presented in Paris ' 1878 and 1879 World 's Fair; the 1900 World 's Fair presented the famous diorama "living '' in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes. Nomadic "Senegalese villages '' were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.
In the US, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link '' in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris "Exposition coloniale ''.
From the beginning of the 20th century onward, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, Africa saw the biggest increase in its population due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to peace, famine relief, medicine, and above all, the end or decline of the slave trade. Africa 's population has grown from 120 million in 1900 to over 1 billion today.
The continuing anti-slavery movement in Europe became a reason and an excuse for the conquest and colonization of the Africa. It was the central theme of the Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889 - 90. During the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus of all colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. In French West Africa, following conquest and abolition by the French, over a million slaves fled from their masters to earlier homes between 1906 and 1911. In Madagascar, the French abolished slavery in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed. Slavery was abolished in the French controlled Sahel by 1911. Independent nations attempting to westernize or impress Europe sometimes cultivated an image of slavery suppression. In response to European pressure, the Sokoto Caliphate abolished slavery in 1900 and Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932. Colonial powers were mostly successful in abolishing slavery, though slavery remained active in Africa even though it has gradually moved to a wage economy. Slavery was never fully eradicated in Africa.
During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the 19th century, Europe added almost 9,000,000 square miles (23,000,000 km) -- one - fifth of the land area of the globe -- to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe 's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el - Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. Between 1885 and 1914, Britain took nearly 30 % of Africa 's population under its control; 15 % for France, 11 % for Portugal, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for Italy. Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long - standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa '', reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.
The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies '' bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimise the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into World War I. Austria - Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilise to assist allied Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria - Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realise the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade and quickly knock France out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Britain into the war against Germany, Austria - Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become World War I. Moreover, using the Anglo - Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in the Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino - Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually World War II.
After the First World War, Germany 's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).
Later, during the Interwar period, with the Second Italo - Ethiopian War Italy would annex Ethiopia, which formed together with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana '', also defined by the fascist government as L'Impero).
The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape - Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.
Liberia was the only nation in Africa that was a colony and a protectorate of the United States. Liberia was founded, colonised, established and controlled by the American Colonization Society, a private organisation established in order to relocate freed African - American and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1821. Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia is Africa 's oldest democratic republic, and the second - oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti).
Ethiopia maintained its independence from Italy after the Battle of Adwa which resulted in the Treaty of Addis Ababa. With the exception of the occupation between 1936 and 1941 by Benito Mussolini 's military forces, Ethiopia is Africa 's oldest independent nation.
The new scramble for Africa began with the emergence of the Afro - Neo-Liberal capitalist movement in Post-Colonial Africa. When African nations began to gain independence during the Post World War II Era, their post colonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation 's economy relied on cash crops or natural resources. The decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers due to structurally - dependent economic relations. Structural adjustment programs led to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market. The economic decline in the 1990s fostered democratization by the World Bank intervening in the political and economic affairs of Africa once again. All of these factors led to Africa 's forced development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.
In the era of globalization, many African countries have emerged as petro - states (for example Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil - rich African nations. Numerous countries have entered into a neo-imperial relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that "material and symbolic appropriation of space (is) central to imperial expansion and control ''; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neo-imperialism. Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa 's highly competitive oil sector. China National Petroleum Corporation purchased 40 % of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, Sudan exports 50 -- 60 % of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7 % of China 's imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.
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what does teredo tunneling on a windows os allow you to do | Teredo tunneling - wikipedia
In computer networking, Teredo is a transition technology that gives full IPv6 connectivity for IPv6 - capable hosts that are on the IPv4 Internet but have no native connection to an IPv6 network. Unlike similar protocols, it can perform its function even from behind network address translation (NAT) devices such as home routers.
Teredo operates using a platform independent tunneling protocol that provides IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) connectivity by encapsulating IPv6 datagram packets within IPv4 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) packets. Teredo routes these datagrams on the IPv4 Internet and through NAT devices. Teredo nodes elsewhere on the IPv6 network (called Teredo relays) receive the packets, un-encapsulate them, and pass them on.
Teredo is a temporary measure. In the long term, all IPv6 hosts should use native IPv6 connectivity. Teredo should be disabled when native IPv6 connectivity becomes available. Christian Huitema developed Teredo at Microsoft, and the IETF standardized it as RFC 4380. The Teredo server listens on UDP port 3544.
6to4, the most common IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling protocol, requires that the tunnel endpoint have a public IPv4 address. However, many hosts currently attach to the IPv4 Internet through one or several NAT devices, usually because of IPv4 address shortage. In such a situation, the only available public IPv4 address is assigned to the NAT device, and the 6to4 tunnel endpoint must be implemented on the NAT device itself. Many NAT devices currently deployed, however, can not be upgraded to implement 6to4, for technical or economic reasons.
Teredo alleviates this problem by encapsulating IPv6 packets within UDP / IPv4 datagrams, which most NATs can forward properly. Thus, IPv6 - aware hosts behind NATs can serve as Teredo tunnel endpoints even when they do n't have a dedicated public IPv4 address. In effect, a host that implements Teredo can gain IPv6 connectivity with no cooperation from the local network environment.
In the long term, all IPv6 hosts should use native IPv6 connectivity. The temporary Teredo protocol includes provisions for a sunset procedure: Teredo implementation should provide a way to stop using Teredo connectivity when IPv6 matures and connectivity becomes available using a less brittle mechanism. As of IETF89, Microsoft plans to deactivate their Teredo servers for Windows clients in the first half of 2014 (exact date TBD), and encourage the deactivation of publicly operated Teredo relays.
The Teredo protocol performs several functions:
Teredo defines several different kinds of nodes:
Each Teredo client is assigned a public IPv6 address, which is constructed as follows (the higher order bit is numbered 0):
Teredo IPv6 addressing table
As an example, the IPv6 address 2001: 0000: 4136: e378: 8000: 63bf: 3fff: fdd2 refers to a Teredo client that:
Teredo IPv6 example table
Teredo clients use Teredo servers to autodetect the kind of NAT they are behind (if any), through a simplified STUN - like qualification procedure. Teredo clients also maintain a binding on their NAT toward their Teredo server by sending a UDP packet at regular intervals. That ensures that the server can always contact any of its clients -- which is required for NAT hole punching to work properly.
If a Teredo relay (or another Teredo client) must send an IPv6 packet to a Teredo client, it first sends a Teredo bubble packet to the client 's Teredo server, whose IP address it infers from the Teredo IPv6 address of the Teredo client. The server then forwards the bubble to the client, so the Teredo client software knows it must do hole punching toward the Teredo relay.
Teredo servers can also transmit ICMPv6 packet from Teredo clients toward the IPv6 Internet. In practice, when a Teredo client wants to contact a native IPv6 node, it must locate the corresponding Teredo relay, i.e., to which public IPv4 and UDP port number to send encapsulated IPv6 packets. To do that, the client crafts an ICMPv6 Echo Request (ping) toward the IPv6 node, and sends it through its configured Teredo server. The Teredo server de-capsulates the ping onto the IPv6 Internet, so that the ping should eventually reach the IPv6 node. The IPv6 node should then reply with an ICMPv6 Echo Reply, as mandated by RFC 2460. This reply packet is routed to the closest Teredo relay, which -- finally -- tries to contact the Teredo client.
Maintaining a Teredo server requires little bandwidth, because they are not involved in actual transmission and reception of IPv6 traffic packets. Also, it does not involve any access to the Internet routing protocols. The only requirements for a Teredo server are:
Public Teredo servers:
A Teredo relay potentially requires much network bandwidth. Also, it must export (advertise) a route toward the Teredo IPv6 prefix (2001:: / 32) to other IPv6 hosts. That way, the Teredo relay receives traffic from the IPv6 hosts addressed to any Teredo client, and forwards it over UDP / IPv4. Symmetrically, it receives packets from Teredo clients addressed to native IPv6 hosts over UDP / IPv4 and injects those into the native IPv6 network.
In practice, network administrators can set up a private Teredo relay for their company or campus. This provides a short path between their IPv6 network and any Teredo client. However, setting up a Teredo relay on a scale beyond that of a single network requires the ability to export BGP IPv6 routes to the other autonomous systems (AS 's).
Unlike 6to4, where the two halves of a connection can use different relays, traffic between a native IPv6 host and a Teredo client uses the same Teredo relay, namely the one closest to the native IPv6 host network-wise. The Teredo client can not localize a relay by itself (since it can not send IPv6 packets by itself). If it needs to initiate a connection to a native IPv6 host, it sends the first packet through the Teredo server, which sends a packet to the native IPv6 host using the client 's Teredo IPv6 address. The native IPv6 host then responds as usual to the client 's Teredo IPv6 address, which eventually causes the packet to find a Teredo relay, which initiates a connection to the client (possibly using the Teredo server for NAT piercing). The Teredo Client and native IPv6 host then use the relay for communication as long as they need to. This design means that neither the Teredo server nor client needs to know the IPv4 address of any Teredo relays. They find a suitable one automatically via the global IPv6 routing table, since all Teredo relays advertise the network 2001:: / 32.
On March 30, 2006, Italian ISP ITGate was the first AS to start advertising a route toward 2001:: / 32 on the IPv6 Internet, so that RFC 4380 - compliant Teredo implementations would be fully usable. As of 16 February 2007, it is no longer functional.
In Q1 2009, IPv6 backbone Hurricane Electric enabled 14 Teredo relays in an anycast implementation and advertising 2001:: / 32 globally. The relays were located in Seattle, Fremont, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, Toronto, New York, Ashburn, Miami, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, and Hong Kong.
It is expected that large network operators will maintain Teredo relays. As with 6to4, it remains unclear how well the Teredo service will scale up if a large proportion of Internet hosts start using IPv6 through Teredo in addition to IPv4. While Microsoft has operated a set of Teredo servers since they released the first Teredo pseudo-tunnel for Windows XP, they have never provided a Teredo relay service for the IPv6 Internet as a whole.
Teredo is not compatible with all NAT devices. Using the terminology of RFC 3489, it supports full cone, restricted, and port - restricted NAT devices, but does not support symmetric NATs. The original Shipworm specification that led to the final Teredo protocol also supported symmetric NATs, but dropped that due to security concerns.
People at the National Chiao Tung University in Taiwan later proposed SymTeredo, which enhanced the original Teredo protocol to support symmetric NATs, and the Microsoft and Miredo implementations implement certain unspecified non-standard extensions to improve support for symmetric NATs. However, connectivity between a Teredo client behind a symmetric NAT, and a Teredo client behind a port - restricted or symmetric NAT remains seemingly impossible.
Teredo assumes that when two clients exchange encapsulated IPv6 packets, the mapped / external UDP port numbers they use are the same that are used to contact the Teredo server (and build the Teredo IPv6 address). Without this assumption, it would not be possible to establish a direct communication between the two clients, and a costly relay would have to perform triangular routing. A Teredo implementation tries to detect the type of NAT at startup, and refuses to operate if the NAT appears symmetric. (This limitation can sometimes be worked around by manually configuring a port forwarding rule on the NAT box, which requires administrative access to the device).
Teredo can only provide a single IPv6 address per tunnel endpoint. As such, it is not possible to use a single Teredo tunnel to connect multiple hosts, unlike 6to4 and some point - to - point IPv6 tunnels. The bandwidth available to all Teredo clients toward the IPv6 Internet is limited by the availability of Teredo relays, which are no different than 6to4 relays in that respect.
6to4 requires a public IPv4 address, but provides a large 48 - bit IPv6 prefix for each tunnel endpoint, and has a lower encapsulation overhead. Point - to - point tunnels can be more reliable and are more accountable than Teredo, and typically provides permanent IPv6 addresses that do not depend on the IPv4 address of the tunnel endpoint. Some point - to - point tunnel brokers also support UDP encapsulation to traverse NATs (for instance, the AYIYA protocol can do this). On the other hand, point - to - point tunnels normally require registration. Automated tools (for instance AICCU) make it easy to use Point - to - Point tunnels.
Teredo increases the attack surface by assigning globally routable IPv6 addresses to network hosts behind NAT devices, which could otherwise be unreachable from the Internet. By doing so, Teredo potentially exposes any IPv6 - enabled application with an open port to the outside. Teredo tunnel encapsulation can mask the contents of the IPv6 data traffic from packet inspection, enabling the spread of both IPv6 and even some IPv4 malware. US CERT has published a paper, on the risks of malware using IPv6 tunneling. Teredo also exposes the IPv6 stack and the tunneling software to attacks should they have any remotely exploitable vulnerability.
The Microsoft IPv6 stack has a "protection level '' socket option. This allows applications to specify whether they are willing to handle traffic coming from the Teredo tunnel, from anywhere except Teredo (the default), or only from the local Intranet.
The Teredo protocol also encapsulates detailed information about the tunnel 's endpoint in its data packets.
For a Teredo pseudo-tunnel to operate properly, outgoing UDP packets must be unfiltered. Moreover, replies to these packets (i.e., "solicited traffic '') must also be unfiltered. This corresponds to the typical setup of a NAT and its stateful firewall functionality. Teredo tunneling software detects a fatal error and stops if outgoing IPv4 UDP traffic is blocked. Also, blocking of outgoing traffic to UDP port 3544 can interfere with Teredo activity.
Recently, new methods to create denial of service attacks via routing loops that use Teredo tunnels have been uncovered. They are relatively easy to prevent.
Enabled by Default
Current versions, of Microsoft operating systems enable IPv6 transitional technologies, including Teredo, by default. Disabling these transitional technologies is possible, from a command prompt, by registry edit, or using group policy, if IPv6 is not implemented, on the corporate network. Due to Microsoft 's default enabled, for IPv6 and related transitional technologies, non-obvious configuration settings are needed, in fresh Windows OS installations, to avoid the growing threat, of IPv6 enabled malware.
Several implementations of Teredo are currently available:
The initial nickname of the Teredo tunneling protocol was shipworm. The idea was that the protocol would pierce holes through NAT devices, much like the shipworms bore tunnels through wood. Shipworms are responsible for the loss of very many wooden hulls, but Christian Huitema, in the original draft, noted that, "The animal only survives in relatively clean and unpolluted water; its recent comeback in several Northern American harbors is a testimony to their newly retrieved cleanliness. Similarly, by piercing holes through NAT, the service would contribute to a newly retrieved transparency of the Internet. ''
Christian Huitema changed the name to Teredo to avoid confusion with computer worms. Teredo navalis is the Latin name of one of the best known species of shipworm.
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what is the average income of saudi arabia | Economy of Saudi Arabia - Wikipedia
The economy of Saudi Arabia is dependent on oil and has strong government control over major economic activities. The Saudi economy is the largest in the Arab world. Saudi Arabia has the world 's second - largest proven petroleum reserves and the country is the largest exporter of petroleum. It has also the fifth - largest proven natural gas reserves. Saudi Arabia is considered an "energy superpower ''. It has third highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US $34.4 trillion in 2016.
Saudi oil reserves are the second largest in the world, and Saudi Arabia is the world 's leading oil exporter and second largest producer. Proven reserves, according to figures provided by the Saudi government, are estimated to be 260 billion barrels (41 km), which is about one - quarter of world oil reserves. Petroleum in Saudi Arabia is not only plentiful but under pressure and close to the earth 's surface. This makes it far cheaper and thus far more profitable to extract petroleum in Saudi Arabia than in many other places. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 87 % of Saudi budget revenues, 90 % of export earnings, and 42 % of GDP. Saudi Arabia 's oil reserves and production are largely managed by the state - owned corporation Saudi Aramco.
Another 40 % of GDP comes from the private sector. An estimated 7.5 (2013) million foreigners work legally in Saudi Arabia, playing a crucial role in the Saudi economy, for example, in the oil and service sectors. The government has encouraged private sector growth for many years to lessen the kingdom 's dependence on oil, and to increase employment opportunities for the swelling Saudi population. In recent decades the government has begun to permit private sector and foreign investor participation in sectors such as power generation and telecom, and acceded to the WTO. During much of the 2000s, high oil prices enabled the government to post budget surpluses, boost spending on job training and education, infrastructure development, and government salaries.
With its absolute monarchy system of government, large state sector and supply of welfare benefits, the Saudi economy has been described as
a bewildering (at least to outsiders) combination of a feudal fealty system and a more modern political patronage one. At every level in every sphere of activity, Saudis maneuver through life manipulating individual privileges, favors, obligations, and connections. By the same token, the government bureaucracy is a maze of overlapping or conflicting power center under the patronage of various royal princes with their own priorities and agendas to pursue and dependents to satisfy.
The gross domestic product of Saudi Arabia fluctuates dramatically according to the price of oil (see below).
Market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and other sources, with figures in millions of Saudi Arabian Riyals (SR). Mean wages were $14.74 per man - hour in 2009.
Saudi Arabia was a subsistence economy until the 1930s. In 1933, the Saudi government signed an oil concession agreement with Standard Oil Company of California. Development of oil fields continued in Saudi Arabia, managed mainly by Aramco, company formed by the partnership of Texaco and Chevron. By 1949, Saudi oil production reached 500,000 bpd, and rose rapidly to 1 million bpd in 1954. In 1960, OPEC was created with Saudi Arabia as one of its founding members. During the 1973 oil crisis, the price of oil rose from $3 per barrel to nearly $12, and the Saudi economy began to grow rapidly, with GDP increasing from approximately $15 billion in 1973, to approximately $184 billion by 1981. After gradually purchasing Aramco 's assets, the Saudi government nationalized the company in 1980. In 1988, Saudi Aramco was established to take over the responsibilities of Aramco.
In 1980, the price of oil peaked, and demand began to fall as a result of recessions in industrialized nations and more efficient use of oil which produced surpluses. This created a worldwide oil glut, with the price of oil dropping from approximately $36 per barrel in 1980, to approximately $14 by 1986. Saudi oil production, which had increased to almost 10 million barrels (1,600,000 m) per day during 1980 -- 81, dropped to about 2 million barrels per day (320,000 m / d) in 1985. Budgetary deficits developed, and the government drew down its foreign assets. As a result of the oil glut and the pressures of declines in production, after 1985 Saudi Arabia began enforcing production quotas more harshly for OPEC members.
In June 1993, Saudi Aramco absorbed the state marketing and refining company (SAMAREC), becoming the world 's largest fully integrated oil company. Most Saudi oil exports move by tanker from oil terminals at Ras Tanura and Ju'aymah in the Persian Gulf. The remaining oil exports are transported via the east - west pipeline across the kingdom to the Red Sea port of Yanbu. A major new gas initiative promises to bring significant investment by U.S. and European oil companies to develop non-associated gas fields in three separate parts of Saudi Arabia. Following final technical agreements with concession awardees in December 2001, development should begin in 2002.
However, beginning in late 1997, Saudi Arabia again faced the challenge of low oil prices. Due to a combination of factors -- the East Asian economic crises, a warm winter in the West caused by El Niño, and an increase in non-OPEC oil production -- demand for oil slowed and pulled oil prices down by more than one - third.
Saudi Arabia was a key player in coordinating the successful 1999 campaign of OPEC and other oil - producing countries to raise the price of oil to its highest level since the (Persian) Gulf War by managing production and supply of petroleum. That same year, Saudi Arabia established the Supreme Economic Council to formulate and better coordinate economic development policies in order to accelerate institutional and industrial reform.
Saudi Arabia acceded to the WTO in 2005 after many years of negotiations.
The mid-1980s was also the time that foreign ownership of business was allowed. In the mid-1990s, foreign ownership rules were relaxed again, with investment sought in telecommunications, utilities, and financial services. In 2000, 100 % foreign - owned businesses were allowed in the kingdom.
Since 2008, extensive land investment has taken place, especially in Africa - see paragraph Non-petroleum sector.
The government has sought to allocate its petroleum income to transform its relatively undeveloped, oil - based economy into that of a modern industrial state while maintaining the kingdom 's traditional Islamic values and customs. Although economic planners have not achieved all their goals, the economy has progressed rapidly. Oil wealth has increased the standard of living of most Saudis. However, significant population growth has strained the government 's ability to finance further improvements in the country 's standard of living. Heavy dependence on petroleum revenue continues, but industry and agriculture now account for a larger share of economic activity. The mismatch between the job skills of Saudi graduates and the needs of the private job market at all levels remains the principal obstacle to economic diversification and development; about 4.6 million non-Saudis are employed in the economy.
Saudi Arabia first began to diversify its economy to reduce dependency on oil in the 1970s as part of its first five - year development plan. Basic petrochemical industries using petroleum byproducts as feedstock were developed. The fishing villages of al - Jubail on the Persian Gulf and Yanbu on the Red Sea were developed. However, their effect on Saudi Arabia 's economic fortunes has been small.
Saudi Arabia 's first two development plans, covering the 1970s, emphasized infrastructure. The results were impressive -- the total length of paved highways tripled, power generation increased by a multiple of 28, and the capacity of the seaports grew tenfold. For the third plan (1980 -- 85), the emphasis changed. Spending on infrastructure declined, but it rose markedly on education, health, and social services. The share for diversifying and expanding productive sectors of the economy (primarily industry) did not rise as planned, but the two industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu -- built around the use of the country 's oil and gas to produce steel, petrochemicals, fertilizer, and refined oil products -- were largely completed.
In the fourth plan (1985 -- 90), the country 's basic infrastructure was viewed as largely complete, but education and training remained areas of concern. Private enterprise was encouraged, and foreign investment in the form of joint ventures with Saudi public and private companies was welcomed. The private sector became more important, rising to 70 % of non-oil GDP by 1987. While still concentrated in trade and commerce, private investment increased in industry, agriculture, banking, and construction companies. These private investments were supported by generous government financing and incentive programs. The objective was for the private sector to have 70 % to 90 % ownership in most joint venture enterprises.
The fifth plan (1990 -- 95) emphasized consolidation of the country 's defenses; improved and more efficient government social services; regional development; and, most importantly, creating greater private - sector employment opportunities for Saudis by reducing the number of foreign workers.
The sixth plan (1996 -- 2000) focused on lowering the cost of government services without cutting them and sought to expand educational training programs. The plan called for reducing the kingdom 's dependence on the petroleum sector by diversifying economic activity, particularly in the private sector, with special emphasis on industry and agriculture. It also continued the effort to "Saudiize '' the labor force.
The seventh plan (2000 -- 2004) focuses more on economic diversification and a greater role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. For 2000 -- 04, the government aims at an average GDP growth rate of 3.16 % each year, with projected growths of 5.04 % for the private sector and 4.01 % for the non-oil sector. The government also has set a target of creating 817,300 new jobs for Saudi nationals.
Advertising expenditures have reached new peaks due to emphasis on value - added manufacturing.
As part of its diversification, Saudi Arabia has been inking major refinery contracts with Chinese and other companies.
Saudi Arabia has announced plans to invest about $47 billion in three of the world 's largest and most ambitious petrochemical projects. These include the $27 billion Ras Tanura integrated refinery and petrochemical project, the $9 billion Saudi Kayan petrochemical complex at Jubail Industrial City, and the $10 billion Petro Rabigh refinery upgrade project. Together, the three projects will employ more than 150,000 technicians and engineers working around the clock. Upon completion in 2015 -- 16, the Ras Tanura integrated refinery and petrochemicals project will become the world 's largest petrochemical facility of its kind with a combined production capacity of 11 million tons per year of different petrochemical and chemical products. The products will include ethylene, propylene, aromatics, polyethylene, ethylene oxide, chlorine derivatives, and glycol.
Saudi Arabia had plans to launch six "economic cities '' (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City, to be completed by 2020) in an effort to diversify the economy and provide jobs. They are being built at a cost of $60 bn (2013) and are "expected to contribute $150 bn to the economy ''. As of 2013 four cities were being developed.
As of 2008, roughly two thirds of workers employed in Saudi Arabia were foreigners, and in the private sector approximately 90 %. In January 2014, the Saudi government claimed it had lowered the 90 % rate, doubling the number of Saudi citizens working in the private sector employment to 1.5 million. (This compares to 10 million foreign expatriates working in the kingdom.)
According to Reuters, economists "estimate only 30 -- 40 percent of working - age Saudis hold jobs or actively seek work, '' although the official unemployment rate is only around 12 percent. Most Saudis with jobs are employed by the government, but the International Monetary Fund has warned the government can not support such a large wage bill in the long term. The government has announced a succession of plans since 2000 to deal with the imbalance by "Saudizing '' the economy, However, the foreign workforce and unemployment continued to grow. Since the beginning of 2017, however, Saudi Arabia has seen record numbers of foreign workers leaving the country as the Saudi government imposed higher fees on expatriate workers, with more then 677,000 foreigners leaving the kingdom. This has done little to lower the unemployment rate, which rose to 12.9 percent, its highest on record.
One obstacle is social resistance to certain types of employment. Jobs in service and sales are considered totally unacceptable for citizens of Saudi Arabia -- both potential employees and customers.
Saudi Arabia has natural resources other than oil, including small mineral deposits of gold, silver, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, tungsten, lead, sulphur, phosphate, soapstone and feldspar. The country has a small agricultural sector, primarily in the southwest where annual rainfall averages 400 mm (16 "). The country is one of the world 's largest producers of dates. For some years it grew very expensive wheat using desalinated water for irrigation, but plans to stop by 2016. As of 2009, livestock population amounted to 7.4 million sheep, 4.2 million goats, half a million camels and a quarter of a million cattle.
Although jobs created by the roughly two million annual hajj pilgrims do not last long, the hajj employs more people than the oil industry -- 40,000 temporary jobs (butchers, barbers, coach drivers, etc.) -- and US $2 -- 3 billion in revenue.
In 2008, the "Initiative for Saudi Agricultural Investment Abroad '' was launched, leading to extensive billion - dollar purchases of large tracts of land around the world: Ethiopia, Indonesia, Mali, Senegal, Sudan and others. Critics see cases of land - grabbing in various instances that also lead to uproars in the respective countries. Competing industrialising nations with food security problems in the quest for agricultural land are China, South Korea and India as well as the Gulf States Kuwait, Qatar and the UAE.
One of the fastest growing sectors in the country has been real estate, although this is yet to achieve its full potential despite some shortages in both residential and commercial real estate. A number of regional experts believe that most issues will be resolved as the market becomes more mature.
Real estate plays a fundamental role in the country 's non-oil economy. In 2016, the value of real estate transactions including sales of existing units amounted to SR 281 billion from October 15 to September 16. It should be noted that is a major drop compared to the number of transactions recorded a decade earlier, which reached SR 900 billion. The real estate sector has been driven recently by strong local demand fundamentals and only a small amount by speculation.
Ownership of land in Saudi Arabia is generally restricted to Saudis, but this is subject to certain qualifications. For example, Gulf Cooperation Council (' GCC ') nationals and GCC companies have certain rights to own land, subject to a number of restrictions.
The major expansion in this sector attracted the top real estate consultancies such as Jones Lang LaSalle, Knight Frank and Cluttons to the country who have now opened offices in the country. Beyond this, demand for professional real estate services is attracting regional educators such as DREI to provide courses on Saudi real estate, and even dedicated books focused on the market such as Saudi Real Estate Companion.
Real Estate plays an important role in the Kingdom 's 2030 vision which maps out significant commitments by the Saudi Government relating to housing and the development of land for a variety of uses. In particular, Vision 2030 states: ' Where it exists in strategic locations, we will also capitalise on the government 's reserves of real estate. We will allocate prime areas within cities for educational institutions, retail, and entertainment centres, large areas along our coasts will be dedicated to tourist projects and appropriate lands will be allocated for industrial projects. '
Under the National Transformation Plan (the ' Plan '), the housing sector, with a budget of SAR 59 billion, is the biggest area of government expenditure. The Plan also has targets of:
Saudi Arabia 's private sector is dominated by a handful of big businesses in the service sector, primarily in construction and real estate -- Olayan, Zamil, Almarai, Mobily, STC, SABIC, Sadara, Halliburton, Baker Hughes, Flynas, Hilton, Zain, Yanbu Cement, Alhokair, MBC, Mahfouz, and Al Rajhi. These firms are "heavily dependent on government spending '', which is dependent on oil revenues.
From 2003 -- 2013, "several key services '' were privatized -- municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications -- and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities. ''
In recent years, Saudi Arabia sought to join the World Trade Organization. Negotiations have focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and services and the timeframe for becoming fully compliant with World Trade Organization obligations. In April 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia maintains a negative list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission / distribution over time. As of November 2005, Saudi Arabia was officially approved to enter World Trade Organization. Saudi Arabia became a full WTO Member on 11 December 2005.
Among the challenges to Saudi economy include halting or reversing the decline in per capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, diminishing corruption and inequality. In answer to the question of why the Saudi economy is so dependent on foreign labor, the UN Arab Human Development Report blamed stunted social and economic development inhibited by lack of personal freedom, poor education and government hiring based on factors other than merit, and exclusion of women.
Despite possessing the largest petroleum reserves in the world, per capita income dropped from approximately $18,000 at the height of the oil boom (1981) to $7,000 in 2001, according to one estimate. As of 2013, per capita income in Saudi was "a fraction of that of smaller Persian gulf neighbors '', even less than petroleum - poor Bahrain.
Unlike most developed countries where gross domestic product growth is a function of increases in productivity and inputs such as employment, in Saudi the fluctuation of oil prices is the most important factor in the growth or decline of domestic production. "Saudi reserves are steadily being depleted, and no significant new discoveries have been found to replace them, '' according to Middle East journalist Karen House. Saudi population grew sevenfold from 1960 to 2010, and petrol prices are subsidized and cost users less than equivalent quantities of bottled water. With production stagnant, growth in population and domestic energy consumption means a decline in per capita income unless oil prices rise to match that growth.
Saudi population is young. About 51 % are under the age of 25 (as of Feb 2012). According to a 2013 report by the International Monetary Fund, up to 1.6 million young nationals of the Persian gulf countries (of which Saudi Arabia is the largest) will enter the workforce from 2013 to 2018, but the economies of those countries will have jobs in the private sector for less than half (approximately 600,000).
According to The Economist magazine, the Saudi government has attempted in years past to raise employment by forcing "companies to fill at least 30 % of their positions '' with Saudi citizens. However, "employers complained bitterly about the lack of skills among young locals; years of rote - learning and religious instruction fail to prepare them for the job market. '' As a consequence, "the quota has now been dropped and replaced with a more flexible system. ''
According to another source (scholar David Commins), the kingdom depends "on huge numbers of expatriates workers to fill technical and administrative positions '' in part because of an educational system that in spite of "generous budgets '', has suffered from "poorly trained teachers, low retention rates, lack of rigorous standards, weak scientific and technical instruction and excessive attention to religious subjects ''.
Another statistic conducted by Bayt.com shows that over a quarter (28 %) of professionals believe that there is a skills shortage in their country of residence. This belief is more prominent among respondents in Saudi Arabia (39 %).
Saudi has not been a hotbed of technological innovation. The number of Saudi patents registered in the United States between 1977 and 2010 came to 382 -- less than twelve per year -- compared to 84,840 patents for South Korea or 20,620 for Israel during that period. Saudi hopes to increase technological innovation, particularly with the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, and thus to stimulate the economy.
Saudi Arabia 's legal system is based on Shariah (Islamic law), which comes from interpretations from the Quran and the Sunnah.
The author of a book on the Saudi legal system (Frank Vogel) bemoaned the
"unpredictability of decisions; obscure if not occult doctrine; dissonance between many Saudi commercial norms and those prevailing nearly everywhere else... huge costs on the Saudi economy. That the king and government have not been inclined, or able, to impose a solution to this widely known difficulty is an apt measure of the cultural and political influence of fiqh and ulama and of the centrality of the shari'a ideal for Saudi life public and private. ''
A business journalist (Karen House) criticizing the Saudi bureaucracy complained that someone seeking to start a business in Saudi Arabia
has to complete innumerable applications and documents at multiple layers of multiple ministries, which invariably requires seeking favors from various patronage networks and accumulating obligations along the way, most probably including having to hire less - than - competent dependents of his patrons. Then, for any business of any size, government contracts, not private competition, are the financial lifeblood. So this means more patrons, more favors, and more obligations. Not surprisingly, Saudi businesses that can compete outside the protected Saudi market are few.
The cost of maintaining the Royal Family is estimated by some to be about US $10 billion per year. A 2005 survey by the Riyadh Chamber of Commerce found 77 % of businessmen polled felt they had to ` bypass ` the law to conduct their operations. Since then "businessmen say it has only gotten worse. ''
Estimates of the number of Saudis below the poverty line range from between 12.7 % and 25 %. Press reports and private estimates as of 2013 "suggest that between 2 million and 4 million '' of the country 's native Saudis live on "less than about $530 a month '' -- about $17 a day -- considered the poverty line in Saudi Arabia. In contrast, Forbes magazine estimates King Abdullah 's personal fortune at $18 billion.
The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, days after the Arab Spring uprisings, the Saudi interior ministry detained reporter Feros Boqna and two colleagues (Hussam al - Drewesh and Khaled al - Rasheed) and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a 10 - minute video on the topic (Mal3ob 3alena, or ' We are being cheated ') to YouTube. Authors of the video claim that 22 % of Saudis are considered to be poor (2009) and 70 % of Saudis do not own their houses. Statistics on the issue are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue poverty figures. Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous because of the risk of being arrested, like Feras Boqna.
Only 30 % of Saudi Arabia 's citizens own their own home, compared to the international average rate of 70 % ownership. In 2011, analysts estimated 500,000 new homes / year were needed to match the growth in Saudi population, but as of early 2014 only 300,000 to 400,000 houses / year were being built.
One problem is that the government Real Estate Development Fund (REDF) -- which provides 81 % of all loans for housing -- had a 18 - year waiting list for loans due to pent - up demand. Another is that the REDF 's maximum loan is 500,000 SR ($133,000), while in 2012 the average price for a small free - standing home in Riyadh is more than double that -- 1.23 million SR ($328,000).
A major reason for the high cost of housing is the high cost of land. In urban areas the price of land has been bid up because nearly all of it is owned by the Saudi elite (members of the royal family or other wealthy Saudis), who have lobbied the government for land "giveaways ''. Landlords have seen prices rocket by 50 % from 2011 to 2013. The owners benefit from these price increases as they hold the land for future development. To deal with the key "land banking '' issue the Housing Minister suggested in 2013 that landowners of vacant within city limits could be subject to a tax. However, no firm plans for any tax have been unveiled.
According to journalist Karen House, "every '' Saudi five - year plan "since the first one in 1970 '' has called for diversifying the economy beyond oil, but with marginal success.
As of 2007, manufacturing outside of the petroleum industry contributed 10 % to Saudi Arabian GDP and less than 6 % of total employment.
Saudi Arabia has one stock exchange, the Tadawul, whose financial markets are regulated by the Capital Market Authority. The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Saudi Arabia was valued at $646 billion in 2005 by the World Bank.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been rated as the 92nd for ease of doing business, according to the World Bank in its annual "Doing Business '' report issued for 2018. Since 2013, the Kingdom has declined in the overall Doing Business rankings, from 22nd to 92nd.
Saudi Arabian companies dominate 2009 's "MEED 100 '', with companies listed on the Tadawul, accounting for 29 out of the region 's 100 biggest publicly quoted companies ranked by market capitalisation. Just three of the 20 companies that have dropped out of the top 100 over the past year are listed on the Saudi stock exchange.
Foreigners are allowed to wholly own limited liability companies in the majority of industries. Non-Saudi nationals are required to obtain a foreign capital investment license from the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority (SAGIA).
Saudi Aramco (officially the Saudi Arabian Oil Co.), is a Saudi Arabian national petroleum and natural gas company based in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Aramco 's value has been estimated at up to US $10 trillion in the Financial Times, making it the world 's most valuable company. (ARAMCO is state - owned and unlisted.)
Saudi Aramco has both the largest proven crude oil reserves, which it claims to be more than 260 billion barrels (4.1 × 10 m), and largest daily oil production. Headquartered in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Saudi Aramco operates the world 's largest single hydrocarbon network, the Master Gas System. Its yearly production is 3.479 billion barrels (553,100,000 m), and it managed over 100 oil and gas fields in Saudi Arabia, including 284.8 trillion standard cubic feet (scf) of natural gas reserves. Saudi Aramco owns the Ghawar Field, the world 's largest oil field, and the Shaybah Field, another one of the world 's largest oil fields.
The Saudi Arabian Basic Industries Corporation SABIC was established by a royal decree in 1976 to produce chemicals, polymers, and fertilizers. In 2008, SABIC was Asia 's largest (in terms of market capitalization) and most profitable publicly listed non-oil company, the world 's fourth - largest petrochemical company, ranked 186th as world 's largest corporation on the Fortune Global 500 for 2009, the second largest producer of ethylene glycol and methanol in the world, the third largest producer of polyethylene and overall the fourth - largest producer of polypropylene and polyolefin. Standard & Poor 's and Fitch Ratings claimed SABIC to be the world 's largest producer of polymers and the Persian gulf region 's largest steel producer for 2005 and assigned SABIC an "A '' corporate credit rating. In 2008, Fortune 500 ranking records SABIC revenues at $40.2 billion, profits at $5.8 billion and assets standing at $72.4 billion.
Ma'aden was formed as a Saudi joint stock company on 23 March 1997 for the purpose of facilitating the development of Saudi Arabia 's mineral resources. Ma'aden's activities have focused on its active gold business which has grown in recent years to include the operation of five gold mines: Mahd Ad Dahab, Al Hajar, Sukhaybarat, Bulghah, and Al Amar. Ma'aden is now expanding its activities beyond its gold business with the development of phosphate s, aluminum, and other projects. In addition, since its formation, Ma'aden (through the Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources) has collaborated with the government and local legislators to develop a regulatory framework for the governance of the mining industry.
Saudi Arabia is currently enjoying a massive boom in its personal computer industry since the deregulation of 2002. PC per capita has exploded to nearly 43 % of the population in 2005 from just 13 % in 2002 leapfrogging over the rest of West Asia. The electrical and electronic market was estimated to be around $3.5 billion in 2004.
The Saudi ICT sector has grown significantly over the last decade and is still showing strong growth. In 2012, ICT sector spending was recorded at SAR 94 billion, with 13.9 % annual growth, and reached approximately SAR 102 billion in 2013, with approximately 14 % annual growth.
The e-commerce market was estimated at just over $1 billion in 2001.
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when was season 4 of one tree hill filmed | One Tree Hill (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of One Tree Hill began airing on September 27, 2006. The season concluded on June 13, 2007, after 21 episodes. This is the first season to air on the newly formed The CW television network.
In this season, most episodes were named after rock albums rather than after songs. Season four rose in ratings, averaging 2.9 million viewers weekly, becoming # 136 in the Nielsen ratings system.
This season focuses on the final half of senior year at Tree Hill High School. Nathan and Haley find out that they are going to have a baby. Lucas starts writing a novel, while also questioning what really happened on the day of the school shooting. Nathan gets involved with some shady characters after he and Haley start having money problems. Peyton finds out she has a brother, but he may not be who he says he is. Brooke becomes friends with Rachel and starts a relationship with newcomer Chase. Dan tries to get close to Karen and help her with Keith 's baby.
The residents of Tree Hill must deal with the aftermath of the shocking accident. Nathan and Rachel are okay while Cooper still remains in a coma. In the midst of all the chaos, Dan extends his help to Karen now that she is pregnant. Lucas and Peyton 's friendship continues to grow stronger. Previously rivals, Brooke and Rachel move past their differences and manage to become good friends. Brooke has a difficult decision to make about her relationship with Lucas. Skills decides to try out for the Ravens.
It 's her eighteenth birthday, but Brooke soon realizes that she has no one but Rachel to celebrate it with. Meanwhile, Nathan continues to struggle with memories of the accident. Dan continues to be haunted by remorse over his actions against Keith.
Peyton spends more time getting to know her newfound brother, Derek. Lucas gives up on his love for Brooke. Rachel tries to start a romance with Nathan.
A rumor surfaces that Brooke might be pregnant, causing Karen to worry as she fears that the baby might be Lucas '. Rachel continues to get closer to Nathan when she confesses that she saw Keith during the accident.
Nathan gets two surprises in a row, and everyone is eager to share their advice. Brooke decides to celebrate. Peyton 's stalker attacks her and her real brother saves her with Lucas ' help.
Nathan struggles with money problems and reluctantly asks Dan for help. Brooke learns the new man in her life is also her new English teacher. Peyton gets help from an unexpected source. Lucas returns to the Ravens just in time to help the team advance in the playoffs for the state championship.
Peyton tries to go back to school, but she breaks down. Brooke 's fashions are a hit at the local show. Nathan is cornered into a no - win situation by Daunte. Deb takes drastic action to support her addiction.
Derek tells Peyton to give Lucas a chance just as Brooke tries to make up with him. Nathan continues to have trouble with Daunte. Rachel asks Haley to tutor her when she discovers she is failing a class.
As the Ravens prepare for the championship, Lucas learns Nathan intends to throw the game and decides on a risky plan to even the odds. Karen insists Deb show up for her son 's final game and tries to help her get there. Dan makes a last plea with Daunte.
After a heart attack, Lucas has a dream in which the spirit of Keith visits and shows him how much one life can affect the lives of others, in a nod to "It 's a Wonderful Life ''. Haley is the victim of an accident and Dan helps out Nathan.
The aftermath of the events in Tree Hill begins. Lucas returns to his everyday life and tries to rekindle his relationship with Peyton. However, things are rougher for Haley when she discovers that Nathan was more involved in her accident than she could have ever imagined.
Haley is frustrated over her injuries. Skills and Mouth help Nathan earn some extra money as an amateur stripper. Brooke betrays Rachel to get with a new guy. Lucas and Peyton finally find happiness in their relationship.
A class assignment pairs the students at Tree Hill High to get to know each other a little better. Nathan wrestles with Deb 's suicide attempt. Chase learns that Brooke cheated on her calculus exam...
Haley confronts Brooke regarding the stolen calculus test. Lucas and Peyton consider taking their relationship to the next level. Peyton and Brooke grow closer. In Deb 's absence, Nathan throws a senior party at the Scott House where a sex tape from Nathan 's past surfaces.
It 's Prom day, and emotions are running high at Tree Hill. An emotional Haley confronts Nathan about the sex tape and asks for a list of all his past sexual encounters. An angry Peyton asks Lucas to skip the dance altogether, but he refuses to take no for an answer. Brooke and Peyton let out all their frustrations in a confrontation that could tear them apart forever.
It 's Prom night, but things start to go awry. Lucas remembers that someone was in the hallway when Keith was killed. Psycho Derek holds Peyton and Brooke hostage in Peyton 's own house. Haley and Nathan vow to be romantic with each other throughout the night. Dan continues to win over Karen 's affections. Within Reason guest star to perform during the Prom.
When Mouth and Rachel 's road trip goes wrong, the other teens drive to their rescue. On the trip, Nathan and Haley get a second chance to enjoy their Prom. Peyton and Lucas decide to take their relationship to the next level. Brooke reveals the truth about the stolen calculus exam to Haley.
Brooke and Peyton finally rekindle their friendship. Nathan 's past mistakes continue to haunt him and Haley. Lucas hears a shocking confession from the witness to Keith 's murder.
As the end of the school year approaches, Peyton considers accepting a music internship in Los Angeles. Brooke tries to reconnect with Chase through yearbook signatures. Haley struggles to write her valedictorian speech. Dan suggests that Lucas get professional help when Karen continues to worry about his obsession with theories about Keith 's murder.
As graduation approaches, Haley prepares for the recital of her valedictorian speech and motherhood. Nathan must adjust to life without basketball. Brooke makes a confession that may have great consequences. Lucas confronts Dan after Karen 's life is threatened. The song "Times Like These '' from the Foo Fighters is heard during the graduation scene.
Dan must face the harsh consequences of his decision to murder Keith as Karen and Haley go into labour. Rachel returns and hosts a graduation party where the gang celebrate their high school journey and prepare for the next chapter of their lives.
The season premiere was seen by 3.64 million U.S. viewers and achieved a 1.7 Adults 18 - 49 rating, up 19 % in viewers and 55 % in demo from the season 3 finale. Episode 2 hit a season high in the Adults 18 - 49 demo with a 2.0 rating, while episode 10 hit season highs in viewers with 4.24 million. The season finale was seen by 2.5 million viewers.
The DVD release of season four was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Region 1. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as, audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes.
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in the case of schechter poultry corporation v. united states the supreme court | A.L.A. Schechter poultry Corp. v. United States - wikipedia
A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States that invalidated regulations of the poultry industry according to the nondelegation doctrine and as an invalid use of Congress ' power under the commerce clause. This was a unanimous decision that rendered the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, a main component of President Roosevelt 's New Deal, unconstitutional.
The regulations at issue were promulgated under the authority of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933. These included price and wage fixing, as well as requirements regarding the sale of whole chickens, including unhealthy ones. The government claimed the Schechters sold sick poultry, which has led to the case becoming known as "the sick chicken case ''. Also encompassed in the decision were NIRA provisions regarding maximum work hours and a right of unions to organize. The ruling was one of a series which overturned elements of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal legislation between January 1935 and January 1936, until the Court 's intolerance of economic regulations shifted with West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish. The National Industrial Recovery Act allowed local codes for trade to be written by private trade and industrial groups. The President could choose to give some codes the force of law. The Supreme Court 's opposition to an active federal interference in the local economy caused Roosevelt to attempt to pack the Court with judges that were in favor of the New Deal.
There were originally sixty charges against Schechter Poultry, which were reduced to eighteen charges plus charges of conspiracy by the time the case was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court.
Among the eighteen charges against Schechter Poultry were "the sale to a butcher of an unfit chicken '' and the sale of two uninspected chickens.
Ten charges were for violating codes requiring "straight killing. '' Straight killing prohibited customers from selecting the chickens they wanted; instead a customer had to place his hand in the coop and select the first chicken that came to hand. There was laughter during oral arguments when Justice Sutherland asked, "Well suppose however that all the chickens have gone over to one end of the coop? ''
Chief Justice Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in invalidating the industrial "codes of fair competition '' which the NIRA enabled the President to issue. The Court held that the codes violated the constitutional separation of powers as an impermissible delegation of legislative power to the executive branch. The Court also held that the NIRA provisions were in excess of congressional power under the Commerce Clause.
The Court distinguished between direct effects on interstate commerce, which Congress could lawfully regulate, and indirect, which were purely matters of state law. Though the raising and sale of poultry was an interstate industry, the Court found that the "stream of interstate commerce '' had stopped in this case -- Schechter 's slaughterhouses chickens were sold exclusively to intrastate buyers. Any interstate effect of Schechter was indirect, and therefore beyond federal reach.
Though many considered the NIRA a "dead statute '' at this point in the New Deal scheme, the Court used its invalidation as an opportunity to affirm constitutional limits on congressional power, for fear that it could otherwise reach virtually anything that could be said to "affect '' interstate commerce and intrude on many areas of legitimate state power. The court ruled that the law violated the Tenth Amendment. According to Supreme Court historian David P. Currie, the court believed that "to permit Congress to regulate the wages and hours in a tiny slaughterhouse because of remote effects on interstate commerce would leave nothing for the tenth amendment to reserve. '' Currie added that "it can hardly have escaped the Justices that apart from its limitation to business there was little to distinguish what Congress had attempted from the 1933 legislation authorizing Adolf Hitler to govern Germany by decree... the delegation decision in Schechter was a salutary reminder of the Framers ' decision to vest legislative power in a representative assembly. ''
Justice Cardozo 's concurring opinion clarified that a spectrum approach to direct and indirect effects is preferable to a strict dichotomy. Cardozo felt that in this case, Schechter was simply too small a player to be relevant to interstate commerce.
This traditional reading of the Commerce Clause was later disavowed by the Court, which after threats from Roosevelt began to read congressional power more expansively in this area, in cases such as National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation (1937). However, more recent cases such as United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995) perhaps signal a growing inclination in the Court to once again affirm limits on its scope. In a unanimous 2011 decision, Bond v. United States, the Supreme Court cited Schechter as a precedent.
Speaking to aides of Roosevelt, Justice Louis Brandeis remarked that, "This is the end of this business of centralization, and I want you to go back and tell the president that we 're not going to let this government centralize everything. ''
In Hyde Park a few days after the decision, Roosevelt denounced the decision as an antiquated interpretation of the Commerce Clause.
After the decision was announced, newspapers reported that 500 cases of NIRA code violations were going to be dropped.
Glen Asner, a descendant of the Schechters, said that the brothers probably voted for Roosevelt in all four of his presidential campaigns. Their main political concern in the 1930s was anti-Semitism. The Schechters felt that without the New Deal, America could have taken the route of Nazi Germany.
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fist of the north star lost paradise story mode | Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise - wikipedia
Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise is an action - adventure video game for the PlayStation 4, developed and published by Sega. It is based on the manga franchise Fist of the North Star by Buronson and Tetsuo Hara. It was released in Japan on March 8, 2018 and worldwide on October 2, 2018.
Lost Paradise is an action - adventure game played from a third - person perspective. It features similar gameplay mechanics and systems to Sega 's Yakuza series. Players explore the city of Eden, fighting through enemy encounters in a beat ' em up gameplay style, punctuated by quick time events. There are various mini-games, such as bartending, baseball, racing, and retro games that can be played after being salvaged from the wastelands, such as Hokuto no Ken for the Master System, Space Harrier, OutRun and Super Hang - On.
The story takes place in a post-apocalyptic alternate timeline Earth. After a nuclear war, the oceans have dried up. Kenshiro, a successor of the martial art Hokuto Shinken, was defeated by Shin, who proceeded to kidnap his fiancée, Yuria. Kenshiro thus travels through the wastelands to find his beloved. He eventually hears rumors that a woman called Yuria could be found in the city of Eden - he makes his way to Eden to find Yuria.
Lost Paradise was announced on August 26, 2017 for PlayStation 4. Studio head Toshihiro Nagoshi elaborated that the title would not make use of their new Dragon Engine, developed for Yakuza 6, as the development team was composed of largely new staff, who were not used to the more demanding tools of the Dragon Engine.
The Japanese voice cast features many of the actors from the Yakuza series portraying characters analogous to those they played in previous Yakuza titles, such as Kazuma Kiryu voice actor Takaya Kuroda playing Kenshiro. The worldwide release of the game includes an English dub, making it the first game in the series since the original Yakuza to feature one and the first game in the series to support dual audio. The worldwide release also includes an option to increase the amount of in - game gore that is exhibited on screen.
Sega launched a marketing campaign in Japan, starring actor Takayuki Yamada. In the ad campaign, the actor goes to the gym, performing famous moves and gestures from the manga series.
During E3 2018, Sega announced the western release of Lost Paradise with a trailer and a large presence at Sega 's booth.
The game received a score of 35 / 40 from the video game magazine Famitsu.
In its first week of release in Japan, it sold 123,116 copies, charting into 1st place, above Capcom 's Monster Hunter World.
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how high was the wave of the 2004 tsunami | 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami - Wikipedia
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred at 00: 58: 53 UTC on 26 December, with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, a moment magnitude of 9.1 -- 9.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). It was an undersea megathrust earthquake caused by rupture along the fault between the Burma Plate and the subducting Indian Plate. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake triggered a series of devastating tsunamis up to 30 metres (100 ft) high, inundating coastal communities along the coasts of the Indian Ocean and killing an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries. The earthquake was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history, the deadliest of the 21st century so far. Indonesia was the hardest - hit country, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand.
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is the third - largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph and had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 centimetre (0.4 inches), and it triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska. Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Sumatra. The plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response. In all, the worldwide community donated more than US $14 billion (2004) in humanitarian aid. The event is known by the scientific community as the Sumatra -- Andaman earthquake.
The resulting tsunami was given various names, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, South Asian tsunami, Indonesian tsunami, Christmas tsunami and the Boxing Day tsunami.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was initially documented as having a moment magnitude of 8.8. In February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0. Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. A 2006 study estimated a magnitude of M 9.1 -- 9.3; Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology estimates that M 9.2 is a representative of the earthquake 's size.
The hypocentre of the main earthquake was approximately 160 km (100 mi) off the western coast of northern Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea level (initially reported as 10 km (6.2 mi)). The northern section of the Sunda megathrust ruptured over a length of 1,300 km (810 mi). The earthquake (followed by the tsunami) was felt in Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Splay faults, or secondary "pop up faults '', caused long, narrow parts of the sea floor to pop up in seconds. This quickly elevated the height and increased the speed of waves, destroying the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga.
Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north - eastern islands adjacent to New Guinea, and the Alpide belt that runs along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores to Timor.
Great earthquakes, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, are associated with megathrust events in subduction zones. Their seismic moments can account for a significant fraction of the global seismic moment across century - scale time periods. Of all the moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one - eighth was due to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. This quake, together with the Good Friday earthquake (Alaska, 1964) and the Great Chilean earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment.
Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Good Friday earthquake in Prince William Sound (9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 4 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0) and Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.1) in March 2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. However, in comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas, the much greater distances to more populated coasts, and the superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) such as Japan.
Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 (Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South American Plate) and 1700 (western North America, Juan de Fuca Plate and North American Plate). All of them are believed to be greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time.
The 2002 Sumatra earthquake is believed to have been a foreshock, preceding the main event by over two years.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) of fault surface slipped (or ruptured) about 15 metres (50 ft) along the subduction zone where the Indian Plate slides (or subducts) under the overriding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over several minutes: Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400 kilometres (250 mi) long and 100 kilometres (60 mi) wide, 30 kilometres (19 mi) beneath the sea bed -- the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at about 2.8 kilometres per second (1.7 miles per second) (10,000 km / h or 6,200 mph), beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north - westerly over about 100 seconds. After a pause of about another 100 seconds, the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about 2.1 km / s (1.3 mi / s) (7,500 km / h or 4,700 mph), continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to strike - slip (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions).
The Indian Plate is part of the great Indo - Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is moving north - east at an average of 6 centimetres per year (2.4 inches per year). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate, causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth 's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo - Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc.
As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is resulted in a rise of the sea floor by several metres, displacing an estimated 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves did not originate from a point source, as was inaccurately depicted in some illustrations of their paths of travel, but rather radiated outwards along the entire 1,600 - kilometre (1,000 mi) length of the rupture (acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the sea floor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated 0.1 millimetres (0.004 in).
Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.7 2005 Nias -- Simeulue earthquake, which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias, is not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicenter, and was most likely triggered by stress changes associated with the 2004 event. The earthquake produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as great as 6.1) and presently ranks as the third largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude or Richter magnitude scale.
Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for three or four months. As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth 's interior.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in an uninhabited region west of New Zealand 's subantarctic Auckland Islands, and north of Australia 's Macquarie Island. This is unusual, since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more occur only about once per year on average. However, the U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have triggered activity in both Leuser Mountain and Mount Talang, volcanoes in Aceh province along the same range of peaks, while the 2005 Nias -- Simeulue earthquake had sparked activity in Lake Toba, an ancient crater in Sumatra.
The energy released on the Earth 's surface (M, which is the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was estimated at 1.1 × 10 joules, or 26 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1,500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated; however, the total work done M (and thus energy) by the quake was 4.0 × 10 joules (4.0 × 10 ergs), the vast majority underground, which is over 360,000 times more than its M, equivalent to 9,600 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima) or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.08 × 10 J. The only recorded earthquakes with a larger M were the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes, with 2.5 × 10 joules (250 ZJ) and 7.5 × 10 joules (75 ZJ) respectively.
The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth 's surface of up to 20 -- 30 cm (8 -- 12 in), equivalent to the effect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The seismic waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded. By February 2005, the earthquake 's effects were still detectable as a 20 μm (0.02 mm; 0.0008 in) complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth 's surface, which gradually diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than 4 months after the earthquake.
Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded 1 cm (0.4 in) in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot displays vertical displacements of the Earth 's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS / USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude, signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark. The aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfed by the mainshock.
The shift of mass and the massive release of energy slightly altered the Earth 's rotation. The exact amount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth. It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble '' on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145 ° east longitude, or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 or 2.4 in). However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 μs per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.
There was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 4 -- 5 m (13 -- 16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south - west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south - west by up to 36 m (120 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm (8 in). Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south - west by around 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) and to have sunk by 1 m (3 ft 3 in).
In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between 1,000 and 5,000 m (550 and 2,730 fathoms; 3,300 and 16,400 ft). The survey, conducted using a high - resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500 - metre - high (5,000 ft) thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometres wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long (300 ft by 1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tons, as far as 10 km (6 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.
The TOPEX / Poseidon and Jason - 1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean. These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami. Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.
The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a teletsunami and is much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion.
The tsunami, like all others, behaved differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a low, broad hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at a high speed of 500 to 1,000 km / h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 metres (80 ft) when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to 30 metres (100 ft) in some areas when traveling inland.
Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: at two hours after the earthquake, the maximum height was 60 centimetres (2 ft). These are the first such observations ever made. These observations could not be used to provide a warning, since the satellites were not built for that purpose and the data took hours to analyze.
According to Tad Murty, vice-president of the Tsunami Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about five megatons of TNT (20 petajoules), which is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II (including the two atomic bombs) but still a couple of orders of magnitude less than the energy released in the earthquake itself. In many places the waves reached as far as 2 km (1.2 mi) inland.
Because the 1,600 km (1,000 mi) fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north - south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east - west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had few casualties despite being a low - lying country relatively near the epicenter. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.
Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami 's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of safety, as Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.
Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines. The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre, because the tsunami traveled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast.
The tsunami was noticed as far as Struisbaai in South Africa, some 8,500 km (5,300 mi) away, where a 1.5 m (5 ft) high tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the earthquake. It took a relatively long time to reach Struisbaai at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of the broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have followed the South African coast from east to west. The tsunami also reached Antarctica, where tidal gauges at Japan 's Showa Base recorded oscillations of up to a metre (3 ft 3 in), with disturbances lasting a couple of days.
Some of the tsunami 's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around 20 to 40 cm (7.9 to 15.7 in). At Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) crest - to - trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, which puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates.
Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken by surprise. There were no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general population living around the ocean. Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water, it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it. Setting up the communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even bigger problem, particularly in a relatively poor part of the world.
Tsunamis are more frequent in the Pacific Ocean than in other oceans because of earthquakes in the "Ring of Fire ''. Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where the earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the Krakatoa eruption of 1883. Not every earthquake produces large tsunamis: on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami.
The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is felt only weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast, something which was observed on the eastern side of the rupture zone of the earthquake such as around the coastlines of Aceh province, Phuket island, and Khao Lak area in Thailand, Penang island of Malaysia, and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Around the Indian Ocean, this rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as much as 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of exposed beach, with fatal results. However, not all tsunamis cause this "disappearing sea '' effect. In some cases, there are no warning signs at all: the sea will suddenly swell without retreating, surprising many people and giving them little time to flee.
Reportedly, scuba divers near the abundant coral reefs in Thailand and the Maldives were caught off guard by violent, swirling underwater currents. The divers described the experience like being in a ' washing machine '. Coral reef animals such as fish were also absent as the tsunami passed by.
One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Simeulue, close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami struck. These tales and oral folklore from previous generations may have helped the survival of the inhabitants. On Maikhao Beach in north Phuket, Thailand, a 10 - year - old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunamis in geography at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely. John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground.
Anthropologists had initially expected the aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands to be badly affected by the tsunami and even feared the already depopulated Onge tribe could have been wiped out. Many of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties, however. Oral traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of "huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water ''. Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived the tsunami.
The tsunami struck the west and north coasts of northern Sumatra, particularly in Aceh Province, Indonesia, during the early morning. At Ulee Lheue in Banda Aceh, a survivor described three waves, with the first wave rising only to the foundation of the buildings.
This was followed by a large withdrawal of the sea before the second and third waves hit. The tsunami reached shore 15 -- 20 minutes after the earthquake, and the second was bigger than the first. A local resident living at Banda Aceh stated that the wave was "higher than my house ''. Another resident living 2 km (1.2 mi) near the coast on the outskirt of the city said that the tsunami was "like a wall, very black '' in colour and had a "distinct sound '' getting louder as it neared the coast.
The maximum runup height of the tsunami was measured at a hill between Lhoknga and Leupung, on the west coast of the northern tip of Sumatra, near Banda Aceh, and reached more than 30 m (100 ft).
The tsunami heights in Sumatra:
The tsunami height on the Banda Aceh coast was lower than half of that on the west coast. The tsunami height was reduced by half from 12 m (39.4 ft) at Ulee Lheue to 6 m (19.7 ft) a further 8 km (4.97 miles) to the northeast. The inundation was observed to lie 3 -- 4 km (1.86 -- 2.49 miles) inland throughout the city. Flow depths over the ground were observed to be over 9 m (29.5 ft) in the seaside section of Ulee Lheue and tapered landward. The level of destruction was more extreme on the northwestern flank of the city in the areas immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds. The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground - floor storefronts. One of the reasons seems to be that there is an archipelago between Lhoknga and Banda Aceh. Within 2 -- 3 km (1.24 -- 1.86 miles) of the shoreline, houses, except for strongly - built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were swept away or destroyed by the tsunami.
Three small islands: Weh, Breueh, and Nasi, lie just north of the capital city. The tsunami effects on two of the islands, Breueh and Nasi were extreme, with a runup of 10 -- 20 m (33 -- 66 ft) on the west - facing shores. Coastal villages were destroyed by the tsunami waves. On Pulau Weh, however, the island experienced strong surges in the port of Sabang, yet there was little damage with a reported runup values of 3 -- 5 m (9.8 -- 16.4 ft), which was most likely sheltered from the direct tsunami attack by the islands to the southwest.
In Lhoknga, a town in Aceh Besar Regency, Aceh Special Region, on the western side of the island of Sumatra, 13 km (8.08 miles) southwest of Banda Aceh was flattened and destroyed by the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, where its population dwindled from 7,500 to 400. Tsunami waves were almost 30 m (98.4 ft) high. Eyewitnesses reported 10 to 12 waves, the second and third being the highest. The sea receded (drawback) 10 minutes after the earthquake and the first wave came rapidly landward from the southwest as a turbulent flow (flood) with depths ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 m (1.64 ft -- 8.20 ft) high. The second and third waves were 15 -- 30 m (49.2 ft -- 98.4 ft) high at the coast, described having an appearance to a surf wave (cobra - shaped) but "taller than the coconut trees '' and "like a mountain ''. The second and third tsunami waves changed appearance from a surfing wave form to a huge tsunami bore (similar to tsunami witnessed in Khao Lak, Thailand). The second wave (the tsunami bore) was the largest; it came from the west - southwest within five minutes of the first wave. Consequently, the tsunami stranded cargo ships and barges and destroyed a cement factory near the Lampuuk coast. Surveyed areas by scientists show runup heights over 20 m (65.6 ft) on the northwest coast of Sumatra in Aceh Province with a maximum runup of 51 m (167.3 ft).
In Meulaboh based on survivor testimonies, the tsunami arrived after the sea receded about 500 m (0.31 miles), followed by an advancing small tsunami. The second and third destructive waves arrived later, which exceeded the height of the coconut trees. The inundation distance is about 5 km (3.1 miles).
Such high and fast waves arising from the epicentre by a megathrust earthquake were later found to be due to splay faults, secondary faults arising due to cracking of the sea floor to jut upwards in seconds, causing waves ' speed and height to increase. A large slip of 30 m (98.4 ft) was estimated on the subfault off the west coast of Aceh Province. Another factor is subsidence at Banda Aceh (20 -- 60 cm), Peukan Bada (> 20 cm), Lhok Nga and Leupung (> 1.5 m).
Other towns on Aceh 's west coast hit by the disaster included Leupung, Lhokruet, Lamno, Patek, Calang, Teunom, and the island of Simeulue. Affected or destroyed towns on the region 's north and east coast were Pidie Regency, Samalanga, Panteraja, and Lhokseumawe.
The high fatality in the area was mainly due to the unpreparedness of the population. Helicopter surveys showed entire settlements virtually destroyed with destruction miles inland with only some mosques left standing.
The tsunami arrived in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands minutes after the earthquake, and it caused extensive devastation to the islands ' environment. Specifically, the Andaman Islands were moderately affected while the island of Little Andaman and the Nicobar Islands were severely affected by the tsunami. The tsunami survey were carried out in Little Andaman (mainly at Hut Bay), South Andaman (mainly in and around Port Blair), Car Nicobar (along Kankana - Mus sector), Great Nicobar (mainly at Campbell Bay and Joginder Nagar area).
In the South Andaman, based on local eyewitnesses, tsunami waves attacked three times. Of the three, the third one was the most devastating. Flooding occurred at the coastlines of the islands and low - lying areas inland, which are connected to open sea through creeks. Inundation has been observed, along east coast of South Andaman Island and is found to be restricted at Chidiyatapu, Burmanallah, Kodiaghat, Beadnabad, Corbyn 's cove and Marina Park / Aberdeen Jetty areas. Along the west coast, the inundation has been observed around Guptapara, Manjeri, Wandoor, Collinpur and Tirur regions. Several near shore establishments and numerous infrastructures such as seawalls and a 20 MW diesel generated power plant at Bamboo Flat were extensively damaged.
Results of the tsunami survey in South Andaman along Chiriyatapu, Corbyn 's Cove and Wandoor beaches:
Meanwhile, in the Little Andaman, tsunami waves impinged on the eastern shore of this island 25 to 30 minutes after the earthquake. It was a four - wave cycle; out of which the fourth one was most devastating with a tsunami wave height of about 10 m (33 ft). The tsunami water had converted the settlements at Hut Bay into rubbles within a range of 1 km inland from the seashore. Everything was destroyed including the jetty and the breakwater. Run up level up to 3.3 m (10.8 ft) have been measured.
Moreover, in Malacca located on the island of Car Nicobar, According to local people, three pulses of tsunami waves attacked the area three times. The first wave that came 5 minutes after the earthquake was preceded by recession of the seawater up to 600 -- 700 m (1969 -- 2297 ft), exposing the seabed. The second and third waves came with a 10 minutes interval after the first and second waves respectively. The third wave was the strongest, with a maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft) and was accompanied by a loud noise. Furthermore, waves nearly 3 stories high devastated the Indian Air Force base, located just south of Malacca. The tsunami waves attacked the area three times with a maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft). Inundation limit was found to be up to 1.25 km (4101 ft) inland. The impact of the waves was so severe that four Oil tankers of IOC were thrown almost 800 m (2624 ft) from the seashore near Malacca to Air force colony main gate. In Chuckchucha and Lapati, the tsunami arrived in a three wave cycle with a maximum tsunami wave height of 12 m (39 ft).
In Campbell Bay of Great Nicobar island, the tsunami waves hit the area three times with an inundation limit of 250 -- 550 m (820 -- 1804 ft). The first wave came within 5 minutes of the earthquake. The second and third waves came 10 minutes after first and second waves respectively. The second wave was the strongest with a loud noise. Deadly tsunami waves wreaked havoc in this densely populated Jogindar Nagar area, situated 13 km south of Campbell Bay. According to local information, tsunami waves attacked the area thrice. The first wave came 5 minutes after the main shock (0629 hrs.) with a marginal drop in sea level. Second wave came 10 minutes after the first one with a maximum height of 4.84 m (15.9 ft) and caused the major destruction. The third wave came within 15 minutes after the second one with a lower wave height. The maximum inundation limit due to tsunami water intrusion has been found to be about 500 m (0.5 km).
The worst affected island in the Andaman & Nicobar chain is Katchall Island with 303 people confirmed dead and 4,354 missing out of a total population of 5,312.
Eyewitnesses at Port Blair recall that the water receded before the first wave, and the third wave was the tallest and caused the most damage. However, at Hut Bay, Malacca and Campbell Bay -- locations far south of Port Blair -- it was reported that the water level rose by about 1 -- 2 m (3.3 ft -- 6.6 ft) from the normal sea level and remained there before the first wave crashed ashore.
Reports of tsunami wave height:
The significant shielding of Port Blair and Campbell Bay by steep mountainous outcrops may have contributed to the relatively low wave heights at these locations, whereas the open terrain along the eastern coast at Malacca and Hut Bay likely contributed to the great height of the tsunami waves
Indeed, many infrastructures near the coasts and buildings were harshly damaged by the waves.
The tsunami first arrived on the eastern coast and subsequently refracted around the southern point of Sri Lanka (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy had been reflected from impact with the Maldives. Sri Lanka is located 1,700 km (1056.33 miles) far from the epicenter and the tsunami source, so no one felt the ground shake and the tsunami hit the entire coastline of Sri Lanka around 2 hours after the earthquake. It seems that the tsunami flooding consisted of three main waves, with the second being the largest and most destructive. The first tsunami waves had initially caused a small flood (positive wave) as it struck the Sri Lankan coastline. Moments later, the ocean floor was exposed to as much as 1 km (0.62 miles) in places due to drawback (negative wave), which was followed by a massive second tsunami wave in the form of a flood. Certain locations managed to reduce the power of the waves through construction of seawalls and breakwaters.
The largest run - up measured was at 12.5 m (41 ft) with inundation distance of 390 m to 1.5 km (0.242 miles - 0.932 miles) in Yala. In Hambantota, tsunami run - ups are measured at 11 m (36.1 ft) with the greatest inundation distance of 2 km (1.24 miles), and tsunami run - up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at 2.4 -- 11 m (7.87 ft -- 36.1 ft). Tsunami waves measured on the east coast ranged from 4.5 m - 9 m (14.8 ft -- 29.5 ft) at Pottuvill to around Batticaloa, 2.6 m - 5 m (8.53 ft -- 16.4 ft) in the northeast around Trincomalee and 4 m - 5 m (13.1 ft -- 16.4 ft) in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda.
Sri Lanka tsunami height survey:
The Train # 50, a regular passenger train operating between the cities of Colombo Maradana and Matara, was derailed and overturned by the tsunami which caused the 2004 Sri Lanka tsunami - rail disaster which took at least 1,700 lives, making it the largest single rail disaster in world history by death toll. Estimates based on the state of the shoreline and a high - water mark on a nearby building place the tsunami 7.5 -- 9 m (24.6 ft to 29.5 ft) above sea level and 2 -- 3 m (6.6 ft to 9.8 ft) higher than the top of the train.
In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only to those in Indonesia. Reports vary on the number of deaths since many people are still missing and the country lacks adequate communications. The eastern shores of Sri Lanka faced the hardest impact since they were facing the epicenter of the earthquake. The southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists as well as the fishing economy. Tourism and fishing industries created high population densities along the coast.
The coastal lifestyle of people and degradation of the natural environment in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. In addition to the high number of fatalities, approximately 90,000 buildings were destroyed. Houses were easily destroyed since they were built mostly from wood.
The tsunami hit the southwest coast of southern Thailand, which was about 500 km (310.69 miles) from the epicenter. The region is heavily visited by foreigners during the Christmas season. Since the tsunami hit during high tide, its damage was severe. Approximately 5,400 people were killed and 3,100 people were reported missing. The places where the tsunami struck were Phang Nga Province, Phuket, the Phi Phi Islands, Ko Racha Yai, Ko Lanta Yai and Ao Nang of Krabi Province, offshore archipelagos like the Surin Islands, the Similan Islands, and coastal areas of Satun, Ranong, and Trang. The country experienced the largest tsunami run - up height of any location outside of Sumatra, which occurred at Khao Lak and the areas of Takua Pa District that face the Andaman Sea. The tsunami heights recorded:
The province of Phang Nga was the most heavily affected area in Thailand. The northern part of Phang Nga Province is rural, with fishery and agricultural villages while the central part has several resort hotels. Khao Lak is in the south of Phang Nga Province with many luxury hotels, popular with foreign tourists. Khao Lak was hit by the tsunami after 10: 00 and the death toll in the area was the largest in Thailand. Many local villagers and tourists lost their lives during the event. A maximum inundation of approximately 2 km (1.2 miles) and the inundated depths were 4 -- 7 m (13.12 ft -- 23 ft) in Khao Lak. Surveys conducted show that the tsunami inundated the third floor of a resort hotel. Tsunami heights in Khao Lak were much higher than on Phuket Island. The reason for the difference seems to have been caused by the local bathymetry off Khao Lak. According to some interviews with local residents and affected tourists, the leading wave produced an initial depression, called a tsunami drawback or "disappearing sea '' effect and the second wave was larger. The highest recorded tsunami run - up measured was at 19.6 m (64.3 ft) at Ban Thung Dap, on the southwest tip of Ko Phra Thong Island and the second highest at 15.8 m (51.8 ft) at Ban Nam Kim.
At Phuket island, many of its west coast beaches were affected. At Patong Beach, a tourist mecca, tsunami heights were 5 -- 6 m (16.4 ft -- 19.7 ft) and the inundated depth was about 2 m (6.6 ft). Tsunami heights became lower from the west coast, the south coast to the east coast of the island. On Karon Beach on the west coast, the coastal road was built higher than the shore and it acted as a seawall, protecting a hotel which was behind it. On the east coast of Phuket Island, which was not facing the tsunami, the tsunami height was about 2 m (6.6 ft). In one river mouth, many boats were damaged. The tsunami propagated anticlockwise around Phuket Island, as was the case at Okushiri Island in the 1993 Hokkaido earthquake. According to some interviews with the people, the leading wave produced an initial depression and the second wave was the largest.
The Phi Phi Islands are a group of small islands that were affected by the tsunami. The north bay of Phi Phi Don Island opens to the northwest, thus it faced in the direction of the tsunami. The measured tsunami height on this beach was 5.8 m (19.02 ft). According to some eyewitnesses accounts, the tsunami came from the north and south, and totally washed the central area away. The ground level here was about 2 m (6.6 ft) above sea level and there were many cottages and hotels. The tsunami waves from the north and south destroyed the area. The south bay opens to the southeast and faces in the opposite direction from which the tsunami was propagated. Further, Phi Phi Le Island shields the port of Phi Phi Don Island. The measured tsunami height, however, was 4.6 m (15.1 ft) in the port. It indicated that the tsunami propagated around the islands.
Many amateur videos recorded by tourists and locals of the tsunami at Thailand were televised popularly in the media.
The tsunami arrived in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu along the southeast coast of the Indian mainland shortly after 9: 00 a.m. At least two hours later, it arrived in the state of Kerala along the southwest coast. Tamil Nadu, the union territory of Pondicherry and Kerala were extensively damaged, while Andhra Pradesh sustained moderate damage. There were two to five waves of varying height that coincided with the local high tide in some areas.
The tsunami run - up was only 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in areas in the state of Tamil Nadu that were shielded by the island of Sri Lanka, but was 4 -- 5 m (13.1 ft -- 16.4 ft) in coastal districts such as Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu that were directly across from Sumatra, which happen to be the highest on the Indian mainland. On the western coast, the runup elevations were 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at Kanyakumari District in Tamil Nadu, and 3.4 m (11.2 ft) each at Kollam and Ernakulam Districts in Kerala. The duration between the waves also varied from about 15 minutes to about 90 minutes. Additionally, the tsunami varies in height when it struck the Indian coast, ranging from 2 -- 10 m (6.6 ft -- 33 ft) on average based on survivor 's accounts.
The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs:
The tsunami traveled 2.5 km (1.55 miles) at its maximum inland at Karaikal, Puducherry. The inundation distance varied between 100 -- 500 m (0.062 miles - 0.311 miles) in most areas, except at river mouths, where it was more than 1 km (0.62 miles). The inundation distance varied with topology and vegetation. Areas with dense coconut groves or mangroves had much smaller inundation distances, and those with river mouths or backwaters saw much larger inundation distances. Presence of seawalls at the Kerala coast and some of Tamil Nadu coast helped to reduce the impact of the waves. However, when the seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were displaced and carried a few metres inland.
The state of Kerala experienced tsunami - related damage in three southern districts, Ernakulam, Alappuzha, and Kollam, which are densely populated with villagers, due to diffraction of the waves around Sri Lanka. The southernmost district of Thiruvananthpuram, however, escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the diffracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage occurred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west by the Arabian Sea and on the east by a network of backwaters -- Kerala backwaters. The waves receded before the first tsunami with the highest fatality reported from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam district, caused by a 4 m (13.1 ft) tsunami.
The worst affected area in Tamil Nadu was Nagapattinam district, with a reported 6,051 fatalities caused by a 5 m (16.4 ft) tsunami, followed by Cuddalore district, with many villages destroyed. The 13 km (8.1 miles) Marina Beach in Chennai was battered by the tsunami which swept across the beach taking morning walkers unaware. Besides that, a 10 m (33 ft) black muddy tsunami reportedly ravaged the city of Karaikal, where 492 lives were lost. The city of Pondicherry, protected by seawalls relatively escaped unscathed in comparison to other areas in the state.
At the same time, many villages from many districts at the state of Andhra Pradesh were destroyed. In the Krishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi and on Machalipattanam Beach, which came like a running wall at the latter. The most affected was Prakasham District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at Singraikonda, a beautiful beach hamlet.
Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands. Many buildings and infrastructures near the coast were obliterated.
Conclusively, the tsunami effects varied greatly across different parts of the coast according to the number of waves experienced, the inundation distance and height of waves, and the population density of the area, as well as topological and geographical features that made some areas more vulnerable than others. Besides these factors, the number of lives lost was influenced by exposure to previous disasters and the local disaster management capability. Most of the people killed were members of the fishing community and, in some cases such as Marina Beach at Chennai and Velankanni in Nagapattinam, they were visitors on the beach.
The tsunami of 26 December 2004 severely affected the Maldives at a distance of 2,500 km (1553.4 miles) from the epicenter of the magnitude 9.0 earthquake. Identically to Sri Lanka, survivors reported three waves with the second wave being the most powerful. Being rich in coral reefs, the Maldives provides an opportunity for scientists to assess the impact of a tsunami on coral atolls. The significantly lower tsunami impact on the Maldives compared to Sri Lanka is largely due to the topography and bathymetry of the atoll chain with offshore coral reefs, deep channels separating individual atolls and its arrival within low tide which decreased the power of the tsunami. After the tsunami, there were some concern that the country might be totally submerged and become uninhabitable. However, this was proven untrue.
The largest tsunami wave measured was 4 m (13.1 ft) at Vilufushi Island (Thaa Atoll). The tsunami arrived approximately 2 hours after the earthquake. The greatest tsunami inundation occurred at North Male Atoll, Male island at 250 m (0.155 miles) along the streets.
The Maldives tsunami wave analysis:
In Myanmar, the tsunami caused only moderate damage, which arrived between 2 and 5.5 hours after the earthquake. Although the country 's western Andaman Sea coastline lies at the proximity of the rupture zone, there were smaller tsunamis than the neighboring Thai coast, probably because the main tsunami source did not extend to the Andaman Islands. Another factor is that some coasts of Taninthayi Division was protected by offshore islands of the Myeik Archipelago. Based on scientific surveys from Ayeyarwaddy Delta through Taninthayi Division, it is revealed that tsunami heights along the Myanmar coast were between 0.4 -- 2.9 m (1.3 -- 9.5 ft). Eyewitnesses often compared the December tsunami heights with the "rainy season high tide ''; although at most locations, the tsunami height was similar or smaller than the "rainy season high tide '' level.
Tsunami survey heights:
Interviews with local people indicate that they did not feel the earthquake in Taninthayi Division or in Ayeyarwaddy Delta. The 71 casualties can be attributed to poor housing infrastructure and additionally, the fact that the coastal residents in the surveyed areas live on flat land along the coast, especially in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, and that there is no higher ground to evacuate. The tsunami heights from the 2004 December earthquake were not more than 3 m (9.8 ft) along the Myanmar coast, the amplitudes are slightly large off the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, probably because the shallow delta cause a concentration in tsunami energy.
The tsunami travelled 5000 km (3106.86 miles) west across the open ocean before striking the East African country of Somalia. Around 289 fatalities were reported in the Horn of Africa, drowned by four tsunami waves. The hardest hit was a 650 km (403.9 miles) stretch of the Somalia coastline between Garacad (Mudug region) and Xaafuun (Bari region), which forms part of the Puntland Province. Most of the victims were reported along the low - lying Xaafuun Peninsula. The Puntland coast in northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves arrived around noon local time.
Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from 5 m (16.4 ft) to 9 m (29.5 ft) with inundation distances varying from 44 m (0.027 miles) to 704 m (0.44 miles). The maximum runup height of almost 9 m (29.5 ft) was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on a cliff near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness account.
The highest death toll was in Xaafuun, also known as Hafun, with 19 bodies and 160 people presumed missing out of its 5000 inhabitants, which amounts to the highest number of casualties in a single African town and the largest tsunami death toll in a single town to the west of the Indian subcontinent. In Xaafuun, small drawbacks were observed before the third and most powerful tsunami flood the town.
Numerous fishing boats and buildings were also devastated.
The tsunami also reached Malaysia, mainly on the northern states such as Kedah, Perak and Penang and on offshore islands such as Langkawi island. Peninsular Malaysia was shielded by the full force of the tsunami due to the protection offered by the island of Sumatra, which lies just off the western coast.
In Bangladesh, located on the northern Bay of Bengal escaped major damage and deaths because the water displaced by the strike - slip fault was relatively little on the northern section of the rupture zone, which ruptured slowly. In Yemen, the tsunami killed 2 people with a maximum runup of 2 m (6.6 ft).
The tsunami was detected in the southern parts of east Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that face the Indian Ocean. Countries apart from Somalia that recorded fatalities include South Africa (the furthest) - 2, Kenya - 1, The Seychelles - 3 and Tanzania - 10.
Tidal surges also occurred along the Western Australian coast that lasted for several hours, resulting in boats losing their moorings and two people needing to be rescued.
According to the U.S. Geological Survey a total of 227,898 people died (see table below for details). Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in history. Indonesia was the worst affected area, with most death toll estimates at around 170,000. In an initial report by Siti Fadilah Supari, the Indonesian Minister of Health at the time, estimated the death total to be as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of 280,000 fatalities. However, the estimated number of dead and missing in Indonesia were later reduced by over 50,000. In their Synthesis Report the Tsunami Evaluation Coalition said "It should be remembered that all such data are subject to error, as data on missing persons especially are not always as good as one might wish ''. A much higher number of deaths (up to 600) has been suggested for Myanmar based on reports from Thailand.
The tsunami caused serious damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa, with the farthest recorded death due to the tsunami occurring at Rooi Els in South Africa, 8,000 km (5,000 mi) away from the epicentre. In total, eight people in South Africa died due to abnormally high sea levels and waves.
Relief agencies reported that one - third of the dead appeared to be children. This was a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters. Oxfam went on to report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishermen to return and looking after their children in the houses.
In addition to the large number of local residents, up to 9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the Nordic countries. The European nation hardest hit may have been Sweden, whose death toll was 543. Germany was close behind with 539 identified victims. Among the international victims were a Thai prince, and a number of relatively well known musicians and sports players.
States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the costliest in human history. Then - UN Secretary - General Kofi Annan stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organisations feared that the final death toll might double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive humanitarian response. In the end, this fear did not materialise.
For purposes of establishing timelines of local events, the time zones of affected areas are: UTC + 3: (Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania); UTC + 4: (Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles); UTC + 5: (Maldives); UTC + 5: 30: (India, Sri Lanka); UTC + 6: (Bangladesh); UTC + 6: 30: (Cocos Islands, Myanmar); UTC + 7: (Indonesia (western), Thailand); UTC + 8: (Malaysia). Since the earthquake occurred at 00: 58: 53 UTC, add the above offsets to find the local time of the earthquake.
The earthquake and resulting tsunami affected many countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and others. Many other countries, especially in Europe, had large numbers of citizens traveling in the region on holiday. Sweden lost 543 citizens in the disaster, while Germany had 539 identified victims.
The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about A.D. 1400. In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hard - hit west coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent from about 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous tsunamis in Aceh, a province at the northern tip of Sumatra; radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between A.D. 1300 and 1450.
The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined are the world 's deadliest natural disaster since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake. The earthquake was the third most powerful earthquake recorded since 1900. The deadliest known earthquake in history occurred in 1556 in Shaanxi, China, with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though figures from this period may not be as reliable.
The 2004 tsunami is the deadliest in recorded history. Before 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and Pacific Ocean waters by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000 to 120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the region. In 1782 about 40,000 people are thought to have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in the South China Sea. The most deadly tsunami before 2004 was Italy 's 1908 Messina earthquake on the Mediterranean Sea where the earthquake and tsunami killed about 123,000.
A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because of widespread damage of the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of special concern due to the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis A and B.
There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized.
In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in burying bodies hurriedly due to fear of disease spreading. However, the public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources. The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.
Nations all over the world provided over US $14 billion in aid for damaged regions, with the governments of Australia pledging US $819.9 million (including a US $760.6 - million aid package for Indonesia), Germany offering US $660 million, Japan offering US $500 million, Canada offering US $343 million, Norway and the Netherlands offering both US $183 million, the United States offering US $35 million initially (increased to US $350 million), and the World Bank offering US $250 million. Also Italy offered US $95 million, increased later to US $113 million of which US $42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system According to USAID, the US has pledged additional funds in long - term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On 9 February 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of US $950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George H.W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims.
In mid-March the Asian Development Bank reported that over US $4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous. Many charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the United Kingdom the public donated roughly £ 330,000,000 sterling (nearly US $600,000,000). This considerably outweighed the donation by the government and came to an average of about £ 5.50 (US $10) donated by every citizen.
In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in northeast Sri Lanka after heavy fighting, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said. There had been reports and rumors that the local aid workers had been killed.
The level of damage to the economy resulting from the tsunami depends on the scale examined. While local economies were devastated, the overall impact to the national economies was minor. The two main occupations affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism. The impact on coastal fishing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as boats and fishing gear. In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export - oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66 % of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse economic effects both at local and national levels.
While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to Sri Lanka 's fishing industry, it also created demand for fiberglass reinforced plastic catamarans in boatyards of Tamil Nadu. Since over 51,000 vessels were lost to the tsunami, the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led to lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacrificed to cut prices for those who were impoverished by the tsunami.
But some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by salt water from the ocean. Even though only coastal regions were directly affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted like a starting point for many other tourist destinations in Thailand.
Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the Malacca Straits, which separate Malaysia and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths were previously up to 4,000 feet (1,200 m), and are now only 100 feet (30 m) in some areas, making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the delivery of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new navigational charts may take months or years. However, officials hope that piracy in the region will drop off as a result of the tsunami.
Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were untouched by the tsunami were hit by cancellations.
Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake has caused an enormous environmental impact that will affect the region for many years to come. It has been reported that severe damage has been inflicted on ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests, coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant biodiversity and groundwater. In addition, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of sewage collectors and treatment plants threaten the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental impact will take a long time and significant resources to assess.
According to specialists, the main effect is being caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soil by saltwater infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer over arable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth; and aquifers were invaded through porous rock. Salted - over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango, and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. On the island 's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water. The Colombo - based International Water Management Institute monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event. IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is working with governments of the region in order to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it. UNEP has decided to earmark a US $1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task Force to respond to requests for technical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami. In response to a request from the Maldivian Government, the Australian Government sent ecological experts to help restore marine environments and coral reefs -- the lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise has been rendered from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia 's northeastern waters.
Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs.
The hardest hit area, Aceh, is considered to be a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to armed conflict between the Indonesian military and Acehnese separatists. Some believe that the tsunami was divine punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers and / or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that there were Muslims killing other Muslims in an ongoing conflict. Saudi cleric Muhammad Al - Munajjid attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine '' during Christmas break.
The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led the main rebel group GAM to declare a cease - fire on 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long - stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.
In a poll conducted in 27 countries by GlobeScan for BBC World Service, 15 percent of respondents named the tsunami the most significant event of the year. Only the Iraq War was named by as many respondents. The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami - affected areas, in special video - conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.
The 26 December 2004 Asian tsunami left both the people and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, the Portland, Oregon - based company Terra Research notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between Sumatra and New Zealand. In response, the India Home Affairs minister announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tsunami were likely along the India southern coast and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, even as there was no sign of turbulence in the region. The announcement generated panic in the Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in jammed roads. The announcement was a false alarm and the Home Affairs minister withdrew their announcement. On further investigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of a self - described earthquake forecaster who had no telephone listing and maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system. Three days after the announcement, Indian National Congress president Sonia Gandhi called Science & Technology minister Kapil Sibal to express her concern about Sibal 's 30 December public warning being "hogwash ''.
The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political impact in Sweden. The hardest hit country outside Asia, 543 Swedish tourists, mainly in Thailand, died. With no single incident having killed more Swedish people since the battle of Poltava in 1709, the cabinet of Göran Persson was heavily criticized for lack of action.
Smith Dharmasaroja, a meteorologist who predicted the tsunami before it hit, was assigned the development of the Thai tsunami warning system. The Indian Ocean Tsunami warning system was formed in early 2005 immediately after the tragedy of 26 December 2004 to provide an early warning of tsunamis for inhabitants around the Indian Ocean coasts.
The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth due to the earthquake had several consequences. It displaced the North Pole by 2.5 cm. It also slightly changed the shape of the Earth, specifically by decreasing Earth 's oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially increasing Earth 's rotation a little and thus shortening the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds.
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when is lent and how long is it for | Lent - wikipedia
Lent (Latin: Quadragesima: Fortieth) is a solemn religious observance in the Christian liturgical calendar that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later, before Easter Sunday. The purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer for Easter through prayer, doing penance, mortifying the flesh, repentance of sins, almsgiving, and self - denial. This event is observed in the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran, Methodist, and Catholic Churches. Some Anabaptist and evangelical churches also observe the Lenten season. Its institutional purpose is heightened in the annual commemoration of Holy Week, marking the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus, which recalls the tradition and events of the New Testament beginning on Palm Sunday, further climaxing on Jesus ' crucifixion on Good Friday, which ultimately culminates in the joyful celebration on Easter Sunday of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ.
In Lent, many Christians commit to fasting, as well as giving up certain luxuries in order to replicate the sacrifice of Jesus Christ 's journey into the desert for 40 days. Many Christians also add a Lenten spiritual discipline, such as reading a daily devotional or praying through a Lenten calendar, to draw themselves near to God. The Stations of the Cross, a devotional commemoration of Christ 's carrying the Cross and of his execution, are often observed. Many Roman Catholic and some Protestant churches remove flowers from their altars, while crucifixes, religious statues, and other elaborate religious symbols are often veiled in violet fabrics in solemn observance of the event. Throughout Christendom, some adherents mark the season with the traditional abstention from the consumption of meat, most notably among Lutherans, Roman Catholics and Anglicans.
Lent is traditionally described as lasting for 40 days, in commemoration of the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert, according to the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke, before beginning his public ministry, during which he endured temptation by Satan.
Holy Week and the season of Lent, depending on the Christian denomination and local custom, end with Easter Vigil at sundown on Holy Saturday, on the morning of Easter Sunday, or at the midnight between them.
The English word Lent is a shortened form of the Old English word len (c) ten, meaning "spring season '', as its Dutch language cognate lente (Old Dutch lentin) still does today. A dated term in German, lenz (Old High German lenzo), is also related. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, ' the shorter form (? Old Germanic type * laŋgito -, * laŋgiton -) seems to be a derivative of * laŋgo - long... and may possibly have reference to the lengthening of the days as characterizing the season of spring '. The origin of the - en element is less clear: it may simply be a suffix, or lencten may originally have been a compound of * laŋgo - ' long ' and an otherwise little attested word * - tino, meaning ' day '.
In languages spoken where Christianity was earlier established, such as Greek and Latin, the term signifies the period dating from the 40th day before Easter. In modern Greek the term is Σαρακοστή, derived from the earlier Τεσσαρακοστή, meaning "fortieth ''. The corresponding word in Latin, quadragesima ("fortieth ''), is the origin of the term used in Latin - derived languages and in some others: for example, Croatian korizma, French carême, Irish carghas, Italian quaresima, Portuguese quaresma, Albanian kreshma, Romanian păresimi, Spanish cuaresma, Basque garizuma and Welsh c (a) rawys.
In other languages, the name used refers to the activity associated with the season. Thus it is called "fasting period '' in Czech (postní doba), German (Fastenzeit), and Norwegian (fasten / fastetid), and it is called "great fast '' in Polish (wielki post) and Russian (великий пост -- veliki post).
The terms used in Filipino are kuwaresma (from the Spanish) and Mahál na Araw ("precious / great days ''); the latter term is also used specifically for Holy Week.
Various Christian denominations calculate the 40 days of Lent differently. The way they observe Lent also differs.
In the Roman Rite Lent starts on Ash Wednesday and finishes on Holy Saturday. This comprises a period of 46 days. This includes 6 Sundays which are not considered part of Lent because Sundays are days of celebration for Catholics.
In the Ambrosian Rite, Lent begins on the Sunday that follows what is celebrated as Ash Wednesday in the rest of the Latin Catholic Church, and ends as in the Roman Rite, thus being of 40 days, counting the Sundays but not Holy Thursday. The day for beginning the Lenten fast is the following Monday, the first weekday in Lent. The special Ash Wednesday fast is transferred to the first Friday of the Ambrosian Lent. Until this rite was revised by Saint Charles Borromeo the liturgy of the First Sunday of Lent was festive, celebrated in white vestments with chanting of the Gloria in Excelsis and Alleluia, in line with the recommendation in Matthew 6: 16, "When you fast, do not look gloomy ''.
The period of Lent observed in the Eastern Catholic Churches corresponds to that in other churches of Eastern Christianity that have similar traditions.
In Protestant and Western Orthodox Churches, the season of Lent lasts from Ash Wednesday to Holy Saturday. This calculation makes Lent last 46 days, if the 6 Sundays are included, but only 40, if they are excluded, This definition is still that of the Anglican Church, Lutheran Church, Methodist Church, and Western Rite Orthodox Church.
In the Byzantine Rite, i.e., the Eastern Orthodox Great Lent (Greek: Μεγάλη Τεσσαρακοστή or Μεγάλη Νηστεία, meaning "Great 40 Days '' and "Great Fast '' respectively) is the most important fasting season in the church year.
The 40 days of Great Lent includes Sundays, and begins on Clean Monday and are immediately followed by what are considered distinct periods of fasting, Lazarus Saturday and Palm Sunday, which in turn are followed straightway by Holy Week. Great Lent is broken only after the Paschal (Easter) Divine Liturgy.
The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the traditional Church 's teaching on fasting. The rules for lenten fasting are the monastic rules. Fasting in the Orthodox Church is more than simply abstaining from certain foods. During the Great Lent Orthodox Faithful intensify their prayers and spiritual exercises, go to church services more often, study the Scriptures and the works of the Church Fathers in depth, limit their entertainment and spendings and focus on charity and good works.
Among the Oriental Orthodox, there are various local traditions regarding Lent. Those using the Alexandrian Rite, i.e., the Coptic Orthodox, Coptic Catholic, Ethiopian Orthodox, Ethiopian Catholic, Eritrean Orthodox, and Eritrean Catholic Churches, observe eight weeks of Lent.
In Ethiopian Orthodoxy, fasting (tsome) lasts for 55 continuous days before Easter (Fasika), although the fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal, eight days commemorating an early Christian figure; Tsome Arba, 40 days of Lent; and Tsome Himamat, seven days commemorating Holy Week. Fasting involves abstention from animal products (meat, dairy, and eggs), and refraining from eating or drinking before 3: 00 pm. Ethiopian devotees may also abstain from sexual activity and the consumption of alcohol.
As in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the date of Easter is reckoned according to the Julian Calendar, and usually occurs later than Easter according to Gregorian Calendar used by Catholic and Protestant Churches.
The number 40 has many Biblical references:
One of the most important ceremonies at Easter is the baptism of the initiates on Easter Eve. The fast was initially undertaken by the catechumens to prepare them for the reception of this sacrament. Later, the period of fasting from Good Friday until Easter Day was extended to six days, to correspond with the six weeks of training necessary to give the final instruction to those converts who were to be baptized.
Converts to Christianity followed a strict catechumenate or period of instruction and discipline prior to receiving the sacrament of baptism, sometimes lasting up to three years. In Jerusalem near the close of the fourth century, classes were held throughout Lent for three hours each day. With the legalization of Christianity (by the Edict of Milan) and its later imposition as the state religion of the Roman Empire, its character was endangered by the great influx of new members. In response, the Lenten fast and practices of self - renunciation were required annually of all Christians, both to show solidarity with the catechumens, and for their own spiritual benefit.
There are traditionally 40 days in Lent; these are marked by fasting, both from foods and festivities, and by other acts of penance. The three traditional practices to be taken up with renewed vigour during Lent are prayer (justice towards God), fasting (justice towards self), and almsgiving (justice towards neighbours).
However, in modern times, observers give up partaking in vices and often invest the time or money saved in charitable purposes or organizations.
In addition, some believers add a regular spiritual discipline, to bring them closer to God, such as reading a Lenten daily devotional. Another practice commonly added is the singing of the Stabat Mater hymn in designated groups. Among Filipino Catholics, the recitation of Jesus Christ ' passion, called Pasiong Mahal, is also observed. In some Christian countries, grand religious processions and cultural customs are observed, and the faithful attempt to visit seven churches during Holy Week in honor of Jesus Christ heading to Mount Calvary.
In many liturgical Christian denominations, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, and Easter Sunday form the Easter Triduum. Lent is a season of grief that necessarily ends with a great celebration of Easter. Thus, it is known in Eastern Orthodox circles as the season of "Bright Sadness ''. It is a season of sorrowful reflection which is punctuated by breaks in the fast on Sundays.
The Gloria in excelsis Deo, which is usually said or sung on Sundays at Mass of the Roman Rite and Anglican rite, is omitted on the Sundays of Lent, but continues in use on solemnities and feasts and on special celebrations of a more solemn kind. Some mass compositions were written especially for Lent, such as Michael Haydn 's Missa tempore Quadragesimae, without Gloria, in D minor, and for modest forces, only choir and organ. The Gloria is used on Maundy Thursday, to the accompaniment of bells, which then fall silent until the Gloria in excelsis of the Easter Vigil.
The Lutheran Divine Service, the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and the Presbyterian service of worship associate the Alleluia with joy and omits it entirely throughout Lent, not only at Mass but also in the canonical hours as well as outside the liturgy. Before 1970, the omission began with Septuagesima. The word "Alleluia '' at the beginning and end of the Acclamation Before the Gospel at Mass is replaced by another phrase. Before 1970, the whole Acclamation was omitted and was replaced by a Tract. Again, before 1970, the word "Alleluia '' normally added to the Gloria Patri at the beginning of each Hour of the Liturgy of the Hours was replaced by the phrase Laus tibi, Domine, rex aeternae gloriae (Praise to you, O Lord, king of eternal glory). Now it is simply omitted.
Until the Ambrosian Rite was revised by Saint Charles Borromeo the liturgy of the First Sunday of Lent was festive, celebrated with chanting of the Gloria and Alleluia, in line with the recommendation in Matthew 6: 16, "When you fast, do not look gloomy ''.
In the Byzantine Rite, the Gloria (Great Doxology) continues to be used in its normal place in the Matins service, and the Alleluia appears all the more frequently, replacing "God is the Lord '' at Matins.
In certain pious Christian states, in which liturgical forms of Christianity predominate, religious objects were traditionally veiled for the entire 40 days of Lent. Though perhaps uncommon in the United States of America, this pious practice is consistently observed in Goa, Malta, Peru, the Philippines (the latter only for the entire duration of Holy Week, with the exception of processional images), and in the Spanish cities: Barcelona, Málaga, and Seville. In Ireland, before Vatican II, when impoverished rural Catholic convents and parishes could not afford purple fabrics, they resorted to either removing the statues altogether or, if too heavy or bothersome, turned the statues to face the wall. As is popular custom, the 14 Stations of the Cross plaques on the walls are not veiled.
Crucifixes made before the time of Saint Francis of Assisi did not have a corpus (body of Christ) and therefore were adorned with jewels and gemstones, which was referred to as Crux Gemmatae. To keep the faithful from adoring the crucifixes elaborated with ornamentation, veiling it in royal purple fabrics came into place. The violet colour later evolved as a color of penance and mourning.
Further liturgical changes in modernity reduced such observances to the last week of Passiontide. In parishes that could afford only small quantities of violet fabrics, only the heads of the statues were veiled. If no violet fabrics could be afforded at all, then the religious statues and images were turned around facing the wall. Flowers were always removed as a sign of solemn mourning.
In the pre-1992 Methodist liturgy and pre-1970 forms of the Roman Rite, the last two weeks of Lent are known as Passiontide, a period beginning on the Fifth Sunday in Lent, which in the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal is called the First Sunday in Passiontide and in earlier editions Passion Sunday. All statues (and in England paintings as well) in the church were traditionally veiled in violet. This was seen as in keeping with the Gospel of that Sunday (John 8: 46 -- 59), in which Jesus "hid himself '' from the people.
Within many churches in the United States of America, after the Second Vatican Council, the need to veil statues or crosses became increasingly irrelevant and was deemed unnecessary by some diocesan bishops. As a result, the veils were removed at the singing of the Gloria in Excelsis Deo during the Easter Vigil. In 1970, the name "Passiontide '' was dropped, although the last two weeks are markedly different from the rest of the season, and continuance of the tradition of veiling images is left to the discretion of a country 's conference of bishops or even to individual parishes as pastors may wish.
On Good Friday, the Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist churches traditionally veiled "all pictures, statutes, and the cross are covered in mourning black '', while "the chancel and altar coverings are replaced with black, and altar candles are extinguished ''. The fabrics are then "replaced with white on sunrise on Easter Sunday ''.
The carnival celebrations which in many cultures traditionally precede Lent are seen as a last opportunity for excess before Lent begins. Some of the most famous are the Carnival of Barranquilla, the Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the Carnival of Venice, Cologne Carnival, the New Orleans Mardi Gras, the Rio de Janeiro carnival, and the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival.
The day immediately preceding Lent is variously called Mardi Gras ("Fat Tuesday ''), Pancake Tuesday, or Shrove Tuesday. Sometimes, it is the peak of the pre-Lenten festival, while sometimes it is largely occupied with preparations for Lent. The observances vary from culture to culture, and even from town to town.
Originally, in Lebanon and Syria, the last Thursday preceding Lent was called "Khamis el zakara ''. For Catholics, it was meant to be a day of remembrance of the dead ones. However, zakara (which means "remembrance '', in Arabic) was gradually replaced by sakara (meaning "getting drunk '' in Arabic), and so the occasion came to be known as Khamis el sakara, wherein celebrants indulge themselves with alcoholic beverages.
Fasting during Lent was more prominent in ancient times than today. Socrates Scholasticus reports that in some places, all animal products were strictly forbidden, while various others permitted fish, or fish and fowl, others prohibited fruit and eggs, and still others permitted only bread. In many places, the observant abstained from food for a whole day until the evening, and at sunset, Western Christians traditionally broke the Lenten fast, which was often known as the Black Fast. In India and Pakistan, many Christians continue this practice of fasting until sunset on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, with some fasting in this manner throughout the whole season of Lent.
For other Latin Catholics, by the early 20th century the theoretical obligation of the penitential fast throughout Lent except on Sundays was to take only one full meal a day. In addition, a smaller meal, called a collation, was allowed in the evening, and a cup of some beverage, accompanied by a little bread, in the morning. In practice, this obligation, which was a matter of custom rather than of written law, was not observed strictly. The 1917 Code of Canon Law allowed the full meal on a fasting day to be taken at any hour and to be supplemented by two collations, with the quantity and the quality of the food to be determined by local custom. The Lenten fast ended on Holy Saturday at noon. Only those aged 21 to 59 were obliged to fast. As with all merely ecclesiastical laws, particular difficulties, such as strenuous work or illness, excused one from observance, and a dispensation from the law could be granted by a bishop or parish priest. In addition to fasting, abstinence from meat was to be observed on Ash Wednesday and on Fridays and Saturdays in Lent. A rule of thumb is that the two collations should not add up to the equivalent of another full meal. Rather portions were to be: "sufficient to sustain strength, but not sufficient to satisfy hunger ''. The apostolic constitution Paenitemini of 17 February 1966 reduced the fasting days to two: Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, and allowed episcopal conferences to "substitute abstinence and fast wholly or in part with other forms of penitence and especially works of charity and the exercises of piety ''. This was made part of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, which made obligatory fasting for those aged between 18 and 59, and abstinence for those aged 14 and upward. The Irish Catholic Bishops ' Conference decided to allow other forms of Friday penance to replace that of abstinence from meat, whether in Lent or outside Lent, suggesting alternatives such as abstaining from some other food, or from alcohol or smoking; making a special effort at participating in family prayer or in Mass; making the Stations of the Cross; or helping the poor, sick, old, or lonely. The Catholic Bishops ' Conference of England and Wales made a similar ruling in 1985 but decided in 2011 to restore the traditional year - round Friday abstinence from meat. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops has maintained the rule of abstention from meat on Friday only during Lent.
Many Lutheran Churches advocate fasting during designated times such as Lent, especially on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. A Handbook for the Discipline of Lent delineates the following Lutheran fasting guidelines:
The historic Methodist homilies regarding the Sermon on the Mount stress the importance of the Lenten fast, which begins on Ash Wednesday. The United Methodist Church therefore states that:
There is a strong biblical base for fasting, particularly during the 40 days of Lent leading to the celebration of Easter. Jesus, as part of his spiritual preparation, went into the wilderness and fasted 40 days and 40 nights, according to the Gospels.
Good Friday, which is towards the end of the Lenten season, is traditionally an important day of communal fasting for Methodists. Rev. Jacqui King, the minister of Nu Faith Community United Methodist Church in Houston explained the philosophy of fasting during Lent as "I 'm not skipping a meal because in place of that meal I 'm actually dining with God ''.
Many of the Churches in the Reformed tradition retained the Lenten fast in its entirety. The Reformed Church in America describes the first day of Lent, Ash Wednesday, as a day "focused on prayer, fasting, and repentance '' and considers fasting a focus of the whole Lenten season, as demonstated in the "Invitation to Observe a Lenten Discipline '', found in the Reformed liturgy for the Ash Wednesday service, which is read by the presider:
We begin this holy season by acknowledging our need for repentance and our need for the love and forgiveness shown to us in Jesus Christ. I invite you, therefore, in the name of Christ, to observe a Holy Lent, by self - examination and penitence, by prayer and fasting, by practicing works of love, and by reading and reflecting on God 's Holy Word.
Good Friday, which is towards the end of the Lenten season, is traditionally an important day of communal fasting for adherents of the Reformed faith.
During the early Middle Ages, eggs, dairy products, and meat were generally forbidden. In favour of the traditional practice, observed both in East and West, Thomas Aquinas argued that "they afford greater pleasure as food (than fish), and greater nourishment to the human body, so that from their consumption there results a greater surplus available for seminal matter, which when abundant becomes a great incentive to lust. '' Aquinas also authorized the consumption of candy during Lent, because "sugared spices '' (such as comfits) were, in his opinion, digestive aids on par with medicine rather than food.
In Spain, the bull of the Holy Crusade (renewed periodically after 1492) allowed the consumption of dairy products and eggs during Lent in exchange for a contribution to the cause of the crusade.
Giraldus Cambrensis, in his Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales, reports that "in Germany and the arctic regions '', "great and religious persons '' eat the tail of beavers as "fish '' because of its superficial resemblance to "both the taste and colour of fish ''. The animal was very abundant in Wales at the time.
In current Western societies the practice is considerably relaxed, though in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic Churches, abstinence from all animal products including eggs, fish, fowl, and milk sourced from animals (e.g., cows and goats, as opposed to the milk of coconuts and soy beans) is still commonly practiced, so that, where this is observed, only vegetarian (or vegan) meals are consumed for the whole of Lent, 45 days in the Byzantine Rite.
In the Western Catholic Church, the obligation to fast no longer applies to all weekdays of Lent (40 days), but only to Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. In the tradition of this part of the Catholic Church, abstinence from eating some form of food (generally meat, but not dairy or fish products) is distinguished from fasting. Fasting involves having during the day only one proper meal with up to two "collations '', light meatless meals sufficient to maintain strength but not adding up to the equivalent of a full meal. In principle, abstinence is to be observed on Ash Wednesday and on every Friday of the year that is not a solemnity (a liturgical feast day of the highest rank); but in each country the episcopal conference can determine the form it is to take, perhaps replacing abstinence with other forms of penance.
Present canonical legislation on these matters follows the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini, in which he recommended that fasting be appropriate to the local economic situation and that all Catholics voluntarily fast and abstain. He also allowed replacing fasting and abstinence with prayer and works of charity in countries with a lower standard of living. The law of abstinence binds those age 14 or over, and that of fast binds those who are at least 18 years of age and not yet 60. The sick and those who have special needs are excused, and dispensations can be granted by episcopal conferences or individual bishops, which can be wider outside of Lent. Even during Lent, the rule about solemnities holds, so that the obligation of Friday abstinence does not apply on 19 and 25 March when, as usually happens, the solemnities of Saint Joseph and the Annunciation are celebrated on those dates. The same applies to Saint Patrick 's Day, which is a solemnity in the whole of Ireland as well as in dioceses that have Saint Patrick as principal patron saint. In some other places, too, where there are strong Irish traditions within the Catholic community, a dispensation is granted for that day. In Hong Kong, where Ash Wednesday often coincides with Chinese New Year celebrations, a dispensation is then granted from the laws of fast and abstinence, and the faithful are exhorted to use some other form of penance.
After the Protestant Reformation, in the Lutheran Church, "Church orders of the 16th century retained the observation of the Lenten fast, and Lutherans have observed this season with a serene, earnest attitude. '' In the Anglican Churches, the Traditional Saint Augustine 's Prayer Book: A Book of Devotion for Members of the Anglican Communion, a companion to the Book of Common Prayer, states that fasting is "usually meaning not more than a light breakfast, one full meal, and one half meal, on the forty days of Lent ''. It further states that "the major Fast Days of Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, as the American Prayer - Book indicates, are stricter in obligation, though not in observance, than the other Fast Days, and therefore should not be neglected except in cases of serious illness or other necessity of an absolute character. ''
Traditionally, on Sunday, and during the hours before sunrise and after sunset, some Churches, such as Episcopalians, allow "breaks '' in their Lent promises. For Roman Catholics, the Lenten penitential season ends after the Easter Vigil Mass. Orthodox Christians also break their fast after the Paschal Vigil, a service which starts around 11: 00 pm on Holy Saturday, and which includes the Paschal celebration of the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom. At the end of the service, the priest blesses cheese, eggs, flesh meats, and other items that the faithful have been abstaining from for the duration of Great Lent.
Lenten traditions and liturgical practices are less common, less binding, and sometimes non-existent among some liberal and progressive Christians, since these generally do not emphasize piety and the mortification of the flesh as a significant virtue. A greater emphasis on anticipation of Easter Sunday is often encouraged more than the penitence of Lent or Holy Week.
Some Christians as well as secular groups also interpret the Lenten fast in a positive tone, not as renunciation but as contributing to causes such as environmental stewardship and improvement of health. Even some atheists find value in the Christian tradition and observe Lent.
During Lent, BBC 's Radio Four normally broadcasts a series of programmes called the Lent Talks. These 15 - minute programmes are normally broadcast on a Wednesday and have featured various speakers, such as John Lennox.
There are several holy days within the season of Lent:
In the Anglican, Lutheran, Old Catholic, Roman Catholic, and many other churches, the Easter Triduum is a three - day event that begins Maundy Thursday evening, with the entrance hymn of the Mass of the Lord 's Supper. After this celebration, the consecrated Hosts are taken solemnly from the altar to a place of reposition, where the faithful are invited to meditate in the presence of the consecrated Hosts. This is the Church 's response to Jesus ' question to the disciples sleeping in the Garden of Gethsemane, "Could you not watch with me one hour? '' On the next day, the liturgical commemoration of the Passion of Jesus Christ is celebrated at 3 pm, unless a later time is chosen due to work schedules.
This service consists of readings from the Scriptures, especially John the Evangelist 's account of the Passion of Jesus, followed by prayers, veneration of the cross of Jesus, and a communion service at which the hosts consecrated at the evening Mass of the day before are distributed. The Easter Vigil during the night between Holy Saturday afternoon and Easter Sunday morning starts with the blessing of a fire and a special candle, and with readings from Scripture associated with baptism. Then, the Gloria in Excelsis Deo is sung, water is blessed, baptism and confirmation of adults may take place, the people are invited to renew the promises of their own baptism, and finally, Mass is celebrated in the usual way from the Preparation of the Gifts onwards.
Holy Week and the season of Lent, depending on denomination and local custom, end with Easter Vigil at sundown on Holy Saturday or on the morning of Easter Sunday. It is custom for some churches to hold sunrise services which include open air celebrations in some places.
In the Lutheran, Methodist, Reformed, Roman Catholic, and many Anglican churches, the pastor 's vestments are violet during the season of Lent. On the fourth Sunday in Lent, rose - coloured (pink) vestments may be worn in lieu of violet. Historically, black had also been used: Pope Innocent III declared black to be the proper color for Lent, though Durandus of Saint - Pourçain claims violet has preference over black.
In some Anglican churches, a type of unbleached linen or muslin known as "Lenten array '' is worn during the first three weeks of Lent, crimson is worn during Passiontide, and on holy days, the colour proper to the day is worn. In certain other Anglican churches, as an alternative to violet for all of Lent except Holy Week and red beginning on Palm Sunday through Holy Saturday, Lenten array, typically made of sackcloth such as burlap and trimmed with crimson cloth, often velvet, is worn, even during Holy Week -- since the sackcloth represents penance and the crimson edges represent the Passion of Christ. Even the veils that cover the altar crosses or crucifixes and statuary (if any) are made of the same sackcloth with the crimson trim.
Christianity:
Islam:
Judaism:
Modern interpretations
General:
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where does the us get its power from | Energy in the United States - wikipedia
United States total primary energy consumption by fuel in 2015
The United States was the second - largest energy consumer in 2010 (after China) considering total use. The nation is ranked seventh in energy consumption per - capita after Canada and several small nations. Not included is the significant amount of energy used overseas in the production of retail and industrial goods consumed in the U.S.
Most of this energy comes from fossil fuels: in 2010, data showed that 25 % of the nation 's energy originates from petroleum, 22 % from coal, and 22 % from natural gas. Nuclear power supplied 8.4 % and renewable energy supplied 8 %, mainly from hydroelectric dams and biomass; however, this also includes other renewable sources like wind power, geothermal, and solar energy. As of 2006, energy consumption had increased more rapidly than domestic energy production over the last 50 years in the nation (when they were roughly equal). This difference was largely met through imports.
According to the Energy Information Administration 's statistics, the per - capita energy consumption in the US has somewhat been consistent from the 1970s to the present time. The average was about 334 million British thermal units (BTUs) per person from 1980 to 2010. One explanation suggested that the energy required to increase the nation 's consumption of manufactured equipment, cars, and other goods has been shifted to other countries producing and transporting those goods to the US with a corresponding shift of green house gases and pollution. In comparison, the world average increased from 63.7 in 1980 to 75 million BTUs per person in 2008.
From its founding until the late 18th century, the United States was a largely agrarian country with abundant forests. During this period, energy consumption overwhelmingly focused on readily available firewood. Rapid industrialization of the economy, urbanization, and the growth of railroads led to increased use of coal, and by 1885 it had eclipsed wood as the nation 's primary energy source.
Coal remained dominant for the next seven decades, but by 1950, it was surpassed in turn by both petroleum and natural gas. The 1973 oil embargo precipitated an energy crisis in the United States. In 2007, coal consumption was the highest it has ever been, with it mostly being used to generate electricity. Natural gas has replaced coal as the preferred source of heating in homes, businesses and industrial furnaces, which burns cleaner and is easier to transport.
Although total energy use increased by approximately a factor of 50 between 1850 and 2000, energy use per capita increased only by a factor of four. As of 2009, United States per capita energy use had declined to 7075 (kilograms of oil - equivalent), 12 % less than 2000, and in 2010 to levels not seen since the 1960s. At the beginning of the 20th century, petroleum was a minor resource used to manufacture lubricants and fuel for kerosene and oil lamps. One hundred years later it had become the preeminent energy source for the United States and the rest of the world. This rise closely paralleled the emergence of the automobile as a major force in American culture and the economy.
While petroleum is also used as a source for plastics and other chemicals, and powers various industrial processes, today two - thirds of oil consumption in the U.S. is in the form of its derived transportation fuels. Oil 's unique qualities for transportation fuels in terms of energy content, cost of production, and speed of refueling all contributed to it being used over other fuels.
In June 2010, the American Energy Innovation Council, a group which includes Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft; Jeffrey R. Immelt, chief executive of General Electric; and John Doerr, has urged the government to more than triple spending on energy research and development, to $16 billion a year. Gates endorsed the administration 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent by 2050, but said that was not possible with today 's technology or politicism. He said that the only way to find such disruptive new technology was to pour large sums of money at the problem. The group notes that the federal government spends less than $5 billion a year on energy research and development, not counting one - time stimulus projects. About $30 billion is spent annually on health research and more than $80 billion on military research and development. They advocate a jump in spending on basic energy research.
2012R = CO2 calculation criteria changed, numbers updated
Note: Sum of components may not equal 100 percent due to independent rounding.
Primary energy use in the United States was 25,155 TWh or about 81,800 kWh per person in 2009. Primary energy use was 1,100 TWh less in the United States than in China in 2009. The share of energy import was 26 % of the primary energy use. The energy import declined about 22 % and the annual CO2 emissions about 10 % in 2009 compared to 2004.
Oil is one of the largest sources of energy in the United States. The United States influences world oil reserves for both growth and development. As the 20th century progressed, petroleum gained increasing importance by providing heating and power to the commercial and industrial sectors. Oil was also used in transportation; first for railroads and later for motor vehicles.
As automobiles became more affordable, demand for oil quickly rose. Since the rise of the automobile industry, oil price, demand, and production have all increased as well. Between 1900 and 1980, fuel was directly correlated with Gross National Product (GNP). Furthermore, oil shocks have often coincided with recessions, and the government has responded to oil shocks in several ways. In the 1920s, oil prices were peaking and many commentators believed that oil supplies were running out. Congress was confronted by requests to augment supplies, so a generous depletion allowance was enacted for producers in 1926, which increased investment returns substantially. This change induced additional exploration activity, and subsequently the discovery of large new oil reservoirs.
The next decade the situation was reversed, with prices low and dropping. This resulted in demands for more "orderly '' competition and set minimum oil prices. Rather than repealing the previous policies enacted in the 1920s, Congress enacted a price - support system. Similar cycles have occurred in the 1950s and ' 70s.
Natural gas was the largest source of energy production in the United States in 2016, representing 33 percent of all energy produced in the country. Natural gas has been the largest source of electrical generation in the United States since July 2015.
The United States has been the world 's largest producer of natural gas since 2009, when it surpassed Russia. US Natural gas production achieved new record highs for each year from 2011 through 2015. Marketed natural gas production in 2015 was 28.8 trillion cubic feet, a 5.4 % increase over 2014, and a 52 % increase over the production of 18.9 trillion cubic feet per day in 2005.
Because of the greater supply, consumer prices for natural gas are significantly lower in the United States than in Europe and Japan. The low price of natural gas, together with its smaller carbon footprint compared to coal, has encouraged a rapid growth in electricity generated from natural gas.
Between 2005 and 2014, US production of natural gas liquids (NGLs) increased 70 %, from 1.74 million barrels per day in 2005 to 2.96 million barrels per day in 2014. The US has been the world 's leading producer of natural gas liquids since 2010, when US NGL production passed that of Saudi Arabia.
Although the United States leads the world in natural gas production, it is only fifth in proved reserves of natural gas, behind Russia, Iran, Qatar, and Turkmenistan.
Generation of electricity is the largest user of coal, although its use is in decline. About 50 % of electric power was produced by coal in 2005, declining to 30 % in 2016. Electric utilities buy more than 90 % of the coal consumed in the United States.
The United States is a net exporter of coal. Coal exports, for which Europe is the largest customer, peaked in 2012, and have declined since. In 2015, the U.S. exported 7.0 % of mined coal.
Coal has been used to generate electricity in the United States since an Edison plant was built in New York City in 1882. The first AC power station was opened by General Electric in Ehrenfeld, Pennsylvania in 1902, servicing the Webster Coal and Coke Company. By the mid-20th century, coal had become the leading fuel for generating electricity in the US. The long, steady rise of coal - fired generation of electricity shifted to a decline after 2007. The decline has been linked to the increased availability of natural gas, decreased consumption, renewable power, and more stringent environmental regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency has advanced restrictions on coal plants to counteract mercury pollution, smog, and global warming.
The U.S. Department of Energy tracks national energy consumption in four broad sectors: industrial, transportation, residential, and commercial. The industrial sector has long been the country 's largest energy user, currently representing about 33 % of the total. Next in importance is the transportation sector, followed by the residential and commercial sectors.
Household energy use varies significantly across the United States. An average home in the Pacific region (consisting of California, Oregon, and Washington) consumes 35 % less energy than a home in the South Central region. Some of the regional differences can be explained by climate. The heavily populated coastal areas of the Pacific states experience generally mild winters and summers, reducing the need for both home heating and air conditioning. The warm, humid climates of the South Central and South Atlantic regions lead to higher electricity usage, while the cold winters experienced in the Northeast and North Central regions result in much higher consumption of natural gas and heating oil. The state with the lowest per capita energy use is New York, at 205 million Btu / yr, and the highest is Wyoming, at slightly over 1 billion Btu / yr.
Other regional differences stem from energy efficiency measures taken at the local and state levels. California has some of the strictest environmental laws and building codes in the country, leading its per - household energy consumption to be lower than all other states except Hawaii.
The land - use decisions of cities and towns also explain some of the regional differences in energy use. Townhouses are more energy efficient than single - family homes because less heat, for example, is wasted per person. Similarly, areas with more homes in a compact neighborhood encourage walking, biking and transit, thereby reducing transportation energy use. A 2011 U.S.E.P.A. study found that multi-family homes in urban neighborhoods, with well - insulated buildings and fuel - efficient cars, can save more than 2 / 3 of the energy used by conventionally built single - family houses in suburban areas (with standard cars).
The United States is the world 's second largest producer and consumer of electricity. It consumes about 20 % of the world 's electricity supply. This section provides a summary of the consumption and generation of the nation 's electric industry, based on data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration / Electric Power Annual 2015 files. Data was obtained from the most recent DOE Energy Information Agency (EIA) files. Consumption is detailed from the residential, commercial, industrial, and other user communities. Generation is detailed for the major fuel sources of coal, natural gas, nuclear, petroleum, hydro, and the other renewables of wind, wood, other biomass, geothermal, and solar. Changes to the electrical energy fuel mix and other trends are identified. Progress in wind and solar contributing to the energy mix are addressed. Expected changes in the generation environment during the next 5 years are discussed.
Electricity consumption data in this section is based upon data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration / Electric Power Annual 2016 files In 2016 the total US consumption of electricity was 4,137.1 terawatt - hours (TWh). Consumption was essentially flat from 2015, with a 6 TWh or 0.15 % drop. This is broken down as:
A profile of the electric energy consumption for 2016 is shown in the following graph. The April minimum of 298 TWh to the July peak of 417 TWh shows the monthly range of consumption variations.
The following table derived from data mined from Electric Power Annual. identifies those states which must import electrical energy from neighboring states to meet their consumption needs. Each state 's total electric generation for 2016 is compared with the states consumption and its share of the system loss and the difference between the generated electric energy and its total consumption (including its share of the system loss) is the amount of energy it imports. For Hawaii (HI) total consumption equals generated energy. For the other states, multiplying their direct consumption by 1.099688991 (4127150643 / 3753016241), results in United States supply (including net imports) being equal to the country 's total consumption. The following chart provides the details. The graphic shows each import states situation with respect to electric energy consumption being greater than its generation.
United States has an installed electricity generation capacity of 1,074.3 GW. The electricity generation was 4,076.8 TWh in 2016.
United States net imports were 60.27 TWh, for a total of 4,137.1 TWh of electrical energy use. Electrical energy generated from coal was 1,239.15 TWh (29.95 %); Natural and other Gases, 1,391.11 TWh (33.63 %); Nuclear, 805.69 TWh (19.47 %); Hydro, 269.81 TWh (6.47 %); Renewables (other than Hydro), 341.64 TWh (8.26 %); Imports less exports, 60.27 TWh (1.46 %); Petroleum, 24.20 TWh (0.59 %); and Misc (including pumped storage) 7.22 TWh (0.18 %). United States renewable sources (hydro reported separately) are wind, 226.99 TWh (5.49 %); wood, 40.95 TWh (0.99 %); other biomass, 21.81 TWh (0.53 %); geothermal, 15.83 TWh (0.38 %) and solar, 36.05 TWh (0.87 %). Small scale solar is estimated to have produced an additional 12.77 TWh. Natural gas electricity generation exceeded generation from coal for the first time in 2016.
The following tables summarize the electrical energy generated by fuel source for the United States. Data from Electric Power Annual 2016 was used throughout this section.
Note: Biomass includes wood and wood derived fuel, landfill gas, biogenic municipal solid waste and other waste biomass.
Notes: Gas includes natural gas and other gases. Hydro excludes pumped storage (not an energy source, used by all sources, other than hydro). Solar includes photovoltaics and thermal. Bio other includes waste, landfill gas, and other. Misc includes misc generation, pumped storage, and net imports. Total includes net imports. 2017 data is from Electric Power Monthly and does not include import - export data.
Using the data from the US DOE Energy Information Administration / Electric Power Annual 2015 files Data was obtained from the most recent DOE Energy Information Agency (EIA) full year files. The following table derived from data mined from Electric Power Annual. identifies those states which generate more electrical energy than they need to meet their consumption needs. They supply those that need additional energy. Each states total electric generation for 2016 is compared with the states consumption and its share of the system loses and the difference between the generated electric energy and its total consumption (including its share of the system loses) is the amount of energy it exports. For Hawaii (HI), total consumption equals generated energy. For the other states multiplying their direct consumption by 1.1099688991 (4127150643 / 3753016241) results in United States supply (including net imports) being equal to the country 's total consumption usage. State export is determined by subtracting the state 's total consumption from its generation.
Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.2 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2014, and 11.2 percent of total energy generation. As of 2014, more than 143,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering, where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays.
Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011, when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production (2.245 quadrillion BTUs of energy), surpassing energy production from nuclear power (2.125 quadrillion BTUs). 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production.
Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. It produced around 6.2 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2010 which was 60.2 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China, Canada and Brazil. The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world.
U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 65,000 MW and supplies 4 % of the nation 's electricity. Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by Iowa and California.
The U.S. has some of the largest solar farms in the world. Solar Star is a 579 megawatt (MW) farm near Rosamond, California. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County, California and the Topaz Solar Farm, a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant, is in San Luis Obispo County, California. The solar thermal SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert has a total generating capacity of 354 MW.
The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world.
The development of renewable energy and efficient energy use marks "a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States, according to President Barack Obama. Studies suggest that if there is enough political will it is feasible to supply the total United States with 100 % renewable energy by 2050.
In 2015 electrical energy usage in the United States was 1.6 % more than in 2005 and 1 % less than the peak in 2007. Per capita consumption has decreased about 7 % since its peak in 2007 and every year since has shown a decrease in individual consumption. Conservation efforts are helping. At least, for the next decade, coal, natural gas, and nuclear will remain the top three fuels for electric energy generation in the USA. Coal will continuously decrease its contribution with natural gas increasing its contribution. Nuclear will have some downs (decommissionings) and ups (new online plants) but probably remain about constant. Hydro will maintain. Petroleum will continue to decrease in importance. Wind and solar will continue to grow in importance; their combined generation was 5.29 % of US electric generation for 2015 or 5.20 % of total US consumption.
From the beginning of the United States until 1973, total energy (including electrical) use increased by about 3 % / year, while population increased an average of 2.2 % / year. Per capita energy use from 1730 to 1870 was about 100 million Btu / person. In the 20th century this increased to 300 million (332 million Btu / person / year, 97 thousand kWh / person / year in 1981).
In 2001, Vice President Dick Cheney said the US would need "at least 1,300 new power plants over the next 20 years. ''
Efficiency improvements could cause energy use to drop considerably.
A concentrating solar array (CSP) with thermal storage has a practical capacity factor of 33 % and could provide power 24 hours a day. Prior to 2012, in six southwestern states (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah) the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM) owned nearly 98 million acres (an area larger than the state of Montana) that was open to proposals for solar power installations. To streamline consideration of applications, the BLM produced a Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (PEIS). By the subsequent Record of Decision in October 2012, the BLM withdrew 78 percent of its land from possible solar development, leaving 19 million acres still open to applications for solar installations, an area nearly as large as South Carolina. Of the area left open to solar proposals, the BLM has identified 285 thousand acres in highly favorable areas it calls Solar Energy Zones. In Spain, with natural gas backups, CSP has reached a capacity factor of 66 %, with 75 % being a theoretical maximum.
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who starred in funny girl with barbara streisand | Funny Girl (film) - wikipedia
Funny Girl is a 1968 American biographical romantic musical comedy - drama film directed by William Wyler. The screenplay by Isobel Lennart was adapted from her book for the stage musical of the same title. It is loosely based on the life and career of Broadway and film star and comedian Fanny Brice and her stormy relationship with entrepreneur and gambler Nicky Arnstein.
Produced by Brice 's son - in - law, Ray Stark, with music and lyrics by Jule Styne and Bob Merrill, the film stars Barbra Streisand (reprising her Broadway role) as Brice and Omar Sharif as Arnstein, with a supporting cast featuring Kay Medford, Anne Francis, Walter Pidgeon, Lee Allen, and Mae Questel.
Streisand won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance, tying with Katharine Hepburn (The Lion in Winter). In 2006, the American Film Institute ranked the film # 16 on its list commemorating AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals. Previously it had ranked the film # 41 in its 2002 list of 100 Years... 100 Passions, the songs "People '' and "Do n't Rain on My Parade '' at # 13 and # 46, respectively, in its 2004 list of 100 Years... 100 Songs, and the line "Hello, gorgeous '' at # 81 in its 2005 list of 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes. Funny Girl is considered one of the greatest musical films ever.
In 2016, Funny Girl was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the United States Library of Congress, and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.
Set in and around New York City just prior to and following World War I, the story opens with Ziegfeld Follies star Fanny Brice awaiting the return of husband Nicky Arnstein from prison, and then moves into an extended flashback focusing on their meeting and marriage.
Fanny is first seen as a stage - struck teenager who gets her first job in vaudeville and meets the suave Arnstein following her debut performance. They continue to meet occasionally over the years, becoming more romantically involved as Fanny 's career flourishes and she becomes a star. Arnstein eventually seduces Fanny, who decides to abandon the Follies to be with him.
After winning a fortune playing poker while traveling aboard the RMS Berengaria, Nicky agrees to marry Fanny. They move into an expensive house and have a daughter, and Fanny eventually returns to Ziegfeld and the Follies. Meanwhile, Nicky 's various business ventures fail, forcing them to move into an apartment. Refusing financial support from his wife, he becomes involved in a bonds scam and is imprisoned for embezzlement for eighteen months.
Following Nicky 's release from prison, he and Fanny agree to separate.
Although originally released on her 1964 album People, the song "People '' was re-recorded for the film with a different tempo and additional lyrics.
In the 1985 book Barbra Streisand: The Woman, the Myth, the Music by Shaun Considine, composer Styne revealed he was unhappy with the orchestrations for the film. "They were going for pop arrangements, '' he recalled. "They dropped eight songs from the Broadway show and we were asked to write some new ones. They did n't want to go with success. It was the old - fashioned MGM Hollywood way of doing a musical. They always change things to their way of vision, and they always do it wrong. But, of all my musicals they screwed up, Funny Girl came out the best. ''
Because the songs "My Man '', "Second Hand Rose '', and "I 'd Rather Be Blue '' frequently were performed by the real Brice during her career, they were interpolated into the Styne - Merrill score.
The soundtrack album to the film was released by Columbia Records in 1968.
Isobel Lennart originally wrote Funny Girl as a screenplay for a drama film entitled My Man for producer Ray Stark, but when he offered it to Mary Martin, she suggested it might work better as a stage musical. Lennart consequently adapted her script for what eventually became a successful Broadway production starring Barbra Streisand.
Although she had not made any films, Streisand was Stark 's first and only choice to portray Brice onscreen. "I just felt she was too much a part of Fanny, and Fanny was too much a part of Barbra to have it go to someone else, '' he said, but Columbia Pictures executives wanted Shirley MacLaine in the role instead. MacLaine and Streisand were good friends and shared a birthday; both actresses rolled their eyes at the idea. Stark insisted if Streisand were not cast, he would not allow a film to be made, and the studio agreed to his demand.
Mike Nichols, George Roy Hill, and Gene Kelly were considered to direct the film before Sidney Lumet was signed. After working on pre-production for six months, he left the project due to "creative differences '' and was replaced by William Wyler, whose long and illustrious award - winning career never had included a musical film; he originally was assigned to direct The Sound of Music. Wyler initially declined Stark 's offer because he was concerned his significant hearing loss would affect his ability to work on a musical. After giving it some thought, he told Stark, "If Beethoven could write his Eroica Symphony, then William Wyler can do a musical. ''
Streisand had never heard of Wyler, and when she was told he had won the Academy Award for Best Director for Ben - Hur, she commented, "Chariots! How is he with people, like women? Is he any good with actresses? '' In fact Wyler had directed Roman Holiday (1953) which won 3 Academy Awards including the Best Actress award for Audrey Hepburn who had been chosen by Wyler despite her relative obscurity at that time. As for Wyler, he said, "I would n't have done the picture without her. '' Her enthusiasm reminded him of Bette Davis, and he felt she "represented a challenge for me because she 's never been in films, and she 's not the usual glamour girl ''.
Styne wanted Frank Sinatra for the role of Nicky Arnstein, but the actor was willing to appear in the film only if the role was expanded and new songs were added for the character. Stark thought Sinatra was too old and preferred someone with more class like Cary Grant, even though Grant was eleven years older than Sinatra. Marlon Brando, Gregory Peck, Sean Connery, David Janssen, and James Garner were also considered. Egyptian Omar Sharif was cast to star opposite the Jewish Streisand after Wyler noticed him having lunch in the studio commissary. When the Six - Day War between Israel and Egypt broke out, studio executives considered replacing Sharif, but both Wyler and Streisand threatened to quit if they did. Later, the publication of a still depicting a love scene between Fanny and Nicky in the Egyptian press prompted a movement to revoke Sharif 's citizenship. When asked about the controversy, Streisand replied, "You think the Egyptians are angry? You should see the letter I got from my Aunt Rose! '' Anne Francis was cast in a new role as the lead chorine in the Ziegfeld Follies.
Choreographer Herbert Ross, who staged the musical numbers, had worked with Streisand in I Can Get It for You Wholesale, her Broadway debut.
Principal photography began in August 1967 and was completed by December. During pre-recording of the songs, Streisand had demanded extensive retakes until she was satisfied with them, and on the set she continued to display her perfectionist nature, frequently arguing with Wyler about costumes and photography. She allegedly had so many of her scenes with Anne Francis cut before the film 's release that Francis sued to have her name removed from the credits, but lost. Streisand later claimed she never told Wyler to cut anything and the final film reflected his choices, not hers. Francis later said "I have no feud with Barbra. But doing that film was like Gaslight. What infuriated me was the way they did things -- never telling me, never talking to me, just cutting. I think they were afraid that if they were nice to me, Barbra would have been upset. ''
In her book Talking Back: Images of Jewish Women in American Popular Culture, Joyce Antler writes that Streisand has created several rich images of a Jewish woman within film, Funny Girl being one of them. In Funny Girl, Antler writes, Streisand is able to portray a character that is obviously Jewish, and in this role she creates a space for the intelligent Jewish woman to be depicted. In this role the Jewish woman was presented as smart, comedic, beautiful and talented. During the time this film was made, Jewish women had the stereotype of being dependent upon men. Yet Streisand tends to defy this stereotype. Jews are often over represented statistically in the field of humor, yet this could be what gives Jews the edge on making people laugh. Streisand takes the battle between the sexes, the double standard, and sexuality in a funny and shrewd way by stretching the boundaries beyond respectability and behaving in unladylike ways. Streisand 's character in the film literally portrays a "funny girl '' with her body, voice, gesture, and character, tying together her Jewishness and oddness. The film values women over men and portrays the men as dependent to their women; it reverses the gender roles. Funny Girl helped change the way women were viewed and used comedy to deflect Jewish mockery.
Streisand was widely praised by critics, with The New Yorker 's Pauline Kael calling it "A bravura performance... As Fanny Brice, she has the wittiest comic inflections since the comediennes of the 30s; she makes written dialogue sound like inspired improvisation... Streisand 's triumphant talent rides right over the film 's weaknesses. '' In his review in Chicago Sun - Times, Roger Ebert called Streisand "magnificent '' and added, "She has the best timing since Mae West, and is more fun to watch than anyone since the young Katharine Hepburn. She does n't actually sing a song at all; she acts it. She does things with her hands and face that are simply individual; that 's the only way to describe them. They have n't been done before. She sings, and you 're really happy you 're there. '' But he thought "the film itself is perhaps the ultimate example of the roadshow musical gone overboard. It is over-produced, over-photographed and over-long. The second half drags badly. The supporting characters are generally wooden... That makes the movie itself kind of schizo. It is impossible to praise Miss Streisand too highly; hard to find much to praise about the rest of the film. '' Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post agreed that the film was "overdone, '' writing that Streisand was "her first - rate self '' during the musical numbers and "probably is capable of more variety than this, '' but "is so carefully presented and limited that she and the picture become a long, drippy bore. '' Renata Adler of The New York Times wrote that "Streisand 's talent is very poignant and strong, '' but that the film had "something a little condescending about it, '' with Wyler "treating Barbra rather fondly, improbably and even patronizingly, '' and concluded that "Miss Streisand does n't need any of this. ''
Variety said Streisand makes "a marked impact '' and continued, "The saga of the tragi - comedienne Fanny Brice of the ungainly mien and manner, charmed by the suave card - sharp Nicky Arnstein, is perhaps of familiar pattern, but it is to the credit of all concerned that it plays so convincingly. ''
Jan Dawson of The Monthly Film Bulletin in the UK wrote, "The story of the actress whose dramatic rise from rags to riches is accompanied by the discovery that suffering lies on the flip - side of success has provided the basis of many an American musical. But William Wyler manages to transcend the clichés of the genre and create -- largely through Barbra Streisand 's characterisation of Fanny Brice -- a dramatic comedy in which the musical numbers illustrate the public aspect of the star 's life without once interrupting the narrative. ''
David Parkinson of Empire rated the film four out of five stars in a retrospective review and called it "one of those films where it does n't really matter what gets written here - you will have made your mind up about Babs one way or the other, but for the rare uninitiated, this is a fine introduction to her talents. ''
The film holds a 93 % approval rating on review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus states: "(Barbra) Streisand elevates this otherwise rote melodramatic musical with her ultra-memorable star turn as Fanny Brice. '' On Metacritic, the film has an 89 out of 100 rating, based on 7 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
In addition to Streisand 's Oscar win as Best Actress, the film was nominated in the categories of Best Picture, Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Medford, Best Cinematography for Stradling, Best Film Editing for Sands and Winetrobe, Best Score of a Musical Picture - Original or Adaptation for Walter Scharf, Best Original Song for the title tune by Styne and Merrill, and Best Sound.
Funny Girl, along with Columbia Pictures ' other Best Picture nominee and eventual winner Oliver!, secured a combined total of 19 nominations, the most nominations for musicals from one studio in a year.
Streisand won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, and nominations went to the film, Wyler, and Styne and Merrill for the title song.
Streisand won the David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actress (Barbra Streisand, winner; in a tie with Mia Farrow for Rosemary 's Baby) and the Golden Laurel for Best Female Comedy Performance.
Streisand was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, and nominations went to Stradling for Best Cinematography and Irene Sharaff for Best Costume Design.
Lennart won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical, and Wyler was won Society of Operating Cameramen 's Historical Shot for "the medium shot of Barbra Streisand standing on the bow, singing "Do n't Rain on My Parade '' then pulling back out to an amazing aerial point of view of the tugboat '' and nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing - Feature Film. William Sands, Robert Swink, Maury Winetrobe also nominated for the American Cinema Editors Award for Best Edited Feature Film.
"Hello, gorgeous '' are the first words uttered by Streisand in the film. After winning the Academy Award for Best Actress, Streisand 's first comment when handed the Oscar statuette was to look at the Oscar and say "Hello, gorgeous. ''
Since the release of the film, "Hello, gorgeous '' has been referenced in several films. The line appeared as the name of the salon where Angela (Michelle Pfeiffer 's character) worked in Married to the Mob. The line was also uttered by the character Max Bialystock in the 1967 film The Producers and its Broadway adaptation, but the inflection used by Zero Mostel in the film is different from that used by Streisand. The line is also regularly peppered through popular culture.
In 2005, the line was chosen as # 81 on the American Film Institute list, AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes.
In 1975, Streisand reprised her role of Brice opposite James Caan as Brice 's third husband, impresario Billy Rose, in a sequel entitled Funny Lady. The sequel received less than favorable reviews and was unable to turn as much of a profit as its predecessor.
The film was released on Region 1 DVD on October 23, 2001. It is in anamorphic widescreen format with audio tracks in English and French and subtitles in English, Spanish, French, Portuguese, Georgian, Chinese, and Thai. Bonus features include Barbra in Movieland and This Is Streisand, production information, and cast filmographies. The Blu - ray edition made its world debut on April 30, 2013 with the same bonus material as the DVD release. The Blu - ray release was also concurrent with Streisand 's most recent film, The Guilt Trip.
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where can gold be found in the us | Gold mining in the United States - wikipedia
Gold mining in the United States has taken place continually since the discovery of gold at the Reed farm in North Carolina in 1799. The first documented occurrence of gold was in Virginia in 1782. Some minor gold production took place in North Carolina as early as 1793, but created no excitement. The discovery on the Reed farm in 1799 which was identified as gold in 1802 and subsequently mined marked the first commercial production.
The large scale production of gold started with the California Gold Rush in 1848.
The closure of gold mines during World War II by the War Production Board Limitation Order No. 208 in autumn 1942 was a major impact on the production until the end of the war.
US gold production greatly increased during the 1980s, due to high gold prices and the use of heap leaching to recover gold from disseminated low - grade deposits in Nevada and other states.
In 2016 the United States produced 209 tonnes of gold, worth about US $8.5 billion, and 6.7 % of world production, making it the fourth - largest gold - producing nation, behind China, Australia and Russia. Most gold produced today in the US comes from large open - pit heap leach mines in the state of Nevada. The US is a net exporter of gold.
Gold was discovered in Alabama about 1830, shortly following the Georgia Gold Rush. The principal districts were the Arbacoochee district in Cleburne County, mostly from placer deposits, and the Hog Mountain district in Tallapoosa County, which produced 24,000 troy ounces (750 kg) from veins in schist.
Russian explorers discovered placer gold in the Kenai River in 1848, but no gold was produced. Gold mining started in 1870 from placers southeast of Juneau. Alaska produced a total of 40,300,000 troy ounces (1,250,000 kg) of gold from 1880 through the end of 2007. In 2015 Alaskan mines produced 873,984 troy ounces (27,183.9 kg) of gold, 12.7 % of US production. The largest gold producer is the Fort Knox mine, a large open pit and cyanide leaching operation in the Fairbanks mining district. Fort Knox produced 401,553 troy ounces (12,489.7 kg) of gold in 2015. The Pogo mine (283,000 ounces) and Kensington mine (128,865 ounces) gold mines and the Greens Creek polymetallic mine (60,566 ounces) accounted for the remainder of 2015 gold production.
Arizona has produced more than 16 million troy ounces (498 tonnes) of gold.
Gold mining in Arizona reportedly began in 1774 when Spanish priest Manuel Lopez directed Papago Indians to wash gold from gravel on the flanks of the Quijotoa Mountains, Pima County. Gold mining continued there until 1849, when the Mexican miners were lured away by the California Gold Rush. Other gold mining under Spanish and Mexican rule took place in the Oro Blanco district of Santa Cruz County, and the Arivaca district, Pima County.
Mountain man Pauline Weaver discovered placer gold on the east side of the Colorado River in 1862. Weaver 's discovery started the Colorado River Gold Rush to the now ghost town of La Paz, Arizona and other locations along the river in the ensuing years.
The most prominent of these were those of the San Francisco district, which includes the towns of Oatman, Bullhead City and Katherine in Mohave County was discovered in 1863 or 1864, but saw little activity until a rush to the district occurred in 1902. The district produced 2.0 million ounces of gold through 1959.
The gold - bearing quartz veins of the Vulture Mine, southwest of Wickenburg, in Maricopa County were discovered in 1863. The mine produced 366,000 troy ounces (11,400 kg) of gold through 1959.
The last gold mine to operate in Arizona was the Gold Road mine at Oatman, which shut down in 1998. Patriot Gold is exploration drilling at the Moss mine at Oatman.
In 2006, all of Arizona 's gold production came as a byproduct of copper mining.
Spanish prospectors found gold in the Potholes district between 1775 and 1780, along the Colorado River, in present Imperial County, California, about ten miles northeast from Yuma, Arizona. The gold was recovered from dry placers. Other placer deposits on the west bank of the Colorado River were quickly found, including the Picacho and Cargo Muchacho districts.
Placer gold deposits were found at San Ysidro in San Diego County in 1828, San Francisquito Canyon and Placerita Canyon in Los Angeles County in 1835 and 1842, respectively
Major gold mining in California began during the California Gold Rush. Gold was found by James Marshall at Sutters Mill, property of John Sutter, in present - day Coloma. In 1849, people started hearing about the gold and after just a few years San Francisco 's population increased to thousands. Gold production in California peaked in 1852, at 3.9 million troy ounces (121 tonnes) produced in that year. But the placer deposits worked in the early years were quickly exhausted, and production crashed. Hardrock mining (in California called quartz mining) began in 1849, and placer mining by hydraulic mining began in 1852. Despite the new mining methods, by 1865 production was 867,000 troy ounces (27,000 kg), less than one - quarter of peak production.
Production sank to 412,000 troy ounces (12,800 kg) in 1929, but then soared to more than 1,400,000 troy ounces (44,000 kg) for each year 1939 through 1941, after the price was raised from $20.67 to $35 per ounce. However, the federal government, in War Production Board Order L - 208, ordered gold mines closed, to free up resources for the war effort during World War II, and production fell to 148,000 troy ounces (4,600 kg) in 1943. Post-war gold production never reached the peak of the early 1940s, as inflation and the fixed price of gold eroded its value.
The largest gold - mining district in California is the famous Mother Lode of the Sierra Nevada. Found in the early 1850s, the lode is a zone one to four miles wide and running 120 miles northwest - southeast from El Dorado County in the north, through Amador, Calaveras, and Tuolumne counties, to Mariposa County in the south. The gold of the Mother Lode is in quartz veins within phyllite, schist, slate, and greenstone. Through 1959, the Mother Lode produced about 13.3 million troy ounces (414 tonnes) of gold.
The second - largest gold - mining district in California was Grass Valley - Nevada City district in Nevada County. Gold in Holocene gravels was found in 1850, followed a few years later by hydraulic mining of Tertiary gravels. By 1880, most of the mining had shifted to lode deposits, such as the Empire Mine. Through 1959, the district produced 10.4 million troy ounces (323 tonnes) of lode gold, and 2.2 million troy ounces (68.4 tonnes) of placer gold.
The rich placer deposits of the Columbia Basin - Jamestown - Sonora district were found in 1853. Almost all the gold was found at the base of Quaternary gravels, but some drift mines were worked in Tertiary gravels. Total production was about 5.9 million troy ounces (183 tonnes) of gold.
In 2007, California produced 9,400 troy ounces (290 kg) of gold from two mines. The Mesquite mine in Imperial County restarted active mining in 2007, having been inactive since 2001; now owned by New Gold, it produces more than 100,000 troy ounces (3,100 kg) of gold per year. The only other gold producer in the state, the Briggs mine in Inyo County stopped mining in 2004, but continues to produce small amounts of gold from the leach pads, from previously mined ore.
Gold was discovered in 1858 during the Pike 's Peak Gold Rush in the vicinity of present - day Denver in 1858, but the deposits were small. The first important gold discoveries in Colorado were in the Central City - Idaho Springs district in January 1859. Only one Colorado mine continues to produce gold, the Cripple Creek & Victor Gold Mine at Victor near Colorado Springs, an open - pit heap leach operation owned by Newmont Mining Corporation, which produced ~ 350,000 troy ounces (11,000 kg) of gold in 2016.
Small amounts of gold were mined commercially in North Eastern Florida during the late 19th Century, at the site where Mike Roess Gold Head Branch State Park is located today. No records are extant on the amount of gold produced, but the find was insufficient to keep the operation running commercially, and the small amount of pay dirt was depleted within a matter of months.
Georgia is credited with a total historical production of 871,000 troy ounces (27,100 kg) of gold from 1830 through 1959. Although historically important, the state is not currently a gold producer.
See also:
Gold was first discovered in Idaho in 1860, in Pierce at the juncture where Canal Creek meets Orofino Creek.
The leading historical gold - producing district is the Boise Basin in Boise County, which was discovered in 1862 and produced 2.9 million troy ounces (90.2 tonnes), mostly from placers.
The French Creek - Florence district in Idaho County began in the 1860s, and has produced about 1 million troy ounces (31 tonnes) from placers.
The Silver City district in Owyhee County began producing in 1863, and made over 1 million troy ounces (31 tonnes), mostly from lode deposits.
The Coeur d'Alene district in Shoshone County has made 44,000 troy ounces (1,400 kg) of gold as byproduct to silver mining.
In 2006, active gold mines in Idaho included the Silver Strand mine and the Bond mine.
Gold was reported in Maryland as early as 1830, but no production resulted. Placer gold was discovered at Great Falls near Washington, DC in 1861 during the American Civil War by Union soldiers from California. After the war a number of mines were opened on gold - bearing quartz veins in Montgomery County. No gold production has been reported since 1951. Total production was about 6,000 troy ounces (190 kg).
Approximately 29,000 troy ounces (900 kg) of gold were produced from the Ropes gold mine northeast of Ishpeming in Marquette County, Michigan. The underground mine, originally operated from 1880 to 1897, and reopened from 1983 -- 1989, extracted gold from quartz veins in peridotite.
Gold was first discovered in Montana in 1852, but mining did not begin until 1862, when gold placers were discovered at Bannack, Montana in 1862. The resulting gold rush resulted in more placer discoveries, including those at Virginia City in 1863, and at Helena and Butte in 1864. In 1867, the Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode was located.
The Butte district, although mined primarily for copper, produced 2.9 million ounces (91 tones) of gold through 1990, almost all as a byproduct of copper production.
Current active hardrock gold mines include the Montana Tunnels mine, and the Golden Sunlight mine. Active gold placers include the Browns Gulch placer and the Confederate Gulch placer. Gold is also produced from three platinum mines in the Stillwater igneous complex: the Stillwater mine, the Lodestar mine, and the East Boulder Project.
Nevada is the leading gold - producing state in the nation, in 2015 producing 5,339,659 ounces (166.1 tonnes), representing 78 % of US gold and 5.4 % of the world 's production. Much of the gold in Nevada comes from large open pit mining and with heap leaching recovery. A number of major mining companies, including Newmont Mining, Barrick Gold and Kinross Gold, operate gold mines in the state. Active major mines include Cortez, Twin Creeks, Betz - Post, Jerritt Canyon and Getchell.
Newmont and Barrick operate the largest mining operations, on the prolific Carlin Trend, one of the world 's richest mining districts.
Gold was first discovered in New Mexico in 1828 in the "Old Placers '' district in the Ortiz Mountains, Santa Fe County, New Mexico. The placer gold discovery was followed by discovery of a nearby lode deposit.
In 1877, two prospectors collected float in the area of the future Opportunity Mine near Hillsboro, New Mexico, which was assayed at $160 per ton in gold and silver. Soon, ore was discovered at the nearby Rattlesnake vein and a placer deposit of gold was found in November at the Rattlesnake and Wicks gulches. Total production prior to 1904 was about $6,750,000.
In 2007 all gold production in New Mexico (13,000 troy ounces (400 kg)) came as a byproduct of copper mining from two large open pit mines in Grant County. However, two primary gold mines are being readied for production: the Northstar mine in Rio Arriba County, and the San Lorenzo Claims mine in Socorro County.
North Carolina was the site of the first gold rush in the United States, following the discovery of a 17 - pound (7.7 kg) gold nugget by 12 - year - old Conrad Reed in a creek at his father 's farm in 1799. The Reed Gold Mine, southwest of Georgeville in Cabarrus County, North Carolina produced about 50,000 troy ounces (1,600 kg) of gold from lode and placer deposits.
Gold was produced from 15 districts, almost all in the Piedmont region of the state. Total gold production is estimated at 1.2 million troy ounces (37.3 tonnes).
Although gold mines are spread over much of Oregon, almost all of the gold produced has come from two principal areas: the Klamath Mountains in southwest Oregon, including Coos, Curry, Douglas, Jackson and Josephine counties; and the Blue Mountains in northeast Oregon, mostly in Baker and Grant counties.
Prospectors from Illinois discovered placer gold in the Klamath Mountains of southwest Oregon in 1850, starting a rush to the area. Lode gold deposits were also discovered.
Travellers along the Oregon Trail bound for the Willamette Valley are said to have discovered gold in northeastern Oregon in 1845, but mining in earnest did not begin until 1861.
About 37,000 troy ounces (1,200 kg) of gold was produced from the Cornwall iron mine five miles south of Lebanon, Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. Although the deposit produced iron since 1742, no gold was reported from the mine until 1878.
South Carolina had a number of lode gold mines along the Carolina Slate Belt.
The Haile deposit was discovered in Lancaster County in 1827, and at least 257,000 troy ounces (8,000 kg) of gold were extracted intermittently between then and 1942, when the gold mine was ordered closed as nonessential to the war effort. Beginning in 1951, the deposit was mined for associated sericite, which was used as a white filler. Gold is associated with silicic, kaolinitic, and pyritic alteration of greenschist - grade felsic metavolcanics. The mine was reopened as an open pit in the 1980s, and operated until 1992. Kinross Gold Corporation 's reclamation of the Haile site was nominated for a US Bureau of Land Management "Hardrock Mineral Environmental Award. ''
OceanGold Corp. restarted mining at the Haile deposit 2016. The company expects to produce an average of 126,700 ounces of gold per year for 13.25 years.
The Brewer mine operated from 1828 to 1995, and is now a federal Superfund site.
Kennecott Minerals operated the Ridgeway open - pit gold mine from 1988 to 1999, and the land is now being reclaimed by Kennecott.
The Barite Hill mine operated from 1990 to 1994.
The only operating gold mine in South Dakota is the Wharf mine, at Lead, an open pit heap leach operation operated by Coeur Mining that produced 109,000 ounces of gold in 2016.
Placer gold was discovered on Coker Creek in Monroe County, Tennessee in 1827. The district produced about 9,000 troy ounces (280 kg).
About 15,000 troy ounces (470 kg) of gold was recovered from the massive sulfide copper ores at Ducktown, Tennessee.
Some prospects have been excavated for gold on the Llano Uplift of central Texas. Gold prospects include the Heath mine and the Babyhead district, both in Llano County, and the Central Texas mine in Gillespie County. Gold production, if any, is not known. Historically, the Lost Nigger Gold Mine may be in Texas.
Most gold produced in Utah today is a byproduct of the huge Bingham Canyon copper mine, southwest of Salt Lake City. In 2013, the Bingham Canyon mine produced 192,300 troy ounces (5,980 kg) of gold. Over its life, Bingham Canyon has produced more than 23 million ounces (715 tonnes) of gold, making it one of the largest gold producers in the US.
The Barneys Canyon mine in Salt Lake County, the last primary gold mine to operate in Utah, stopped mining in 2001, but is still recovering gold from its heap leaching pads. Utah gold production was 460,000 troy ounces (14,000 kg) in 2006.
Gold was first discovered in Washington in 1853, as placer deposits in the Yakima Valley. Production from the state never exceeded 50,000 troy ounces per year until the mid-1930s, when large hard rock deposits were developed near the Chelan Lake and Wenatchee deposits in Chelan County, and the Republic deposit in Ferry County. Production through 1965 is estimated to be 2.3 million ounces.
Gold was discovered at the South Pass - Atlantic City - Sweetwater district in present Fremont County in 1842. The placers were worked intermittently until 1867, when the first important gold vein was discovered, and prospectors and miners rushed to the area... The towns of South Pass City, Atlantic City, and Miner 's Delight catered to the miners. The district was nearly deserted by 1875, and was worked only intermittently afterward. Total gold production was about 300,000 troy ounces (9,300 kg). In 1962, the district became the site of a major iron mine.
Several states (e.g., Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania) have placer gold deposits, despite having no hard rock gold deposits. This placer gold is found north of, or near the terminus of, Pleistocene, or earlier, moraines left by Ice Age glaciers that pushed gold - rich dirt down from Canada, where hard rock gold deposits do exist, and which were scoured by glaciers. Small commercial operations have existed at various times, to mine this gold, with various degrees of limited success. The southernmost limit of these moraines, Pleistocene and older, is approximately at the Ohio River for Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The moraines in Pennsylvania are in the northwestern and northeastern portions of the Commonwealth.
Gold mining royalties and taxes in the US are levied at the state level, in the same manner as in other major international gold producers such as Canada and Australia. The rate of royalty varies from state to state, as well whether the royalty is gross (a proportion of the total sale proceeds), modified gross (Net smelter return) or net (the sale proceeds minus an allowance for production costs). US gold producers are additionally subject to the federal corporate income tax of 35 % of net profits.
Royalty rates for each of the US gold mining states (in order of production) are:
In 2015 Nevada and Alaska together accounted for 90.3 % of US gold production.
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where does the story of hercules come from | Heracles - wikipedia
Heracles (/ ˈhɛrəkliːz / HERR - ə - kleez; Greek: Ἡρακλῆς, Hēraklēs, from Hēra, "Hera ''), born Alcaeus (Ἀλκαῖος, Alkaios) or Alcides (Ἀλκείδης, Alkeidēs), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon and great - grandson and half - brother (as they are both sired by the god Zeus) of Perseus. He was the greatest of the Greek heroes, a paragon of masculinity, the ancestor of royal clans who claimed to be Heracleidae (Ἡρακλεῖδαι), and a champion of the Olympian order against chthonic monsters. In Rome and the modern West, he is known as Hercules, with whom the later Roman emperors, in particular Commodus and Maximian, often identified themselves. The Romans adopted the Greek version of his life and works essentially unchanged, but added anecdotal detail of their own, some of it linking the hero with the geography of the Central Mediterranean. Details of his cult were adapted to Rome as well.
Many popular stories were told of his life, the most famous being The Twelve Labours of Heracles; Alexandrian poets of the Hellenistic age drew his mythology into a high poetic and tragic atmosphere. His figure, which initially drew on Near Eastern motifs such as the lion - fight, was widely known.
Heracles was the greatest of Hellenic chthonic heroes, but unlike other Greek heroes, no tomb was identified as his. Heracles was both hero and god, as Pindar says heroes theos; at the same festival sacrifice was made to him, first as a hero, with a chthonic libation, and then as a god, upon an altar: thus he embodies the closest Greek approach to a "demi - god ''. The core of the story of Heracles has been identified by Walter Burkert as originating in Neolithic hunter culture and traditions of shamanistic crossings into the netherworld.
Heracles ' role as a culture hero, whose death could be a subject of mythic telling (see below), was accepted into the Olympian Pantheon during Classical times. This created an awkwardness in the encounter with Odysseus in the episode of Odyssey XI, called the Nekuia, where Odysseus encounters Heracles in Hades:
Ancient critics were aware of the problem of the aside that interrupts the vivid and complete description, in which Heracles recognizes Odysseus and hails him, and modern critics find very good reasons for denying that the verses beginning, in Fagles ' translation His ghost I mean... were part of the original composition: "once people knew of Heracles ' admission to Olympus, they would not tolerate his presence in the underworld '', remarks Friedrich Solmsen, noting that the interpolated verses represent a compromise between conflicting representations of Heracles.
In Christian circles a Euhemerist reading of the widespread Heracles cult was attributed to a historical figure who had been offered cult status after his death. Thus Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel (10.12), reported that Clement could offer historical dates for Hercules as a king in Argos: "from the reign of Hercules in Argos to the deification of Hercules himself and of Asclepius there are comprised thirty - eight years, according to Apollodorus the chronicler: and from that point to the deification of Castor and Pollux fifty - three years: and somewhere about this time was the capture of Troy. ''
Readers with a literalist bent, following Clement 's reasoning, have asserted from this remark that, since Heracles ruled over Tiryns in Argos at the same time that Eurystheus ruled over Mycenae, and since at about this time Linus was Heracles ' teacher, one can conclude, based on Jerome 's date -- in his universal history, his Chronicon -- given to Linus ' notoriety in teaching Heracles in 1264 BCE, that Heracles ' death and deification occurred 38 years later, in approximately 1226 BCE.
The ancient Greeks celebrated the festival of the Heracleia, which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the second day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late July or early August). What is believed to be an Egyptian Temple of Heracles in the Bahariya Oasis dates to 21 BCE. A reassessment of Ptolemy 's descriptions of the island of Malta attempted to link the site at Ras ir - Raħeb with a temple to Heracles, but the arguments are not conclusive. Several ancient cities were named Heraclea in his honor.
Extraordinary strength, courage, ingenuity, and sexual prowess with both males and females were among the characteristics commonly attributed to him. Heracles used his wits on several occasions when his strength did not suffice, such as when laboring for the king Augeas of Elis, wrestling the giant Antaeus, or tricking Atlas into taking the sky back onto his shoulders. Together with Hermes he was the patron and protector of gymnasia and palaestrae. His iconographic attributes are the lion skin and the club. These qualities did not prevent him from being regarded as a playful figure who used games to relax from his labors and played a great deal with children. By conquering dangerous archaic forces he is said to have "made the world safe for mankind '' and to be its benefactor. Heracles was an extremely passionate and emotional individual, capable of doing both great deeds for his friends (such as wrestling with Thanatos on behalf of Prince Admetus, who had regaled Heracles with his hospitality, or restoring his friend Tyndareus to the throne of Sparta after he was overthrown) and being a terrible enemy who would wreak horrible vengeance on those who crossed him, as Augeas, Neleus and Laomedon all found out to their cost.
A major factor in the well - known tragedies surrounding Heracles is the hatred that the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had for him. A full account of Heracles must render it clear why Heracles was so tormented by Hera, when there were many illegitimate offspring sired by Zeus. Heracles was the son of the affair Zeus had with the mortal woman Alcmene. Zeus made love to her after disguising himself as her husband, Amphitryon, home early from war (Amphitryon did return later the same night, and Alcmene became pregnant with his son at the same time, a case of heteropaternal superfecundation, where a woman carries twins sired by different fathers). Thus, Heracles ' very existence proved at least one of Zeus ' many illicit affairs, and Hera often conspired against Zeus ' mortal offspring as revenge for her husband 's infidelities. His twin mortal brother, son of Amphitryon, was Iphicles, father of Heracles ' charioteer Iolaus.
On the night the twins Heracles and Iphicles were to be born, Hera, knowing of her husband Zeus ' adultery, persuaded Zeus to swear an oath that the child born that night to a member of the House of Perseus would become High King. Hera did this knowing that while Heracles was to be born a descendant of Perseus, so too was Eurystheus. Once the oath was sworn, Hera hurried to Alcmene 's dwelling and slowed the birth of the twins Heracles and Iphicles by forcing Ilithyia, goddess of childbirth, to sit crosslegged with her clothing tied in knots, thereby causing the twins to be trapped in the womb. Meanwhile, Hera caused Eurystheus to be born prematurely, making him High King in place of Heracles. She would have permanently delayed Heracles ' birth had she not been fooled by Galanthis, Alcmene 's servant, who lied to Ilithyia, saying that Alcmene had already delivered the baby. Upon hearing this, she jumped in surprise, loosing the knots and inadvertently allowing Alcmene to give birth to Heracles and Iphicles.
Fear of Hera 's revenge led Alcmene to expose the infant Heracles, but he was taken up and brought to Hera by his half - sister Athena, who played an important role as protectress of heroes. Hera did not recognize Heracles and nursed him out of pity. Heracles suckled so strongly that he caused Hera pain, and she pushed him away. Her milk sprayed across the heavens and there formed the Milky Way. But with divine milk, Heracles had acquired supernatural powers. Athena brought the infant back to his mother, and he was subsequently raised by his parents.
The child was originally given the name Alcides by his parents; it was only later that he became known as Heracles. He was renamed Heracles in an unsuccessful attempt to mollify Hera. He and his twin were just eight months old when Hera sent two giant snakes into the children 's chamber. Iphicles cried from fear, but his brother grabbed a snake in each hand and strangled them. He was found by his nurse playing with them on his cot as if they were toys. Astonished, Amphitryon sent for the seer Tiresias, who prophesied an unusual future for the boy, saying he would vanquish numerous monsters.
After killing his music tutor Linus with a lyre, he was sent to tend cattle on a mountain by his foster father Amphitryon. Here, according to an allegorical parable, "The Choice of Heracles '', invented by the sophist Prodicus (c. 400 BCE) and reported in Xenophon 's Memorabilia 2.1. 21 -- 34, he was visited by two allegorical figures -- Vice and Virtue -- who offered him a choice between a pleasant and easy life or a severe but glorious life: he chose the latter. This was part of a pattern of "ethicizing '' Heracles over the 5th century BCE.
Later in Thebes, Heracles married King Creon 's daughter, Megara. In a fit of madness, induced by Hera, Heracles killed his children by Megara. After his madness had been cured with hellebore by Antikyreus, the founder of Antikyra, he realized what he had done and fled to the Oracle of Delphi. Unbeknownst to him, the Oracle was guided by Hera. He was directed to serve King Eurystheus for ten years and perform any task Eurystheus required of him. Eurystheus decided to give Heracles ten labours, but after completing them, Heracles was cheated by Eurystheus when he added two more, resulting in the Twelve Labors of Heracles.
Driven mad by Hera, Heracles slew his own children. To expiate the crime, Heracles was required to carry out ten labors set by his archenemy, Eurystheus, who had become king in Heracles ' place. If he succeeded, he would be purified of his sin and, as myth says, he would be granted immortality. Heracles accomplished these tasks, but Eurystheus did not accept the cleansing of the Augean stables because Heracles was going to accept pay for the labor. Neither did he accept the killing of the Lernaean Hydra as Heracles ' nephew, Iolaus, had helped him burn the stumps of the heads. Eurystheus set two more tasks (fetching the Golden Apples of Hesperides and capturing Cerberus), which Heracles performed successfully, bringing the total number of tasks up to twelve.
Not all writers gave the labours in the same order. The Bibliotheca (2.5. 1 -- 2.5. 12) gives the following order:
After completing these tasks, Heracles joined the Argonauts in a search for the Golden Fleece. He also fell in love with Princess Iole of Oechalia. King Eurytus of Oechalia promised his daughter, Iole, to whoever could beat his sons in an archery contest. Heracles won but Eurytus abandoned his promise. Heracles ' advances were spurned by the king and his sons, except for one: Iole 's brother Iphitus. Heracles killed the king and his sons -- excluding Iphitus -- and abducted Iole. Iphitus became Heracles ' best friend. However, once again, Hera drove Heracles mad and he threw Iphitus over the city wall to his death. Once again, Heracles purified himself through three years of servitude -- this time to Queen Omphale of Lydia.
Omphale was a queen or princess of Lydia. As penalty for a murder, imposed by Xenoclea, the Delphic Oracle, Heracles was to serve as her slave for a year. He was forced to do women 's work and to wear women 's clothes, while she wore the skin of the Nemean Lion and carried his olive - wood club. After some time, Omphale freed Heracles and married him. Some sources mention a son born to them who is variously named. It was at that time that the cercopes, mischievous wood spirits, stole Heracles ' weapons. He punished them by tying them to a stick with their faces pointing downward.
While walking through the wilderness, Heracles was set upon by the Dryopes. In Apollonius of Rhodes ' Argonautica it is recalled that Heracles had mercilessly slain their king, Theiodamas, over one of the latter 's bulls, and made war upon the Dryopes "because they gave no heed to justice in their lives ''. After the death of their king, the Dryopes gave in and offered him Prince Hylas. He took the youth on as his weapons bearer and beloved. Years later, Heracles and Hylas joined the crew of the Argo. As Argonauts, they only participated in part of the journey. In Mysia, Hylas was kidnapped by the nymphs of a local spring. Heracles, heartbroken, searched for a long time but Hylas had fallen in love with the nymphs and never showed up again. In other versions, he simply drowned. Either way, the Argo set sail without them.
Hesiod 's Theogony and Aeschylus ' Prometheus Unbound both tell that Heracles shot and killed the eagle that tortured Prometheus (which was his punishment by Zeus for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to mortals). Heracles freed the Titan from his chains and his torments. Prometheus then made predictions regarding further deeds of Heracles.
On his way back to Mycenae from Iberia, having obtained the Cattle of Geryon as his tenth labour, Heracles came to Liguria in North - Western Italy where he engaged in battle with two giants, Albion and Bergion or Dercynus, sons of Poseidon. The opponents were strong; Hercules was in a difficult position so he prayed to his father Zeus for help. Under the aegis of Zeus, Heracles won the battle. It was this kneeling position of Heracles when he prayed to his father Zeus that gave the name Engonasin ("Εγγόνασιν '', derived from "εν γόνασιν ''), meaning "on his knees '' or "the Kneeler '', to the constellation known as Heracles ' constellation. The story, among others, is described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
Before Homer 's Trojan War, Heracles had made an expedition to Troy and sacked it. Previously, Poseidon had sent a sea monster to attack Troy. The story is related in several digressions in the Iliad (7.451 -- 453, 20.145 -- 148, 21.442 -- 457) and is found in pseudo-Apollodorus ' Bibliotheke (2.5. 9). This expedition became the theme of the Eastern pediment of the Temple of Aphaea. Laomedon planned on sacrificing his daughter Hesione to Poseidon in the hope of appeasing him. Heracles happened to arrive (along with Telamon and Oicles) and agreed to kill the monster if Laomedon would give him the horses received from Zeus as compensation for Zeus ' kidnapping Ganymede. Laomedon agreed. Heracles killed the monster, but Laomedon went back on his word. Accordingly, in a later expedition, Heracles and his followers attacked Troy and sacked it. Then they slew all Laomedon 's sons present there save Podarces, who was renamed Priam, who saved his own life by giving Heracles a golden veil Hesione had made. Telamon took Hesione as a war prize; they were married and had a son, Teucer.
This is described in Sophocles 's Trachiniae and in Ovid 's Metamorphoses Book IX. Having wrestled and defeated Achelous, god of the Acheloos river, Heracles takes Deianira as his wife. Travelling to Tiryns, a centaur, Nessus, offers to help Deianira across a fast flowing river while Heracles swims it. However, Nessus is true to the archetype of the mischievous centaur and tries to steal Deianira away while Heracles is still in the water. Angry, Heracles shoots him with his arrows dipped in the poisonous blood of the Lernaean Hydra. Thinking of revenge, Nessus gives Deianira his blood - soaked tunic before he dies, telling her it will "excite the love of her husband ''.
Several years later, rumor tells Deianira that she has a rival for the love of Heracles. Deianira, remembering Nessus ' words, gives Heracles the bloodstained shirt. Lichas, the herald, delivers the shirt to Heracles. However, it is still covered in the Hydra 's blood from Heracles ' arrows, and this poisons him, tearing his skin and exposing his bones. Before he dies, Heracles throws Lichas into the sea, thinking he was the one who poisoned him (according to several versions, Lichas turns to stone, becoming a rock standing in the sea, named for him). Heracles then uproots several trees and builds a funeral pyre on Mount Oeta, which Poeas, father of Philoctetes, lights. As his body burns, only his immortal side is left. Through Zeus ' apotheosis, Heracles rises to Olympus as he dies.
No one but Heracles ' friend Philoctetes (Poeas in some versions) would light his funeral pyre (in an alternate version, it is Iolaus who lights the pyre). For this action, Philoctetes or Poeas received Heracles ' bow and arrows, which were later needed by the Greeks to defeat Troy in the Trojan War.
Philoctetes confronted Paris and shot a poisoned arrow at him. The Hydra poison subsequently led to the death of Paris. The Trojan War, however, continued until the Trojan Horse was used to defeat Troy.
According to Herodotus, Heracles lived 900 years before Herodotus ' own time (c. 1300 BCE).
During the course of his life, Heracles married four times.
An episode of his female affairs that stands out was his stay at the palace of Thespius, king of Thespiae, who wished him to kill the Lion of Cithaeron. As a reward, the king offered him the chance to perform sexual intercourse with all fifty of his daughters in one night. Heracles complied and they all became pregnant and all bore sons. This is sometimes referred to as his Thirteenth Labour. Many of the kings of ancient Greece traced their lines to one or another of these, notably the kings of Sparta and Macedon.
Yet another episode of his female affairs that stands out was when he carried away the oxen of Geryon, he also visited the country of the Scythians. Once there, while asleep, his horses suddenly disappeared. When he woke and wandered about in search of them, he came into the country of Hylaea. He then found the dracaena of Scythia (sometimes identified as Echidna) in a cave. When he asked whether she knew anything about his horses, she answered, that they were in her own possession, but that she would not give them up, unless he would consent to stay with her for a time. Heracles accepted the request, and became by her the father of Agathyrsus, Gelonus, and Scythes. The last of them became king of the Scythians, according to his father 's arrangement, because he was the only one among the three brothers that was able to manage the bow which Heracles had left behind and to use his father 's girdle. In some versions, the Scythian echidna 's children by him are known as the Dracontidae and were the ancestors of a House of Cadmus.
As a symbol of masculinity and warriorship, Heracles also had a number of male lovers. Plutarch, in his Eroticos, maintains that Heracles ' male lovers were beyond counting. Of these, the one most closely linked to Heracles is the Theban Iolaus. According to a myth thought to be of ancient origins, Iolaus was Heracles ' charioteer and squire. Heracles in the end helped Iolaus find a wife. Plutarch reports that down to his own time, male couples would go to Iolaus 's tomb in Thebes to swear an oath of loyalty to the hero and to each other.
One of Heracles ' male lovers, and one represented in ancient as well as modern art, is Hylas. Though it is of more recent vintage (dated to the 3rd century) than that with Iolaus, it had themes of mentoring in the ways of a warrior and help finding a wife in the end. There is nothing in Apollonius 's account that suggests that Hylas was a sexual lover as opposed to a companion and servant.
Another reputed male lover of Heracles is Elacatas, who was honored in Sparta with a sanctuary and yearly games, Elacatea. The myth of their love is an ancient one.
Abdera 's eponymous hero, Abderus, was another of Heracles ' lovers. He was said to have been entrusted with -- and slain by -- the carnivorous mares of Thracian Diomedes. Heracles founded the city of Abdera in Thrace in his memory, where he was honored with athletic games.
Another myth is that of Iphitus.
Another story is the one of his love for Nireus, who was "the most beautiful man who came beneath Ilion '' (Iliad, 673). But Ptolemy adds that certain authors made Nireus out to be a son of Heracles.
Pausanias makes mention of Sostratus, a youth of Dyme, Achaea, as a lover of Heracles. Sostratus was said to have died young and to have been buried by Heracles outside the city. The tomb was still there in historical times, and the inhabitants of Dyme honored Sostratus as a hero. The youth seems to have also been referred to as Polystratus.
There is also a series of lovers who are either later inventions or purely literary conceits. Among these are Admetus, who assisted in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, Adonis, Corythus, and Nestor who was said to have been loved for his wisdom. His role as lover was perhaps to explain why he was the only son of Neleus to be spared by the hero.
A scholiast on Argonautica lists the following male lovers of Heracles: "Hylas, Philoctetes, Diomus, Perithoas, and Phrix, after whom a city in Libya was named ''. Diomus is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium as the eponym of the deme Diomeia of the Attic phyle Aegeis: Heracles is said to have fallen in love with Diomus when he was received as guest by Diomus ' father Collytus. Perithoas and Phrix are otherwise unknown, and so is the version that suggests a sexual relationship between Heracles and Philoctetes.
All of Heracles ' marriages and almost all of his heterosexual affairs resulted in births of a number of sons and at least four daughters. One of the most prominent is Hyllus, the son of Heracles and Deianeira or Melite. The term Heracleidae, although it could refer to all of Heracles ' children and further descendants, is most commonly used to indicate the descendants of Hyllus, in the context of their lasting struggle for return to Peloponnesus, out of where Hyllus and his brothers -- the children of Heracles by Deianeira -- were thought to have been expelled by Eurystheus.
The children of Heracles by Megara are collectively well known because of their ill fate, but there is some disagreement among sources as to their number and individual names. Apollodorus lists three, Therimachus, Creontiades and Deicoon; to these Hyginus adds Ophitus and, probably by mistake, Archelaus, who is otherwise known to have belonged to the Heracleidae, but to have lived several generations later. A scholiast on Pindar ' s odes provides a list of seven completely different names: Anicetus, Chersibius, Mecistophonus, Menebrontes, Patrocles, Polydorus, Toxocleitus.
Other well - known children of Heracles include Telephus, king of Mysia (by Auge), and Tlepolemus, one of the Greek commanders in the Trojan War (by Astyoche).
According to Herodotus, a line of 22 Kings of Lydia descended from Hercules and Omphale. The line was called Tylonids after his Lydian name.
The divine sons of Heracles and Hebe are Alexiares and Anicetus.
In Rome, Heracles was honored as Hercules, and had a number of distinctively Roman myths and practices associated with him under that name.
Herodotus connected Heracles to the Egyptian god Shu. Also he was associated with Khonsu, another Egyptian god who was in some ways similar to Shu. As Khonsu, Heracles was worshipped at the now sunken city of Heracleion, where a large temple was constructed.
Most often the Egyptians identified Heracles with Heryshaf, transcribed in Greek as Arsaphes or Harsaphes (Ἁρσαφής). He was an ancient ram - god whose cult was centered in Herakleopolis Magna.
Via the Greco - Buddhist culture, Heraclean symbolism was transmitted to the Far East. An example remains to this day in the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples.
Herodotus also connected Heracles to Phoenician god Melqart.
Sallust mentions in his work on the Jugurthine War that the Africans believe Heracles to have died in Spain where, his multicultural army being left without a leader, the Medes, Persians, and Armenians who were once under his command split off and populated the Mediterranean coast of Africa.
Temples dedicated to Heracles abounded all along the Mediterranean coastal countries. For example, the temple of Heracles Monoikos (i.e. the lone dweller), built far from any nearby town upon a promontory in what is now the Côte d'Azur, gave its name to the area 's more recent name, Monaco.
The gateway to the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean, where the southernmost tip of Spain and the northernmost of Morocco face each other is, classically speaking, referred to as the Pillars of Hercules / Heracles, owing to the story that he set up two massive spires of stone to stabilise the area and ensure the safety of ships sailing between the two landmasses.
In various languages, variants of Hercules ' name are used as a male given name, such as Hercule in French, Hércules in Spanish, Iraklis (Greek: Ηρακλής) in Modern Greek and Irakliy in Russian.
Also, there are many teams around the world which have this name or have Heracles as their symbol. The most popular in Greece is G.S. Iraklis Thessaloniki.
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harry potter and the half blood prince who is the half blood prince | Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince is a fantasy novel written by British author J.K. Rowling and the sixth and penultimate novel in the Harry Potter series. Set during protagonist Harry Potter 's sixth year at Hogwarts, the novel explores the past of Harry 's nemesis, Lord Voldemort, and Harry 's preparations for the final battle against Voldemort alongside his headmaster and mentor Albus Dumbledore.
The book was published in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury, and in the United States by Scholastic on 16 July 2005, as well as in several other countries. It sold nine million copies in the first 24 hours after its release, a record at the time which was eventually broken by its sequel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. There were many controversies before and after it was published, including the right to read the copies delivered prior to the release date in Canada. Reception to the novel was generally positive and it won several awards and honours, including the 2006 British Book of the Year award.
Reviewers noted that the book took on a darker tone than its previous predecessors, though it did contain some humour. Some considered the main themes to be love, death, trust, and redemption. The considerable character development of Harry and many other teenage characters also drew attention.
The film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was released 15 July 2009 by Warner Bros.
Dumbledore picks Harry up from his aunt and uncle 's house, intending to escort him to the Burrow, home of Harry 's best friend Ron, and his large family. On the way, they make a detour to the temporary home of Horace Slughorn, former Potions teacher at Hogwarts, and Harry unwittingly helps persuade Slughorn to return to teach. Harry and Dumbledore then proceed to the Burrow, where Hermione has already arrived.
Severus Snape, a member of the Order of the Phoenix, meets with Narcissa Malfoy, Draco 's mother, and her sister Bellatrix Lestrange, Lord Voldemort 's faithful supporter. Narcissa expresses her extreme concern that her son might not survive a dangerous mission, given to him by Lord Voldemort. Bellatrix feels Snape will be of no help until he surprises her by making an Unbreakable Vow with Narcissa, swearing on his life that he will protect and assist Draco in his mission.
The next morning, Harry, Ron, and Hermione get their Ordinary Wizarding Level (O.W.L.) results, along with lists of school supplies. Later, Harry, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger follow Draco to Dark Arts supplier Borgin and Burkes. Harry is instantly suspicious of Draco, whom he believes to be a Death Eater.
On the Hogwarts Express, Harry discusses his suspicions of Draco 's allegiance with Lord Voldemort, however Ron and Hermione are doubtful with the lack of evidence. Harry wears his invisibility cloak and hides in the same carriage that Malfoy is seated in. He overhears Draco bragging to his friends about the mission Lord Voldemort has tasked him. However, Malfoy is suspicious that someone else is in the carriage and discovers Harry Potter was listening to his conversation. He petrifies him and breaks his nose out of rage. Harry can not get off the carriage, and is worried the Hogwarts Express will depart before he can move again. To his relief however, Nymphadora Tonks finds Harry and escorts him back to the castle during the opening feast.
The students return to school, where Dumbledore announces that Snape will be teaching Defence Against the Dark Arts. In the meantime, Horace Slughorn will resume his previous post as Potions teacher. Harry now excels in Potions, thanks to having received a used Potions textbook that once belonged to someone named "The Half - Blood Prince, '' a mysterious former student who wrote numerous tips and spells in his Potions textbook. Harry uses this information to achieve superb results. After a class contest, The Half - Blood Prince 's tips help Harry win a bottle of Felix Felicis, more commonly known as "Liquid Luck. '' Though Harry 's success pleases Slughorn, his newfound brilliance in potions angers Hermione, who feels he is not truly earning his grades and also does not trust the Half - Blood Prince.
Believing that Harry needs to learn Voldemort 's past to gain advantage in a foretold battle, Dumbledore schedules regular meetings with Harry in his office. Amidst these lessons, Ron starts dating a girl named Lavender Brown, who is also a sixth year Gryffindor student, and Ron and Hermione start yet another quarrel. Also during this time, Dumbledore and Harry use Dumbledore 's Pensieve to look at the memories of those who have had direct contact with Voldemort. Harry learns about Voldemort 's family and his foe 's evolution into a murderer, obsessed not only with power, but with gaining eternal life. Dumbledore shows Harry a memory involving Slughorn conversing with the young Tom Riddle at Hogwarts, which has clearly been tampered with. He sets Harry the task of convincing Slughorn to give him the true memory so that Dumbledore can confirm his suspicions about Voldemort 's rise to power and near - invincibility. This is proven vital in the defeat of Voldemort.
After being sent an invitation to the funeral for Aragog the Spider, he uses an hour 's dose of Felix Felicis and succeeds in retrieving Slughorn 's unedited memory while at the funeral. In it, Slughorn tells Riddle about the process of splitting one 's soul and hiding it in several objects called Horcruxes. Only by committing a murder can a wizard turn an object into a Horcrux; Voldemort has created six of them, making himself virtually immortal by placing a piece of his soul in each one, and keeping the seventh and last one within his body. Dumbledore explains that in order to destroy Voldemort, all the Horcruxes must first be destroyed. Two Horcruxes, Riddle 's diary from Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets and a ring belonging to Voldemort 's grandfather Marvolo Gaunt, have already been destroyed; but four others remain.
As Harry learns more about his great enemy, the love lives of the main characters start to become more active. Ron and Hermione grow closer together, but after learning from his sister Ginny, that Hermione had previously kissed Viktor Krum, Ron is angered and shuns her. Harry 's attempts to repair things between the two fail, resulting in Ron going out with Lavender Brown and making Hermione jealous. After Ron is nearly killed in an attempt on Dumbledore 's life, he and Hermione reconcile. Ron and Lavender break up when Lavender sees the two of them walking out of the boys dormitories together. Harry develops deep feelings for Ginny, but is reluctant to pursue her for most of the year because of his friendship with Ron. Following a wild Gryffindor Quidditch victory, Harry and Ginny finally strike up a relationship, with Ron 's reluctant consent.
Near the end of the year, Harry and Dumbledore journey to a cave to retrieve a suspected Horcrux, Slytherin 's locket. Dumbledore expertly finds a secret passageway to a large, pitch black underground lake, which Harry and Dumbledore cross in a small boat to an island in the centre. The locket is at the bottom of a basin on the island, and can only be reached by drinking the potion above it. Harry aids Dumbledore, who drinks the potion, causing him hallucinations and immense pain. Though Dumbledore is severely weakened after finishing the potion, together the two manage to fight off Voldemort 's Inferi that have been hiding in the lake. They take the locket and return to Hogwarts, to find that the Dark Mark has been placed over the highest school tower in their absence. Harry and Dumbledore ascend to the tower where they are ambushed by Draco Malfoy, accompanied by Death Eaters that he helped get inside Hogwarts. Dumbledore freezes Harry under his Invisibility Cloak with a body - bind spell, to keep him hidden. Draco disarms Dumbledore of his wand and then threatens to kill him, which turns out to have been his mission from Voldemort all along. Draco is unable to go through with it and when Snape arrives, he casts the spell to kill Dumbledore instead. Harry ignores the battle raging in Hogwarts to pursue Dumbledore 's killer. Snape successfully fights Harry off, and he reveals that he is in fact the Half - Blood Prince before he, Draco, and the rest of the Death Eaters escape.
After Dumbledore 's funeral, Harry decides to break up with Ginny, saying it is too dangerous for her to let their relationship to continue. Harry finds out that the locket is not the real Horcrux, containing only a note from someone named "R.A.B. ''. Harry is so devastated by Dumbledore 's death (and upset by its futility) that he tells his friends he will not be returning to Hogwarts. Instead, he will spend the next year searching out Voldemort 's Horcruxes. Ron and Hermione insist on joining him in destroying Lord Voldemort for good.
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince is the sixth book in the Harry Potter series. The first book in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, was first published by Bloomsbury in 1997, with an initial print - run of 500 copies in hardback, 300 of which were distributed to libraries. By the end of 1997, the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9 - to 11 - year - olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the longest novel in the Harry Potter series, was released 21 June 2003. After the publishing of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, the seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was released 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release: 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.
Rowling stated that she had Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince "planned for years '', but she spent an entire two months going over her plan before she began writing the story seriously. This was a lesson learned after she did not check the plan for Goblet of Fire and had to rewrite an entire third of the book. She started writing the book before her second child, David, was born, but she took a break to care for him. The first chapter, "The Other Minister '', which features the meeting between the Muggle Prime Minister, the Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, and his successor, Rufus Scrimgeour, was a concept Rowling tried to start in Philosopher 's Stone, Prisoner of Azkaban, and Order of the Phoenix, but she found "it finally works '' in Half - Blood Prince. She stated that she was "seriously upset '' writing the end of the book, although Goblet of Fire was the hardest to write. When asked if she liked the book, she responded, "I like it better than I liked ' Goblet ', ' Phoenix ' or ' Chamber ' when I finished them. Book six does what I wanted it to do and even if nobody else likes it (and some wo n't), I know it will remain one of my favourites of the series. Ultimately you have to please yourself before you please anyone else! ''
Rowling revealed the title of Half - Blood Prince on her website on 24 June 2004. This was the title she had once considered for the second book, Chamber of Secrets, though she decided that the information disclosed belonged later on in the story, in book six. On 21 December 2004, she announced she had finished writing it, along with the release date of 16 July. Bloomsbury unveiled the cover on 8 March 2005.
The record - breaking publication of Half - Blood Prince was accompanied by controversy. In May 2005, bookmakers in the UK suspended bets on which main character would die in the book amid fears of insider knowledge. A number of high value bets were made on the death of Albus Dumbledore, many coming from the town of Bungay where, it was believed, the books were being printed at the time. Betting was later reopened. Additionally, in response to Greenpeace 's campaign on using forest friendly paper for big - name authors, Bloomsbury published the book on 30 % recycled paper.
In early July 2005, a Real Canadian Superstore in Coquitlam, British Columbia, Canada, accidentally sold fourteen copies of The Half - Blood Prince before the authorised release date. The Canadian publisher, Raincoast Books, obtained an injunction from the Supreme Court of British Columbia that actually prohibited the purchasers from reading the books before the official release date or from discussing the contents. Purchasers were actually offered a Harry Potter T - shirt and an autographed copy of the book if they returned their copies before 16 July.
On 15 July, less than twelve hours before the book went on sale in the Eastern time zone, Raincoast warned The Globe and Mail newspaper that publishing a review from a Canada - based writer at midnight, as the paper had promised, would be seen as a violation of the trade secret injunction. The injunction sparked a number of news articles alleging that the injunction had restricted fundamental rights. Canadian law professor Michael Geist posted commentary on his blog; Richard Stallman called for a boycott, and requesting the publisher to issue an apology. The Globe and Mail published a review from two UK - based writers in its 16 July edition and posted the Canadian writer 's review on its website at 9: 00 that morning. Commentary was also provided on the Raincoast website.
Some reviewers noted that Half - Blood Prince contained a darker tone than the previous Potter novels. The Christian Science Monitor 's reviewer Yvonne Zipp considered the first half to contain a lighter tone to soften the unhappy ending. The Boston Globe reviewer Liz Rosenberg wrote, "lightness (is) slimmer than ever in this darkening series... (there is) a new charge of gloom and darkness. I felt depressed by the time I was two - thirds of the way through ''. She also compared the setting to Charles Dickens 's depictions of London, as it was "brooding, broken, gold - lit, as living character as any other ''. Christopher Paolini called the darker tone "disquieting '' because it was so different from the earlier books. Liesl Schillinger, a contributor to The New York Times book review, also noted that Half - Blood Prince was "far darker '' but "leavened with humor, romance and snappy dialogue ''. She suggested a connection to the 11 September attacks, as the later, darker novels were written after that event. David Kipen, a critic of the San Francisco Chronicle considered the "darkness as a sign of our paranoid times '' and singled out curfews and searches that were part of the tightened security at Hogwarts, as a resemblance to our world.
Julia Keller, a critic for the Chicago Tribune, highlighted the humour found in the novel and claimed it to be the success of the Harry Potter saga. She acknowledged that "the books are dark and scary in places '' but "no darkness in Half - Blood Prince... is so immense that it can not be rescued by a snicker or a smirk. '' She considered that Rowling was suggesting that difficult times could be worked through with imagination, hope, and humour, and compared this concept to works such as Madeleine L'Engle 's A Wrinkle in Time and Kenneth Grahame 's The Wind in the Willows.
Rosenberg wrote that the two main themes of Half - Blood Prince were love and death, and praised Rowling 's "affirmation of their central position in human lives ''. She considered love to be represented in several forms: the love of parent to child, teacher to student, and the romances that developed between the main characters. Zipp noted trust and redemption to be themes promising to continue in the final book, which she thought "would add a greater layer of nuance and complexity to some characters who could sorely use it. '' Deepti Hajela also pointed out Harry 's character development, that he was "no longer a boy wizard; he 's a young man, determined to seek out and face a young man 's challenges ''. Paolini had similar views, claiming, "the children have changed... they act like real teenagers. ''
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was met with positive reviews. Liesl Schillinger of The New York Times praised the novel 's various themes and suspenseful ending. However, she considered Rowling 's gift "not so much for language as for characterisation and plotting ''. Kirkus Reviews said it "will leave readers pleased, amused, excited, scared, infuriated, delighted, sad, surprised, thoughtful and likely wondering where Voldemort has got to, since he appears only in flashbacks ''. They considered Rowling 's "wry wit '' to turn into "outright merriment '', but called the climax "tragic, but not uncomfortably shocking ''. Yvonne Zipp of The Christian Science Monitor praised the way Rowling evolved Harry into a teenager and how the plot threads found as far back as Chamber of Secrets came into play. On the other hand, she noted that it "gets a little exposition - heavy in spots '' and older readers may have seen the ending coming.
The Boston Globe correspondent Liz Rosenberg wrote, "The book bears the mark of genius on every page '' and praised the imagery and darker tone of the book, considering that the series could be crossing over from fantasy to horror. The Associated Press writer Deepti Hajela praised the newfound emotional tones and ageing Harry to the point where "younger fans may find (the series) has grown up too much ''. Emily Green, a staff writer of the Los Angeles Times, was generally positive about the book but was concerned whether young children could handle the material. Cultural critic Julia Keller of the Chicago Tribune called it the "most eloquent and substantial addition to the series thus far '' and considered the key to the success of the Potter novels to be humour.
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince has won several awards, including the 2006 British Book of the Year Award and the 2006 Royal Mail Award for Scottish Children 's Books for ages 8 -- 12 in its native United Kingdom. In the United States, the American Library Association listed it among its 2006 Best Books for Young Adults. It won both the 2005 reader - voted Quill Awards for Best Book of the Year and Best Children 's Book. It also won the Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Platinum Seal for notable book.
Before publication, 1.4 million pre-orders were placed for Half - Blood Prince on Amazon.com, breaking the record held by the previous novel, Order of the Phoenix, with 1.3 million. The initial print run for Half - Blood Prince was a record - breaking 10.8 million. Within the first 24 hours of release, the book sold 9 million copies worldwide, 2 million in the UK and about 6.9 million in the US, which prompted Scholastic to rush an additional 2.7 million copies into print. Within the first nine weeks of publication, 11 million copies of the US edition were reported to have been sold. The US audiobook, read by Jim Dale, set sales records with 165,000 sold over two days, besting the adaptation of Order of the Phoenix by twenty percent.
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was published simultaneously in the UK, the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Along with the rest of the books in the Harry Potter series, it was eventually translated into 67 languages. However, because of high security surrounding the manuscript, translators did not get to start on translating Half - Blood Prince until its English release date, and the earliest were not expected to be released until the fall of 2005. In Germany, a group of "hobby translators '' translated the book via Internet in less than two days after release, long before German translator Klaus Fritz could translate and publish the book.
Since its wide hardcover release on 16 July 2005, Half - Blood Prince was released as a paperback on 23 June 2006 in the UK. Two days later on 25 July, the paperback edition was released in Canada and the US, where it had an initial print run of 2 million copies. To celebrate the release of the American paperback edition, Scholastic held a six - week sweepstakes event in which participants in an online poll were entered to win prizes. Simultaneous to the original hardcover release was the UK adult edition, featuring a new cover, and which was also released as a paperback on 23 June. Also released on 16 July was the Scholastic "Deluxe Edition '', which featured reproductions of Mary Grandpré 's artwork and had a print run of about 100,000 copies. Bloomsbury later released a paperback "Special Edition '' on 6 July 2009 and a "Signature Edition '' paperback on 1 November 2010.
The film adaptation of the sixth book was originally scheduled to be released on 21 November 2008, but was changed to 15 July 2009. Directed by David Yates, the screenplay was adapted by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman and David Barron. The film grossed over $934 million worldwide, which made it the second - highest - grossing film of 2009 worldwide and the fifteenth - highest of all time. Additionally, Half - Blood Prince gained an Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography.
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how many episodes are there in a season of game of thrones | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first seven seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes and is set to air in 2019. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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what sports are they adding to the olympics | Olympic sports - wikipedia
Olympic sports are sports contested in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The 2016 Summer Olympics included 28 sports, with five additional sports due to be added to the 2020 Summer Olympics. The 2014 Winter Olympics included seven sports. The number and kinds of events may change slightly from one Olympiad to another. Each Olympic sport is represented by an international governing body, namely an International Federation (IF). The International Olympic Committee (IOC) establishes a hierarchy of sports, disciplines, and events. According to this hierarchy, the Olympic sports can be subdivided into multiple disciplines, which are often assumed to be distinct sports. Examples include swimming and water polo (disciplines of aquatics, represented by the International Swimming Federation), or figure skating and speed skating (disciplines of skating, represented by the International Skating Union). In their turn, disciplines can be subdivided into events, for which medals are actually awarded. A sport or discipline is included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries that compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport 's prevalence. The IOC 's requirements reflect participation in the Olympic Games as well -- more stringent toward men (as they are represented in higher numbers) and summer sports (as more nations compete in the Summer Olympics).
Previous Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. These sports, known as "discontinued sports '', were later removed either because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body. Archery and tennis are examples of sports that were competed at the early Games and were later dropped by the IOC, but managed to return to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1988, respectively). Demonstration sports have often been included in the Olympic Games, usually to promote a local sport from the host country or to gauge interest and support for the sport. Some such sports, like baseball and curling, were added to the official Olympic program (in 1992 and 1998, respectively). Baseball, however, was discontinued after the 2008 Summer Olympics.
The term "sport '' in Olympic terminology refers to all the events that are sanctioned by one international sport federation, a definition that may be different from the common meaning of the word sport. One sport, by Olympic definition, may be divided into several disciplines, which are often regarded as separate sports in common language.
For example, aquatics is a summer Olympic sport that includes six disciplines: swimming, synchronized swimming, diving, water polo, open water swimming, and high diving (the last of which is a non-Olympic discipline), since all these disciplines are governed at international level by the International Swimming Federation. Skating is a winter Olympic sport represented by the International Skating Union, and includes four disciplines: figure skating, speed skating (on a traditional long track), short track speed skating, and synchronized skating (the latter is a non-Olympic discipline). The sport with the largest number of Olympic disciplines is skiing, with six: alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, nordic combined, snowboarding, and freestyle skiing.
Other notable multi-discipline sports are gymnastics (artistic, rhythmic, and trampoline), cycling (road, track, mountain, and BMX), volleyball (indoors and beach), wrestling (freestyle and Greco - Roman), canoeing (flatwater and slalom), and bobsleigh (includes skeleton). The disciplines listed here are only those contested in the Olympics -- gymnastics has two non-Olympic disciplines, while cycling and wrestling have three each.
It should also be noted that the IOC definition of a "discipline '' may differ from that used by an international federation. For example, the IOC considers artistic gymnastics a single discipline, but the International Federation of Gymnastics (FIG) classifies men 's and women 's artistic gymnastics as separate disciplines. Similarly, the IOC considers freestyle wrestling to be a single discipline, but United World Wrestling uses "freestyle wrestling '' strictly for the men 's version, classifying women 's freestyle wrestling as the separate discipline of "female wrestling ''.
On some occasions, notably in the case of snowboarding, the IOC agreed to add sports which previously had a separate international federation to the Olympics on condition that they dissolve their governing body and instead affiliate with an existing Olympic sport federation, therefore not increasing the number of Olympic sports.
An event, by IOC definition, is a competition that leads to the award of medals. Therefore, the sport of aquatics includes a total of 46 Olympic events, of which 32 are in the discipline of swimming, eight in diving, and two each in synchronized swimming, water polo, and open water swimming. The number of events per sport ranges from a minimum of two (until 2008, there were sports with only one event) to a maximum of 47 in athletics, which despite its large number of events and its diversity is not divided into disciplines.
The list of Olympic sports has changed considerably during the course of Olympic history, and has gradually increased until the early 2000s, when the IOC decided to cap the number of sports in the Summer Olympics at 28.
The only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program are athletics, aquatics (the discipline of swimming has been in every Olympics), cycling, fencing, and gymnastics (the discipline of artistic gymnastics has been in every Olympics).
The only winter sports that were included in all Winter Olympic Games are skiing (only nordic skiing), skating (figure skating and speed skating), and ice hockey. Figure skating and ice hockey were also included in the Summer Olympics before the Winter Olympics were introduced in 1924.
For most of the 20th century, demonstration sports were included in many Olympic Games, usually to promote a non-Olympic sport popular in the host country, or to gauge interest and support for the sport. The competitions and ceremonies in these sports were identical to official Olympic sports, except that the medals were not counted in the official record. Some demonstration sports, like baseball and curling, were later added to the official Olympic program. This changed when the International Olympic Committee decided in 1989 to eliminate demonstration sports from Olympics Games after 1992. An exception was made in 2008, when the Beijing Organizing Committee received permission to organize a wushu tournament.
A sport or discipline may be included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines that it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries and continents that regularly compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport 's prevalence. The requirements for winter sports are considerably lower than for summer sports since many fewer nations compete in winter sports. The IOC also has lower requirements for inclusion of sports and disciplines for women for the same reason. Women are still barred from several disciplines; but on the other hand, there are women - only disciplines, such as rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized swimming.
Sports that depend primarily on mechanical propulsion, such as motor sports, may not be considered for recognition as Olympic sports, though there were power - boating events in the early days of the Olympics before this rule was enacted by the IOC. Part of the story of the founding of aviation sports ' international governing body, the FAI, originated from an IOC meeting in Brussels, Belgium on June 10, 1905.
These criteria are only a threshold for consideration as Olympic sport. In order to be admitted to the Olympic program, the IOC Session has to approve its inclusion. There are many sports that easily make the required numbers but are not recognized as Olympic sports, mainly because the IOC has decided to put a limit on the number of sports, as well as events and athletes, in the Summer Olympics in order not to increase them from the 28 sports, 300 events, and 10,000 athletes of the 2000 Summer Olympics.
No such limits exist in the Winter Olympics and the number of events and athletes continue to increase, but no sport has been added since 1998. The latest winter sport added to the Winter Olympics was curling in 1998.
Previous Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. In the early days of the modern Olympics, the organizers were able to decide which sports or disciplines were included on the program, until the IOC took control of the program in 1924. As a result, a number of sports were on the Olympic program for relatively brief periods before 1924. These sports, known as discontinued sports, were removed because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body, or because they became fully professional at the time that the Olympic Games were strictly for amateurs, as in the case of tennis. Several discontinued sports, such as archery and tennis, were later readmitted to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1984, respectively). Curling, which was an official sport in 1924 and then discontinued, was reinstated as Olympic sport in 1998.
The Olympic Charter decrees that Olympic sports for each edition of the Olympic Games should be decided at an IOC Session no later than seven years prior to the Games.
The only sports that have been dropped from the Olympics since 1936 are baseball and softball, which were both voted out by the IOC Session in Singapore on July 11, 2005, a decision that was reaffirmed on February 9, 2006. These sports were last included in 2008, although officially they remain recognized as Olympic sports in the Olympic Charter. Therefore, the number of sports in the 2012 Summer Olympics was dropped from 28 to 26.
Following the addition of women 's boxing in 2012, and women 's ski jumping in 2014, there are only Greco - Roman wrestling and nordic combined, respectively, that are only for men in those games.
Two previously discontinued sports, golf and rugby, returned for the 2016 Summer Olympics. On August 13, 2009, the IOC Executive Board proposed that golf and rugby sevens be added to the Olympic program for the 2016 Games. On 9 October 2009, during the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen, the IOC voted to admit both sports as official Olympic sports and to include them in the 2016 Summer Olympics. The IOC voted 81 -- 8 in favor of including rugby sevens and 63 -- 27 in favor of reinstating golf, thus bringing the number of sports back to 28.
In February 2013, the IOC considered dropping a sport from the 2020 Summer Olympics to make way for a new sport. Modern pentathlon and taekwondo were thought to be vulnerable, but instead the IOC recommended dismissing wrestling. On September 8, 2013, the IOC added wrestling to the 2020 and 2024 Summer Games.
On August 3, 2016, the IOC voted to add baseball / softball, karate, sport climbing, surfing, and skateboarding for the 2020 Summer Olympics.
At the first Olympic Games, nine sports were contested. Since then, the number of sports contested at the Summer Olympic Games has gradually risen to twenty - eight on the program for 2000 -- 2008. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, however, the number of sports fell back to twenty - six following an IOC decision in 2005 to remove baseball and softball from the Olympic program. These sports retain their status as Olympic sports with the possibility of a return to the Olympic program in future games. At the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen on 9 October 2009, the IOC voted to reinstate both golf and rugby to the Olympic program, meaning that the number of sports to be contested in 2016 was once again 28.
In order for a sport or discipline to be considered for inclusion in the list of Summer Olympics sports, it must be widely practiced in at least 75 countries, spread over four continents.
The following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current and discontinued Summer Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically according to the name used by the IOC. The discontinued sports were previously part of the Summer Olympic Games program as official sports, but are no longer on the current program. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport contested at the respective Games; a bullet () denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport.
Eight of the 34 sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:
Aquatics -- Basketball -- Canoeing / Kayak -- Cycling -- Gymnastics -- Volleyball -- Equestrian -- Wrestling
The following sports or disciplines have been demonstrated at the Summer Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:
Gliding was promoted from demonstration sport to an official Olympic sport in 1936 in time for the 1940 Summer Olympics, but the Games were cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II.
Summer Olympic sports are divided into categories based on popularity, gauged by: television viewing figures (40 %), Internet popularity (20 %), public surveys (15 %), ticket requests (10 %), press coverage (10 %), and number of national federations (5 %). The category determines the share the sport 's International Federation receives of Olympic revenue.
The current categories, as of 2013, are as follows, with the pre-2013 categorizations also being available. Category A represents the most popular sports; category E lists either the sports that are the least popular or that are new to the Olympics (golf and rugby).
Before 1924, when the first Winter Olympic Games were celebrated, sports held on ice, like figure skating and ice hockey, were held at the Summer Olympics. These two sports made their debuts at the 1908 and the 1920 Summer Olympics, respectively, but were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics program as of the first edition. The International Winter Sports Week, later dubbed the I Olympic Winter Games and retroactively recognized as such by the IOC, consisted of nine sports. The number of sports contested at the Winter Olympics has since been decreased to seven, comprising a total of fifteen disciplines.
A sport or discipline must be widely practiced in at least 25 countries on three continents in order to be included on the Winter Olympics program.
The following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current Winter Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically, according to the name used by the IOC. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport that were contested at the respective Games (the red cells indicate that those sports were held at the Summer Games); a bullet denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport. On some occasions, both official medal events and demonstration events were contested in the same sport at the same Games.
Three out of the seven sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:
Skating -- Skiing -- Bobsleigh
Military patrol was an official skiing event in 1924 but the IOC currently considers it an event of biathlon in those games, and not as a separate sport.
The following sports have been demonstrated at the Winter Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:
Ice climbing was showcased in 2014, and will be demonstrated at the 2018 Winter Olympics, with a plan to be included official competition sport for the 2022 Winter Olympics. Ski ballet, similarly to Military Patrol, was simply a demonstration event falling under the scope of freestyle skiing. Disabled sports are now part of the Winter Paralympic Games.
Many sports are not recognized as Olympic sports although their governing bodies are recognized by the IOC. Such sports, if eligible under the terms of the Olympic Charter, may apply for inclusion in the program of future Games, through a recommendation by the IOC Olympic Programme Commission, followed by a decision of the IOC Executive Board and a vote of the IOC Session. When Olympic demonstration sports were allowed, a sport usually appeared as such before being officially admitted. An International Sport Federation (IF) is responsible for ensuring that the sport 's activities follow the Olympic Charter. When a sport is recognized the IF become an official Olympic sport federation and can assemble with other Olympic IFs in the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF, for summer sports contested in the Olympic Games), Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations (AIOWS, for winter sports contested in the Olympic Games) or Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF, for sports not contested in the Olympic Games). A number of recognized sports are included in the program of the World Games, a multi-sport event run by the International World Games Association, an organization that operates under the patronage of the IOC. Since the start of the World Games in 1981, a number of sports, including badminton, taekwondo, and triathlon have all subsequently been incorporated into the Olympic program.
In 2020, the IOC altered the way it plans the Olympic Games from one based around a maximum number of sports, to taking total events into account, opening the schedule up for the inclusion on a Games by Games basis of additional sports to the 25 "core '' sports. For the 2020 Summer Olympics, the local organizing committee was thus permitted to add a total of five sports to the programme in addition to the existing 28, taking the total to 33.
The governing bodies of the following sports, though not contested in the Olympic Games, are recognized by the IOC:
Official sport at the World Games Discontinued Olympic sport Ineligible to be included because the Olympic Charter bans sports with motorization elements The governing bodies for baseball and softball merged into a single international federation in 2013. Included at the 2020 Summer Olympics
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something about the way you look tonight/candle in the wind | Something About the Way You Look Tonight - wikipedia
"Something About the Way You Look Tonight '' is a song by Elton John, released in 1997 as the first single from his 26th studio album The Big Picture.
Later, the single was also released as a double A-side single with "Candle in the Wind 1997 ''. That single and its video were dedicated to the memory of Diana, Princess of Wales, who died that year, with proceeds from the sale of the single going towards Diana 's charities. According to the Recording Industry Association of America, with certified sales, this double A-side is "the best - selling single of all time. '' The Guinness World Records 2009 states that the song is "the biggest - selling single since UK and US singles charts began in the 1950s, having accumulated worldwide sales of 33 million copies ''.
The video for the song featured actors and actresses from the UK television programme This Life, as well as supermodels Kate Moss and Sophie Dahl and is regarded as one of Elton John 's best videos. John has publicly revealed (through his "warts and all '' documentary Tantrums and Tiaras) that he finds videos "fucking loathsome '' and after the album The Big Picture refrained from appearing in his own videos unless they were cameo appearances.
In the UK alone, the double A-side single with "Candle in the Wind 1997 '' sold over 4,930,000 copies (8 × Platinum), making the song the best - selling single ever in UK history. It remained for five weeks at the number - one position. In the US, the double A-side single spent 14 weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100. The best - selling single in Billboard history and the only single ever certified Diamond in the US, the single sold over 11 million copies in the US. On the US adult contemporary chart, however, "Something About the Way You Look Tonight '' and "Candle In the Wind 1997 '' charted separately; while the tribute to Princess Diana peaked at number 2 on this chart, "Something About the Way You Look Tonight '' spent 10 weeks at number 1 in late 1997 and early 1998. This double - sided single holds the record for the fewest weeks in a chart year from a year - end number - one single, with as few as eight. (In 1998, it had 34 more total weeks, however it was number 8 in the year - end list of 1998).
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what features of the squid are common to all members of the phylum mollusca | Mollusca - wikipedia
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Mollusca is a large phylum of invertebrate animals whose members are known as molluscs or mollusks (/ ˈmɒləsk /). Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized. The number of fossil species is estimated between 60,000 and 100,000 additional species.
Molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23 % of all the named marine organisms. Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats. They are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is typically divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes, of which two are entirely extinct. Cephalopod molluscs, such as squid, cuttlefish and octopus, are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates -- and either the giant squid or the colossal squid is the largest known invertebrate species. The gastropods (snails and slugs) are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, and account for 80 % of the total.
The three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula (except for bivalves), and the structure of the nervous system. Other than these common elements, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on a "hypothetical ancestral mollusc '' (see image below). This has a single, "limpet - like '' shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, and is secreted by a mantle covering the whole upper surface. The underside of the animal consists of a single muscular "foot ''. Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small. The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates; as such, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The "generalized '' mollusc 's feeding system consists of a rasping "tongue '', the radula, and a complex digestive system in which exuded mucus and microscopic, muscle - powered "hairs '' called cilia play various important roles. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves. The brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, and touch. The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults.
Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago. However, the evolutionary history both of molluscs ' emergence from the ancestral Lophotrochozoa and of their diversification into the well - known living and fossil forms are still subjects of vigorous debate among scientists.
Molluscs have been and still are an important food source for anatomically modern humans. There is a risk of food poisoning from toxins which can accumulate in certain molluscs under specific conditions, however, and because of this, many countries have regulations to reduce this risk. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye, and sea silk. Their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies.
Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities. The bite of the blue - ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, but their sophisticated, though easily produced, venoms have become important tools in neurological research. Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever) is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious agricultural pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems.
The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, from mollis, soft. Molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotle 's τα μαλακά (ta malaká), "the soft things '', which he applied to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology.
The name Molluscoida was formerly used to denote a division of the animal kingdom containing the brachiopods, bryozoans, and tunicates, the members of the three groups having been supposed to somewhat resemble the molluscs. As it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned.
The most universal features of the body structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, and the organization of the nervous system. Many have a calcareous shell.
Molluscs have developed such a varied range of body structures, it is difficult to find synapomorphies (defining characteristics) to apply to all modern groups. The most general characteristic of molluscs is they are unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical. The following are present in all modern molluscs:
Other characteristics that commonly appear in textbooks have significant exceptions:
Estimates of accepted described living species of molluscs vary from 50,000 to a maximum of 120,000 species. In 1969 David Nicol estimated the probable total number of living mollusc species at 107,000 of which were about 12,000 fresh - water gastropods and 35,000 terrestrial. The Bivalvia would comprise about 14 % of the total and the other five classes less than 2 % of the living molluscs. In 2009, Chapman estimated the number of described living species at 85,000. Haszprunar in 2001 estimated about 93,000 named species, which include 23 % of all named marine organisms. Molluscs are second only to arthropods in numbers of living animal species -- far behind the arthropods ' 1,113,000 but well ahead of chordates ' 52,000. About 200,000 living species in total are estimated, and 70,000 fossil species, although the total number of mollusc species ever to have existed, whether or not preserved, must be many times greater than the number alive today.
Molluscs have more varied forms than any other animal phylum. They include snails, slugs and other gastropods; clams and other bivalves; squids and other cephalopods; and other lesser - known but similarly distinctive subgroups. The majority of species still live in the oceans, from the seashores to the abyssal zone, but some form a significant part of the freshwater fauna and the terrestrial ecosystems. Molluscs are extremely diverse in tropical and temperate regions, but can be found at all latitudes. About 80 % of all known mollusc species are gastropods. Cephalopoda such as squid, cuttlefish, and octopuses are among the neurologically most advanced of all invertebrates. The giant squid, which until recently had not been observed alive in its adult form, is one of the largest invertebrates, but a recently caught specimen of the colossal squid, 10 m (33 ft) long and weighing 500 kg (1,100 lb), may have overtaken it.
Freshwater and terrestrial molluscs appear exceptionally vulnerable to extinction. Estimates of the numbers of nonmarine molluscs vary widely, partly because many regions have not been thoroughly surveyed. There is also a shortage of specialists who can identify all the animals in any one area to species. However, in 2004 the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species included nearly 2,000 endangered nonmarine molluscs. For comparison, the great majority of mollusc species are marine, but only 41 of these appeared on the 2004 Red List. About 42 % of recorded extinctions since the year 1500 are of molluscs, consisting almost entirely of nonmarine species.
Because of the great range of anatomical diversity among molluscs, many textbooks start the subject of molluscan anatomy by describing what is called an archi - mollusc, hypothetical generalized mollusc, or hypothetical ancestral mollusc (HAM) to illustrate the most common features found within the phylum. The depiction is visually rather similar to modern monoplacophorans.
The generalized mollusc is bilaterally symmetrical and has a single, "limpet - like '' shell on top. The shell is secreted by a mantle covering the upper surface. The underside consists of a single muscular "foot ''. The visceral mass, or visceropallium, is the soft, nonmuscular metabolic region of the mollusc. It contains the body organs.
The mantle cavity, a fold in the mantle, encloses a significant amount of space. It is lined with epidermis, and is exposed, according to habitat, to sea, fresh water or air. The cavity was at the rear in the earliest molluscs, but its position now varies from group to group. The anus, a pair of osphradia (chemical sensors) in the incoming "lane '', the hindmost pair of gills and the exit openings of the nephridia ("kidneys '') and gonads (reproductive organs) are in the mantle cavity. The whole soft body of bivalves lies within an enlarged mantle cavity.
The mantle edge secretes a shell (secondarily absent in a number of taxonomic groups, such as the nudibranchs) that consists of mainly chitin and conchiolin (a protein hardened with calcium carbonate), except the outermost layer, which in almost all cases is all conchiolin (see periostracum). Molluscs never use phosphate to construct their hard parts, with the questionable exception of Cobcrephora. While most mollusc shells are composed mainly of aragonite, those gastropods that lay eggs with a hard shell use calcite (sometimes with traces of aragonite) to construct the eggshells.
The shell consists of three layers: the outer layer (the periostracum) made of organic matter, a middle layer made of columnar calcite, and an inner layer consisting of laminated calcite, often nacreous.
The underside consists of a muscular foot, which has adapted to different purposes in different classes. The foot carries a pair of statocysts, which act as balance sensors. In gastropods, it secretes mucus as a lubricant to aid movement. In forms having only a top shell, such as limpets, the foot acts as a sucker attaching the animal to a hard surface, and the vertical muscles clamp the shell down over it; in other molluscs, the vertical muscles pull the foot and other exposed soft parts into the shell. In bivalves, the foot is adapted for burrowing into the sediment; in cephalopods it is used for jet propulsion, and the tentacles and arms are derived from the foot.
Molluscs ' circulatory systems are mainly open. Although molluscs are coelomates, their coeloms are reduced to fairly small spaces enclosing the heart and gonads. The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood and coelomic fluid circulate and which encloses most of the other internal organs. These hemocoelic spaces act as an efficient hydrostatic skeleton. The blood contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin as an oxygen - carrier. The heart consists of one or more pairs of atria (auricles), which receive oxygenated blood from the gills and pump it to the ventricle, which pumps it into the aorta (main artery), which is fairly short and opens into the hemocoel.
The atria of the heart also function as part of the excretory system by filtering waste products out of the blood and dumping it into the coelom as urine. A pair of nephridia ("little kidneys '') to the rear of and connected to the coelom extracts any re-usable materials from the urine and dumps additional waste products into it, and then ejects it via tubes that discharge into the mantle cavity.
Most molluscs have only one pair of gills, or even only a singular gill. Generally, the gills are rather like feathers in shape, although some species have gills with filaments on only one side. They divide the mantle cavity so water enters near the bottom and exits near the top. Their filaments have three kinds of cilia, one of which drives the water current through the mantle cavity, while the other two help to keep the gills clean. If the osphradia detect noxious chemicals or possibly sediment entering the mantle cavity, the gills ' cilia may stop beating until the unwelcome intrusions have ceased. Each gill has an incoming blood vessel connected to the hemocoel and an outgoing one to the heart.
Members of the mollusc family use intracellular digestion to function. Most molluscs have muscular mouths with radulae, "tongues '', bearing many rows of chitinous teeth, which are replaced from the rear as they wear out. The radula primarily functions to scrape bacteria and algae off rocks, and is associated with the odontophore, a cartilaginous supporting organ. The radula is unique to the molluscs and has no equivalent in any other animal.
Molluscs ' mouths also contain glands that secrete slimy mucus, to which the food sticks. Beating cilia (tiny "hairs '') drive the mucus towards the stomach, so the mucus forms a long string called a "food string ''.
At the tapered rear end of the stomach and projecting slightly into the hindgut is the prostyle, a backward - pointing cone of feces and mucus, which is rotated by further cilia so it acts as a bobbin, winding the mucus string onto itself. Before the mucus string reaches the prostyle, the acidity of the stomach makes the mucus less sticky and frees particles from it.
The particles are sorted by yet another group of cilia, which send the smaller particles, mainly minerals, to the prostyle so eventually they are excreted, while the larger ones, mainly food, are sent to the stomach 's cecum (a pouch with no other exit) to be digested. The sorting process is by no means perfect.
Periodically, circular muscles at the hindgut 's entrance pinch off and excrete a piece of the prostyle, preventing the prostyle from growing too large. The anus, in the part of the mantle cavity, is swept by the outgoing "lane '' of the current created by the gills. Carnivorous molluscs usually have simpler digestive systems.
As the head has largely disappeared in bivalves, the mouth has been equipped with labial palps (two on each side of the mouth) to collect the detritus from its mucus.
The cephalic molluscs have two pairs of main nerve cords organized around a number of paired ganglia, the visceral cords serving the internal organs and the pedal ones serving the foot. Most pairs of corresponding ganglia on both sides of the body are linked by commissures (relatively large bundles of nerves). The ganglia above the gut are the cerebral, the pleural, and the visceral, which are located above the esophagus (gullet). The pedal ganglia, which control the foot, are below the esophagus and their commissure and connectives to the cerebral and pleural ganglia surround the esophagus in a circumesophageal nerve ring or nerve collar.
The acephalic molluscs (i.e., bivalves) also have this ring but it is less obvious and less important. The bivalves have only three pairs of ganglia -- cerebral, pedal, and visceral -- with the visceral as the largest and most important of the three functioning as the principal center of "thinking ''. Some such as the scallops have eyes around the edges of their shells which connect to a pair of looped nerves and which provide the ability to distinguish between light and shadow.
The simplest molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but with more complex variations. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. Two gonads sit next to the coelom, a small cavity that surrounds the heart, into which they shed ova or sperm. The nephridia extract the gametes from the coelom and emit them into the mantle cavity. Molluscs that use such a system remain of one sex all their lives and rely on external fertilization. Some molluscs use internal fertilization and / or are hermaphrodites, functioning as both sexes; both of these methods require more complex reproductive systems.
The most basic molluscan larva is a trochophore, which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia around its "equator '' to sweep food into the mouth, which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach, which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus. New tissue grows in the bands of mesoderm in the interior, so the apical tuft and anus are pushed further apart as the animal grows. The trochophore stage is often succeeded by a veliger stage in which the prototroch, the "equatorial '' band of cilia nearest the apical tuft, develops into the velum ("veil ''), a pair of cilia - bearing lobes with which the larva swims. Eventually, the larva sinks to the seafloor and metamorphoses into the adult form. While metamorphosis is the usual state in molluscs, the cephalopods differ in exhibiting direct development: the hatchling is a ' miniaturized ' form of the adult.
Most molluscs are herbivorous, grazing on algae or filter feeders. For those grazing, two feeding strategies are predominant. Some feed on microscopic, filamentous algae, often using their radula as a ' rake ' to comb up filaments from the sea floor. Others feed on macroscopic ' plants ' such as kelp, rasping the plant surface with its radula. To employ this strategy, the plant has to be large enough for the mollusc to ' sit ' on, so smaller macroscopic plants are not as often eaten as their larger counterparts. Filter feeders are molluscs that feed by straining suspended matter and food particle from water, typically by passing the water over their gills. Most bivalves are filter feeders.
Cephalopods are primarily predatory, and the radula takes a secondary role to the jaws and tentacles in food acquisition. The monoplacophoran Neopilina uses its radula in the usual fashion, but its diet includes protists such as the xenophyophore Stannophyllum. Sacoglossan sea - slugs suck the sap from algae, using their one - row radula to pierce the cell walls, whereas dorid nudibranchs and some Vetigastropoda feed on sponges and others feed on hydroids. (An extensive list of molluscs with unusual feeding habits is available in the appendix of GRAHAM, A. (1955). "Molluscan diets ''. Journal of Molluscan Studies. 31 (3 -- 4): 144...)
Opinions vary about the number of classes of molluscs; for example, the table below shows eight living classes, and two extinct ones. Although they are unlikely to form a clade, some older works combine the Caudofoveata and solenogasters into one class, the Aplacophora. Two of the commonly recognized "classes '' are known only from fossils.
Classification into higher taxa for these groups has been and remains problematic. A phylogenetic study suggests the Polyplacophora form a clade with a monophyletic Aplacophora. Additionally, it suggests a sister taxon relationship exists between the Bivalvia and the Gastropoda. Tentaculita may also be in Mollusca (see Tentaculites).
Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods (e.g. Aldanella), cephalopods (e.g. Plectronoceras,? Nectocaris) and bivalves (Pojetaia, Fordilla) towards the middle of the Cambrian period, c. 500 million years ago, though arguably each of these may belong only to the stem lineage of their respective classes. However, the evolutionary history both of the emergence of molluscs from the ancestral group Lophotrochozoa, and of their diversification into the well - known living and fossil forms, is still vigorously debated.
Debate occurs about whether some Ediacaran and Early Cambrian fossils really are molluscs. Kimberella, from about 555 million years ago, has been described by some paleontologists as "mollusc - like '', but others are unwilling to go further than "probable bilaterian '', if that.
There is an even sharper debate about whether Wiwaxia, from about 505 million years ago, was a mollusc, and much of this centers on whether its feeding apparatus was a type of radula or more similar to that of some polychaete worms. Nicholas Butterfield, who opposes the idea that Wiwaxia was a mollusc, has written that earlier microfossils from 515 to 510 million years ago are fragments of a genuinely mollusc - like radula. This appears to contradict the concept that the ancestral molluscan radula was mineralized.
However, the Helcionellids, which first appear over 540 million years ago in Early Cambrian rocks from Siberia and China, are thought to be early molluscs with rather snail - like shells. Shelled molluscs therefore predate the earliest trilobites. Although most helcionellid fossils are only a few millimeters long, specimens a few centimeters long have also been found, most with more limpet - like shapes. The tiny specimens have been suggested to be juveniles and the larger ones adults.
Some analyses of helcionellids concluded these were the earliest gastropods. However, other scientists are not convinced these Early Cambrian fossils show clear signs of the torsion that identifies modern gastropods twists the internal organs so the anus lies above the head.
Volborthella, some fossils of which predate 530 million years ago, was long thought to be a cephalopod, but discoveries of more detailed fossils showed its shell was not secreted, but built from grains of the mineral silicon dioxide (silica), and it was not divided into a series of compartments by septa as those of fossil shelled cephalopods and the living Nautilus are. Volborthella 's classification is uncertain. The Late Cambrian fossil Plectronoceras is now thought to be the earliest clearly cephalopod fossil, as its shell had septa and a siphuncle, a strand of tissue that Nautilus uses to remove water from compartments it has vacated as it grows, and which is also visible in fossil ammonite shells. However, Plectronoceras and other early cephalopods crept along the seafloor instead of swimming, as their shells contained a "ballast '' of stony deposits on what is thought to be the underside, and had stripes and blotches on what is thought to be the upper surface. All cephalopods with external shells except the nautiloids became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period 65 million years ago. However, the shell-less Coleoidea (squid, octopus, cuttlefish) are abundant today.
The Early Cambrian fossils Fordilla and Pojetaia are regarded as bivalves. "Modern - looking '' bivalves appeared in the Ordovician period, 488 to 443 million years ago. One bivalve group, the rudists, became major reef - builders in the Cretaceous, but became extinct in the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event. Even so, bivalves remain abundant and diverse.
The Hyolitha are a class of extinct animals with a shell and operculum that may be molluscs. Authors who suggest they deserve their own phylum do not comment on the position of this phylum in the tree of life.
Brachiopods
Bivalves
Monoplacophorans ("limpet - like '', "living fossils '')
Gastropods (snails, slugs, limpets, sea hares)
Cephalopods (nautiloids, ammonites, squid, etc.)
Scaphopods (tusk shells)
Aplacophorans (spicule - covered, worm - like)
Polyplacophorans (chitons)
Wiwaxia
Halkieria
Orthrozanclus
Odontogriphus
The phylogeny (evolutionary "family tree '') of molluscs is a controversial subject. In addition to the debates about whether Kimberella and any of the "halwaxiids '' were molluscs or closely related to molluscs, debates arise about the relationships between the classes of living molluscs. In fact, some groups traditionally classified as molluscs may have to be redefined as distinct but related.
Molluscs are generally regarded members of the Lophotrochozoa, a group defined by having trochophore larvae and, in the case of living Lophophorata, a feeding structure called a lophophore. The other members of the Lophotrochozoa are the annelid worms and seven marine phyla. The diagram on the right summarizes a phylogeny presented in 2007.
Because the relationships between the members of the family tree are uncertain, it is difficult to identify the features inherited from the last common ancestor of all molluscs. For example, it is uncertain whether the ancestral mollusc was metameric (composed of repeating units) -- if it was, that would suggest an origin from an annelid - like worm. Scientists disagree about this: Giribet and colleagues concluded, in 2006, the repetition of gills and of the foot 's retractor muscles were later developments, while in 2007, Sigwart concluded the ancestral mollusc was metameric, and it had a foot used for creeping and a "shell '' that was mineralized. In one particular branch of the family tree, the shell of conchiferans is thought to have evolved from the spicules (small spines) of aplacophorans; but this is difficult to reconcile with the embryological origins of spicules.
The molluscan shell appears to have originated from a mucus coating, which eventually stiffened into a cuticle. This would have been impermeable and thus forced the development of more sophisticated respiratory apparatus in the form of gills. Eventually, the cuticle would have become mineralized, using the same genetic machinery (engrailed) as most other bilaterian skeletons. The first mollusc shell almost certainly was reinforced with the mineral aragonite.
The evolutionary relationships ' within ' the molluscs are also debated, and the diagrams below show two widely supported reconstructions:
Solenogastres
Caudofoveata
Polyplacophorans
Monoplacophorans
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Gastropods
Cephalopods
Solenogastres
Caudofoveata
Polyplacophorans
Monoplacophorans
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Gastropods
Cephalopods
Morphological analyses tend to recover a conchiferan clade that receives less support from molecular analyses, although these results also lead to unexpected paraphylies, for instance scattering the bivalves throughout all other mollusc groups.
However, an analysis in 2009 using both morphological and molecular phylogenetics comparisons concluded the molluscs are not monophyletic; in particular, Scaphopoda and Bivalvia are both separate, monophyletic lineages unrelated to the remaining molluscan classes; the traditional phylum Mollusca is polyphyletic, and it can only be made monophyletic if scaphopods and bivalves are excluded. A 2010 analysis recovered the traditional conchiferan and aculiferan groups, and showed molluscs were monophyletic, demonstrating that available data for solenogastres was contaminated. Current molecular data are insufficient to constrain the molluscan phylogeny, and since the methods used to determine the confidence in clades are prone to overestimation, it is risky to place too much emphasis even on the areas of which different studies agree. Rather than eliminating unlikely relationships, the latest studies add new permutations of internal molluscan relationships, even bringing the conchiferan hypothesis into question.
For millennia, molluscs have been a source of food for humans, as well as important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye, sea silk, and chemical compounds. Their shells have also been used as a form of currency in some preindustrial societies. A number of species of molluscs can bite or sting humans, and some have become agricultural pests.
Molluscs, especially bivalves such as clams and mussels, have been an important food source since at least the advent of anatomically modern humans, and this has often resulted in overfishing. Other commonly eaten molluscs include octopuses and squids, whelks, oysters, and scallops. In 2005, China accounted for 80 % of the global mollusc catch, netting almost 11,000,000 tonnes (11,000,000 long tons; 12,000,000 short tons). Within Europe, France remained the industry leader. Some countries regulate importation and handling of molluscs and other seafood, mainly to minimize the poison risk from toxins that can sometimes accumulate in the animals.
Most molluscs with shells can produce pearls, but only the pearls of bivalves and some gastropods, whose shells are lined with nacre, are valuable. The best natural pearls are produced by marine pearl oysters, Pinctada margaritifera and Pinctada mertensi, which live in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Pacific Ocean. Natural pearls form when a small foreign object gets stuck between the mantle and shell.
The two methods of culturing pearls insert either "seeds '' or beads into oysters. The "seed '' method uses grains of ground shell from freshwater mussels, and overharvesting for this purpose has endangered several freshwater mussel species in the southeastern United States. The pearl industry is so important in some areas, significant sums of money are spent on monitoring the health of farmed molluscs.
Other luxury and high - status products were made from molluscs. Tyrian purple, made from the ink glands of murex shells, "... fetched its weight in silver '' in the fourth century BC, according to Theopompus. The discovery of large numbers of Murex shells on Crete suggests the Minoans may have pioneered the extraction of "imperial purple '' during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th -- 18th centuries BC, centuries before the Tyrians. Sea silk is a fine, rare, and valuable fabric produced from the long silky threads (byssus) secreted by several bivalve molluscs, particularly Pinna nobilis, to attach themselves to the sea bed. Procopius, writing on the Persian wars circa 550 CE, "stated that the five hereditary satraps (governors) of Armenia who received their insignia from the Roman Emperor were given chlamys (or cloaks) made from lana pinna. Apparently, only the ruling classes were allowed to wear these chlamys. ''
Mollusc shells, including those of cowries, were used as a kind of money (shell money) in several preindustrial societies. However, these "currencies '' generally differed in important ways from the standardized government - backed and - controlled money familiar to industrial societies. Some shell "currencies '' were not used for commercial transactions, but mainly as social status displays at important occasions, such as weddings. When used for commercial transactions, they functioned as commodity money, as a tradable commodity whose value differed from place to place, often as a result of difficulties in transport, and which was vulnerable to incurable inflation if more efficient transport or "goldrush '' behavior appeared.
Bivalve molluscs are used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments. Their population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the state of contamination status of the ecosystem. They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed. Potamopyrgus antipodarum is used by some water treatment plants to test for estrogen - mimicking pollutants from industrial agriculture.
Some molluscs sting or bite, but deaths from mollusc venoms total less than 10 % of those from jellyfish stings.
All octopuses are venomous, but only a few species pose a significant threat to humans. Blue - ringed octopuses in the genus Hapalochlaena, which live around Australia and New Guinea, bite humans only if severely provoked, but their venom kills 25 % of human victims. Another tropical species, Octopus apollyon, causes severe inflammation that can last for over a month even if treated correctly, and the bite of Octopus rubescens can cause necrosis that lasts longer than one month if untreated, and headaches and weakness persisting for up to a week even if treated.
All species of cone snails are venomous and can sting painfully when handled, although many species are too small to pose much of a risk to humans, and only a few fatalities have been reliably reported. Their venom is a complex mixture of toxins, some fast - acting and others slower but deadlier. The effects of individual cone - shell toxins on victims ' nervous systems are so precise as to be useful tools for research in neurology, and the small size of their molecules makes it easy to synthesize them.
Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever), a disease caused by the fluke worm Schistosoma, is "second only to malaria as the most devastating parasitic disease in tropical countries. An estimated 200 million people in 74 countries are infected with the disease -- 100 million in Africa alone. '' The parasite has 13 known species, two of which infect humans. The parasite itself is not a mollusc, but all the species have freshwater snails as intermediate hosts.
Some species of molluscs, particularly certain snails and slugs, can be serious crop pests, and when introduced into new environments, can unbalance local ecosystems. One such pest, the giant African snail Achatina fulica, has been introduced to many parts of Asia, as well as to many islands in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. In the 1990s, this species reached the West Indies. Attempts to control it by introducing the predatory snail Euglandina rosea proved disastrous, as the predator ignored Achatina fulica and went on to extirpate several native snail species, instead.
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the best place to search for black holes is in a region of space that | Black hole - wikipedia
A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing -- not even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light -- can escape from inside it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon. Although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, no locally detectable features appear to be observed. In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.
Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre - Simon Laplace. The first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916, although its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was first published by David Finkelstein in 1958. Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity; it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity. The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality.
Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses (M) may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.
Despite its invisible interior, the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light. Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction, forming some of the brightest objects in the universe. If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black hole 's mass and location. Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars. In this way, astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems, and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A *, at the core of our own Milky Way galaxy, contains a supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million solar masses.
On 11 February 2016, the LIGO collaboration announced the first observation of gravitational waves; because these waves were generated from a black hole merger it was the first ever direct detection of a binary black hole merger. On 15 June 2016, a second detection of a gravitational wave event from colliding black holes was announced.
The idea of a body so massive that even light could not escape was briefly proposed by astronomical pioneer and English clergyman John Michell in a letter published in November 1784. Michell 's simplistic calculations assumed that such a body might have the same density as the Sun, and concluded that such a body would form when a star 's diameter exceeds the Sun 's by a factor of 500, and the surface escape velocity exceeds the usual speed of light. Michell correctly noted that such supermassive but non-radiating bodies might be detectable through their gravitational effects on nearby visible bodies. Scholars of the time were initially excited by the proposal that giant but invisible stars might be hiding in plain view, but enthusiasm dampened when the wavelike nature of light became apparent in the early nineteenth century. If light were a wave rather than a "corpuscle '', it became unclear what, if any, influence gravity would have on escaping light waves. Modern relativity factually dispels Michell 's notion of a light ray shooting directly from the surface of a supermassive star, being slowed down by the star 's gravity, stopping, and then free - falling back to the star 's surface.
In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his theory of general relativity, having earlier shown that gravity does influence light 's motion. Only a few months later, Karl Schwarzschild found a solution to the Einstein field equations, which describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass. A few months after Schwarzschild, Johannes Droste, a student of Hendrik Lorentz, independently gave the same solution for the point mass and wrote more extensively about its properties. This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius, where it became singular, meaning that some of the terms in the Einstein equations became infinite. The nature of this surface was not quite understood at the time. In 1924, Arthur Eddington showed that the singularity disappeared after a change of coordinates (see Eddington -- Finkelstein coordinates), although it took until 1933 for Georges Lemaître to realize that this meant the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius was a non-physical coordinate singularity. Arthur Eddington did however comment on the possibility of a star with mass compressed to the Schwarzschild radius in a 1926 book, noting that Einstein 's theory allows us to rule out overly large densities for visible stars like Betelgeuse because "a star of 250 million km radius could not possibly have so high a density as the sun. Firstly, the force of gravitation would be so great that light would be unable to escape from it, the rays falling back to the star like a stone to the earth. Secondly, the red shift of the spectral lines would be so great that the spectrum would be shifted out of existence. Thirdly, the mass would produce so much curvature of the space - time metric that space would close up around the star, leaving us outside (i.e., nowhere). ''
In 1931, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar calculated, using special relativity, that a non-rotating body of electron - degenerate matter above a certain limiting mass (now called the Chandrasekhar limit at 1.4 M) has no stable solutions. His arguments were opposed by many of his contemporaries like Eddington and Lev Landau, who argued that some yet unknown mechanism would stop the collapse. They were partly correct: a white dwarf slightly more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a neutron star, which is itself stable because of the Pauli exclusion principle. But in 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and others predicted that neutron stars above approximately 3 M (the Tolman -- Oppenheimer -- Volkoff limit) would collapse into black holes for the reasons presented by Chandrasekhar, and concluded that no law of physics was likely to intervene and stop at least some stars from collapsing to black holes.
Oppenheimer and his co-authors interpreted the singularity at the boundary of the Schwarzschild radius as indicating that this was the boundary of a bubble in which time stopped. This is a valid point of view for external observers, but not for infalling observers. Because of this property, the collapsed stars were called "frozen stars '', because an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where its collapse takes it inside the Schwarzschild radius.
In 1958, David Finkelstein identified the Schwarzschild surface as an event horizon, "a perfect unidirectional membrane: causal influences can cross it in only one direction ''. This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer 's results, but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers. Finkelstein 's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole. A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal, who was urged to publish it.
These results came at the beginning of the golden age of general relativity, which was marked by general relativity and black holes becoming mainstream subjects of research. This process was helped by the discovery of pulsars in 1967, which, by 1969, were shown to be rapidly rotating neutron stars. Until that time, neutron stars, like black holes, were regarded as just theoretical curiosities; but the discovery of pulsars showed their physical relevance and spurred a further interest in all types of compact objects that might be formed by gravitational collapse.
In this period more general black hole solutions were found. In 1963, Roy Kerr found the exact solution for a rotating black hole. Two years later, Ezra Newman found the axisymmetric solution for a black hole that is both rotating and electrically charged. Through the work of Werner Israel, Brandon Carter, and David Robinson the no - hair theorem emerged, stating that a stationary black hole solution is completely described by the three parameters of the Kerr -- Newman metric: mass, angular momentum, and electric charge.
At first, it was suspected that the strange features of the black hole solutions were pathological artifacts from the symmetry conditions imposed, and that the singularities would not appear in generic situations. This view was held in particular by Vladimir Belinsky, Isaak Khalatnikov, and Evgeny Lifshitz, who tried to prove that no singularities appear in generic solutions. However, in the late 1960s Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking used global techniques to prove that singularities appear generically.
Work by James Bardeen, Jacob Bekenstein, Carter, and Hawking in the early 1970s led to the formulation of black hole thermodynamics. These laws describe the behaviour of a black hole in close analogy to the laws of thermodynamics by relating mass to energy, area to entropy, and surface gravity to temperature. The analogy was completed when Hawking, in 1974, showed that quantum field theory predicts that black holes should radiate like a black body with a temperature proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole.
The first use of the term "black hole '' in print was by science journalist Ann Ewing in her article "' Black Holes ' in Space '', dated 18 January 1964, which was a report on a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science held in Cleveland, Ohio.
In December 1967, a student reportedly suggested the phrase "black hole '' at a lecture by John Wheeler; Wheeler adopted the term for its brevity and "advertising value '', and it quickly caught on, leading some to credit Wheeler with coining the phrase.
The no - hair theorem states that, once it achieves a stable condition after formation, a black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, charge, and angular momentum. Any two black holes that share the same values for these properties, or parameters, are indistinguishable according to classical (i.e. non-quantum) mechanics.
These properties are special because they are visible from outside a black hole. For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object. Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss 's law, the ADM mass, far away from the black hole. Likewise, the angular momentum can be measured from far away using frame dragging by the gravitomagnetic field.
When an object falls into a black hole, any information about the shape of the object or distribution of charge on it is evenly distributed along the horizon of the black hole, and is lost to outside observers. The behavior of the horizon in this situation is a dissipative system that is closely analogous to that of a conductive stretchy membrane with friction and electrical resistance -- the membrane paradigm. This is different from other field theories such as electromagnetism, which do not have any friction or resistivity at the microscopic level, because they are time - reversible. Because a black hole eventually achieves a stable state with only three parameters, there is no way to avoid losing information about the initial conditions: the gravitational and electric fields of a black hole give very little information about what went in. The information that is lost includes every quantity that can not be measured far away from the black hole horizon, including approximately conserved quantum numbers such as the total baryon number and lepton number. This behavior is so puzzling that it has been called the black hole information loss paradox.
The simplest static black holes have mass but neither electric charge nor angular momentum. These black holes are often referred to as Schwarzschild black holes after Karl Schwarzschild who discovered this solution in 1916. According to Birkhoff 's theorem, it is the only vacuum solution that is spherically symmetric. This means that there is no observable difference between the gravitational field of such a black hole and that of any other spherical object of the same mass. The popular notion of a black hole "sucking in everything '' in its surroundings is therefore only correct near a black hole 's horizon; far away, the external gravitational field is identical to that of any other body of the same mass.
Solutions describing more general black holes also exist. Non-rotating charged black holes are described by the Reissner -- Nordström metric, while the Kerr metric describes a non-charged rotating black hole. The most general stationary black hole solution known is the Kerr -- Newman metric, which describes a black hole with both charge and angular momentum.
While the mass of a black hole can take any positive value, the charge and angular momentum are constrained by the mass. In Planck units, the total electric charge Q and the total angular momentum J are expected to satisfy
for a black hole of mass M. Black holes satisfying this inequality are called extremal. Solutions of Einstein 's equations that violate this inequality exist, but they do not possess an event horizon. These solutions have so - called naked singularities that can be observed from the outside, and hence are deemed unphysical. The cosmic censorship hypothesis rules out the formation of such singularities, when they are created through the gravitational collapse of realistic matter. This is supported by numerical simulations.
Due to the relatively large strength of the electromagnetic force, black holes forming from the collapse of stars are expected to retain the nearly neutral charge of the star. Rotation, however, is expected to be a universal feature of compact astrophysical objects. The black - hole candidate binary X-ray source GRS 1915 + 105 appears to have an angular momentum near the maximum allowed value. That uncharged limit expressed in SI units is
allowing definition of a dimensionless spin parameter such that
Black holes are commonly classified according to their mass, independent of angular momentum J or electric charge Q. The size of a black hole, as determined by the radius of the event horizon, or Schwarzschild radius, is roughly proportional to the mass M through
where r is the Schwarzschild radius and M is the mass of the Sun. This relation is exact only for black holes with zero charge and angular momentum; for more general black holes it can differ up to a factor of 2.
The defining feature of a black hole is the appearance of an event horizon -- a boundary in spacetime through which matter and light can only pass inward towards the mass of the black hole. Nothing, not even light, can escape from inside the event horizon. The event horizon is referred to as such because if an event occurs within the boundary, information from that event can not reach an outside observer, making it impossible to determine if such an event occurred.
As predicted by general relativity, the presence of a mass deforms spacetime in such a way that the paths taken by particles bend towards the mass. At the event horizon of a black hole, this deformation becomes so strong that there are no paths that lead away from the black hole.
To a distant observer, clocks near a black hole appear to tick more slowly than those further away from the black hole. Due to this effect, known as gravitational time dilation, an object falling into a black hole appears to slow as it approaches the event horizon, taking an infinite time to reach it. At the same time, all processes on this object slow down, from the view point of a fixed outside observer, causing any light emitted by the object to appear redder and dimmer, an effect known as gravitational redshift. Eventually, the falling object fades away until it can no longer be seen. In reality this process happens very rapidly with an object disappearing from view within less than a second.
On the other hand, indestructible observers falling into a black hole do not notice any of these effects as they cross the event horizon. According to their own clocks, which appear to them to tick normally, they cross the event horizon after a finite time without noting any singular behaviour; it is impossible to determine the location of the event horizon from local observations.
The shape of the event horizon of a black hole is always approximately spherical. For non-rotating (static) black holes the geometry of the event horizon is precisely spherical, while for rotating black holes the sphere is oblate.
At the center of a black hole, as described by general relativity, lies a gravitational singularity, a region where the spacetime curvature becomes infinite. For a non-rotating black hole, this region takes the shape of a single point and for a rotating black hole, it is smeared out to form a ring singularity that lies in the plane of rotation. In both cases, the singular region has zero volume. It can also be shown that the singular region contains all the mass of the black hole solution. The singular region can thus be thought of as having infinite density.
Observers falling into a Schwarzschild black hole (i.e., non-rotating and not charged) can not avoid being carried into the singularity, once they cross the event horizon. They can prolong the experience by accelerating away to slow their descent, but only up to a limit; after attaining a certain ideal velocity, it is best to free fall the rest of the way. When they reach the singularity, they are crushed to infinite density and their mass is added to the total of the black hole. Before that happens, they will have been torn apart by the growing tidal forces in a process sometimes referred to as spaghettification or the "noodle effect ''.
In the case of a charged (Reissner -- Nordström) or rotating (Kerr) black hole, it is possible to avoid the singularity. Extending these solutions as far as possible reveals the hypothetical possibility of exiting the black hole into a different spacetime with the black hole acting as a wormhole. The possibility of traveling to another universe is, however, only theoretical since any perturbation would destroy this possibility. It also appears to be possible to follow closed timelike curves (returning to one 's own past) around the Kerr singularity, which lead to problems with causality like the grandfather paradox. It is expected that none of these peculiar effects would survive in a proper quantum treatment of rotating and charged black holes.
The appearance of singularities in general relativity is commonly perceived as signaling the breakdown of the theory. This breakdown, however, is expected; it occurs in a situation where quantum effects should describe these actions, due to the extremely high density and therefore particle interactions. To date, it has not been possible to combine quantum and gravitational effects into a single theory, although there exist attempts to formulate such a theory of quantum gravity. It is generally expected that such a theory will not feature any singularities.
The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness in which photons that move on tangents to that sphere would be trapped in a circular orbit about the black hole. For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius. Their orbits would be dynamically unstable, hence any small perturbation, such as a particle of infalling matter, would cause an instability that would grow over time, either setting the photon on an outward trajectory causing it to escape the black hole, or on an inward spiral where it would eventually cross the event horizon.
While light can still escape from the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole. Hence any light that reaches an outside observer from the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects between the photon sphere and the event horizon.
Other compact objects, such as neutron stars, can also have photon spheres. This follows from the fact that the gravitational field external to a spherically - symmetric object is governed by the Schwarzschild metric, which depends only on the object 's mass rather than the radius of the object, hence any object whose radius shrinks to smaller than 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius will have a photon sphere.
Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere. This is the result of a process known as frame - dragging; general relativity predicts that any rotating mass will tend to slightly "drag '' along the spacetime immediately surrounding it. Any object near the rotating mass will tend to start moving in the direction of rotation. For a rotating black hole, this effect is so strong near the event horizon that an object would have to move faster than the speed of light in the opposite direction to just stand still.
The ergosphere of a black hole is a volume whose inner boundary is the black hole 's oblate spheroid event horizon and a pumpkin - shaped outer boundary, which coincides with the event horizon at the poles but noticeably wider around the equator. The outer boundary is sometimes called the ergosurface.
Objects and radiation can escape normally from the ergosphere. Through the Penrose process, objects can emerge from the ergosphere with more energy than they entered. This energy is taken from the rotational energy of the black hole causing the latter to slow.
In Newtonian gravity, test particles can stably orbit at arbitrary distances from a central object. In general relativity, however, there exists an innermost stable circular orbit (often called the ISCO), inside of which, any infinitesimal perturbations to a circular orbit will lead to inspiral into the black hole. The location of the ISCO depends on the spin of the black hole, in the case of a Schwarzschild black hole (spin zero) is:
and decreases with increasing spin.
Considering the exotic nature of black holes, it may be natural to question if such bizarre objects could exist in nature or to suggest that they are merely pathological solutions to Einstein 's equations. Einstein himself wrongly thought that black holes would not form, because he held that the angular momentum of collapsing particles would stabilize their motion at some radius. This led the general relativity community to dismiss all results to the contrary for many years. However, a minority of relativists continued to contend that black holes were physical objects, and by the end of the 1960s, they had persuaded the majority of researchers in the field that there is no obstacle to the formation of an event horizon.
Penrose proved that once an event horizon forms, general relativity without quantum mechanics requires that a singularity will form within. Shortly afterwards, Hawking showed that many cosmological solutions that describe the Big Bang have singularities without scalar fields or other exotic matter (see "Penrose -- Hawking singularity theorems ''). The Kerr solution, the no - hair theorem, and the laws of black hole thermodynamics showed that the physical properties of black holes were simple and comprehensible, making them respectable subjects for research. The primary formation process for black holes is expected to be the gravitational collapse of heavy objects such as stars, but there are also more exotic processes that can lead to the production of black holes.
Gravitational collapse occurs when an object 's internal pressure is insufficient to resist the object 's own gravity. For stars this usually occurs either because a star has too little "fuel '' left to maintain its temperature through stellar nucleosynthesis, or because a star that would have been stable receives extra matter in a way that does not raise its core temperature. In either case the star 's temperature is no longer high enough to prevent it from collapsing under its own weight. The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star 's constituents, allowing the condensation of matter into an exotic denser state. The result is one of the various types of compact star. The type of compact star formed depends on the mass of the remnant of the original star left after the outer layers have been blown away. Such explosions and pulsations lead to planetary nebula. This mass can be substantially less than the original star. Remnants exceeding 5 M are produced by stars that were over 20 M before the collapse.
If the mass of the remnant exceeds about 3 -- 4 M (the Tolman -- Oppenheimer -- Volkoff limit), either because the original star was very heavy or because the remnant collected additional mass through accretion of matter, even the degeneracy pressure of neutrons is insufficient to stop the collapse. No known mechanism (except possibly quark degeneracy pressure, see quark star) is powerful enough to stop the implosion and the object will inevitably collapse to form a black hole.
The gravitational collapse of heavy stars is assumed to be responsible for the formation of stellar mass black holes. Star formation in the early universe may have resulted in very massive stars, which upon their collapse would have produced black holes of up to 10 M. These black holes could be the seeds of the supermassive black holes found in the centers of most galaxies. It has further been suggested that supermassive black holes with typical masses of ~ 10 M could have formed from the direct collapse of gas clouds in the young universe. Some candidates for such objects have been found in observations of the young universe.
While most of the energy released during gravitational collapse is emitted very quickly, an outside observer does not actually see the end of this process. Even though the collapse takes a finite amount of time from the reference frame of infalling matter, a distant observer would see the infalling material slow and halt just above the event horizon, due to gravitational time dilation. Light from the collapsing material takes longer and longer to reach the observer, with the light emitted just before the event horizon forms delayed an infinite amount of time. Thus the external observer never sees the formation of the event horizon; instead, the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasingly red - shifted, eventually fading away.
Gravitational collapse requires great density. In the current epoch of the universe these high densities are only found in stars, but in the early universe shortly after the big bang densities were much greater, possibly allowing for the creation of black holes. The high density alone is not enough to allow the formation of black holes since a uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up. In order for primordial black holes to form in such a dense medium, there must be initial density perturbations that can then grow under their own gravity. Different models for the early universe vary widely in their predictions of the size of these perturbations. Various models predict the creation of black holes, ranging from a Planck mass to hundreds of thousands of solar masses. Primordial black holes could thus account for the creation of any type of black hole.
Despite the early universe being extremely dense -- far denser than is usually required to form a black hole -- it did not re-collapse into a black hole during the big bang. This is because currently - known calculations and density limits for gravitational collapse are usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not necessarily apply in the same way to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang.
Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes. In principle, black holes could be formed in high - energy collisions that achieve sufficient density. As of 2002, no such events have been detected, either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in particle accelerator experiments. This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes. Theoretically, this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass (m = √ ħ c / G ≈ 7019120000000000000 ♠ 1.2 × 10 GeV / c ≈ 6992220000000000000 ♠ 2.2 × 10 kg), where quantum effects are expected to invalidate the predictions of general relativity. This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high - energy process occurring on or near the Earth. However, certain developments in quantum gravity suggest that the Planck mass could be much lower: some braneworld scenarios for example put the boundary as low as 7000100000000000000 ♠ 1 TeV / c. This would make it conceivable for micro black holes to be created in the high - energy collisions that occur when cosmic rays hit the Earth 's atmosphere, or possibly in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. These theories are very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists. Even if micro black holes could be formed, it is expected that they would evaporate in about 10 seconds, posing no threat to the Earth.
Once a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing additional matter. Any black hole will continually absorb gas and interstellar dust from its surroundings and omnipresent cosmic background radiation. This is the primary process through which supermassive black holes seem to have grown. A similar process has been suggested for the formation of intermediate - mass black holes found in globular clusters.
Another possibility for black hole growth, is for a black hole to merge with other objects such as stars or even other black holes. Although not necessary for growth, this is thought to have been important, especially for the early development of supermassive black holes, which could have formed from the coagulation of many smaller objects. The process has also been proposed as the origin of some intermediate - mass black holes.
In 1974, Hawking predicted that black holes are not entirely black but emit small amounts of thermal radiation; this effect has become known as Hawking radiation. By applying quantum field theory to a static black hole background, he determined that a black hole should emit particles that display a perfect black body spectrum. Since Hawking 's publication, many others have verified the result through various approaches. If Hawking 's theory of black hole radiation is correct, then black holes are expected to shrink and evaporate over time as they lose mass by the emission of photons and other particles. The temperature of this thermal spectrum (Hawking temperature) is proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole, which, for a Schwarzschild black hole, is inversely proportional to the mass. Hence, large black holes emit less radiation than small black holes.
A stellar black hole of 1 M has a Hawking temperature of about 100 nanokelvins. This is far less than the 2.7 K temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Stellar - mass or larger black holes receive more mass from the cosmic microwave background than they emit through Hawking radiation and thus will grow instead of shrink. To have a Hawking temperature larger than 2.7 K (and be able to evaporate), a black hole would need a mass less than the Moon. Such a black hole would have a diameter of less than a tenth of a millimeter.
If a black hole is very small, the radiation effects are expected to become very strong. Even a black hole that is heavy compared to a human would evaporate in an instant. A black hole with the mass of a car would have a diameter of about 10 m and take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefly have a luminosity of more than 200 times that of the Sun. Lower - mass black holes are expected to evaporate even faster; for example, a black hole of mass 1 TeV / c would take less than 10 seconds to evaporate completely. For such a small black hole, quantum gravitation effects are expected to play an important role and could hypothetically make such a small black hole stable, although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate so.
The Hawking radiation for an astrophysical black hole is predicted to be very weak and would thus be exceedingly difficult to detect from Earth. A possible exception, however, is the burst of gamma rays emitted in the last stage of the evaporation of primordial black holes. Searches for such flashes have proven unsuccessful and provide stringent limits on the possibility of existence of low mass primordial black holes. NASA 's Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope launched in 2008 will continue the search for these flashes.
By their very nature, black holes do not directly emit any electromagnetic radiation other than the hypothetical Hawking radiation, so astrophysicists searching for black holes must generally rely on indirect observations. For example, a black hole 's existence can sometimes be inferred by observing its gravitational interactions with its surroundings.
The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT), however, run by MIT 's Haystack Observatory, is an attempt to directly observe the immediate environment of the event horizon of Sagittarius A *, the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way, and to produce a silhouetted image of it. The first such image may appear as early as 2018. In 2015, the EHT managed to detect magnetic fields just outside the event horizon of Sagittarius A *, and even discern some of their properties. The existence of magnetic fields had been predicted by theoretical studies of black holes.
On 14 September 2015 the LIGO gravitational wave observatory made the first - ever successful observation of gravitational waves. The signal was consistent with theoretical predictions for the gravitational waves produced by the merger of two black holes: one with about 36 solar masses, and the other around 29 solar masses. This observation provides the most concrete evidence for the existence of black holes to date. For instance, the gravitational wave signal suggests that the separation of the two objects prior to the merger was just 350 km (or roughly 4 times the Schwarzschild radius corresponding to the inferred masses). The objects must therefore have been extremely compact, leaving black holes as the most plausible interpretation.
More importantly, the signal observed by LIGO also included the start of the post-merger ringdown, the signal produced as the newly formed compact object settles down to a stationary state. Arguably, the ringdown is the most direct way of observing a black hole. From the LIGO signal it is possible to extract the frequency and damping time of the dominant mode of the ringdown. From these it is possible to infer the mass and angular momentum of the final object, which match independent predictions from numerical simulations of the merger. The frequency and decay time of the dominant mode are determined by the geometry of the photon sphere. Hence, observation of this mode confirms the presence of a photon sphere, however it can not exclude possible exotic alternatives to black holes that are compact enough to have a photon sphere.
The observation also provides the first observational evidence for the existence of stellar - mass black hole binaries. Furthermore, it is the first observational evidence of stellar - mass black holes weighing 25 solar masses or more.
The proper motions of stars near the center of our own Milky Way provide strong observational evidence that these stars are orbiting a supermassive black hole. Since 1995, astronomers have tracked the motions of 90 stars orbiting an invisible object coincident with the radio source Sagittarius A *. By fitting their motions to Keplerian orbits, the astronomers were able to infer, in 1998, that a 2.6 million M object must be contained in a volume with a radius of 0.02 light - years to cause the motions of those stars. Since then, one of the stars -- called S2 -- has completed a full orbit. From the orbital data, astronomers were able to refine the calculations of the mass to 4.3 million M and a radius of less than 0.002 light years for the object causing the orbital motion of those stars. The upper limit on the object 's size is still too large to test whether it is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius; nevertheless, these observations strongly suggest that the central object is a supermassive black hole as there are no other plausible scenarios for confining so much invisible mass into such a small volume. Additionally, there is some observational evidence that this object might possess an event horizon, a feature unique to black holes.
Due to conservation of angular momentum, gas falling into the gravitational well created by a massive object will typically form a disc - like structure around the object. Artists ' impressions such as the accompanying representation of a black hole with corona commonly depict the black hole as if it were a flat - space material body hiding the part of the disc just behind it, but detailed mathematical modelling shows that the image of the disc would actually be distorted by the bending of light that originated behind the black hole in such a way that the upper side of the disc would be entirely visible, while there would be a partially visible secondary image of the underside of the disk.
Within such a disc, friction would cause angular momentum to be transported outward, allowing matter to fall further inward, thus releasing potential energy and increasing the temperature of the gas.
When the accreting object is a neutron star or a black hole, the gas in the inner accretion disc orbits at very high speeds because of its proximity to the compact object. The resulting friction is so significant that it heats the inner disc to temperatures at which it emits vast amounts of electromagnetic radiation (mainly X-rays). These bright X-ray sources may be detected by telescopes. This process of accretion is one of the most efficient energy - producing processes known; up to 40 % of the rest mass of the accreted material can be emitted as radiation. (In nuclear fusion only about 0.7 % of the rest mass will be emitted as energy.) In many cases, accretion discs are accompanied by relativistic jets that are emitted along the poles, which carry away much of the energy. The mechanism for the creation of these jets is currently not well understood.
As such, many of the universe 's more energetic phenomena have been attributed to the accretion of matter on black holes. In particular, active galactic nuclei and quasars are believed to be the accretion discs of supermassive black holes. Similarly, X-ray binaries are generally accepted to be binary star systems in which one of the two stars is a compact object accreting matter from its companion. It has also been suggested that some ultraluminous X-ray sources may be the accretion disks of intermediate - mass black holes.
In November 2011 the first direct observation of a quasar accretion disk around a supermassive black hole was reported.
X-ray binaries are binary star systems that emit a majority of their radiation in the X-ray part of the spectrum. These X-ray emissions are generally thought to result when one of the stars (compact object) accretes matter from another (regular) star. The presence of an ordinary star in such a system provides a unique opportunity for studying the central object and to determine if it might be a black hole.
If such a system emits signals that can be directly traced back to the compact object, it can not be a black hole. The absence of such a signal does, however, not exclude the possibility that the compact object is a neutron star. By studying the companion star it is often possible to obtain the orbital parameters of the system and to obtain an estimate for the mass of the compact object. If this is much larger than the Tolman -- Oppenheimer -- Volkoff limit (that is, the maximum mass a neutron star can have before it collapses) then the object can not be a neutron star and is generally expected to be a black hole.
The first strong candidate for a black hole, Cygnus X-1, was discovered in this way by Charles Thomas Bolton, Louise Webster and Paul Murdin in 1972. Some doubt, however, remained due to the uncertainties that result from the companion star being much heavier than the candidate black hole. Currently, better candidates for black holes are found in a class of X-ray binaries called soft X-ray transients. In this class of system, the companion star is of relatively low mass allowing for more accurate estimates of the black hole mass. Moreover, these systems are actively emit X-rays for only several months once every 10 -- 50 years. During the period of low X-ray emission (called quiescence), the accretion disc is extremely faint allowing detailed observation of the companion star during this period. One of the best such candidates is V404 Cygni.
The faintness of the accretion disc of an X-ray binary during quiescence is suspected to be caused by the flow of mass entering a mode called an advection - dominated accretion flow (ADAF). In this mode, almost all the energy generated by friction in the disc is swept along with the flow instead of radiated away. If this model is correct, then it forms strong qualitative evidence for the presence of an event horizon, since if the object at the center of the disc had a solid surface, it would emit large amounts of radiation as the highly energetic gas hits the surface, an effect that is observed for neutron stars in a similar state.
The X-ray emissions from accretion disks sometimes flicker at certain frequencies. These signals are called quasi-periodic oscillations and are thought to be caused by material moving along the inner edge of the accretion disk (the innermost stable circular orbit). As such their frequency is linked to the mass of the compact object. They can thus be used as an alternative way to determine the mass of candidate black holes.
Astronomers use the term "active galaxy '' to describe galaxies with unusual characteristics, such as unusual spectral line emission and very strong radio emission. Theoretical and observational studies have shown that the activity in these active galactic nuclei (AGN) may be explained by the presence of supermassive black holes, which can be millions of times more massive than stellar ones. The models of these AGN consist of a central black hole that may be millions or billions of times more massive than the Sun; a disk of gas and dust called an accretion disk; and two jets perpendicular to the accretion disk.
Although supermassive black holes are expected to be found in most AGN, only some galaxies ' nuclei have been more carefully studied in attempts to both identify and measure the actual masses of the central supermassive black hole candidates. Some of the most notable galaxies with supermassive black hole candidates include the Andromeda Galaxy, M32, M87, NGC 3115, NGC 3377, NGC 4258, NGC 4889, NGC 1277, OJ 287, APM 08279 + 5255 and the Sombrero Galaxy.
It is now widely accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy, not just active ones, contains a supermassive black hole. The close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy 's bulge, known as the M - sigma relation, strongly suggests a connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself.
Another way that the black hole nature of an object may be tested in the future is through observation of effects caused by a strong gravitational field in their vicinity. One such effect is gravitational lensing: The deformation of spacetime around a massive object causes light rays to be deflected much as light passing through an optic lens. Observations have been made of weak gravitational lensing, in which light rays are deflected by only a few arcseconds. However, it has never been directly observed for a black hole. One possibility for observing gravitational lensing by a black hole would be to observe stars in orbit around the black hole. There are several candidates for such an observation in orbit around Sagittarius A *.
The evidence for stellar black holes strongly relies on the existence of an upper limit for the mass of a neutron star. The size of this limit heavily depends on the assumptions made about the properties of dense matter. New exotic phases of matter could push up this bound. A phase of free quarks at high density might allow the existence of dense quark stars, and some supersymmetric models predict the existence of Q stars. Some extensions of the standard model posit the existence of preons as fundamental building blocks of quarks and leptons, which could hypothetically form preon stars. These hypothetical models could potentially explain a number of observations of stellar black hole candidates. However, it can be shown from arguments in general relativity that any such object will have a maximum mass.
Since the average density of a black hole inside its Schwarzschild radius is inversely proportional to the square of its mass, supermassive black holes are much less dense than stellar black holes (the average density of a 10 M black hole is comparable to that of water). Consequently, the physics of matter forming a supermassive black hole is much better understood and the possible alternative explanations for supermassive black hole observations are much more mundane. For example, a supermassive black hole could be modelled by a large cluster of very dark objects. However, such alternatives are typically not stable enough to explain the supermassive black hole candidates.
The evidence for the existence of stellar and supermassive black holes implies that in order for black holes to not form, general relativity must fail as a theory of gravity, perhaps due to the onset of quantum mechanical corrections. A much anticipated feature of a theory of quantum gravity is that it will not feature singularities or event horizons and thus black holes would not be real artifacts. In 2002, much attention has been drawn by the fuzzball model in string theory. Based on calculations for specific situations in string theory, the proposal suggests that generically the individual states of a black hole solution do not have an event horizon or singularity, but that for a classical / semi-classical observer the statistical average of such states appears just as an ordinary black hole as deduced from general relativity.
There are a few theoretical objects which would match observations of astronomical black hole candidates identically or near - identically, but which function via a different mechanism. These include the gravastar, the dark - energy star, and the black star (semiclassical gravity).
In 1971, Hawking showed under general conditions that the total area of the event horizons of any collection of classical black holes can never decrease, even if they collide and merge. This result, now known as the second law of black hole mechanics, is remarkably similar to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the total entropy of a system can never decrease. As with classical objects at absolute zero temperature, it was assumed that black holes had zero entropy. If this were the case, the second law of thermodynamics would be violated by entropy - laden matter entering a black hole, resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of the universe. Therefore, Bekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy, and that it should be proportional to its horizon area.
The link with the laws of thermodynamics was further strengthened by Hawking 's discovery that quantum field theory predicts that a black hole radiates blackbody radiation at a constant temperature. This seemingly causes a violation of the second law of black hole mechanics, since the radiation will carry away energy from the black hole causing it to shrink. The radiation, however also carries away entropy, and it can be proven under general assumptions that the sum of the entropy of the matter surrounding a black hole and one quarter of the area of the horizon as measured in Planck units is in fact always increasing. This allows the formulation of the first law of black hole mechanics as an analogue of the first law of thermodynamics, with the mass acting as energy, the surface gravity as temperature and the area as entropy.
One puzzling feature is that the entropy of a black hole scales with its area rather than with its volume, since entropy is normally an extensive quantity that scales linearly with the volume of the system. This odd property led Gerard ' t Hooft and Leonard Susskind to propose the holographic principle, which suggests that anything that happens in a volume of spacetime can be described by data on the boundary of that volume.
Although general relativity can be used to perform a semi-classical calculation of black hole entropy, this situation is theoretically unsatisfying. In statistical mechanics, entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system that have the same macroscopic qualities (such as mass, charge, pressure, etc.). Without a satisfactory theory of quantum gravity, one can not perform such a computation for black holes. Some progress has been made in various approaches to quantum gravity. In 1995, Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa showed that counting the microstates of a specific supersymmetric black hole in string theory reproduced the Bekenstein -- Hawking entropy. Since then, similar results have been reported for different black holes both in string theory and in other approaches to quantum gravity like loop quantum gravity.
Because a black hole has only a few internal parameters, most of the information about the matter that went into forming the black hole is lost. Regardless of the type of matter which goes into a black hole, it appears that only information concerning the total mass, charge, and angular momentum are conserved. As long as black holes were thought to persist forever this information loss is not that problematic, as the information can be thought of as existing inside the black hole, inaccessible from the outside, but represented on the event horizon in accordance with the holograpic principle. However, black holes slowly evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. This radiation does not appear to carry any additional information about the matter that formed the black hole, meaning that this information appears to be gone forever.
The question whether information is truly lost in black holes (the black hole information paradox) has divided the theoretical physics community (see Thorne -- Hawking -- Preskill bet). In quantum mechanics, loss of information corresponds to the violation of vital property called unitarity, which has to do with the conservation of probability. It has been argued that loss of unitarity would also imply violation of conservation of energy. Over recent years evidence has been building that indeed information and unitarity are preserved in a full quantum gravitational treatment of the problem.
According to quantum field theory in curved spacetime, a single emission of Hawking radiation involves two mutually entangled particles. The outgoing particle escapes and is emitted as a quantum of Hawking radiation; the infalling particle is swallowed by the black hole. Assume a black hole formed a finite time in the past and will fully evaporate away in some finite time in the future. Then, it will only emit a finite amount of information encoded within its Hawking radiation. Assume that at time t (\ displaystyle t), more than half of the information had already been emitted. According to widely accepted research by physicists like Don Page and Leonard Susskind, an outgoing particle emitted at time t (\ displaystyle t) must be entangled with all the Hawking radiation the black hole has previously emitted. This creates a paradox: a principle called "monogamy of entanglement '' requires that, like any quantum system, the outgoing particle can not be fully entangled with two independent systems at the same time; yet here the outgoing particle appears to be entangled with both the infalling particle and, independently, with past Hawking radiation.
In order to resolve the paradox, physicists may eventually be forced to give up one of three time - tested theories: Einstein 's equivalence principle, unitarity, or existing quantum field theory. One possible solution, which violates the equivalence principle, is that a "firewall '' destroys incoming particles at the event horizon. A 2016 analysis of LIGO data shows tentative signs of echoes caused by a fuzzy event horizon; such echoes may be possible in firewall or fuzzball theories but should not occur in classical general relativity. Over the next two years, additional LIGO data should establish whether the echoes were just random noise, or whether they are instead evidence of a violation of classical general relativity.
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when does an executive order go into effect | Executive order (United States) - wikipedia
In the United States, an executive order is a directive issued by the President of the United States that manages operations of the federal government, and have the force of law. The legal or constitutional basis for executive orders has multiple sources. Article Two of the United States Constitution gives the president broad executive and enforcement authority to use their discretion to determine how to enforce the law or to otherwise manage the resources and staff of the executive branch. The ability to make such orders is also based on express or implied Acts of Congress that delegate to the President some degree of discretionary power (delegated legislation).
Like both legislative statutes and regulations promulgated by government agencies, executive orders are subject to judicial review and may be overturned if the orders lack support by statute or the Constitution. Major policy initiatives require approval by the legislative branch, but executive orders have significant influence over the internal affairs of government, deciding how and to what degree legislation will be enforced, dealing with emergencies, waging wars, and in general fine - tuning policy choices in the implementation of broad statutes.
The United States Constitution does not have a provision that explicitly permits the use of executive orders. The term executive power in Article II, Section 1, Clause 1 of the Constitution is not entirely clear. The term is mentioned as direction to "take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed '' and is part of Article II, Section 3. The consequence of failing to comply could possibly be removal from office.
The U.S. Supreme Court has held that all executive orders from the President of the United States must be supported by the Constitution, whether from a clause granting specific power, or by Congress delegating such to the executive branch. Specifically, such orders must be rooted in Article II of the US Constitution or enacted by the congress in statutes. Attempts to block such orders have been successful at times when such orders exceeded the authority of the president or could be better handled through legislation.
The Office of the Federal Register is responsible for assigning the executive order a sequential number after receipt of the signed original from the White House and printing the text of the executive order in the daily Federal Register and Title 3 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
With the exception of William Henry Harrison, all presidents beginning with George Washington in 1789 have issued orders that in general terms can be described as executive orders. Initially they took no set form. Consequently, such orders varied as to form and substance.
The first executive order was issued by George Washington on June 8, 1789, addressed to the heads of the federal departments, instructing them "to impress me with a full, precise, and distinct general idea of the affairs of the United States '' in their fields.
The most famous executive order was by President Abraham Lincoln when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. Political scientist Brian R. Dirck states:
The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order, itself a rather unusual thing in those days. Executive orders are simply presidential directives issued to agents of the executive department by its boss.
Until the early 1900s, executive orders went mostly unannounced and undocumented, seen only by the agencies to which they were directed. This changed when the Department of State instituted a numbering scheme in 1907, starting retroactively with United States Executive Order 1 issued on October 20, 1862, by President Abraham Lincoln. The documents that later came to be known as "executive orders '' apparently gained their name from this order issued by Lincoln, which was captioned "Executive Order Establishing a Provisional Court in Louisiana ''. This court functioned during the military occupation of Louisiana during the American Civil War, and Lincoln also used Executive Order 1 to appoint Charles A. Peabody as judge, and to designate the salaries of the court 's officers.
President Truman 's Executive Order 10340 in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 US 579 (1952) placed all steel mills in the country under federal control. This was found invalid because it attempted to make law, rather than clarify or act to further a law put forth by the Congress or the Constitution. Presidents since this decision have generally been careful to cite which specific laws they are acting under when issuing new executive orders. Likewise, when presidents believe their authority for issuing an executive order stems from within the powers outlined in the Constitution, the order will simply proclaim "under the authority vested in me by the Constitution '' instead.
Wars have been fought upon executive order, including the 1999 Kosovo War during Bill Clinton 's second term in office. However, all such wars have had authorizing resolutions from Congress. The extent to which the president may exercise military power independently of Congress and the scope of the War Powers Resolution remain unresolved constitutional issues, although all presidents since its passage have complied with the terms of the resolution while maintaining that they are not constitutionally required to do so.
President Truman issued 907 executive orders, with 1,081 orders by Theodore Roosevelt, 1,203 orders by Calvin Coolidge, and 1,803 orders by Woodrow Wilson. Franklin D. Roosevelt has the distinction of making a record 3,522 executive orders.
Prior to 1932, uncontested executive orders had determined such issues as national mourning on the death of a president, and the lowering of flags to half - staff. President Franklin Roosevelt issued the first of his 3,522 executive orders on March 6, 1933, declaring a bank holiday, forbidding banks to release gold coin or bullion. Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold coin, bullion and gold certificates. A further executive order required all newly mined domestic gold be delivered to the Treasury.
By Executive Order 6581, the president created the Export - Import Bank of the United States. On March 7, 1934, he created the National Industrial Recovery Act (Executive Order 6632). On June 29, the president issued Executive Order 6763 "under the authority vested in me by the Constitution '', thereby creating the National Labor Relations Board.
In 1934, while Charles Evans Hughes was Chief Justice of the United States (in the time period known as the Hughes Court), the Court found that the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was unconstitutional. The president then issued Executive Order 7073 "by virtue of the authority vested in me under the said Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 '', reestablishing the National Emergency Council to administer the functions of the NIRA in carrying out the provisions of the Emergency Relief Appropriations Act. On June 15, he issued Executive Order 7075, which terminated NIRA and replaced it with the Office of Administration of the National Recovery Administration.
In the years that followed, President Roosevelt replaced the outgoing judges with those more in line with his views, ultimately appointing Hugo Black, Stanley Reed, Felix Frankfurter, William O. Douglas, Frank Murphy, Robert H. Jackson and James F. Byrnes to the Court. Historically, only George Washington had equal or greater influence over Supreme Court appointments, choosing all of its original members. Justices Frankfurter, Douglas, Black, and Jackson dramatically checked presidential power by invalidating the executive order at issue in The Steel Seizure Case (i.e., Executive Order 10340). In that case Roosevelt 's successor, President Truman, had ordered private steel production facilities seized in support of the Korean War effort, but the Court held the executive order was not within the power granted to the President by the Constitution.
Large policy changes with wide - ranging effects have been implemented through executive order, including the racial integration of the armed forces under Harry Truman and the desegregation of public schools under Dwight D. Eisenhower.
Two extreme examples of an executive order are Franklin Roosevelt 's Executive Order 6102 "forbidding the hoarding of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates within the continental United States '' and Executive Order 9066, which delegated military authority to remove any or all people in a military zone (used to target Japanese - Americans and German - Americans in certain regions). The order was then delegated to General John L. DeWitt, and subsequently paved the way for all Japanese - Americans on the West Coast to be sent to internment camps for the duration of World War II.
President George W. Bush issued Executive Order 13233 in 2001, which restricted public access to the papers of former presidents. The order was criticized by the Society of American Archivists and other groups, who stated that it "violates both the spirit and letter of existing U.S. law on access to presidential papers as clearly laid down in 44 USC 2201 -- 07 '', and adding that the order "potentially threatens to undermine one of the very foundations of our nation ''. President Barack Obama revoked Executive Order 13233 in January 2009.
The Heritage Foundation has accused presidents of abusing executive orders by using them to make laws without Congressional approval and moving existing laws away from their original mandates.
In 1935, the Supreme Court overturned five of President Franklin Roosevelt 's executive orders (6199, 6204, 6256, 6284, 6855). Executive Order 12954, issued by President Bill Clinton in 1995, attempted to prevent the federal government from contracting with organizations that had strike - breakers on the payroll; a federal appeals court subsequently ruled that the order conflicted with the National Labor Relations Act, and invalidated the order.
Congress has the power to overturn an executive order by passing legislation that invalidates it. Congress can also refuse to provide funding necessary to carry out certain policy measures contained with the order or to legitimize policy mechanisms. In the case of the former, the president retains the power to veto such a decision; however, the Congress may override a veto with a two - thirds majority to end an executive order. It has been argued that a congressional override of an executive order is a nearly impossible event, due to the supermajority vote required and the fact that such a vote leaves individual lawmakers vulnerable to political criticism.
On July 30, 2014, the Republican - led House of Representatives approved a resolution authorizing Speaker of the House John Boehner to sue President Barack Obama over claims that he exceeded his executive authority in changing a key provision of the Affordable Care Act ("Obamacare '') on his own and over what Republicans claimed had been "inadequate enforcement of the health care law '', which Republican lawmakers opposed. In particular, Republicans "objected that the Obama administration delayed some parts of the law, particularly the mandate on employers who do not provide health care coverage ''. The suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia on November 21, 2014.
Part of President Donald Trump 's executive order Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States, which temporarily banned entry to the US from citizens of seven Muslim - majority countries, including for permanent residents, was stayed by a federal court on January 28, 2017.
Executive orders issued by state governors are not the same as statutes passed by state legislatures, but do have the force of law in a similar way to the federal system. State executive orders are usually based on existing constitutional or statutory powers of the governor and do not require any action by the state legislature to take effect.
Executive orders may, for example, demand budget cuts from state government when the state legislature is not in session, and economic conditions take a downturn, thereby decreasing tax revenue below what was forecast when the budget was approved. Depending on the state constitution, a governor may specify what percentage each government agency must reduce by, and may exempt those that are already particularly underfunded, or can not put long - term expenses (such as capital expenditures) off until a later fiscal year. The governor may also call the legislature into special session.
There are also other uses for gubernatorial executive orders. In 2007, for example, George "Sonny '' Perdue, governor of Georgia, issued an executive order for all of its state agencies to reduce water use during a major drought. This was also demanded of its counties ' water systems, however it is unclear whether this order would have the force of law.
According to political expert Phillip J. Cooper, a presidential proclamation "states a condition, declares a law and requires obedience, recognizes an event or triggers the implementation of a law (by recognizing that the circumstances in law have been realized) ''. Presidents define situations or conditions on situations that become legal or economic truth. These orders carry the same force of law as executive orders -- the difference between the two is that executive orders are aimed at those inside government while proclamations are aimed at those outside government.
The administrative weight of these proclamations is upheld because they are often specifically authorized by congressional statute, making them "delegated unilateral powers. '' Presidential proclamations are often dismissed as a practical presidential tool for policy making because of the perception of proclamations as largely ceremonial or symbolic in nature. However, the legal weight of presidential proclamations suggests their importance to presidential governance.
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where is the third runway at heathrow planned | Expansion of Heathrow airport - wikipedia
The expansion of Heathrow Airport has involved several proposals by Heathrow Airport Holdings and an independent proposal by Heathrow Hub, to increase capacity at Heathrow Airport.
In December 2006 the Department for Transport published a progress report on the strategy which confirmed the original vision of expanding the runways. In November 2007 the government started a public consultation on its proposal for a slightly shorter third runway (2,000 metres (2,187 yd)) and a new passenger terminal.
The plan was supported by businesses, the aviation industry, the British Chambers of Commerce, the Confederation of British Industry, the Trades Union Congress and the then Labour government. It was opposed by Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties as opposition parties and then as a coalition government. Boris Johnson, the past Mayor of London, as well as many environmental and local advocacy groups and prominent individuals also opposed the project. While the expansion was originally cancelled on 12 May 2010 by the new coalition government, as of 1 July 2015 the plan has been suggested as the best option by the Airport Commission. On 25 October 2016 a new northwest runway and terminal was approved by the Government. It was opposed by Zac Goldsmith, who resigned as Conservative MP for Richmond Park in protest, and stood in the resulting by - election as an anti-Heathrow expansion candidate. Goldsmith failed to win re-election at the by - election.
In January 2009, the then Transport Secretary Geoff Hoon announced that the UK government supported the expansion of Heathrow by building a third runway (2200m) and sixth terminal building. The government would not undertake construction, but encourage the airport operator (BAA) to apply for planning permission and carry out the work. The government anticipated that the new runway would be operational in 2015 or soon after. In 2009 the government declared that they did not intend that the third runway should be used at full capacity when it is first opened. Initially the extra flights should be limited to 125,000 a year until 2020, rather than the 222,000 at full capacity.
In January 2009, more detailed plans for the third runway were approved together with a sixth terminal and also a major new Heathrow Hub railway station which would provide better high - speed domestic rail links to the Great Western Main Line. Plans for a high - speed rail connection direct to Heathrow were however dropped during 2010.
In March 2010, the route for High Speed 2 was announced which did not include a direct connection with Heathrow, preferring a new station at Old Oak Common to the west of Paddington on the Crossrail route.
On 12 May 2010, the expansion was cancelled by the new coalition government. BAA formally dropped its plans on 24 May 2010. However, London First, a lobby group representing many of London 's businesses and major employers, continue to press the coalition government to rethink their opposition to the expansion of the airport. On 1 July 2015, the Airport Commission recommended the third runway and sixth terminal, with a projected capacity of 740,000 flights per year after construction has ended.
In July 2013, the airport submitted three new proposals for expansion to the Airports Commission, which was established to review airport capacity in the southeast of England. The Airports Commission was chaired by Sir Howard Davies who, at the time of his appointment was in the employ of GIC Private Limited (formerly known as Government Investment Corporation of Singapore) and a member of its International Advisory Board. GIC Private Limited was then (2012), as it remains today, one of Heathrow 's principal owners. Sir Howard Davies resigned these positions upon confirmation of his appointment to lead the Airports Commission, although it has been observed that he failed to identify these interests when invited to complete the Airports Commission 's register of interests. Each of the three proposals that were to be considered by Sir Howard Davies 's commission involved the construction of a third runway, either to the north, northwest or southwest of the airport. The commission released its interim report in December 2013, shortlisting the northwest third runway option at Heathrow, extending an existing runway at Heathrow and a second runway at Gatwick Airport. The full report was published on 1 June 2015, finally confirming the Northwest runway and new sixth terminal as the commission 's chosen proposal. The commission estimated the cost to be around £ 18.6 billion; £ 4 billion higher than Heathrow 's own estimate. The northwest runway and terminal plan was approved by Government on 25 October 2016.
The principal argument stated in favour of expanding Heathrow is to enhance the economic growth of the UK. As the UK 's major hub airport, Heathrow is able to attract many transfer passengers and so is able to support a very wide range of direct flight destinations at high frequencies. It is the world 's second busiest airport based on number of international passengers. The government claims that Heathrow 's connectivity helps London and the South East compete with other European cities for business investment, which in turn produces economic benefits for the rest of the UK. Should Heathrow 's connectivity decline compared to London 's European competitors, the UK would fall behind.
The government 's argument is that Heathrow is on the brink of suffering a decline in connectivity. Heathrow 's runways are now operating at around 99 % capacity, which increases delays when flights are disrupted, and risks competing European airports gaining destinations at Heathrow 's expense. The government estimates that building a third runway would allow Heathrow to increase its connectivity, bringing £ 5.5 bn of economic benefits over 2020 - 2080. However, the British Chambers of Commerce estimated the economic benefits are £ 30 billion for the UK economy over the same time scale and has also stated that for every year the programme is delayed, it costs the UK between £ 900 million and £ 1.1 billion.
Despite the fall in passenger numbers caused by the global recession, supporters of expansion argue that demand will increase again when the recession ends.
Some of the capacity added to Heathrow by the addition of a third runway could be used to re-instate or improve flight connections to UK cities. Several cities have seen their connections to Heathrow reduced or lost over recent years as airlines have reallocated the airport 's limited capacity to more profitable long - haul flights.
It was suggested that a third runway would increase Heathrow 's resilience to disruption, and so reduce emissions from aircraft waiting to land.
Construction was estimated to provide up to 60,000 jobs. Operating the expanded Heathrow was expected to create up to 8,000 new jobs at Heathrow by 2030, with multiplier benefits to West London.
BAA believed that the proposed North South High Speed Rail link joining with Heathrow would funnel more passengers to Heathrow, putting further pressure on capacity and boosting the case for a new landing strip - with increased demand in particular for long haul flights.
The UK 's Brown ministry took the lead in driving forward the expansion of Heathrow. The particular members of that government most closely associated with that drive were the then Prime Minister (Gordon Brown) and past Transport Secretaries Alistair Darling, Ruth Kelly, Geoff Hoon and Lord Adonis. Lord Mandelson, the then Business Secretary, also voiced his support for the scheme.
The majority of the UK Conservative Party leadership including former Chancellor George Osborne was also in favour of expansion.
The stance of both Labour and the Conservatives was broadly supported by a number of groups and prominent individuals:
In May 2007, the British Airports Authority (BAA) and several other companies involved with aviation established Flying Matters to lobby the UK government and generally advocate for the development of the airport following on from a suggestion from Sir Richard Branson of Virgin Atlantic Airways that aviation industry needed to develop a shared solution to climate change. The organisation was created to help demonstrate that the aviation sector was "taking climate change seriously ''. In 2009 Greenpeace acquired and published a detailed confidential report into the group activities and plans which claimed that The Department for Transport was independently approaching Flying Matters for support on key issues on the Climate change bill.
Prior to the 2007 party conferences Flying Matters issued a number of press releases aimed at the conservative party which challenged their opposition to the 3rd runway: "Voters in key marginals shun Conservative proposals for higher taxes on air travel '', "' Green ' holiday tax plan puts Conservatives 6 per cent behind Labour in 30 most important marginals in the Country '', "Families will be priced out of air travel if Heathrow fails to expand '' and "Stopping new runways would cost half a million new UK jobs ''. The objectives outlined in the leaked ' draft Strategy and programme for 2009 - 10 ' later confirmed that the organisation felt that it was "Essential to help establish a foundation from which the Conservatives could amend their position post election ''. The organisation 's budget for 2008 - 2009 was £ 390 thousand.
The aviation sector had close links with political decision makers which many players moving between roles through the controversial ' revolving door '. For example: Joe Irvin was advisor to John Prescott from 1996 and 2001 (Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions as well as Deputy Prime Minister) before working for various element of the aviation lobby and becoming head of corporate affairs at BAA in 2006 before he became ' Special Advisor ' to Gordon Brown in 2007 when he became prime minister. He was succeeded at BAA by Tom Kelly who took the title ' group director of corporate and public affairs '; Kelly had previously been the official spokesman for Tony Blair when he was prime minister.
Freedom to Fly was formed during the preparation phase of the "Future of Aviation white paper 2003 '' by BAA and others It was ' fronted ' by Joe Irvin, a former political adviser to John Prescott who subsequently became Director of Public Affairs at BAA Limited Their director, Dan Hodges, is the son of Glenda Jackson, Labour MP and former Aviation Minister.
Environmental campaigners were concerned that the increased CO emissions caused by the additional flights will contribute to global warming. They argued that the claimed economic benefits would be more than wiped out by the cost of the CO emissions. The government estimated that construction of a third runway would generate an additional 210.8 Mt CO, but only costs this at £ 13.33 per ton of CO (2006 prices), so that the cost over 2020 - 2080 was only £ 2.8 bn. This is a small fraction of the government 's own official estimate of the cost of carbon, which rises from £ 32.90 in 2020 to £ 108.20 in 2080 (in 2007 prices). If these figures are used, the carbon cost of the third runway alone rises to £ 13.3 bn (2006 prices), enough to wipe out the economic benefits. However, the British Chambers of Commerce released a report stating the economic benefits as £ 30 billion over the same time scale, considerably more than the carbon cost of the expansion.
The World Development Movement has claimed that the proposed additional flights from Heathrow 's third runway would emit the same amount of CO per year as the whole of Kenya. However, the then - Transport Secretary Ruth Kelly stated that carbon emissions will not actually rise overall in the environment since carbon trading will be used to ensure that these increases from Heathrow are offset by reductions elsewhere in the economy.
Some 700 homes, a church and eight Grade II - listed buildings would have to be demolished or abandoned, the high street in Harmondsworth split, a graveyard "bulldozed '' and the "entire village of Sipson could disappear ''. John McDonnell, MP for Hayes and Harlington, suggested in 2007 that up to 4,000 houses would actually have to be demolished or abandoned, but aviation minister Jim Fitzpatrick defended the plans, saying anyone evicted from their home as a result of expansion would be fully compensated. BAA has committed to preserving the Grade I - listed parish church and Great Barn at Harmondsworth, and has given assurances that the value of properties affected by a possible third runway will be protected.
Building a third runway at Heathrow would expose hundreds of thousands of residents in London and Berkshire to sustained high levels of aircraft noise for the first time.
There are many advocacy groups, other groups and prominent individuals who are opposed to expansion:
Various methods were proposed and adopted in attempt to halt expansion:
The Conservatives and Liberal Democrats opposed construction and cancelled expansion when elected in the 2010 general election.
In August 2007, the Camp for Climate Action took place within a mile of Heathrow. The camp ran for a week and on its final day some 1000 - 1400 people protested and 200 people blockaded British Airports Authority HQ. Before the camp BAA requested the "mother of all injunctions '' which could have restricted the movements of 5 million people from 15 different organisations, including the RSPB, Greenpeace, the Campaign for the Protection of Rural England, the Woodland Trust, Friends of the Earth, and the National Trust. The injunction would technically have included the Queen; patron of the RSPB and CPRE, Prince Charles; in his position as President of the National Trust, and even some of BAA 's own staff.
In February 2008, five members of Plane Stupid who have resisted expansion throughout the process staged a 2 - hour protest on the roof of the Palace of Westminster (Houses of Parliament) in protest at the close links between BAA and the government. They unfurled two large banners were unfurled which read "BAA HQ '' and "No 3rd runway at Heathrow ''.
In April 2008, Plane Stupid claimed that their group was infiltrated by Toby Kendall, 24, an employee of C2i International. The Times reported that he had gone undercover in the group using the name of "Ken Tobias. '' Airport operator, BAA, who have often been a target of Plane Stupid 's campaign, confirmed to The Times that they had been in contact with C2i International but denied ever hiring the company. C2i offered their clients "The ability to operate effectively and securely in a variety of hostile environments ''. and at the time listed ' aerospace ' at the top of a list of industries for which it worked.
In January 2009, Greenpeace and partners (including actress Emma Thompson and impressionist Alistair McGowan) bought a piece of land on the site of the proposed third runway called Airplot. Their aim is to maximise the opportunities to put legal obstacles in the way of expansion. Although this action is similar to the tactics first employed in the early 1980s by FoE with the ' Alice 's Meadow ' campaign; it differs in that it relies on the concept of multiple beneficial ownership rather than the division of the field into microplots. The field was bought for an undisclosed sum from a local land owner. Also in January, Climate Rush staged a "picnic protest '' at Heathrow airport against the construction of the 3rd runway. Hundreds of people attended the protest, dressed in Edwardian period dress. In the same month the glass doors of the Department for Transport were also broken by members of the organisation.
In March 2009, senior MPs demanded a Commons investigation into evidence of a "revolving door '' policy between Downing Street, Whitehall and BAA Limited (BAA is a major UK airport operator).
Also in March 2009, Plane Stupid protester Leila Deen threw green custard over Business Secretary Lord Mandelson at a low carbon summit hosted by Gordon Brown in protest at the frequent meetings between Roland Rudd, who represents airport operator BAA and Mandelson and other ministers in the run - up to Labour 's decision to go ahead with plans for a third runway at Heathrow.
Hounslow Council are examining the possibility of legal action to prevent expansion, with the support of other London councils and the mayor (Boris Johnson).
In February 2010, The Daily Telegraph reported that the Department for Transport were being investigated by the Information Commissioner 's Office and could face a criminal investigation over allegations that it may have deleted or concealed emails to prevent them from being disclosed under the Freedom of Information Act 2000. The investigation followed a complaint by Justine Greening MP.
In March 2010 campaigners ' won a High Court battle ' when Lord Justice Carnwath ruled that the government 's policy support for a third runway would need to be looked at again and called for a review "of all the relevant policy issues, including the impact of climate change policy ''. The Department for Transport vowed to "robustly defend '' the third runway plan. Following the announcement, Gordon Brown, the prime minister said it was the right decision, that it was "vital not just to our national economy, but enables millions of citizens to keep in touch with their friends and families '' and that the judgement would not change its plans. Shadow transport secretary Theresa Villiers said that the ruling meant "Labour 's flagship transport policies were in complete disarray ''.
The main alternative arguments to Heathrow expansion included greater use of regional airports in the UK to create more capacity in the South East, planned greater use of High Speed 2 which will reduce domestic flights or a whole new airport altogether.
There are six airports in or near London, some of which can achieve a higher capacity with certain expansions. Luton Airport and London Southend Airport have capacity but a runway and terminal expansion would be needed. Expansion of Gatwick Airport has been seriously considered, and London Stansted Airport is also considering expansion, but a new runway would be needed in either case.
Many passengers use London as a transfer point to and from long - distance flights, most of which use Heathrow. Ground transfers between Heathrow and other London airports are generally time consuming (often taking two hours or longer). There is a suggestion to build a railway called Heathwick between Heathrow and Gatwick making transfers between them easier.
The United Kingdom has a number of regional airports, which it had been argued can be utilised further to reduce the airport capacity strain on South East England and benefit the whole of the United Kingdom. The 2003 Aviation White Paper mainly argued that increased use of regional airports would increase airport capacity in South East England - a view that the coalition government which came into in 2010 concurs with. Politicians proposing this plan include Theresa Villiers MP and John Leech MP. Business leaders to back the plan include bosses at Birmingham and Cardiff Airports. The CEO of Manchester Airports Group, the largest British - owned operator of airports and member of the influential Aviation Foundation along with Virgin Atlantic Airways, British Airways and BAA Limited has also proposed greater use of regional airports.
A number of airline bosses expressed their dissatisfaction at the over-emphasis on the South East regarding aviation policy. Laurie Berryman of Emirates Airlines said in 2013 that, "The business community does n't want to come to Heathrow or the South East. They would rather fly long - haul from their local airport. We do hold some rights out of the regions, so I would never say never. One of the things we are keen to say to the Davies Commission, to relieve pressure on the south - east, is why do n't we make all the regional airports completely open skies, so anyone can fly anywhere. Heathrow sits in the south of England, but Manchester has a bigger catchment area in terms of a two - hour drive. '' A number of airlines have filled in the gap where British Airways have left regional airports over the past decade.
' Leakage ' at regional airports - a term used to describe passengers who need to get connecting flights from a regional airport to an international airport was a major issue. The most notable provincial airport is Manchester Airport which is by far the busiest and largest airport outside South East England with two runways. Four million passengers - approximately 20 % of all passengers - need to fly from Manchester to London to get connecting long - haul flights abroad. Likewise, many more millions more fly from other regional airports to connecting flights in London. Advocates argue that flying to international destinations directly from regional airports would immediately create more airport capacity in the South East at a fraction of the cost and time of having a build a new runway or airport. Furthermore, numerous regional airports are under - utilised requiring no immediate expense to take on more passengers. Manchester is the only airport in the United Kingdom other than Heathrow to have two runways and is severely under capacity - Manchester carries 20 million passengers, but has capacity to carry at least 50 million.
Proponents of this idea also suggest the new High Speed 2 network will be vital to the success of regional airports in the future. HS2 will link the three airports of Birmingham, Manchester and East Midlands with London. Furthermore, journey times will be competitive - a journey from London Euston to Birmingham Airport will be less than 50 minutes and approximately 65 minutes to Manchester - in comparison the Heathrow Express service to London Paddington takes 25 minutes. Currently rail links exist from London Euston to Birmingham International which takes approximately 70 minutes, whilst journeys to Manchester take over 2 hours with a change required at Manchester Piccadilly station. It was hoped airlines would create a "north - south hub '' with more flights from Manchester, with passengers who live or work in London being only an hour away from the airport - thus spreading demand to regional airports and creating more international hub capacity in the South East.
Since the 1970s, there have been various proposals to complement or replace Heathrow by a new airport located in the Thames Estuary. This would have the advantage of avoiding flights taking off and landing over London, with all the accompanying noise and pollution, and would also avoid destroying residential areas in west London to expand Heathrow. In November 2008, the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, announced a feasibility study into an airport on an artificial offshore island off the Isle of Sheppey.
Critics pointed variously to the construction costs, the economic impacts on west London, and the likely increase in CO emissions through increasing airport capacity.
Following an election pledge not to build a third runway, Prime Minister David Cameron was keen to implement the Thames Estuary hub. However, airlines spoke out against plans to partially fund the airport with around £ 8 billion in landing charges from Heathrow. An aviation review was set for the end of 2012 and Cameron had advised: "I do understand it is vitally important that we maintain the sort of hub status that Britain has. There are lots of different options that can be looked at. ''
All three main UK parties propose to build a high - speed rail line to the north.
An alternative suggestion to relieve the pressure on Heathrow without building a third runway was made:
Coordinates: 51 ° 29 ′ 18 '' N 0 ° 27 ′ 34 '' W / 51.48833 ° N 0.45944 ° W / 51.48833; - 0.45944
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according to evolutionary theory kin selection is most adaptive in terms of | Kin selection - wikipedia
Kin selection is the evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organism 's relatives, even at a cost to the organism 's own survival and reproduction. Kin altruism is altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection. Kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others, such as siblings.
Charles Darwin discussed the concept of kin selection in his 1859 book, The Origin of Species, where he reflected on the puzzle of sterile social insects, such as honey bees, which leave reproduction to their mothers, arguing that a selection benefit to related organisms (the same "stock '') would allow the evolution of a trait that confers the benefit but destroys an individual at the same time. R.A. Fisher in 1930 and J.B.S. Haldane in 1932 set out the mathematics of kin selection, with Haldane famously joking that he would willingly die for two brothers or eight cousins. In 1964, W.D. Hamilton popularised the concept and the major advance in the mathematical treatment of the phenomenon by George R. Price which has become known as Hamilton 's rule. In the same year John Maynard Smith used the actual term kin selection for the first time.
According to Hamilton 's rule, kin selection causes genes to increase in frequency when the genetic relatedness of a recipient to an actor multiplied by the benefit to the recipient is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor. Hamilton proposed two mechanisms for kin selection. First, kin recognition allows individuals to be able to identify their relatives. Second, in viscous populations, populations in which the movement of organisms from their place of birth is relatively slow, local interactions tend to be among relatives by default. The viscous population mechanism makes kin selection and social cooperation possible in the absence of kin recognition. In this case, nurture kinship, the treatment of individuals as kin as a result of living together, is sufficient for kin selection, given reasonable assumptions about population dispersal rates. Note that kin selection is not the same thing as group selection, where it instead is proposed that natural selection acts on the group as a whole.
In humans, altruism is both more likely and on a larger scale with kin than with unrelated individuals; for example, humans give presents according to how closely related they are to the recipient. In other species, vervet monkeys use allomothering, where related females such as older sisters or grandmothers often care for young, according to their relatedness. The social shrimp Synalpheus regalis protects juveniles within highly related colonies.
Charles Darwin was the first to discuss the concept of kin selection. In The Origin of Species, he wrote clearly about the conundrum represented by altruistic sterile social insects that
This difficulty, though appearing insuperable, is lessened, or, as I believe, disappears, when it is remembered that selection may be applied to the family, as well as to the individual, and may thus gain the desired end. Breeders of cattle wish the flesh and fat to be well marbled together. An animal thus characterised has been slaughtered, but the breeder has gone with confidence to the same stock and has succeeded.
In this passage "the family '' and "stock '' stand for a kin group. These passages and others by Darwin about "kin selection '' are highlighted in D.J. Futuyma 's textbook of reference Evolutionary Biology and in E.O. Wilson 's Sociobiology.
The earliest mathematically formal treatments of kin selection were by R.A. Fisher in 1930 and J.B.S. Haldane in 1932 and 1955. J.B.S. Haldane fully grasped the basic quantities and considerations in kin selection, famously writing "I would lay down my life for two brothers or eight cousins ''. Haldane 's remark alluded to the fact that if an individual loses its life to save two siblings, four nephews, or eight cousins, it is a "fair deal '' in evolutionary terms, as siblings are on average 50 % identical by descent, nephews 25 %, and cousins 12.5 % (in a diploid population that is randomly mating and previously outbred). But Haldane also joked that he would truly die only to save more than a single identical twin of his or more than two full siblings. In 1955 he clarified:
Let us suppose that you carry a rare gene that affects your behaviour so that you jump into a flooded river and save a child, but you have one chance in ten of being drowned, while I do not possess the gene, and stand on the bank and watch the child drown. If the child 's your own child or your brother or sister, there is an even chance that this child will also have this gene, so five genes will be saved in children for one lost in an adult. If you save a grandchild or a nephew, the advantage is only two and a half to one. If you only save a first cousin, the effect is very slight. If you try to save your first cousin once removed the population is more likely to lose this valuable gene than to gain it.... It is clear that genes making for conduct of this kind would only have a chance of spreading in rather small populations when most of the children were fairly near relatives of the man who risked his life.
W.D. Hamilton, in 1963 and especially in 1964 popularised the concept and the more thorough mathematical treatment given to it by George Price.
John Maynard Smith may have coined the actual term "kin selection '' in 1964:
These processes I will call kin selection and group selection respectively. Kin selection has been discussed by Haldane and by Hamilton.... By kin selection I mean the evolution of characteristics which favour the survival of close relatives of the affected individual, by processes which do not require any discontinuities in the population breeding structure.
Kin selection causes changes in gene frequency across generations, driven by interactions between related individuals. This dynamic forms the conceptual basis of the theory of social evolution. Some cases of evolution by natural selection can only be understood by considering how biological relatives influence each other 's fitness. Under natural selection, a gene encoding a trait that enhances the fitness of each individual carrying it should increase in frequency within the population; and conversely, a gene that lowers the individual fitness of its carriers should be eliminated. However, a hypothetical gene that prompts behaviour which enhances the fitness of relatives but lowers that of the individual displaying the behaviour, may nonetheless increase in frequency, because relatives often carry the same gene. According to this principle, the enhanced fitness of relatives can at times more than compensate for the fitness loss incurred by the individuals displaying the behaviour, making kin selection possible. This is a special case of a more general model, "inclusive fitness ''. This analysis has been challenged, Wilson writing that "the foundations of the general theory of inclusive fitness based on the theory of kin selection have crumbled '' and that he now relies instead on the theory of eusociality and "gene - culture co-evolution '' for the underlying mechanics of sociobiology.
"Kin selection '' should not be confused with "group selection '' according to which a genetic trait can become prevalent within a group because it benefits the group as a whole, regardless of any benefit to individual organisms. All known forms of group selection conform to the principle that an individual behaviour can be evolutionarily successful only if the genes responsible for this behaviour conform to Hamilton 's Rule, and hence, on balance and in the aggregate, benefit from the behaviour.
Formally, genes should increase in frequency when
where
This inequality is known as Hamilton 's rule after W.D. Hamilton who in 1964 published the first formal quantitative treatment of kin selection.
The relatedness parameter (r) in Hamilton 's rule was introduced in 1922 by Sewall Wright as a coefficient of relationship that gives the probability that at a random locus, the alleles there will be identical by descent. Subsequent authors, including Hamilton, sometimes reformulate this with a regression, which, unlike probabilities, can be negative. A regression analysis producing statistically significant negative relationships indicates that two individuals are less genetically alike than two random ones (Hamilton 1970, Nature & Grafen 1985 Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology). This has been invoked to explain the evolution of spiteful behaviour consisting of acts that result in harm, or loss of fitness, to both the actor and the recipient.
Several scientific studies have found that the kin selection model can be applied to nature. For example, in 2010 researchers used a wild population of red squirrels in Yukon, Canada to study kin selection in nature. The researchers found that surrogate mothers would adopt related orphaned squirrel pups but not unrelated orphans. The researchers calculated the cost of adoption by measuring a decrease in the survival probability of the entire litter after increasing the litter by one pup, while benefit was measured as the increased chance of survival of the orphan. The degree of relatedness of the orphan and surrogate mother for adoption to occur depended on the number of pups the surrogate mother already had in her nest, as this affected the cost of adoption. The study showed that females always adopted orphans when rB > C, but never adopted when rB < C, providing strong support for Hamilton 's rule.
Altruism occurs where the instigating individual suffers a fitness loss while the receiving individual experiences a fitness gain. The sacrifice of one individual to help another is an example.
Hamilton (1964) outlined two ways in which kin selection altruism could be favoured:
The selective advantage which makes behaviour conditional in the right sense on the discrimination of factors which correlate with the relationship of the individual concerned is therefore obvious. It may be, for instance, that in respect of a certain social action performed towards neighbours indiscriminately, an individual is only just breaking even in terms of inclusive fitness. If he could learn to recognise those of his neighbours who really were close relatives and could devote his beneficial actions to them alone an advantage to inclusive fitness would at once appear. Thus a mutation causing such discriminatory behaviour itself benefits inclusive fitness and would be selected. In fact, the individual may not need to perform any discrimination so sophisticated as we suggest here; a difference in the generosity of his behaviour according to whether the situations evoking it were encountered near to, or far from, his own home might occasion an advantage of a similar kind. '' (1996 (1964), 51)
Kin recognition: First, if individuals have the capacity to recognise kin and to discriminate (positively) on the basis of kinship, then the average relatedness of the recipients of altruism could be high enough for kin selection. Because of the facultative nature of this mechanism, kin recognition and discrimination are expected to be unimportant except among ' higher ' forms of life such as the fish Neolamprologus pulcher (although there is some evidence for it among protozoa). Note also that kin recognition may be selected for inbreeding avoidance, and little evidence indicates that ' innate ' kin recognition plays a role in mediating altruism. A thought experiment on the kin recognition / discrimination distinction is the hypothetical ' green beard ', where a gene for social behaviour is imagined also to cause a distinctive phenotype that can be recognised by other carriers of the gene. Due to conflicting genetic similarity in the rest of the genome, there would be selection pressure for green - beard altruistic sacrifices to be suppressed, making common ancestry the most likely form of inclusive fitness.
Viscous populations: Secondly, even indiscriminate altruism may be favoured in "viscous '' populations with low rates or short ranges of dispersal. Here, social partners are typically genealogically close kin, and so altruism can flourish even in the absence of kin recognition and kin discrimination faculties -- spatial proximity and circumstantial cues serving as a rudimentary form of discrimination. This suggests a rather general explanation for altruism. Directional selection always favours those with higher rates of fecundity within a certain population. Social individuals can often enhance the survival of their own kin by participating in and following the rules of their own group.
Hamilton later modified his thinking to suggest that an innate ability to recognise actual genetic relatedness was unlikely to be the dominant mediating mechanism for kin altruism:
But once again, we do not expect anything describable as an innate kin recognition adaptation, used for social behaviour other than mating, for the reasons already given in the hypothetical case of the trees. (Hamilton 1987, 425)
Hamilton 's later clarifications often go unnoticed, and because of the long - standing assumption that kin selection requires innate powers of kin recognition, some theorists have tried to clarify the position in recent work:
In his original papers on inclusive fitness theory, Hamilton pointed out a sufficiently high relatedness to favour altruistic behaviours could accrue in two ways -- kin discrimination or limited dispersal (Hamilton, 1964, 1971, 1972, 1975). There is a huge theoretical literature on the possible role of limited dispersal reviewed by Platt & Bever (2009) and West et al. (2002a), as well as experimental evolution tests of these models (Diggle et al., 2007; Griffin et al., 2004; Kümmerli et al., 2009). However, despite this, it is still sometimes claimed that kin selection requires kin discrimination (Oates & Wilson, 2001; Silk, 2002). Furthermore, a large number of authors appear to have implicitly or explicitly assumed that kin discrimination is the only mechanism by which altruistic behaviours can be directed towards relatives... (T) here is a huge industry of papers reinventing limited dispersal as an explanation for cooperation. The mistakes in these areas seem to stem from the incorrect assumption that kin selection or indirect fitness benefits require kin discrimination (misconception 5), despite the fact that Hamilton pointed out the potential role of limited dispersal in his earliest papers on inclusive fitness theory (Hamilton, 1964; Hamilton, 1971; Hamilton, 1972; Hamilton, 1975). (West et al. 2010, p. 243 and supplement)
The assumption that kin recognition must be innate, and that cue - based mediation of social cooperation based on limited dispersal and shared developmental context are not sufficient, has obscured significant progress made in applying kin selection and inclusive fitness theory to a wide variety of species, including humans, on the basis of cue - based mediation of social bonding and social behaviours.
Evolutionary psychologists, following early human sociobiologists ' interpretation of kin selection theory initially attempted to explain human altruistic behaviour through kin selection by stating that "behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection. '' However, most Evolutionary psychologists recognise that this common shorthand formulation is inaccurate;
(M) any misunderstandings persist. In many cases, they result from conflating "coefficient of relatedness '' and "proportion of shared genes, '' which is a short step from the intuitively appealing -- but incorrect -- interpretation that "animals tend to be altruistic toward those with whom they share a lot of genes. '' These misunderstandings do n't just crop up occasionally; they are repeated in many writings, including undergraduate psychology textbooks -- most of them in the field of social psychology, within sections describing evolutionary approaches to altruism. (Park 2007, p860)
As with the earlier sociobiological forays into the cross-cultural data, typical approaches are not able to find explanatory fit with the findings of ethnographers insofar that human kinship patterns are not necessarily built upon blood - ties. However, as Hamilton 's later refinements of his theory make clear, it does not simply predict that genetically related individuals will inevitably recognise and engage in positive social behaviours with genetic relatives: rather, indirect context - based mechanisms may have evolved, which in historical environments have met the inclusive fitness criterion (see above section). Consideration of the demographics of the typical evolutionary environment of any species is crucial to understanding the evolution of social behaviours. As Hamilton himself puts it, "Altruistic or selfish acts are only possible when a suitable social object is available. In this sense behaviours are conditional from the start. '' (Hamilton 1987, 420).
Under this perspective, and noting the necessity of a reliable context of interaction being available, the data on how altruism is mediated in social mammals is readily made sense of. In social mammals, primates and humans, altruistic acts that meet the kin selection criterion are typically mediated by circumstantial cues such as shared developmental environment, familiarity and social bonding. That is, it is the context that mediates the development of the bonding process and the expression of the altruistic behaviours, not genetic relatedness per se. This interpretation thus is compatible with the cross-cultural ethnographic data and has been called nurture kinship.
Eusociality (true sociality) is used to describe social systems with three characteristics: an overlap in generations between parents and their offspring, cooperative brood care, and specialised castes of non-reproductive individuals. The social insects provide good examples of organisms with what appear to be kin selected traits. The workers of some species are sterile, a trait that would not occur if individual selection was the only process at work. The relatedness coefficient r is abnormally high between the worker sisters in a colony of Hymenoptera due to haplodiploidy. Hamilton 's rule is presumed to be satisfied because the benefits in fitness for the workers are believed to exceed the costs in terms of lost reproductive opportunity, though this has never been demonstrated empirically. There are competing hypotheses, as well, which may also explain the evolution of social behaviour in such organisms.
In sun - tailed monkey communities, maternal kin (kin related to by mothers) favour each other, but that with relatives more distant than half - siblings, this bias drops significantly.
Alarm calls in ground squirrels appear to confirm kin selection. While calls may alert others of the same species to danger, they draw attention to the caller and expose it to increased risk of predation. The calls occur most frequently when the caller had relatives nearby. Individual male prairie dogs followed through different stages of life modify their rate of calling when closer to kin. These behaviours show that self - sacrifice is directed towards close relatives, and that there is an indirect fitness gain. Surrogate mothers adopt orphaned red squirrels in the wild only when the conditions of Hamilton 's rule were met.
Alan Krakauer of University of California, Berkeley has studied kin selection in the courtship behaviour of wild turkeys. Like a teenager helping her older sister prepare for a party, a subordinate turkey may help his dominant brother put on an impressive team display that is only of direct benefit to the dominant member.
Even certain plants can recognise and respond to kinship ties. Using sea rocket, Susan Dudley at McMaster University, Canada compared the growth patterns of unrelated plants sharing a pot to plants from the same clone. She found that unrelated plants competed for soil nutrients by aggressive root growth. This did not occur with sibling plants.
In the wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), aggregates of spermatozoa form mobile trains, some of the spermatozoa undergo premature acrosome reactions that correlate to improved mobility of the mobile trains towards the female egg for fertilisation. This association is thought to proceed as a result of a "green beard effect '' in which the spermatozoa perform a kin - selective altruistic act after identifying genetic similarity with the surrounding spermatozoa.
Whether or not Hamilton 's rule always applies, relatedness is often important for human altruism, in that humans are inclined to behave more altruistically toward kin than toward unrelated individuals. Many people choose to live near relatives, exchange sizeable gifts with relatives, and favour relatives in wills in proportion to their relatedness.
Interviews of several hundred women in Los Angeles showed that while non-kin friends were willing to help one another, their assistance was far more likely to be reciprocal. The largest amounts of non-reciprocal help, however, were reportedly provided by kin. Additionally, more closely related kin were considered more likely sources of assistance than distant kin. Similarly, several surveys of American college students found that individuals were more likely to incur the cost of assisting kin when a high probability that relatedness and benefit would be greater than cost existed. Participants ' feelings of helpfulness were stronger toward family members than non-kin. Additionally, participants were found to be most willing to help those individuals most closely related to them. Interpersonal relationships between kin in general were more supportive and less Machiavellian than those between non-kin.
In one experiment, the longer participants (from both the UK and the South African Zulus) held a painful skiing position, the more money or food was presented to a given relative. Participants repeated the experiment for individuals of different relatedness (parents and siblings at r =. 5, grandparents, nieces, and nephews at r =. 25, etc.). The results showed that participants held the position for longer intervals the greater the degree of relatedness between themselves and those receiving the reward.
A study of food - sharing practices on the West Caroline islets of Ifaluk determined that food - sharing was more common among people from the same islet, possibly because the degree of relatedness between inhabitants of the same islet would be higher than relatedness between inhabitants of different islets. When food was shared between islets, the distance the sharer was required to travel correlated with the relatedness of the recipient -- a greater distance meant that the recipient needed to be a closer relative. The relatedness of the individual and the potential inclusive fitness benefit needed to outweigh the energy cost of transporting the food over distance.
Humans may use the inheritance of material goods and wealth to maximise their inclusive fitness. By providing close kin with inherited wealth, an individual may improve his or her kin 's reproductive opportunities and thus increase his or her own inclusive fitness even after death. A study of a thousand wills found that the beneficiaries who received the most inheritance were generally those most closely related to the will 's writer. Distant kin received proportionally less inheritance, with the least amount of inheritance going to non-kin.
A study of childcare practices among Canadian women found that respondents with children provide childcare reciprocally with non-kin. The cost of caring for non-kin was balanced by the benefit a woman received -- having her own offspring cared for in return. However, respondents without children were significantly more likely to offer childcare to kin. For individuals without their own offspring, the inclusive fitness benefits of providing care to closely related children might outweigh the time and energy costs of childcare.
Family investment in offspring among black South African households also appears consistent with an inclusive fitness model. A higher degree of relatedness between children and their caregivers frequently correlated with a higher degree of investment in the children, with more food, health care, and clothing being provided. Relatedness between the child and the rest of the household also positively associated with the regularity of a child 's visits to local medical practitioners and with the highest grade the child had completed in school. Additionally, relatedness negatively associated with a child 's being behind in school for his or her age.
Observation of the Dolgan hunter - gatherers of northern Russia suggested that, while reciprocal food - sharing occurs between both kin and non-kin, there are larger and more frequent asymmetrical transfers of food to kin. Kin are also more likely to be welcomed to non-reciprocal meals, while non-kin are discouraged from attending. Finally, even when reciprocal food - sharing occurs between families, these families are often very closely related, and the primary beneficiaries are the offspring.
Other research indicates that violence in families is more likely to occur when step - parents are present and that "genetic relationship is associated with a softening of conflict, and people 's evident valuations of themselves and of others are systematically related to the parties ' reproductive values ''.
Numerous other studies suggest how inclusive fitness may work amongst different peoples, such as the Ye'kwana of southern Venezuela, the Gypsies of Hungary, and the doomed Donner Party of the United States.
Vervet monkeys display kin selection between siblings, mothers and offspring, and grandparent - grandchild. These monkeys utilise allomothering, where the allomother is typically an older female sibling or a grandmother. Other studies have shown that individuals will act aggressively toward other individuals that were aggressive toward their relatives.
Synalpheus regalis is a eusocial shrimp that protects juveniles in the colony. By defending the young, the large defender shrimp can increase its inclusive fitness. Allozyme data revealed that relatedness within colonies is high, averaging 0.50, indicating that colonies in this species represent close kin groups.
The theory of kin selection has been criticised by Alonso in 1998 and by Alonso and Schuck - Paim in 2002. Alonso and Schuck - Paim argue that the behaviours which kin selection attempts to explain are not altruistic (in pure Darwinian terms) because: (1) they may directly favour the performer as an individual aiming to maximise its progeny (so the behaviours can be explained as ordinary individual selection); (2) these behaviours benefit the group (so they can be explained as group selection); or (3) they are by - products of a developmental system of many "individuals '' performing different tasks (like a colony of bees, or the cells of multicellular organisms, which are the focus of selection). They also argue that the genes involved in sex ratio conflicts could be treated as "parasites '' of (already established) social colonies, not as their "promoters '', and, therefore the sex ratio in colonies would be irrelevant to the transition to eusociality. Those ideas were mostly ignored until they were put forward again in a series of papers by E.O. Wilson, Bert Hölldobler, Martin Nowak and others. Nowak, Tarnita and Wilson argued that
Inclusive fitness theory is not a simplification over the standard approach. It is an alternative accounting method, but one that works only in a very limited domain. Whenever inclusive fitness does work, the results are identical to those of the standard approach. Inclusive fitness theory is an unnecessary detour, which does not provide additional insight or information.
They, like Alonso (1998) and Alonso and Schuck - Paim (2002) earlier, argue for a multi-level selection model instead. This aroused a strong response, including a rebuttal published in Nature from over a hundred researchers.
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where did the term penny loafer come from | Slip - on shoe - wikipedia
Slip - ons are typically low, lace-less shoes. The style most commonly seen, known as a loafer or slippers in American culture, has a moccasin construction. One of the first designs was introduced in London by Wildsmith Shoes, called the Wildsmith Loafer. They began as casual shoes, but have increased in popularity to the point of being worn in America with city lounge suits. Another design was introduced as Aurlandskoen (the Aurland Shoe) in Norway (early 20th century). They are worn in many situations in a variety of colours and designs, often featuring tassels on the front, or metal decorations (the ' Gucci ' loafer).
A less casual, earlier type of slip - on is made with side gussets (sometimes called a dress loafer). Made in the same shape as lace - up Oxfords, but lacking the laces, these shoes have elasticated inserts on the side which allow the shoe to be easily removed but remain snug when worn. This cut has its greatest popularity in Britain.
A bespoke shoe company based in London that was established in 1847 developed the first loafer as a country house shoe for the landed gentry and the royal family. The "Wildsmith Loafer '' made by Raymond Lewis Wildsmith of Wildsmith Shoes, was designed for King George VI as a casual house shoe. The shoe has subsequently been marketed and sold by other London shoe firms and dubbed "the Harrow ''.
Shoemaker Nils Gregoriusson Tveranger (1874 -- 1953) in Aurland, Norway, introduced his first design around 1908. Tveranger obtained protection for the design. N. Tveranger obtained a diploma at the Bergen exhibition in 1910 for his "Aurland shoe ''. The first Aurland shoes were also made with laces and a decorative upper side similar to the brogue shoe. Colors were natural, only around 1960 they wer. painted black At age 13 Tveranger went to North America where he learned the craft of shoemaking and returned to Norway age 20. Around 1930, Tveranger introduced a new design called the "Aurland moccasin '', later renamed the "Aurland shoe ''. This design resembles the moccasins used by the Iroquois as well as the design of moccasin - like shoes traditionally worn by locals in Aurland. These traditional shoes resembled slippers and were useful outdoor in fine weather. In 1936 the local shoe handcraft in Aurland was described as a "very old industry '' and shoes were sold in large numbers to foreign visitors. A 1953 catalogue listed about 10 shoe factories in the small village of Aurland. When exported the USA the Aurland shoes were called "Norwegian Moccasins ''. The Norwegians began exporting them to the rest of Europe, where they were taken up by visiting Americans, and championed by the American Esquire magazine. Some photographs included with the Esquire feature were of Norwegian farmers in a cattle loafing area. The Spaulding family in New Hampshire started making shoes based on this design in the early 1930s, naming them loafers, a general term for slip - on shoes which is still in use in America. In 1934, G.H. Bass (a bootmaker in Wilton, Maine) started making loafers under the name Weejuns (sounding like Norwegians). The distinctive addition was a strip of leather across the saddle with a diamond cut - out. Initially only worn in the summer at home, the shoe grew in popularity in America to become a significant part of men 's casual shoe wardrobe; in Europe the style has never reached the same degree of ubiquity.
The term penny loafer has uncertain beginnings. One explanation is when American prep school students in the 1950s, wishing to make a fashion statement, took to inserting a penny into the diamond - shaped slit on their Weejuns. Another theory is that two pennies could be slipped into the slit, enough money to make an emergency phone call in the 1930s. Either way, the name penny loafer came to be applied to this style of slip - on and has since stuck. The practice continues, especially among those who remain committed to a classic and refined but still scholarly appearance, such as lawyers.
In the mid-1950s, further continental influences brought a more elegant image to light, lower - cut slip - ons, which moved from purely casual use to being paired with suits in the 1960s (but still only in America). In 1966, Italian designer Gucci made the further step of adding a metal strap across the front in the shape of a horse 's snaffle bit. These Gucci loafers (now a general term referring to shoes of this style by any manufacturer) also spread over the Atlantic and were worn by 1970s businessmen, becoming almost a Wall Street uniform, reaching widespread use by the 1980s.
At the start of the twenty - first century, a revival of penny loafers, whose popularity had peaked during the mid to late 1960s and again during the early 1980s to early 1990s, occurred, with the shoe appearing in a more rugged version, closer to the original concept, as either moccasins, or espadrilles, both of these styles being very low or flat without heels. This resurgence was most noticeable at college campuses across America.
Another variation on the basic style is the tassel loafer, which emerged in the 1950s. Again, though casual, their gradual acceptance among the American East Coast prep school culture as equivalent to brogues (wingtips), has led to them being worn there with suits, where they gained an association with business and legal classes.
In America and some European countries, such as Italy, the loafer enjoys general use as a casual and informal shoe worn for work and leisure, though lace - ups are still preferred for more formal situations. The general popularity of brown over black extends to loafers, sometimes using exotic leathers such as suede and cordovan. Since the late 1990s, socks have been optional while wearing loafers.
Though originally men 's shoes, some styles of loafers, such as casual tassel and penny loafers, are also worn by women. Women 's loafers tend to have shorter toes and are worn with a variety of outfits from shorts, jeans, slacks, and capris to dresses and skirts.
In an evolution entirely different than the loafer, Chelsea boots were invented by J. Sparkes Hall for Queen Victoria in 1836. The stretchable rubber produces a comfortable shoe combining the convenience of laceless shoes with the profile of lace - ups. Its feminine image was soon lost, and was dubbed Congress gaiter and Boston boot in America. Rare even in Britain, its country of origin, it is still the only style of slip - on worn with a suit in some of the highly conservative working environments in the City of London. With such a background, their use mimics that of Oxfords, so they are worn in brown with broguing as a country shoe, or in plainer, black styles with suits.
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who did the cavs trade for kyle korver | Kyle Korver - wikipedia
Kyle Elliot Korver (born March 17, 1981) is an American professional basketball player for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Creighton Bluejays and was drafted in the second round of the 2003 NBA draft by the New Jersey Nets. Korver was named an NBA All - Star while with the Atlanta Hawks in 2015. He set an NBA record in the 2009 -- 10 season when he made 53.6 % of his three - point field goal attempts.
Korver was born in Paramount, California, and is the oldest of four children of Kevin Korver, a pastor for the Third Reformed Church in Pella, Iowa, and Laine Korver, both of whom played basketball at Central College in Pella. His grandfather, Harold Korver, is also a pastor at the Immanuel Reformed Church in Paramount, California. He grew up in the Los Angeles area and was a Los Angeles Lakers fan as a child. Watching Magic Johnson, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, and the Showtime Lakers instilled a love of basketball in Korver that made him want to pursue it himself. He moved to Iowa in 1993 when his father accepted his current pastoral position and graduated from Pella High School. In 2018, he and his three brothers were still in the top 10 in both career scoring and rebounding at Pella High.
As a freshman at Creighton, Korver was named to the MVC All - Bench, All - Freshman and All - Newcomer teams after he averaged 8.8 points per game while hitting 43.4 percent from three - point range and 89.5 percent at the free - throw line.
As a sophomore, Korver earned All - MVC second team honors while leading the conference tournament champion Bluejays with 14.6 points per game. He was also named to the MVC All - Tournament team.
As a junior, Korver led the Bluejays to both the Missouri Valley Conference regular season and conference tournament championships. He was then named MVC Player of the Year and an honorable mention All - American. As a senior, Korver again earned MVC Player of the Year and first team All - MVC honors. He was also a consensus second - team All - American and a finalist for the Wooden, Naismith, and Oscar Robertson awards.
Korver finished his career at Creighton fourth all - time in scoring (1,801) and first in three - pointers made (371), three - point percentage (45.3), and free - throw percentage (89.1). His 371 career made three - pointers is an MVC record and tied for sixth most in NCAA history. Korver also holds Creighton single - season records for three - pointers made (129), three - point percentage (. 480), and free - throw percentage (. 908).
Korver graduated with a bachelor 's degree in visual communications.
Korver was selected with the 51st overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft by the New Jersey Nets. His draft rights were traded later that night to the Philadelphia 76ers for $125,000. On August 8, 2003, he signed a two - year deal with the 76ers. Korver finished his rookie season averaging 4.1 points in 11.9 minutes per game.
Korver finished the 2004 -- 05 season tied for the NBA league leader in three - pointers made with 226, which also marked a 76ers franchise record.
On August 2, 2005, Korver re-signed with the 76ers to a six - year, $25 million contract. Korver scored a career - high 31 points against the Milwaukee Bucks on February 24, 2006, and duplicated that performance on February 21, 2007 against the New York Knicks. He averaged a career - high 14.4 points per game during the 2006 -- 07 season, and led the NBA in free - throw percentage with 91.4 percent.
On December 29, 2007, Korver was traded to the Utah Jazz in exchange for Gordan Giriček and a future first - round draft pick.
Korver spent two and a half seasons in Utah, mostly coming off the bench as the team 's sixth man. Korver finished the 2009 -- 10 season hitting 53.6 percent of his three - point shots to secure the NBA 's single - season accuracy record. He drilled 59 - of - 110 three - pointers, edging the record percentage of. 524 that Steve Kerr set in 1994 -- 95. Korver played in just 52 games for the Jazz in 2009 -- 10, but his spot - on shooting surged after he finally returned fully healthy after the All - Star break, having struggled with wrist and knee issues following surgeries to both in 2009.
On July 13, 2010, Korver signed with the Chicago Bulls. In 2010 -- 11, Korver, for the third time in his career, appeared in 82 games (all coming off the bench), and averaged 8.3 points, 1.8 rebounds and 1.5 assists in 20.1 minutes (. 434 FG %,. 415 3FG %,. 885 FT %). The Bulls finished first in the Eastern Conference in 2011, and advanced to the Conference Finals where they were defeated by the Miami Heat 4 -- 1.
On March 10, 2012, Korver arguably had his best game as a Bull, recording 26 points, 7 rebounds and 6 assists in a 111 -- 97 win over his former team, the Utah Jazz.
On July 16, 2012, Korver was traded to the Atlanta Hawks in exchange for cash considerations. In 2012 -- 13, he averaged 10.9 points in 30.5 minutes per game, while recording percentages of. 461 FG %,. 457 3FG %, and. 859 FT %. He finished second in the NBA in three - point percentage and fourth in three - point field goals made with 189. He made at least one three - pointer in his final 73 games of the season, the longest active streak in the NBA at the time, a career - best and the fourth longest streak in league history (Dana Barros 89, Michael Adams 79, Dennis Scott 78). In addition, his 189 made threes was the fourth - best single season total in franchise history.
On July 12, 2013, Korver re-signed with the Hawks to a four - year, $24 million contract. On December 6, 2013, Korver passed the NBA record for most consecutive games with a made three - pointer (90) originally set by Dana Barros (89). The streak eventually ended at 127 games on March 5, 2014. Korver finished the 2013 -- 14 season with a 47.2 percent three - point shooting percentage which led the NBA.
On December 15, 2014, Korver passed Jason Richardson for 15th all - time in three - pointers made. Five days later, in the Hawks ' 104 -- 97 win over the Houston Rockets, Korver scored a game - high 22 points and made all four of his free - throw attempts. This gave him 49 consecutive made free - throws on the season to set a new Hawks franchise record. The streak ended at 50 in the Hawks ' next game against the Dallas Mavericks. On February 10, 2015, Korver received his first NBA All - Star selection as a reserve for the Eastern Conference in the 2015 NBA All - Star Game, replacing the injured Dwyane Wade. At 33 years and 11 months old, he became the fourth - oldest first - time All - Star. On March 11, in a loss to the Denver Nuggets, Korver passed Kobe Bryant for 12th on the all - time three - pointers made list. Four days later, in a win over the Los Angeles Lakers, Korver left the game with a broken nose after taking an offensive foul from Ed Davis with 8: 59 left in the first half. The injury ended a streak of 51 consecutive games with a three - pointer by Korver, who missed both of his shots from behind the arc. After missing three games with the injury, he returned to action on March 22 against the San Antonio Spurs with protective gear on his face to cover the nose. Despite having the mask, on March 31, 2015 against the Milwaukee Bucks, Korver made four straight long - range shots, including three 3 - pointers, in a 65 - second span.
On April 29, 2015, Korver was named the recipient of the Joe Dumars Trophy for winning the 2014 -- 15 NBA Sportsmanship Award. During the 2015 playoffs, Korver suffered a right ankle sprain playing against the Cleveland Cavaliers on May 22 in the Eastern Conference Finals. The following day, he was ruled out for the rest of the playoffs.
On November 6, 2015, Korver scored 22 points, hitting all eight of his shots, including four from three - point range, as the Hawks won their sixth straight with a 121 -- 115 victory over the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 26, in a win over the New York Knicks, Korver hit one three - pointer and passed Rashard Lewis for ninth place on the all - time list for three - pointers made. However, his late December shooting slump marked one of the worst shooting stretches of his career. In four games between December 23 -- 29, Korver shot 5 - of - 33 from the field and a woeful 2 - of - 27 from three - point range. Korver continued to struggle with his shot in January, missing all six of his shots on January 31 against the Miami Heat, marking just the third time in his career that he went 0 - of - 6 or worse as a starter. Over 47 games to begin the season, his 42 % field goal shooting was the worst it had been since the 2004 -- 05 season, and his 37 % three - point shooting was a career - low success rate.
On December 16, 2016, Korver scored a season - high 19 points and hit a season - high six three - pointers in a 125 -- 121 win over the Toronto Raptors. The win gave the Hawks a 13 -- 13 record after 26 games; they began the season 9 -- 2. He set a new season high on December 30, scoring 22 points in 29 minutes off the bench in a 105 -- 98 win over the Detroit Pistons.
On January 7, 2017, Korver was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for Mike Dunleavy, Mo Williams, cash considerations and a protected future first round draft pick. He made his debut for the Cavaliers three days later, recording two points and three rebounds in 17 minutes off the bench in a 100 -- 92 loss to the Utah Jazz. Korver went 2 - of - 10 over his first two games for the Cavaliers, with both games resulting in losses. On January 13, he scored 18 points off the bench to help the Cavaliers defeat the Sacramento Kings 120 -- 108. On February 1, he had his best game as a Cavalier, scoring 20 points off the bench on 8 - of - 11 from the field with four three - pointers in a 125 -- 97 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. On February 8, Korver scored a season - high 29 points on 10 - of - 12 from the field and 8 - of - 9 from the three - point line in a 132 -- 117 win over the Indiana Pacers. He subsequently passed Jason Kidd (1,988) for seventh on the all - time three - pointers made list. A week later, on February 15, also against the Pacers, Korver became the seventh player in NBA history to make 2,000 career three - pointers, joining Ray Allen, Reggie Miller, Jason Terry, Paul Pierce, Vince Carter, and Jamal Crawford. On April 4, 2017, he returned after missing 11 games with a sore left foot and scored 11 points in 12 minutes in a 122 -- 102 win over the Orlando Magic. Korver helped the Cavaliers go 12 -- 1 over the first three rounds of the playoffs to reach the 2017 NBA Finals. There they faced the Golden State Warriors and were defeated in five games.
On July 12, 2017, Korver re-signed with the Cavaliers. On November 13, 2017, he scored 19 of his 21 points in the fourth quarter to spark a huge comeback for the Cavaliers, lifting them to a 104 -- 101 win over the New York Knicks after they outscored New York 43 -- 25 in the fourth. On January 6, 2018, in a 131 -- 127 win over the Orlando Magic, Korver tied Paul Pierce for fourth place on the career 3 - pointers list with 2,143. Two days later, he hit four 3 - pointers and had 19 points off the bench in a 127 -- 99 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves, passing Pierce for fourth place on the NBA 's all - time list in 3 - pointers made with 2,147. On February 9, 2018, he scored a season - high 30 points in a 123 -- 107 win over the Atlanta Hawks. He made 7 of 13 from 3 - point range and finished two points from matching his career high of 32. It was his first 30 - point game since February 21, 2007. Korver went 794 games between 30 - point games, marking the longest stretch between 30 - point games in NBA history. The Cavaliers returned to the NBA Finals in 2018, where they lost 4 -- 0 to the Warriors.
Korver has three brothers, Klayton, Kaleb and Kirk (1990 -- 2018), all of whom have played Division I basketball. Klayton was a guard / forward for the Drake Bulldogs; Kaleb was a guard for the Creighton Bluejays; and Kirk played forward for the UMKC Kangaroos. His mother Laine played high - school basketball and once scored 74 points in a game. Korver 's father, Kevin, is a pastor in Pella, Iowa. Korver 's uncle, Kris Korver, is the head basketball coach at Northwestern College in Orange City, Iowa. His cousin Kari Korver is a former UCLA women 's basketball player.
Korver married Juliet Richardson on August 10, 2011. Their daughter, Kyra Elyse, was born on December 5, 2012. His wife delivered their first boy, Knox Elliot, on October 4, 2014. Their second son, Koen, was born on November 7, 2016.
Korver has his own charitable foundation, called the "Kyle Korver Foundation '', which contributes to many philanthropic causes. He held a coat drive while with the 76ers, where he collected and donated coats to kids in need. Korver added a new line of clothing called "Seer Outfitters '' that is connected with his foundation KKF to help the underprivileged children. In 2013, he started an annual sock drive in October called the "Socktober Drive '' in which he collects socks to donate to homeless people in Atlanta. Korver has also participated in the NBA 's Basketball Without Borders outreach program in Africa, China, Brazil, and India.
In March 2018, Korver took a leave of absence from the Cavaliers when his brother, Kirk, died at age 27 of an illness.
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what year did michael jordan come out of retirement | Michael Jordan - wikipedia
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials, MJ, is an American former professional basketball player. He played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards. His biography on the official NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. '' Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s. He is currently the principal owner and chairman of the NBA 's Charlotte Hornets.
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star and entertained crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in Slam Dunk Contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three - peat ''. Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 NBA season and started a new career playing minor league baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then - record 72 regular - season wins in the 1995 -- 96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards.
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include six NBA Finals Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten scoring titles (both all - time records), five MVP Awards, ten All - NBA First Team designations, nine All - Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All - Star Game selections, three All - Star Game MVP Awards, three steals titles, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. He holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press ' list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two - time inductee into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team ''). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015.
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1984 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred as himself in the 1996 film Space Jam. In 2006, he became part - owner and head of basketball operations for the Charlotte Bobcats; he bought a controlling interest in 2010. In 2014, Jordan became the first billionaire player in NBA history. He is the third - richest African - American, behind Robert F. Smith and Oprah Winfrey.
Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler.
Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army.
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11 '' (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team.
Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity team, and tallied several 40 - point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald 's All - American Team after averaging a triple - double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists.
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina, where he majored in cultural geography.
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team - oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4 % shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game - winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0 % shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All - American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie 's injury - laden college career, named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986. He graduated the same year with a Bachelor of Arts degree in geography.
During his rookie season with the Bulls, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5 % shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born '' just over a month into his professional career. The fans also voted in Jordan as an All - Star starter during his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All - Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players -- led by Isiah Thomas -- were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so - called "freeze - out '' on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38 -- 44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.
Jordan 's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 -- 52 record (at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history), the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985 -- 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still - unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series.
Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986 -- 87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2 % shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan 's success, Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics.
Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987 -- 88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50 -- 32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys ''.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8 % shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47 -- 35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules '' method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.
The Bulls entered the 1989 -- 90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6 % shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 -- 27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9 % shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All - Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four - game sweep.
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled a 15 -- 2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56 % shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy.
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 -- 92 season, establishing a 67 -- 15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990 -- 91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52 % shooting. After winning a physical 7 - game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic -- Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air '' Jordan and Clyde "The Glide '' during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals - record 35 points in the first half, including a record - setting six three - point field goals. After the sixth three - pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I ca n't believe I 'm doing this. '' The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53 % from the floor.
In the 1992 -- 93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign and finishing second in Defensive Player of the Year voting, Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game - winning shot by John Paxson and a last - second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader. He averaged a Finals - record 41.0 ppg during the six - game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven - year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. In that same year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah. '' When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No. ''
On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father three months earlier also shaped his decision. Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked his luxury Lexus bearing the license plate "UNC 0023 ''. His body was dumped in a South Carolina swamp and was not discovered until August 3. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan 's cell phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever - growing celebrity status. Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.
In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double - A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting. 202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting. 252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, the Bulls achieved a 55 -- 27 record without Jordan in the lineup, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. The 1994 -- 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31 -- 31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the Bulls.
In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two - word press release: "I 'm back. '' The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball.
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game - winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan 's comeback, the Bulls went 13 -- 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game - winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "did n't look like the old Michael Jordan '' and that "No. 45 does n't explode like No. 23 used to. ''
Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would immediately resume wearing his former number, 23. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white sneakers when the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in 6 games.
Jordan was freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, and he trained aggressively for the 1995 -- 96 season. The Bulls were strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, and the team dominated the league, starting the season at 41 -- 3. The Bulls eventually finished with the then - best regular season record in NBA history, 72 -- 10; this record was later surpassed by the 2015 -- 16 Golden State Warriors. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg and won the league 's regular season and All - Star Game MVP awards.
In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3 -- 0, New York Knicks 4 -- 1, Orlando Magic 4 -- 0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 -- 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All - Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969 -- 70 season. Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder, and it was won on Father 's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls started out 69 -- 11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer - beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game '', Jordan scored 38 points, including the game - deciding 3 - pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90 -- 88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All - Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All - Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award.
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 -- 20 record in the 1997 -- 98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular - season MVP award, plus honors for All - NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All - Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven - game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3 -- 2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86 -- 83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86 -- 85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan gave Chicago an 87 -- 86 lead with a game - winning jumper, the climactic shot of his Bulls career. Afterwards, John Stockton missed a game - winning three - pointer. Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three - peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner - induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and president of basketball operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9 % certain '' that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation - only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.
On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an injury - plagued 2001 -- 02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 -- 95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9 % from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All - Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul - Jabbar as the all - time leading scorer in All - Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45 % from the field, and 82 % from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40 - year - old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most - watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown.
With the recognition that 2002 -- 03 would be Jordan 's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at the United Center in Chicago, which was his old home court, Jordan received a four - minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All - Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure.
Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003, in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75 -- 56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike! '' After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2: 35 remaining. At 1: 45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in - bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three - minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials, and the crowd of 21,257 fans.
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal - winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.
In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star - studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team ''. Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals.
After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip '' Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as the team 's president of basketball operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he had known he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.
Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed - course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team 's second - largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations. '' Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part - owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.
In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league 's only African - American majority owner of an NBA team.
During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players ' share of basketball - related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then - owner Abe Pollin, "If you ca n't make a profit, you should sell your team. '' Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout '' wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence. '' He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.
During the 2011 -- 12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7 -- 59 record. Their. 106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It 's very, very frustrating '', Jordan said later that year.
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash - talk and well - known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough '' to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 -- 87 to 2001 -- 02, when he injured his right knee. He played all 82 games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause '' written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.
Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth - highest total of all time. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away '' from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish '' player early in his career, Jordan 's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30 % from three - point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career - low 13 % in the 1987 -- 88 season, Jordan improved to a career - high 50 % in the 1994 -- 95 season. The three - point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994 -- 95 to 1996 -- 97, when the NBA shortened its three - point line to 22 ft (6.7 m) (from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m)). His three - point field - goal percentages ranged from 35 % to 43 % in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three - pointers between 1989 -- 90 and 1996 -- 97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game).
In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball - thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 - inch (69 cm) television clearly from about 50 feet (15 m) away.
Jordan 's talent was clear from his first NBA season. Larry Bird said that he had "never seen anyone like him '', that he was "one of a kind '', and that Jordan was the best player he had ever seen and comparable to Wayne Gretzky as an athlete. In Jordan 's first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, he received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan ''.
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All - Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals - winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs; he would always ask for the ball at crunch time. Jordan 's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second - highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fourth on the NBA 's all - time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Kobe Bryant.
With five regular - season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell -- only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All - Star Game MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated player in NBA history. Jordan finished among the top three in regular - season MVP voting 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA 's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All - Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.
-- Magic Johnson
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries have said that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press ' December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication 's 50th - anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back - to - back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many people with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA players -- including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade -- have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while they were growing up. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next - generation players "the next Michael Jordan '' upon their entry to the NBA, including Penny Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well - rounded player, his "Air Jordan '' image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented.
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan. Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking. That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all - around game, but it was never really publicized.
During his heyday, Jordan did much to increase the status of the game, but the popularity of the NBA in the U.S. appears to have declined since his last title. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league, and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship - winning season.
In August 2009, the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team ''. The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in minor league baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, when he was growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. In September, he was inducted into the Hall with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan 's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech -- when he began to cry -- was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later go viral on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably ''. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $204 million in 2017), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.
In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square - foot (5,200 m) mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. His two sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school.
On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban - American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda - by - the - Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca - Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald 's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike '' commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.
Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that "it 's got ta be the shoes ''. The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe - jackings '' where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand ''. The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cal, Georgetown, and Marquette.
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's "Jam '' (1992).
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does '' and that "marketing-wise, he 's great. He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan. ' ''
In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89.5 %. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014. In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball.
Forbes designated Jordan as the athlete with the highest career earnings in 2017. From his Jordan Brand income and endorsements, Jordan 's 2015 income was an estimated $110 million, the most of any retired athlete. As of August 2018, his current net worth is estimated at $1.7 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third - richest African - American as of 2018, behind Robert F. Smith and Oprah Winfrey.
Jordan co-owns an automotive group which bears his name. The company has a Nissan dealership in Durham, North Carolina, acquired in 1990, and formerly had a Lincoln -- Mercury dealership from 1995 until its closure in June 2009. The company also owned a Nissan franchise in Glen Burnie, Maryland. The restaurant industry is another business interest of Jordan 's. His restaurants include a steakhouse in New York City 's Grand Central Terminal, among others.
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when did immigration laws begin in the united states | List of United States immigration laws - Wikipedia
A number of major laws and court decisions relating to immigration procedures and enforcement have been enacted for the United States.
Naturalization Act (officially An Act to Establish a Uniform Rule of Naturalization; ch. 54, 1 Stat. 566)
Alien Friends Act (officially An Act Concerning Aliens; ch. 58, 1 Stat. 570)
Alien Enemies Act (officially An Act Respecting Alien Enemies; ch. 66, 1 Stat. 577)
Several years later, in the wake of the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, a number of Chinese immigrants who were otherwise subject to the Chinese Exclusion Act were nonetheless able to claim American citizenship by alleging they were born in San Francisco, and that their birth certificates had been destroyed along with those of everyone else who had been born in San Francisco. "Papers for fictitious children were sold in China, allowing Chinese to immigrate despite the laws. ''
"An unintended consequence of the 1920s legislation was an increase in illegal immigration. Many Europeans who did not fall under the quotas migrated to Canada or Mexico, which (as Western Hemisphere nations) were not subject to national - origin quotas; (and) subsequently they slipped into the United States illegally. ''
Equal Nationality Act of 1934
Federal officials deported "Tens of thousands, and possibly more than 400,000, Mexicans and Mexican - Americans... Many, mostly children, were U.S. citizens. '' "Applications for legal admission into the United States increased following World War II -- and so did illegal immigration. '' Some used fraudulent marriages as their method of illegal entry in the U.S. "Japanese immigration became disproportionately female, as more women left Japan as "picture brides '', betrothed to emigrant men into the U.S. whom they had never met. ''
The United States saw a total number of illegal immigrants estimated at 1.1 million, or half of one percent of the United States population.
Over 5.8 million illegal immigrants entered the US in the 1990s. Mexico rose to the head of the list of sending countries, followed by the Philippines, Vietnam, the Dominican Republic, and China.
Stated, "those cases in which aliens have been determined to enjoy certain constitutional rights establish only that aliens receive such protections when they have come within the territory of, and have developed substantial connections with, this country. See, e.g., Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202, 212. ''
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who wrote he didn't have to be | He Did n't Have to Be - wikipedia
"He Did n't Have to Be '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Brad Paisley. It was released in August 1999 as the second single from his debut album, Who Needs Pictures. In December 1999, it became his first number one single, holding the top spot for one week.
The song was based on Paisley 's frequent co-writer and best friend, Kelley Lovelace 's stepson McCain Merren, who attended the 2000 ACM Awards as Paisley 's guest. According to Lovelace, Paisley said to him, "Let 's make a song about you two that will make your wife cry. ''
The song is written from the perspective of a son of a single mother; the single mother begins dating a new man who almost immediately includes the child in things like going to the movies. In the final verse, the son is now about ready to become a father himself, standing in the hospital next to his stepfather and hoping that he can be "at least half the dad '' that his stepfather "did n't have to be. '' The song is in the key of A major in cut time, with a vocal range from A3 to D5.
The music video was directed by Deaton Flanigen and premiered on August 17, 1999 on CMT.
"He Did n't Have to Be '' debuted at number 72 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs for the week of September 4, 1999. "He Did n't Have to Be '' spent 30 weeks on the Billboard Hot Country Songs, peaking at number one in December 1999 and holding that position for one week.
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fa cup semi final 1989 liverpool vs nottingham forest | Hillsborough disaster - Wikipedia
The Hillsborough disaster was a human crush at Hillsborough football stadium in Sheffield, England on 15 April 1989, during the 1988 -- 89 FA Cup semi-final game between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. The resulting 96 fatalities and 766 injuries makes this the worst disaster in British sporting history. The crush occurred in the two standing - only central pens in the Leppings Lane stand, allocated to Liverpool supporters. Shortly before kick - off, in an attempt to ease overcrowding outside the entrance turnstiles, the police match commander, chief superintendent David Duckenfield, ordered exit gate C to be opened, leading to an influx of even more supporters to the already overcrowded central pens.
In the days and weeks following the disaster, police fed false stories to the press suggesting that hooliganism and drinking by Liverpool supporters were the root causes of the disaster. Blaming of Liverpool fans persisted even after the Taylor Report of 1990, which found that the main cause of the disaster was a failure of control by South Yorkshire Police (SYP). Following the Taylor report, the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) ruled there was no evidence to justify prosecution of individuals or institutions. The disaster also led to a number of safety improvements in the largest English football grounds, notably the elimination of fenced standing terraces in favour of all - seater stadiums in the top two tiers of English football.
The first coroner 's inquest into the Hillsborough disaster, completed in 1991, ruled all deaths that day to be accidental. Families strongly rejected the original coroner 's findings, and their fight to have the matter re-opened persisted, despite Lord Justice Stuart - Smith concluding in 1997 there was no justification for a new inquiry. Private prosecutions brought by the Hillsborough Families Support Group against Duckenfield and his deputy Bernard Murray failed in 2000.
In 2009, a Hillsborough Independent Panel was formed to review all evidence. Reporting in 2012, it confirmed Taylor 's 1990 criticisms, while also revealing new details about the extent of police efforts to shift blame onto fans, the role of other emergency services, and the error of the first coroner 's inquest. The panel 's report resulted in the previous findings of accidental death being quashed, and the creating of a new coroner 's inquest. It also produced two criminal investigations led by police in 2012: Operation Resolve to look into the causes of the disaster, and by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) to examine actions by police in the aftermath.
The second coroner 's inquest was held from 1 April 2014 to 26 April 2016. It ruled that the supporters were unlawfully killed due to grossly negligent failures by police and ambulance services to fulfil their duty of care to the supporters. The inquest also found that the design of the stadium contributed to the crush, and that supporters were not to blame for the dangerous conditions. Public anger over the actions of his force during the second inquest led the SYP chief constable David Crompton to be suspended following the verdict.
In June 2017, six people were charged with various offences including manslaughter by gross negligence, misconduct in public office and perverting the course of justice for their actions during and after the disaster.
Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield, the home of Sheffield Wednesday, was selected by the Football Association (FA) as a neutral venue to host the FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest football clubs. Kick - off was scheduled for 3: 00 pm on 15 April, and fans were advised to take up positions 15 minutes beforehand.
At the time of the disaster, most English football stadiums had high steel fencing between the spectators and the playing field in response to both friendly and hostile pitch invasions. Hooliganism had affected the sport for some years, and was particularly virulent in England. From 1974, when these security standards were put in place, crushes occurred in several English stadiums.
A report by Eastwood & Partners for a safety certificate for the stadium in 1978 concluded that although it failed to meet the recommendations of the Green Guide, a guide to safety at sports grounds, the consequences were minor. It emphasised the general situation at Hillsborough was satisfactory compared with most grounds.
Risks associated with confining fans in pens were highlighted by the Committee of Inquiry into Crowd Safety at Sports Grounds (the Popplewell inquiry) after the Bradford City stadium fire in May 1985. It made recommendations on the safety of crowds penned within fences, including that "all exit gates should be manned at all times... and capable of being opened immediately from the inside by anyone in an emergency ''.
Hillsborough hosted five FA Cup semi-finals in the 1980s. A crush occurred at the Leppings Lane end of the ground during the 1981 semi-final between Tottenham Hotspur and Wolverhampton Wanderers after hundreds more spectators were permitted to enter the terrace than could safely be accommodated, resulting in 38 injuries, including broken arms, legs and ribs. Police believed there had been a real chance of fatalities had swift action not been taken, and recommended the club reduce its capacity. In a post-match briefing to discuss the incident, Sheffield Wednesday chairman Bert McGee remarked: "Bollocks -- no one would have been killed ''. The incident nonetheless prompted Sheffield Wednesday to alter the layout at the Leppings Lane end, dividing the terrace into three separate pens to restrict sideways movement. This 1981 change and other later changes to the stadium invalidated the stadium 's safety certificate. The safety certificate was never renewed and the stated capacity of the stadium was never changed. The terrace was divided into five pens when the club was promoted to the First Division in 1984, and a crush barrier near the access tunnel was removed in 1986 to improve the flow of fans entering and exiting the central enclosure.
After the crush in 1981, Hillsborough was not chosen to host an FA Cup semi-final for six years until 1987. Serious overcrowding was observed at the 1987 quarter - final between Sheffield Wednesday and Coventry City and again during the semi-final between Coventry City and Leeds United at Hillsborough. Leeds were assigned the Leppings Lane end. A Leeds fan described disorganisation at the turnstiles and no steward or police direction inside the stadium, resulting in the crowd in one enclosure becoming so compressed he was at times unable to raise and clap his hands. Other accounts told of fans having to be pulled to safety from above.
Liverpool and Nottingham Forest met in the semi-final at Hillsborough in 1988, and fans reported crushing at the Leppings Lane end. Liverpool lodged a complaint before the match in 1989. One supporter wrote to the Football Association and Minister for Sport complaining, "The whole area was packed solid to the point where it was impossible to move and where I, and others around me, felt considerable concern for personal safety ''.
Police presence at the previous year 's FA Cup semi-final (also between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest and also at Hillsborough Stadium) had been overseen by Chief Superintendent Brian L. Mole. Mole had supervised numerous police deployments at the stadium in the past. In October 1988 a probationary PC in Mole 's F division, South Yorkshire was handcuffed, photographed, and stripped by fellow officers in a fake robbery, as a hazing prank. Four officers resigned and seven were disciplined over the incident. Chief Superintendent Mole himself was to be transferred to the Barnsley division for "career development reasons ''. The transfer was to be done with immediate effect on 27 March 1989.
Meanwhile, Hillsborough was accepted as the FA Cup semi-final venue on 20 March 1989 by the Football Association. The first planning meeting for the semi-final took place on 22 March and was attended by newly promoted Chief Superintendent David Duckenfield, not by Mole. No known minutes exist of this meeting. Although Mole could have been assigned the semi-final match 's planning despite his transfer, that was not done. This left planning for the semi-final match to Duckenfield, who had never commanded a sell - out football match before, and who had "very little, if any '' training or personal experience in how to do so.
As is common at domestic matches in England, opposing supporters were segregated. Nottingham Forest supporters were allocated the South Stands and Spion Kop on the east end, with a combined capacity of 29,800, reached by 60 turnstiles spaced along two sides of the ground. Liverpool supporters were allocated the North and West ends (Leppings Lane), holding 24,256 fans, reached by 23 turnstiles from a narrow concourse. Turnstiles numbered 1 to 10, 10 in all, provided access to 9,700 seats in the North Stand; a further 6 turnstiles (numbered 11 to 16) provided access to 4,456 seats in the upper tier of the West Stand. Finally, 7 turnstiles (lettered A to G) provided access to 10,100 standing places in the lower tier of the West Stand. Although Liverpool had more supporters, Nottingham Forest was allocated the larger area, to avoid the approach routes of rival fans crossing. As a result of the stadium layout and segregation policy, turnstiles that would normally have been used to enter the North Stand from the east were off - limits and all Liverpool supporters had to converge on a single entrance at Leppings Lane. On match day, radio and television advised fans without tickets not to attend. Rather than establishing crowd safety as the priority, clubs, local authorities and the police viewed their roles and responsibilities through the ' lens of hooliganism '.
Three chartered trains transported Liverpool supporters to Sheffield for a match fixture in 1988, but only one such train ran in 1989. The 350 passengers arrived on the grounds about 2: 20 pm. Many supporters wished to enjoy the day and were in no hurry to enter the stadium too early. Some supporters were delayed by roadworks while crossing the Pennines on the M62 motorway which resulted in minor traffic congestion. Between 2: 30 pm and 2: 40 pm, there was a build - up of supporters outside the turnstiles facing Leppings Lane, eager to enter the stadium before the game began. At 2: 46 pm, the BBC 's football commentator John Motson had already noticed the imbalance of distribution of people in the Leppings Lane pens. While rehearsing for the match off - air, he suggested a nearby cameraman look as well. "There 's gaps, you know, in parts of the ground. Well, if you look at the Liverpool end, to the right of the goal, there 's hardly anybody on those steps... that 's it. Look down there. ''
Outside the stadium, a bottleneck developed with more fans arriving than could be safely filtered through the turnstiles before 3: 00 pm. People presenting tickets at the wrong turnstiles and those who had been refused entry could not leave because of the crowd behind them but remained as an obstruction. Fans outside could hear cheering as the teams came on the pitch ten minutes before the match started, and as the match kicked off, but could not gain entrance. A police constable radioed control requesting that the game be delayed, as it had been two years before, to ensure the safe passage of supporters into the ground. The request to delay the start of the match by 20 minutes was declined.
With an estimated 5,000 fans trying to enter through the turnstiles and increasing safety concerns, the police, to avoid fatalities outside the ground, opened a large exit gate (Gate C) that ordinarily permitted the free flow of supporters departing the stadium. Two further gates (A and B) were subsequently opened to relieve pressure. After an initial rush, thousands of supporters entered the stadium "steadily at a fast walk ''.
BBC television cameras were at the ground to record the game for Match of the Day. As the disaster unfolded, the events were relayed live to the Saturday sports show, Grandstand. In Ireland, RTÉ also showed the disaster unfolding, as it was covering the match live through its programme Sports Stadium. When the gates were opened, thousands of fans entered a narrow tunnel leading to the rear of the terrace into two overcrowded central pens (pens 3 and 4), creating pressure at the front. Hundreds of people were pressed against one another and the fencing by the weight of the crowd behind them. People entering were unaware of the problems at the fence; police or stewards usually stood at the entrance to the tunnel and, when the central pens reached capacity, directed fans to the side pens, but on this occasion, for reasons not fully explained, they did not. A BBC TV news report conjectured that if police had positioned two police horses correctly, they would have acted as breakwaters directing many fans into side pens, but on this occasion, it was not done.
The match between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest began as scheduled at 3: 00 pm. Fans were still streaming into pens 3 and 4 from the rear entrance tunnel as the match began. For some time, problems at the front of the Liverpool central goal pens went largely unnoticed except by those inside it, and by a few police at that end of the pitch. Liverpool 's goalkeeper, Bruce Grobbelaar, reported fans from behind him pleading to him for help as the situation worsened. The police at first attempted to stop fans from spilling out of the pens, some believing this to be a pitch invasion. At approximately 3: 05 pm in match action, Peter Beardsley kicked a shot which struck Nottingham Forest 's goal bar. Possibly connected to the excitement, a surge in pen 3 caused one of its metal crush barriers to give way, thrusting people forward on top of one another, and into the pen 's front fences.
South Yorkshire Police Superintendent Greenwood (the ground commander) realised the situation, and ran on the field to gain referee Ray Lewis 's attention. Lewis stopped the match at 3: 05: 30 as fans climbed the fence in an effort to escape the crush and went onto the track. By this time, a small gate in the fence had been forced open and some fans escaped via this route, as others continued to climb over the fencing. Other fans were pulled to safety by fans in the West Stand above the Leppings Lane terrace. The intensity of the crush broke more crush barriers on the terraces. Holes in the perimeter fencing were made by fans desperately attempting to rescue others.
The crowd in the Leppings Lane Stand overspilled onto the pitch, where many injured and traumatised fans congregated who had climbed to safety. Football players from both teams were ushered to their respective dressing rooms, and told that there would be a 30 - minute postponement. Those still trapped in the pens were packed so tightly that many victims died of compressive asphyxia while standing. Meanwhile, on the pitch, police, stewards and members of the St John Ambulance service were overwhelmed. Many uninjured fans assisted the injured; several attempted CPR and others tore down advertising hoardings to use as stretchers. Chief Superintendent John Nesbit of South Yorkshire Police later briefed Michael Shersby MP that leaving the rescue to the fans was a deliberate strategy, and is quoted as saying "We let the fans help so that they would not take out their frustration on the police '' at a Police Federation conference.
As events unfolded, some police officers were still deployed making a cordon three - quarters of the way down the pitch to prevent Liverpool supporters reaching the opposing supporters. Without public address announcements to explain the situation, many Nottingham Forest fans on the other end were chanting for their team and whistled their anger at what they saw as a pitch invasion, incensing some of the Liverpool supporters. Some fans tried to break through the cordon simply to ferry injured fans to waiting ambulances on the Nottingham Forest end but were forcibly turned back.
The agreed upon protocol for the South Yorkshire Metropolitan Ambulance Service, or SYMAS was that ambulances were to queue at the entrance to the gymnasium, termed the casualty reception point, or CRP. Any individuals within the stadium in need of medical attention were to be delivered expeditiously by police and paramedics to the CRP.
The system of ferrying injured from any location within the stadium to the CRP required a formal declaration to be made by those in charge for it to take effect. As this declaration was not immediately performed, confusion reigned over those attempting to administer aid on the pitch. This confusion migrated to the first responders waiting in ambulances at the CRP, a location which quickly deteriorated into an ambulance parking lot. Some crews were hesitant to leave their vehicles, unsure of whether patients were coming to them, or vice versa. Others who did leave their vehicles were then faced with the obstacles inherent in placing distance between oneself and one 's equipment. As the Panel explained in their report:
"The equipment was no use on the ambulance vehicle when critical early resuscitation was taking place some distance away on the pitch, behind the Leppings Lane end and in the gymnasium. Some ambulance crew did take equipment when they left their vehicle, but there was no systematic direction to do so, not all did, and none initially had been given any information about the situation inside the stadium. ''
A total of 42 ambulances arrived at the stadium. Out of this number, two managed of their own accord to make their way onto the pitch -- while a third ambulance made its way onto the pitch at the direction of DCAO Hopkins, who felt its visibility might allay crowd concerns. The remaining 39 ambulances were collectively able to transport approximately 149 people to either Northern General Hospital, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, or Barnsley Hospital for treatment.
Condolences flooded in from across the world, led by the Queen. Other messages came from Pope John Paul II, US President George H.W. Bush, and the chief executive of Juventus (fans of Liverpool and Juventus were involved in the Heysel Stadium disaster) amongst many others.
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Home Secretary Douglas Hurd visited Hillsborough the day after the disaster and met survivors. Anfield Stadium was opened on the Sunday to allow fans to pay tribute to the dead. Thousands of fans visited and the stadium filled with flowers, scarves and other tributes. In the following days more than 200,000 people visited the "shrine '' inside the stadium. The following Sunday, a link of football scarves spanning the 1.6 kilometres (0.99 mi) distance across Stanley Park from Goodison Park to Anfield was created, with the final scarf in position at 3: 06 pm. Elsewhere on the same day, a silence -- opened with an air - raid siren at three o'clock -- was held in central Nottingham with the colours of Forest, Liverpool and Wednesday adorning Nottingham Council House.
At Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral, a requiem mass attended by 3,000 people was held by the Catholic Archbishop of Liverpool, Derek Worlock. The first reading was read by Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar. Liverpool players Ronnie Whelan, Steve Nicol, and former manager Joe Fagan carried the communion bread and wine. David Sheppard, the Anglican Bishop of Liverpool, on holiday on the Scottish island of Barra on the day of the disaster, was airlifted by RAF helicopter to attend.
The FA chief executive Graham Kelly, who had attended the match, said the FA would conduct an inquiry into what had happened. Speaking after the disaster, Kelly backed all - seater stadiums, saying "We must move fans away from the ritual of standing on terraces ''. Standing on terraces and the use of perimeter fencing around the pitch, the use of CCTV, the timing of football matches and policing of sporting events were factors for a subsequent inquiry to consider.
UEFA President Jacques Georges caused controversy by describing the Liverpool supporters as "beasts '', wrongly suggesting that hooliganism was the cause of the disaster, which had occurred less than four years after the Heysel Stadium disaster. His remarks led to Liverpool F.C. calling for his resignation, but he apologised on discovering hooliganism was not the cause.
At the 1989 FA Cup Final between Liverpool and local rivals Everton, held just five weeks after the Hillsborough disaster, the players from both participating teams wore black armbands as a gesture of respect to the victims, with a minute 's silence also observed.
During the final match of the 1988 -- 89 English Football League season, contested on 26 May 1989 between Liverpool and second - place Arsenal, the Arsenal players presented flowers to fans in different parts of Anfield in memory of those who had died in the Hillsborough disaster.
A disaster appeal fund was set up with donations of £ 500,000 from the Government, £ 100,000 from Liverpool F.C. and £ 25,000 each from the cities of Liverpool, Sheffield and Nottingham. Liverpool donated the share of the money they would have received for the game. Within days donations had passed £ 1 million, swelled by donations from individuals, schools and businesses. Other fund raising activities included a Factory Records benefit concert and several fundraising football matches. Bradford City and Lincoln City, the teams involved in the Bradford City stadium fire, met for the first time since the 1985 disaster in a game which raised £ 25,000. When the appeal closed the following year, it had raised over £ 12 million. Much of the money went to victims and relatives of those involved in the disaster and provided funds for a college course to improve the hospital phase of emergency care.
In May 1989, a charity version of the Gerry and the Pacemakers song "Ferry Cross the Mersey '' was released in aid of those affected. The song featured Liverpool musicians Paul McCartney, Gerry Marsden (of the Pacemakers), Holly Johnson, and the Christians, and was produced by Stock Aitken Waterman. It entered the UK Singles Chart at number 1 on 20 May, remaining at the top for a total of three weeks. Although Gerry and the Pacemakers ' earlier hit "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' had stronger ties to Liverpool FC, it was not used because it had recently been rerecorded for the Bradford City stadium fire appeal.
By the disaster 's 10th anniversary in 1999, at least three people who survived were known to have committed suicide. Another survivor had spent eight years in psychiatric care. There were cases of alcoholism, drug abuse, and collapsed marriages involving people who had witnessed the events. The lingering effects of the disaster were seen as a cause, or contributary factor, in all of these.
A total of 96 people died as a result of the disaster. On the day 94 people, aged from 10 to 67 years old, died as a result of their injuries, either at the stadium, in the ambulances, or shortly after arrival at hospital. A total of 766 people were reported to have suffered injuries, although less than half required hospital treatment. The less seriously injured survivors who did not live in the Sheffield area were advised to seek treatment for their injuries at hospitals nearer to their homes. On 19 April, the death toll reached 95 when 14 - year - old Lee Nicol died in hospital after his life support machine was switched off. The death toll reached 96 in March 1993, when artificial feeding and hydration were withdrawn from 22 - year - old Tony Bland after nearly four years, during which time he had remained in a persistent vegetative state showing no sign of improvement. This followed a legal challenge in the High Court by his family to have his treatment withdrawn, a landmark challenge which succeeded in November 1992.
Andrew Devine, aged 22 at the time of the disaster, suffered similar injuries to Tony Bland and was also diagnosed as being in a persistent vegetative state. In March 1997 -- just before the eighth anniversary of the disaster -- it was reported he had emerged from the condition and was able to communicate using a touch - sensitive pad, and he had been showing signs of awareness of his surroundings for up to three years before. He is still alive as of 2015.
Two sisters, three pairs of brothers, and a father and son were among those who died, as were two men about to become fathers for the first time: 25 - year - old Steven Brown of Wrexham and 30 - year - old Peter Thompson of Widnes. Jon - Paul Gilhooley, aged 10, was the youngest person to die. His cousin, Steven Gerrard, then aged 8, went on to become Liverpool F.C. 's captain. Gerrard has said the disaster inspired him to lead the team he supported as a boy and become a top professional football player. The oldest person to die at Hillsborough was 67 - year - old Gerard Baron, an older brother of the late Liverpool player Kevin Baron (1926 -- 1971), who had been on the losing side in the 1950 FA Cup Final.
Stephen Whittle is considered by some to be the 97th victim of Hillsborough, as due to work commitments he had sold his ticket to a friend (whom he and his family chose not to identify), who then died in the disaster; the resulting feeling of survivor guilt is believed to be the main reason for his suicide in February 2011.
The majority of victims that lost their lives were from Liverpool (37) and Greater Merseyside (20). A further 20 were from counties adjacent to Merseyside. An additional 3 victims came from Sheffield with 2 more living in counties adjacent to South Yorkshire. The remaining 14 victims lived in other parts of England.
Of those who died, 78 were aged under 30, 38 of whom were under 20, and all but three of the victims were aged under 50.
Inquests into the deaths, commencing later in 1989, proved controversial. South Yorkshire coroner Stefan Popper limited the main inquest to events up to 3: 15 pm on the day of the disaster -- nine minutes after the match was halted and the crowd spilled onto the pitch. Popper said this was because the victims were either dead, or brain dead, by 3: 15 pm. The decision angered the families, many of whom felt the inquest was unable to consider the response of the police and other emergency services after that time. The inquest returned a verdict of accidental death on 26 March 1991, much to the dismay of the bereaved families, who had been hoping for a verdict of unlawful killing or an open verdict, and for manslaughter charges to be brought against the officers who had been present at the disaster. Popper 's decision was subsequently endorsed by the Divisional Court who considered it to have been justified in the light of the medical evidence available to him. Relatives later failed to have the inquest reopened to allow more scrutiny of police actions and closer examination of the circumstances of individual cases.
One of the individual cases where the circumstances of death were not fully resolved was that of Kevin Williams, the fifteen - year - old son of Anne Williams. Williams, who died in 2013, rejected the coroner 's decision that the Hillsborough victims, including her son, had died before 3: 15 pm, citing witness statements that described her son showing signs of life at 4: 00 pm. She unsuccessfully appealed to the European Court of Human Rights in 2009. The Hillsborough Independent Panel considered the available evidence and stated that "the initial pathologist 's opinion appeared definitive, but further authoritative opinions raised significant doubts about the accuracy of that initial opinion. ''
After the disaster, Lord Justice Taylor was appointed to conduct an inquiry into the events. The Taylor Inquiry sat for a total of 31 days and published two reports: an interim report which laid out the events of the day and immediate conclusions, and the final report which outlined general recommendations on football ground safety. This became known as the Taylor Report.
Taylor concluded that policing on the day "broke down '' and "the main reason for the disaster was the failure of police control ''. Attention was focused on the decision to open the secondary gates; moreover, the kick - off should have been delayed, as had been done at other venues and matches.
Sheffield Wednesday was also criticised for the inadequate number of turnstiles at the Leppings Lane end and the poor quality of the crush barriers on the terraces, "respects in which failure by the Club contributed to this disaster ''.
Taylor found there was "no provision '' for controlling the entry of spectators into the turnstile area. He dismissed the claim by senior police officers that they had no reason to anticipate problems, since congestion had occurred at both the 1987 and 1988 semi-finals. He said that "the Operational Order and police tactics on the day failed to provide for controlling a concentrated arrival of large numbers should that occur in a short period. That it might so occur was foreseeable ''. The failure by the police to give the order to direct fans to empty areas of the stadium, was described by Taylor as "a blunder of the first magnitude ''.
There was no means for calculating when individual enclosures had reached capacity. A police officer ordinarily made a visual assessment before guiding fans to other pens. However, on the day of the disaster, "by 2.52 pm when gate C was opened, pens 3 and 4 were over-full... to allow any more into those pens was likely to cause injuries; to allow in a large stream was courting disaster ''.
The report noted that the official capacity of the central pens was 2,200, that the Health and Safety Executive found this should have been reduced to 1,693 due to crush barriers and perimeter gates, but actually an estimated 3,000 people were in the pens around 3: 00 pm. The report said "When spectators first appeared on the track, the immediate assumption in the control room was that a pitch invasion was threatened. This was unlikely at the beginning of a match. It became still less likely when those on the track made no move towards the pitch... (T) here was no effective leadership either from control or on the pitch to harness and organise rescue efforts. No orders were given for officers to enter the tunnel and relieve pressure ''. Further that: "The anxiety to protect the sanctity of the pitch has caused insufficient attention to be paid to the risk of a crush due to overcrowding ''.
Lord Taylor regarded spectator allocation as irrelevant to the disaster. "I do not consider choice of ends was causative of the disaster. Had it been reversed, the disaster could well have occurred in a similar manner but to Nottingham supporters ''.
Lord Taylor concluded that the behaviour of Liverpool fans, including accusations of drunkenness, were secondary factors, and said that most fans were: "not drunk, nor even the worse for drink ''. He concluded that this formed an exacerbating factor but that police, seeking to rationalise their loss of control, overestimated the element of drunkenness in the crowd.
The report dismissed the theory, put forward by South Yorkshire Police, that fans attempting to gain entry without tickets or with forged tickets were contributing factors.
Taylor concluded his criticism of South Yorkshire Police by describing senior officers in command as "defensive and evasive witnesses '' who refused to accept any responsibility for error: "In all some 65 police officers gave oral evidence at the Inquiry. Sadly I must report that for the most part the quality of their evidence was in inverse proportion to their rank ''. Further stating: "South Yorkshire Police were not prepared to concede they were in any respect at fault in what occurred... (T) he police case was to blame the fans for being late and drunk, and to blame the Club for failing to monitor the pens... Such an unrealistic approach gives cause for anxiety as to whether lessons have been learnt ''.
The Taylor Report had a deep impact on safety standards for stadiums in the UK. Perimeter and lateral fencing was removed and many top stadiums were converted to all - seated. Purpose - built stadiums for Premier League and most Football League teams since the report are all - seater. Chester City F.C. 's Deva Stadium was the first English football stadium to fulfil the safety recommendations of the Taylor Report, with Millwall F.C. 's The Den being the first new stadium to be built that fulfilled the recommendations.
In July 1992, the government announced a relaxation of the regulation for the lower two English leagues (known now as League One and League Two). The Football Spectators Act does not cover Scotland, but the Scottish Premier League chose to make all - seater stadiums a requirement of league membership. In England and Wales all - seating is a requirement of the Premier League and of the Football League for clubs who have been present in the Championship for more than three seasons. Several campaigns have attempted to get the government to relax the regulation and allow standing areas to return to Premiership and Championship grounds.
In May 1997, when the Labour Party came into office, Home Secretary Jack Straw ordered an investigation. It was performed by Lord Justice Stuart - Smith. The appointment of Stuart - Smith was not without controversy. At a meeting in Liverpool with relatives of those involved in Hillsborough in October 1997, he flippantly remarked "Have you got a few of your people or are they like the Liverpool fans, turn up at the last minute? '' He later apologised for his remark, saying it was not intended to offend. The terms of reference of his inquiry were limited to "new evidence '', that is "... evidence which was not available or was not presented to the previous inquires, courts or authorities. '' Therefore, evidence such as witness statements which had been altered were classed as inadmissible. When he presented his report in February 1998, he concluded that there was insufficient evidence for a new inquiry into the disaster. In paragraph 5 of his summary, Lord Justice Stuart - Smith said:
I have come to the clear conclusion that there is no basis upon which there should be a further Judicial Inquiry or a reopening of Lord Taylor 's Inquiry. There is no basis for a renewed application to the Divisional Court or for the Attorney General to exercise his powers under the Coroners Act 1988. I do not consider that there is any material which should be put before the Director of Public Prosecutions or the Police Complaints Authority which might cause them to reconsider the decisions they have already taken. Nor do I consider that there is any justification for setting up any further inquiry into the performance of the emergency and hospital services. I have considered the circumstances in which alterations were made to some of the self - written statements of South Yorkshire Police officers, but I do not consider that there is any occasion for any further investigation.
Importantly, Stuart - Smith 's report supported the coroner 's assertion that evidence after 3.15 pm was inadmissible as "that by 3.15 pm the principal cause of death, that is, the crushing, was over. '' This was controversial as the subsequent response of the police and emergency services would not be scrutinised. Announcing the report to the House of Commons, Home Secretary Jack Straw backed Stuart - Smith 's findings and said that "I do not believe that a further inquiry could or would uncover significant new evidence or provide any relief for the distress of those who have been bereaved. '' However the determination by Stuart - Smith was heavily criticised by the Justice Minister, Lord Falconer, who stated "I am absolutely sure that Sir Murray Stuart - Smith came completely to the wrong conclusion ''. Falconer added: "It made the families in the Hillsborough disaster feel after one establishment cover - up, here was another. ''
The Hillsborough Independent Panel was instituted in 2009 by the British government to investigate the Hillsborough disaster, to oversee the disclosure of documents about the disaster and its aftermath and to produce a report. On 12 September 2012 it published its report and simultaneously launched a website containing 450,000 pages of material collated from 85 organisations and individuals over two years.
In the years after the disaster, the Hillsborough Family Support Group, had campaigned for the release of all relevant documents into the public domain. After the disaster 's 20th anniversary in April 2009, supported by the Culture secretary, Andy Burnham, and Minister of State for Justice, Maria Eagle, the government asked the Home Office and Department of Culture, Media and Sport to investigate the best way for this information to be made public. In April 2009, the Home Secretary Jacqui Smith announced she had requested secret files concerning the disaster be made public.
In December 2009, Home Secretary Alan Johnson said the Hillsborough Independent Panel 's remit would be to oversee "full public disclosure of relevant government and local information within the limited constraints set out in the disclosure protocol '' and "consult with the Hillsborough families to ensure that the views of those most affected by the disaster are taken into account ''. An archive of all relevant documentation would be created and a report produced within two years explaining the work of the panel and its conclusions.
The panel was chaired by James Jones, the Bishop of Liverpool. Other members were:
On 12 September 2012, the Hillsborough Independent Panel concluded that no Liverpool fans were responsible in any way for the disaster, and that its main cause was a "lack of police control ''. Crowd safety was "compromised at every level '' and overcrowding issues had been recorded two years earlier. The panel concluded that "up to 41 '' of the 96 who perished might have survived had the emergency services ' reactions and co-ordination been improved. The number is based on post-mortem examinations which found some victims may have had heart, lung or blood circulation function for some time after being removed from the crush. The report stated that placing fans who were "merely unconscious '' on their backs rather than in the recovery position, would have resulted in their deaths due to airway obstruction. Their report was in 395 pages and delivered 153 key findings.
The findings concluded that 164 witness statements had been altered. Of those statements, 116 were amended to remove or change negative comments about South Yorkshire Police. South Yorkshire Police had performed blood alcohol tests on the victims, some of them children, and ran computer checks on the national police database in an attempt to "impugn their reputation ''. The report concluded that the then Conservative MP for Sheffield Hallam, Irvine Patnick, passed inaccurate and untrue information from the police to the press.
The panel noted that, despite being dismissed by the Taylor Report, the idea that alcohol contributed to the disaster proved remarkably durable. Documents disclosed confirm that repeated attempts were made to find supporting evidence for alcohol being a factor, and that available evidence was significantly misinterpreted. It noted "The weight placed on alcohol in the face of objective evidence of a pattern of consumption modest for a leisure event was inappropriate. It has since fuelled persistent and unsustainable assertions about drunken fan behaviour ''.
The evidence it released online, included altered police reports.
Subsequent apologies were released by Prime Minister David Cameron on behalf of the government, Ed Miliband on behalf of the opposition, Sheffield Wednesday Football Club, South Yorkshire Police, and former editor of The Sun, Kelvin MacKenzie, who apologised for making false accusations under the headline "The Truth ''. MacKenzie said he should have written a headline that read "The Lies '', although this apology was widely discredited by the Hillsborough Family Support Group and Liverpool fans, as it was seen to be "shifting the blame once again. ''
After publication, the Hillsborough Families Support Group called for new inquests for the victims. They also called for prosecutions for unlawful killing, corporate manslaughter and perversion of the course of justice in respect of the actions of the police both in causing the disaster and covering up their actions; and in respect of Sheffield Wednesday FC, Sheffield Council and the Football Association for their various responsibilities for providing, certifying and selecting the stadium for the fatal event.
Calls were made for the resignation of police officers involved in the cover - up, and for Sheffield Wednesday, the police and the Football Association to admit their blame. Calls were also made for Sir Dave Richards to resign as chairman of the Premier League and give up his knighthood as a result of his conduct at Sheffield Wednesday at the time of the disaster. The Home Secretary called for investigations into law - breaking and promised resources to investigate individual or systematic issues.
On 23 October 2012, Norman Bettison resigned with immediate effect as Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police, after Maria Eagle MP on the floor of the House and protected by Parliamentary privilege, accused him of boasting about concocting a story that all the Liverpool fans were drunk and police were afraid they were going to break down the gates and decided to open them. Bettison denied the claim, and other allegations about his conduct, saying: "Fans ' behaviour, to the extent that it was relevant at all, made the job of the police, in the crush outside Leppings Lane turnstiles, harder than it needed to be. But it did n't cause the disaster any more than the sunny day that encouraged people to linger outside the stadium as kick off approached. I held those views then, I hold them now. I have never, since hearing the Taylor evidence unfold, offered any other interpretation in public or private. '' Merseyside Police Authority confirmed that Bettison would receive an £ 83,000 pension, unless convicted of a criminal offence. Hillsborough families called for the payments to be frozen during the IPCC investigation. In the same 22 October House of Commons debate, Stephen Mosley MP alleged West Midlands police pressured witnesses -- both police and civilians -- to change their statements. Maria Eagle confirmed her understanding that WMP actions in this respect would be the subject of IPCC scrutiny.
Following an application on 19 December 2012 by the Attorney General Dominic Grieve, the High Court quashed the verdicts in the original inquests and ordered fresh inquests to be held. Sir John Goldring was appointed as Assistant Coroner for South Yorkshire (East) and West Yorkshire (West) to conduct those inquests. The inquest hearings started on Monday 31 March 2014 at Warrington. Transcripts of the proceedings and evidence that was produced during the hearings were published at the Hillsborough Inquests official website. On 6 April 2016, the nine jurors were sent out to consider their verdicts. These were formally given to the inquest at 11: 00 on 26 April 2016. The jury returned a verdict of unlawful killing in respect of all 96 victims (by majority verdict of 7 -- 2). Upon receiving the April 2016 verdict, Hillsborough Family Support Group chair Margaret Aspinall, whose 18 - year - old son James was killed in the disaster, said:
"Let 's be honest about this -- people were against us. We had the media against us, as well as the establishment. Everything was against us. The only people that were n't against us was our own city. That 's why I am so grateful to my city and so proud of my city. They always believed in us.
Prime Minister David Cameron also responded to the April 2016 verdict by saying that it represented a "long overdue '' but "landmark moment in the quest for justice '', adding "All families and survivors now have official confirmation of what they always knew was the case, that the Liverpool fans were utterly blameless in the disaster that unfolded at Hillsborough. '' The Labour Party described the handling of the Hillsborough disaster as the "greatest miscarriage of justice of our times '', with Labour MPs Andy Burnham and Steve Rotheram calling for accountability and the prosecution of those responsible. Liberal Democrat MP John Pugh called for David Cameron to make a formal apology in the House of Commons to the families of those killed at Hillsborough and to the city of Liverpool as a whole.
Kelvin MacKenzie, who wrote the now - infamous "The Truth '' front page for the Sun, said that although he was "duped '' into publishing his story, that his "heart goes out '' to the families of those affected, saying that "It 's quite clear today the fans had nothing to do with it ''. However, MacKenzie did not accept any personal responsibility for the story.
During the inquest, Maxwell Groome -- a police constable at the time of the disaster -- made allegations of a high - level "conspiracy '' by Freemasons to shift blame for the disaster onto Superintendent Roger Marshall, also that junior officers were pressured into changing their statements after the disaster, and told not to write their accounts in their official police pocketbooks. Groome also claimed that match commander Duckenfield was a member of the "highly influential '' Dole lodge in Sheffield (the same lodge as Brian Mole, his predecessor.) Coroner Sir John Goldring warned the jury that there was "not a shred of evidence '' that any Masonic meeting actually took place, or that those named were all Freemasons, advising the jury to cast aside "gossip and hearsay ''. During the inquest, Duckenfield confirmed that he became a Freemason in 1975 and became Worshipful Master of his local lodge in 1990, a year after the disaster; following this revelation, Freemasons were forbidden to take part in the IPCC investigation as civilian investigators to prevent any perceived bias.
Following the inquest verdict, South Yorkshire police announced it would refer the actions of its officers to the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC). West Yorkshire Police announced it would refer its Chief Constable, Norman Bettison, to the IPCC in mid September. Bettison, had been one of a number of police officers who were accused of manipulating evidence by the Hillsborough Independent Panel. In early October, Bettison announced his retirement, becoming the first senior figure to step down since publication of the panel 's report.
The IPCC announced on 12 October 2012 it would investigate the failure of the police to declare a major incident, failure to close the tunnel to the stands which led to overcrowded pens despite evidence it had been closed in such circumstances in the past; changes made to the statements of police officers; actions which misled Parliament and the media; shortcomings of previous investigations; and the role played by Norman Bettison.
By 22 October 2012, the names of at least 1,444 serving and former police officers had been referred to the IPCC investigation. In its announcement, the IPCC praised the tenacity of the Hillsborough families ' campaign for truth and justice. On 16 October 2012, the Attorney General announced in Parliament he had applied to have the original inquest verdict quashed, arguing it proceeded on a false basis and evidence now to hand required this exceptional step.
On 12 July 2013 it was reported that the IPCC had found that in addition to the now 164 police statements known to have been altered, a further 55 police officers had changed their statements. Deborah Glass, deputy chair of the IPCC said, "We know the people who have contacted us are the tip of the iceberg. '' That was after the IPCC 's Hillsborough Contact team had received 230 pieces of correspondence since October 2012.
The IPCC is also investigating the actions of West Midlands Police, who in 1989 had been tasked with investigating South Yorkshire Police 's conduct for both the original inquest and also the Taylor independent inquiry.
In April 2016, the Crown Prosecution Service announced that it would consider bringing charges against both individuals and corporate bodies once the criminal investigation by the Independent Police Complaints Commission -- Operation Resolve -- had been completed.
In February 2000, a private prosecution was brought against Chief Superintendent David Duckenfield and another officer, Bernard Murray. The prosecution argued that the crush was "foreseeable '' hence the defendants were "grossly negligent ''. Prosecutor Alun Jones told the court that Duckenfield gave the order to open the gates so that hundreds of fans could be herded on to the already crowded terraces at the stadium. Jones stated that minutes after the disaster, Duckenfield "deceitfully and dishonestly '' told senior FA officials that the supporters had forced the gate open. Duckenfield admitted he had lied in certain statements regarding the causes of the disaster. The prosecution ended on 24 July 2000, when Murray was acquitted and the jury was unable to reach a verdict in the case of Duckenfield. On 26 July 2000, the judge refused the prosecution 's application for a re-trial of Duckenfield.
Police disciplinary charges were abandoned when Duckenfield retired on health grounds and, because he was unavailable, it was decided it would be unfair to proceed with disciplinary charges against Bernard Murray. Duckenfield took medical retirement on a full police pension.
Home Secretary Theresa May announced on 18 December 2012 that a new police enquiry would be initiated to examine the possibility of charging agencies other than the police over the Hillsborough deaths. The enquiry was headed by former Durham Chief Constable Jon Stoddart. Now it is headed by Assistant Commissioner Rob Beckley.
On 28 June 2017, it was announced that six people were to be charged with offences in relation to the disaster. Former Chief Superintendent David Duckenfield, in charge of the match, faces 95 counts of manslaughter by gross negligence. He faces no charge in respect of the death of Tony Bland, who died four years after the disaster. Former Chief Inspector Sir Norman Bettinson faces four counts of misconduct in public office. Former Sheffield Wednesday F.C. Club Secretary Graham Mackrell faces a charge of breaching the Safety at Sports Ground Act 1975. Solicitor Peter Metcalf, former Chief Superintendent Donald Denton and former Detective Chief Inspector Alan Foster were all charged with perverting the course of justice.
On 9 August, all except Duckenfield appeared at Warrington Magistrates Court. Mackrell pleaded not guilty to the charge against him. No formal pleas were taken from the other four defendants. All five were bailed to appear at the Crown Court on 6 September. Duckenfield was not required to appear as the Crown Prosecution Service has to apply to the High Court to lift a court order before he can be prosecuted on the manslaughter charges.
Various negligence cases were brought against the police by spectators who had been at the ground but had not been in the pens, and by people who watched the incident unfolding on television (or heard about it on the radio). A case, Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police (1992) 1 A.C. 310, was eventually appealed to the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords and was an important milestone in the law of claims of secondary victims for negligently inflicted psychiatric injury. It was held that claimants who watched the disaster on television / listened on radio were not ' proximal ' and their claims were rejected.
Another psychiatric injury claim was brought to the House of Lords, White v Chief Constable of the South Yorkshire Police (1999) 2 A.C. 455. It was brought by police officers on duty against the Chief Constable who was said to have been vicariously liable for the disaster. Their claims were dismissed and the Alcock decision was upheld. It affirmed the position of the courts once again towards claims of psychiatric injuries of secondary victims.
A third legal case which resulted from the Hillsborough disaster was Airedale N.H.S. Trust v Bland (1993) A.C. 789, a landmark House of Lords decision in English criminal law, that allowed the life - support machine of Tony Bland, a Hillsborough victim in a persistent vegetative state, to be switched off.
In April 2016, a private prosecution was launched on behalf of victims ' relatives against both SYP and the West Midlands Police force (who had investigated the actions of SYP), alleging a concerted cover - up designed to shift blame away from the police.
Several memorials have been erected in memory of the victims of the Hillsborough disaster; all are listed below:
The disaster has been acknowledged on 15 April each year by the community in Liverpool and football in general. An annual memorial ceremony is held at Anfield and at a church in Liverpool. The 10th and 20th anniversaries were marked by special services to remember the victims.
From 2007 there was a Hillsborough Memorial service held at Spion Kop, KwaZulu - Natal, South Africa annually. The ceremony is held on the Spion Kop Battlefield which gave its name to the Kop Stand at Anfield. There is a permanent memorial to the 96 fans who died, in the form of a bench in view of the battlefield at a nearby lodge. Dean Davis and David Walters, South African Liverpool supporters, are responsible for the service and the bench was commissioned by Guy Prowse in 2008. Following on from, and out of respect for the Hillsborough families decision to conclude official memorials at Anfield as of 2016; there will be no further Memorials held at Spion Kop. The Memorial bench remains at Spion Kop Lodge.
In 2014, the FA decided all FA Cup, Premier League, Football League and Football Conference matches played between 11 -- 14 April, would kick - off seven minutes later than originally scheduled with a six - minute delay and a one - minute silence tribute.
In 1999 Anfield was packed with a crowd of around 10,000 people ten years after the disaster. A candle was lit for each of the 96 victims. The clock at the Kop End stood still at 3: 06 pm, the time that the referee had blown his whistle in 1989 and a minute 's silence was held, the start signalled by match referee from that day, Ray Lewis. A service led by the Right Reverend James Jones, the Bishop of Liverpool, was attended by past and present Liverpool players, including Robbie Fowler, Steve McManaman and Alan Hansen. According to the BBC report: "The names of the victims were read from the memorial book and floral tributes were laid at a plaque bearing their names. '' A gospel choir performed and the ceremony ended with a rendition of "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''. The anniversary was also marked by a minute 's silence at the weekend 's league games and FA Cup semi-finals.
In 2009, on the 20th anniversary of the disaster, Liverpool 's request that their Champions League quarter - finals return leg, scheduled for 15 April, be played the day before was granted.
The event was remembered with a ceremony at Anfield attended by over 28,000 people. The Kop, Centenary and Main Stands were opened to the public before part of the Anfield Road End was opened to supporters. The memorial service, led by the Bishop of Liverpool began at 14: 45 BST and a two - minute silence (observed across Liverpool and in Sheffield and Nottingham, including public transport coming to a stand - still) was held at the time of the disaster twenty years earlier, 15: 06 BST. Sports Minister Andy Burnham addressed the crowd but was heckled by supporters chanting "Justice for the 96 ''. The ceremony was attended by survivors of the disaster, families of victims and the Liverpool team, with goalkeeper Pepe Reina leading the team and management staff onto the pitch. Team captain Steven Gerrard and vice-captain Jamie Carragher handed the freedom of the city to the families of all the victims. Candles were lit for each of the 96 people who died. Kenny Dalglish, Liverpool 's manager at the time of the disaster, read a passage from the Bible, "Lamentations of Jeremiah ''. The Liverpool manager, Rafael Benítez, set 96 balloons free. The ceremony ended with 96 rings of church bells across the city and a rendition of "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''.
Other services took place at the same time, including at Liverpool 's Anglican and Catholic Cathedrals. After the two minutes ' silence, bells on civic buildings rang out throughout Merseyside.
A song was released to mark the 20th anniversary, entitled "Fields of Anfield Road '' which peaked at No. 14 in the UK charts.
Liverpool, Chelsea, Arsenal and Manchester United players showed respect by wearing black armbands during their Champions League matches on 14 and 15 April.
On 14 May, more than 20,000 people packed Anfield for a match held in memory of the victims. The Liverpool Legends, comprising ex-Liverpool footballers beat the All Stars, captained by actor Ricky Tomlinson, 3 -- 1. The event also raised cash for the Marina Dalglish Appeal which was contributed towards a radiotherapy centre at University Hospital in Aintree.
With the imminent release of police documents relating to events on 15 April 1989, the Hillsborough Family Support Group launched Project 96, a fundraising initiative on 1 August 2009. At least 96 current and former Liverpool footballers are being lined up to raise £ 96,000 by auctioning a limited edition (of 96) signed photographs.
On 11 April 2009 Liverpool fans sang "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' as a tribute to the upcoming anniversary of the disaster before the home game against Blackburn Rovers (which ended in Liverpool winning 4 -- 0) and was followed by former Liverpool player, Stephen Warnock presenting a memorial wreath to the Kop showing the figure 96 in red flowers.
The Hillsborough disaster touched not only Liverpool, but clubs in England and around the world. Supporters of Everton, Liverpool 's traditional local rivals, were affected, many of them having lost friends and family. Supporters laid down flowers and blue and white scarves to show respect for the dead and unity with fellow Merseysiders.
On 19 April 1989, the Wednesday after the disaster, the European Cup semi-final tie between A.C. Milan and Real Madrid was played. The referee blew his whistle two minutes into the game to stop play and hold a minute 's silence for those who lost their lives at Hillsborough. Halfway through the minute 's silence, the A.C. Milan fans sang Liverpool 's "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' as a sign of respect. In April 1989, Bradford City and Lincoln City held a friendly match to benefit the victims of Hillsborough. The occasion was the first in which the two teams had met since the 1985 Bradford City stadium fire that had claimed 56 lives at Valley Parade.
On 30 April 1989 a match organised by Celtic F.C. was played at Celtic Park, Glasgow between the home club and Liverpool, the proceeds going to the Hillsborough fund. Liverpool won the match by four goals to nil.
As a result of the disaster, Liverpool 's scheduled fixture against Arsenal was delayed from 23 April until the end of the season and eventually decided the league title. At this fixture, Arsenal players brought flowers onto the pitch and presented them to the Liverpool fans around the stadium before the game commenced.
During a 2011 debate in the House of Commons, the Labour MP for Liverpool Walton, Steve Rotheram, read out a list of the victims and, as a result, the names were entered into Hansard.
Initial media coverage -- spurred by what Phil Scraton calls in Hillsborough: The Truth "the Heysel factor '' and "hooligan hysteria '' -- began to shift the blame onto the behaviour of the Liverpool fans at the stadium, making it a public order issue. As well as The Sun 's 19 April 1989 "The Truth '' article (see below) other newspapers published similar allegations; the Daily Star headline on the same day reported "Dead fans robbed by drunk thugs ''; the Daily Mail accused the Liverpool fans of being "drunk and violent and their actions were vile '', and The Daily Express ran a story alleging that "Police saw ' sick spectacle of pilfering from the dying '. '' Peter McKay in the Evening Standard wrote that the "catastrophe was caused first and foremost by violent enthusiasm for soccer and in this case the tribal passions of Liverpool supporters (who) literally killed themselves and others to be at the game '' and published a front page headline "Police attack ' vile ' fans '' on 18 April 1989, in which police sources blamed the behaviour of a section of Liverpool fans for the disaster.
In regional newspapers, the Liverpool Daily Post wrote in an article titled "I Blame the Yobs '' that "The gatecrashers wreaked their fatal havoc... Their uncontrolled fanaticism and mass hysteria... literally squeezed the life out of men, women and children... yobbism at its most base... Scouse killed Scouse for no better reason than 22 men were kicking a ball ''; the Manchester Evening News wrote that the "Anfield Army charged on to the terrace behind the goal -- many without tickets '', and the Yorkshire Post wrote that the "trampling crush '' had been started by "thousands of fans '' who were "latecomers... forc (ing) their way into the ground ''. The Sheffield Star published similar allegations to The Sun, running the headline "Fans in Drunken Attacks on Police ''.
Many of the more serious allegations -- such as stealing from the dead and assault of police officers and rescue workers -- appeared on 18 April, although several evening newspapers published on 15 April 1989 also gave inaccurate reporting of the disaster, as these newspapers went to press before the full extent or circumstances of the disaster had been confirmed or even reported. This included the Wolverhampton - based Express & Star, which reported that the match had been cancelled as a result of a "pitch invasion in which many fans were injured ''. This article was presumably published before there were any reports that people had been killed. These media reports and others were examined during the 2012 Hillsborough Independent Panel report.
On 19 April, four days after the disaster, Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, ordered "The Truth '' as the front page headline, followed by three sub-headlines: "Some fans picked pockets of victims '', "Some fans urinated on the brave cops '' and "Some fans beat up PC giving kiss of life ''. Mackenzie reportedly spent two hours deciding on which headline to run; his original instinct being for "You Scum '' before eventually deciding on "The Truth ''.
The information was provided to the newspaper by Whites News Agency in Sheffield; the newspaper cited claims by police inspector Gordon Sykes, that Liverpool fans had pickpocketed the dead, as well as other claims by unnamed police officers and local Conservative MP Irvine Patnick. The Daily Express also carried Patnick 's version, under the headline "Police Accuse Drunken Fans '' which gave Patnick 's views, saying he had told Margaret Thatcher, while escorting her on a tour of the ground after the disaster, of the "mayhem caused by drunks '' and that policemen told him they were "hampered, harassed, punched and kicked ''.
The story accompanying The Sun headlines claimed "drunken Liverpool fans viciously attacked rescue workers as they tried to revive victims '' and "police officers, firemen and ambulance crew were punched, kicked and urinated upon ''. A quotation, attributed to an unnamed policeman, claimed a partially unclothed dead girl had been verbally abused, and that Liverpool fans were "openly urinating on us and the bodies of the dead ''. In fact many Liverpool fans helped security personnel stretcher away victims and gave first aid to the injured. The Guardian later wrote that "The claim that supporters higher up the Leppings Lane terrace had urinated on police pulling bodies out of the crush appeared to have roots in the fact that those who were dying or sustaining serious injuries suffered compression asphyxia and many involuntarily urinated, vomited and emptied their bowels as they were crushed. ''
In their history of The Sun, Peter Chippendale and Chris Horrie wrote:
As MacKenzie 's layout was seen by more and more people, a collective shudder ran through the office (but) MacKenzie 's dominance was so total there was nobody left in the organisation who could rein him in except Murdoch. (Everyone in the office) seemed paralysed -- "looking like rabbits in the headlights '' -- as one hack described them. The error staring them in the face was too glaring. It obviously was n't a silly mistake; nor was it a simple oversight. Nobody really had any comment on it -- they just took one look and went away shaking their heads in wonder at the enormity of it. It was a ' classic smear '.
After The Sun 's report, the newspaper was boycotted by most newsagents in Liverpool and many readers cancelled their orders and refused to buy it from newsagents; and from then afterwards many in Liverpool refer to The Sun newspaper as The Scum. Some even refuse to say the name or spell it as The S * n. The Hillsborough Justice Campaign organised a less successful national boycott that had some impact on the paper 's sales nationally.
MacKenzie explained his actions in 1993. Talking to a House of Commons National Heritage Select Committee, he said: "I regret Hillsborough. It was a fundamental mistake. The mistake was I believed what an MP said. It was a Tory MP. If he had not said it and the Chief Superintendent had not agreed with it, we would not have gone with it. '' MacKenzie retracted the apology in November 2006, saying he apologised because the newspaper 's owner, Rupert Murdoch, had ordered him to do so, stating: "I was not sorry then and I 'm not sorry now ''. MacKenzie refused to apologise when appearing on the BBC 's topical Question Time on 11 January 2007.
The Sun apologised for its treatment of the Hillsborough disaster "without reservation '' in a full page opinion piece on 7 July 2004, saying it had "committed the most terrible mistake in its history '' by publishing it. The apology angered some Liverpudlians further. The Liverpool Echo called the apology, "shabby '' and "an attempt, once again, to exploit the Hillsborough dead ''.
James Murdoch made a full apology for The Sun 's coverage when he appeared at a hearing of the House of Commons Select Committee dealing with the News International phone hacking scandal in 2012.
On 12 September 2012, after the publication of the report exonerating the Liverpool fans, MacKenzie issued the following statement:
Today I offer my profuse apologies to the people of Liverpool for that headline. I too was totally misled. Twenty - three years ago I was handed a piece of copy from a reputable news agency in Sheffield, in which a senior police officer and a senior local MP were making serious allegations against fans in the stadium. I had absolutely no reason to believe that these authority figures would lie and deceive over such a disaster. As the prime minister has made clear, these allegations were wholly untrue and were part of a concerted plot by police officers to discredit the supporters thereby shifting the blame for the tragedy from themselves. It has taken more than two decades, 400,000 documents and a two - year inquiry to discover to my horror that it would have been far more accurate had I written the headline The Lies rather than The Truth. I published in good faith and I am sorry that it was so wrong.
In response, Trevor Hicks, chairman of the Hillsborough Family Support Group, rejected MacKenzie 's apology as "too little, too late '', calling him "lowlife, clever lowlife, but lowlife ''. A press conference held by families of the victims also banned all Sun reporters from entering, with a sign on the door reading "NO ENTRY TO SUN JOURNALISTS ''. Sales of The Sun remain poor in Merseyside and a boycott is still practised. In 2004, its average circulation in Liverpool was 12,000 copies a day.
Following the April 2016 verdict of unlawful killing, The Sun and the first print edition of the Times (both owned by News International), did not cover the stories on their front pages, with The Sun relegating the story to pages 8 and 9. An apology appeared on page 10, reiterating previous statements that the 1989 headline had been an error of judgement.
The coverage was widely condemned on social media, with Twitter users saying that this reflected "Murdoch 's view on Hillsborough '', which was a "smear '', which "now dare n't speak its name ''. On the night of the verdict coverage, more than 124,000 tweets used the term The Sun
However, on Sky News, The Sun 's Political Editor Tom Newton Dunn defended this decision, saying "I do n't think it should all be about The Sun -- it was not us who committed Hillsborough. '' Trevor Kavanagh, the political editor at the time of the Hillsborough disaster, said that he was "not sorry at all '' about the reporting and supported his former boss Kelvin MacKenzie, claiming that "we were clearly misled about the events and the authorities, including the police, actively concealed the truth ''.
In February 2017, Liverpool F.C. issued a ban on The Sun journalists from entering their grounds in response to the coverage of Hillsborough by the newspaper. Everton F.C. followed in April 2017 on the eve of the 28th anniversary of the disaster after a column by Kelvin MacKenzie concerning Everton footballer Ross Barkley. MacKenzie was suspended as a contributor to the newspaper.
The journalist Edward Pearce was criticised for writing a controversial article in the aftermath of the disaster, at a time when a number of victims ' funerals were taking place. His article in The Sunday Times on 23 April 1989, included the text:
"For the second time in half a decade a large body of Liverpool supporters has killed people... the shrine in the Anfield goalmouth, the cursing of the police, all the theatricals, come sweetly to a city which is already the world capital of self - pity. There are soapy politicians to make a pet of Liverpool, and Liverpool itself is always standing by to make a pet of itself. ' Why us? Why are we treated like animals? ' To which the plain answer is that a good and sufficient minority of you behave like animals. ''
Pearce went on reflect that if South Yorkshire Police bore any responsibility, it was "for not realising what brutes they had to handle. ''
Professor Phil Scraton described Pearce 's comments as amongst the "most bigoted and factually inaccurate '' published in the wake of the disaster. A number of complaints were made to the Press Council concerning the article, but the Council ruled that it was unable to adjudicate on comment pieces, though the Council noted that tragedy or disaster is not an occasion for writers to exercise gratuitous provocation.
On 27 April 2016, Times staffers in the sports department expressed their outrage over the paper 's decision to cover 26 April inquest, which ruled that the 96 dead were unlawfully killed, only on an inside spread and the sports pages, with some in the newspaper claiming there was a "mutiny '' in the sports department. The Times later tweeted that "We made a mistake with the front page of our first edition, and we fixed it for our second edition. ''
The Times was the only major UK newspaper not to give the story front - page coverage other than fellow News UK - owned Sun. Gary Lineker described the incident as "disgusting as it is unsurprising '', and David Walsh, chief sports writer at the Sunday Times, said it was a "shocking misjudgment '' to not include this story on the front page. However, insiders dismissed any suggestion that a visit by News UK owner Rupert Murdoch to the Times newsroom on the day of the verdict had anything to do with the editorial decision.
The November 2002 edition of the men 's lifestyle magazine FHM in Australia was swiftly withdrawn from sale soon after its publication, and a public apology made in the Australian and British editions, because it contained jokes mocking the disaster. As a result, Emap Australia, who owned FHM at the time, pledged to make a donation to the families of the victims. Although the original apology was not printed in the magazine as it was not considered "serious enough '', its Australian editor, Geoff Campbell, released a statement: "We deeply regret the photograph captions published in the November issue of the Australian edition of FHM, accompanying an article about the Hillsborough disaster of 1989. The right course of action is to withdraw this edition from sale -- which we will be doing. We have been in contact with the Hillsborough Family Support Group and the Hillsborough Justice Campaign to express our deep regret and sincere apologies. '' The British edition disassociated itself from the controversy, stating: "FHM Australia has its own editorial team and these captions were written and published without consultation with the UK edition, or any other edition of FHM. ''
The vice-chairman of the Hillsborough Family Support Group, Philip Hammond, said he wanted all football fans to boycott the magazine, saying, "I am going to write to every fanzine in the country -- including Liverpool F.C. 's -- telling them to ban FHM. People are very upset by it. I think there will be a real boycott. '' He added it would be like making jokes about the 2002 Bali bombings, in which eight fewer Australians were killed. The publication was finally discontinued in 2016, for unrelated reasons.
Boris Johnson, then - editor of The Spectator, was criticised for an editorial which appeared in the magazine on 16 October 2004 following the death of British hostage Kenneth John "Ken '' Bigley in Iraq, in which it was claimed that the response to Bigley 's killing was fuelled by the fact he was from Liverpool, and went on to criticise the "drunken '' fans at Hillsborough and call on them to accept responsibility for their "role '' in the disaster:
The extreme reaction to Mr Bigley 's murder is fed by the fact that he was a Liverpudlian. Liverpool is a handsome city with a tribal sense of community. A combination of economic misfortune -- its docks were, fundamentally, on the wrong side of England when Britain entered what is now the European Union -- and an excessive predilection for welfarism have created a peculiar, and deeply unattractive, psyche among many Liverpudlians. They see themselves whenever possible as victims, and resent their victim status; yet at the same time they wallow in it. Part of this flawed psychological state is that they can not accept that they might have made any contribution to their misfortunes, but seek rather to blame someone else for it, thereby deepening their sense of shared tribal grievance against the rest of society. The deaths of more than 50 Liverpool football supporters at Hillsborough in 1989 was undeniably a greater tragedy than the single death, however horrible, of Mr Bigley; but that is no excuse for Liverpool 's failure to acknowledge, even to this day, the part played in the disaster by drunken fans at the back of the crowd who mindlessly tried to fight their way into the ground that Saturday afternoon. The police became a convenient scapegoat, and the Sun newspaper a whipping - boy for daring, albeit in a tasteless fashion, to hint at the wider causes of the incident.
Although Johnson did not make these comments, journalist Simon Heffer alleged he wrote the first draft of the article "at Mr Johnson 's request '', and offered to apologise for its publication after it attracted "a furore in the city (of Liverpool) ''. Johnson apologised at the time of the article, travelling to Liverpool to do so, and again following the publication of the report of the Hillsborough Independent Panel in 2012; however, Johnson 's apology was rejected by Margaret Aspinall, chairperson of the Hillsborough Families Support Group, whose son James, 18, died in the disaster:
What he has got to understand is that we were speaking the truth for 23 years and apologies have only started to come today from them because of yesterday. It 's too little, too late. It 's fine to apologise afterwards. They just do n't want their names in any more sleaze. No, his apology does n't mean a thing to me.
The Spectator 's comments -- incorrectly attributed to Boris Johnson -- were widely circulated following the April 2016 verdict by the Hillsborough inquest 's second hearing proving unlawful killing of the 96 dead at Hillsborough.
In November 2007, the BBC soap opera EastEnders caused controversy when the character Minty Peterson (played by Cliff Parisi) made a reference to the disaster. During the episode car mechanic Minty said: "Five years out of Europe because of Heysel, because they penned you lot in to stop you fighting on the pitch and then what did we end up with? Hillsborough. '' This prompted 380 complaints and the BBC apologised, saying that the character was simply reminding another character, former football hooligan Jase Dyer, that the actions of hooligans led to the fencing - in of football fans. Ofcom also received 177 complaints.
Liverpool goalkeeper Charles Itandje was accused of having shown disrespect towards the Hillsborough victims during the 2009 remembrance ceremony, as he was spotted on camera "smiling and nudging '' teammate Damien Plessis. He was suspended from the club for a fortnight and many fans felt he should not play for the club again. He was omitted from the first team squad and never played for the club in any capacity again.
On 28 June 2010, following England 's departure from the 2010 FIFA World Cup competition in South Africa, the UK 's Culture and Sport Secretary Jeremy Hunt praised the England fans for their behaviour during the competition, saying "I mean, not a single arrest for a football - related offence, and the terrible problems that we had in Heysel and Hillsborough in the 1980s seem now to be behind us. '' He later apologised and said "I know that fan unrest played no part in the terrible events of April 1989 and I apologise to Liverpool fans and the families of those killed and injured in the Hillsborough disaster if my comments caused any offence. '' Margaret Aspinall, chairperson of the Hillsborough Family Support Group, asked for a face to face meeting with Hunt before deciding if she would accept the apology.
Fans of rival football clubs such as Manchester United have been known to mention the Hillsborough disaster at fixtures to upset Liverpool fans. Following the findings of the Independent Panel in September 2012, Alex Ferguson and two Manchester United fan groups called for an end to the "sick chants ''. Leeds United chairman Ken Bates endorsed this call in the club programme and stated, "Leeds have suffered at times with reference to Galatasaray; some of our so - called fans have also been guilty as well, particularly in relation to Munich. '' This is a reference to the deaths of eight Manchester United players in the Munich air disaster of 1958.
In October 2011, Sir Oliver Popplewell, who chaired the public inquiry into the 1985 Bradford City stadium fire at Valley Parade that killed 56 people, called on the families of the Hillsborough victims to look at the "quiet dignity and great courage relatives in the West Yorkshire city had shown in the years following the tragedy ''. He said: "The citizens of Bradford behaved with quiet dignity and great courage. They did not harbour conspiracy theories. They did not seek endless further inquiries. They buried their dead, comforted the bereaved and succoured the injured. They organised a sensible compensation scheme and moved on. Is there, perhaps, a lesson there for the Hillsborough campaigners? ''
Popplewell was criticised for the comments, including a rebuke from a survivor of the Bradford fire. Labour MP Steve Rotheram, commented: "How insensitive does somebody have to be to write that load of drivel? ''
A formal complaint was made against David Crompton, South Yorkshire 's chief constable, over internal emails relating to the Hillsborough disaster. In 2013 Crompton sent an email in which he said the families ' "version of certain events has become ' the truth ' even though it is n't ''. In September, David Crompton had emailed the force 's assistant chief constable Andy Holt and head of media Mark Thompson on 8 September, just four days before the Hillsborough Independent Panel Report was published. The email came to light as the result of a Freedom of Information request. South Yorkshire 's police and crime commissioner Shaun Wright has appointed chief constable Simon Parr of Cambridgeshire Constabulary to head the investigation. Wright said: "The request has been submitted by a firm of solicitors in Liverpool acting on behalf of a number of individuals affected by the event. ''
In March 2016, Crompton announced that he would retire in November. On 26 April 2016, after the inquest jury delivered a verdict affirming all the charges against the police, Crompton "unequivocally accepted '' the verdicts, including unlawful killing, said that the police operation at the stadium on the day of the disaster had been "catastrophically wrong '', and apologised unreservedly. Following continued criticism of Crompton in the wake of the unlawful killing verdict, South Yorkshire Police and Crime Commissioner Alan Billings suspended Crompton from duty on 27 April.
In June 2014, an unnamed 24 - year - old British civil servant was sacked for posting offensive comments about the disaster on Wikipedia.
In 2009, nearly twenty years to the day after the disaster, Steven Cohen, a presenter on Fox Soccer Channel and Sirius satellite radio in the United States (an Englishman and Chelsea fan), stated on his radio show that Liverpool fans "without tickets '' were the "root cause '' and "perpetrators '' of the disaster. A boycott of advertisers by American Liverpool fans eventually brought about an apology from him. Despite this he was replaced as presenter of Fox Football Fone - in. His actions were disowned by Chelsea Football Club and he no longer works as a broadcaster.
In 1996, Sir Bernard Ingham, former press secretary to former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, caused controversy with his comments about the disaster. In a letter addressed to a victim 's parent, Ingham wrote that the disaster was caused by "tanked up yobs ''. In another letter written to a Liverpool supporter, also written in 1996, Ingham remarked that people should "shut up about Hillsborough ''. On the day of the inquest verdict, Ingham refused to apologise or respond to the previous comments he made, telling a reporter, "I have nothing to say. '' There have since been calls to have Ingham stripped of his knighthood.
A television drama film, based on the disaster and subsequent events, titled simply Hillsborough, was produced by Granada Television. It was highly praised and won the BAFTA Award for Best Single Drama in 1997. Christopher Eccleston, Ricky Tomlinson and Mark Womack were among the leading actors appearing in the film. It was aired for the first time in 1996, and has been aired four times since then, in 1998, 2009, in September 2012 on the weekend following the release of the findings of the Hillsborough Independent Panel, and again on 1 May 2016 on ITV.
The American sports network ESPN, as part of its 30 for 30 series of sports films (under a new "Soccer Stories '' subdivision), aired the documentary Hillsborough as a co-production with the BBC. Directed by Daniel Gordon, the 2 - hour film chronicles the disaster, the investigations, and their lingering effects; it also included interviews with survivors, victims ' relatives, police officers and investigators. Hillsborough aired the first time on 15 April 2014, the 25th anniversary of the disaster. The documentary was unable to be shown in Great Britain upon initial release due to the 2012 High Court inquest still being in progress. The documentary includes previously unreleased security camera footage from the stadium on the day of the disaster. However, after the inquest verdict the BBC aired the documentary on 8 May 2016, with additional footage from the inquest and its final verdict.
Two British stage plays also dealt with the disaster with different view points:
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you don't know me armand van helden sample | You Do n't Know Me (Armand Van Helden song) - Wikipedia
"You Do n't Know Me '' (originally titled "U Do n't Know Me '', sometimes shortened as "YDKM '') is a song by American record producer Armand Van Helden, featuring the vocals from German - American singer Duane Harden. It was released on 25 January 1999 as the lead single from his third studio album, 2 Future 4 U.
The song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart, and reached number one in the UK Singles Chart in February 1999, where it dethroned The Offspring 's "Pretty Fly (For a White Guy) '' off the top spot. It scored Armand Van Helden his first chart - topper in the UK. "U Do n't Know Me '' peaked at number seven in France and Italy. The recording of this song went about in an unconventional way; the track was laid down, Van Helden went off and did his own thing, and left Harden to his own devices. This song was soon sampled by DJ duo Doman & Gooding for their hit single, "Runnin ' ''.
The strings featured in this song are courtesy of Carrie Lucas 's "Dance With You ''. The drums are sampled from Jaydee 's "Plastic Dreams '' The full version of the track features a dialogue from the Dial M for Monkey segment of Cartoon Network 's Dexter 's Laboratory. The episode was "Simion '', (Maurice LaMarche) provided the spoken intro.
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what is the type of government in trinidad and tobago | Politics of Trinidad and Tobago - wikipedia
The politics of Trinidad and Tobago function within the framework of a unitary state regulated by a parliamentary democracy modelled on that of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, from which the country gained its independence in 1962. Under the 1976 republican Constitution, the British monarch was replaced as head of state by a President chosen by an electoral college composed of the members of the bicameral Parliament, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The country has remained a member of the Commonwealth, and has retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London as its highest court of appeal. The view of Ernest TC - Singh is that the general direction and control of the government rests with the Cabinet, led by a Prime Minister. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are answerable (at least in theory) to the House of Representatives. The 41 members of the House are elected to terms of at least five years. Elections may be called earlier by the president at the request of the prime minister or after a vote of no confidence in the House of Representatives. In 1976, the voting age was reduced from 21 to 18. The Senate 's 31 members are appointed by the President: 16 on the advice of the prime minister, six on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and nine independents selected by the President from among outstanding members of the community. Local government is through nine Regional Corporations and five municipalities. Tobago was given a measure of self - government in 1980 and is governed by the Tobago House of Assembly. In 1996, Parliament passed legislation which gave Tobago greater self - government. In 2005 Parliament approved a proposal by the independent Elections and Boundaries Commission to increase the number of seats in the House of Representatives from 36 to 41.
Party politics has generally run along ethnic lines, with most Afro - Trinidadians supporting the People 's National Movement (PNM) and most Indo - Trinidadians supporting various Indian - majority parties, such as the current United National Congress (UNC) or its predecessors. Most political parties, however, have sought to broaden their purview. In the run - up to the 2007 general election, a new political presence emerged called Congress of The People (COP). Led by former Winston Dookeran, the majority of this membership was formed from former UNC members. Despite gaining a significant but minority share of the vote in various constituencies, the COP failed to capture a single seat.
An early general election was called on 16 April 2010, and was held on 24 May 2010. Two major entities contested the election: the incumbent PNM, and a coalition called the People 's Partnership, led by UNC leader Kamla Persad - Bissessar, comprising the UNC, COP, TOP (Tobago Organisation of the People), and two labour and non-governmental organisations: the National Joint Action Committee and the Movement for Social Justice. The People 's Partnership won 29 seats and the majority, with Kamla Persad - Bissessar being sworn in as the country 's first female Prime Minister on 26 May 2010. The PNM won the remaining 12 seats and comprised the opposition in parliament.
After the period a new party also emerged from an ex member of the United National Congress known as the ILP which was founded by FIFA ex-vice president Jack Warner
In the 2015 general election resulted in a victory for the People 's National Movement, which won 23 of the 41 seats led by Keith Rowley.
The President is elected by an electoral college, which consists of the members of the Senate and House of Representatives, for a five - year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President from among the members of Parliament; following legislative elections, the person with the most support among the elected members of the House of Representatives is appointed Prime Minister, usually the leader of the winning party. The cabinet is appointed from among the Members of Parliament, which constitutes elected Members of the House of Representatives and appointed Members of the Senate
Cabinet ministers of Trinidad and Tobago
Following the 2015 general elections, a number of ministries were removed, while others were consolidated or reintroduced.
The Parliament of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 41 members, elected for a five - year term in single - seat constituencies. The Senate has 31 members: 16 Government Senators appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, six Opposition Senators appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and nine Independent Senators appointed by the President to represent other sectors of civil society.
The 15 member Tobago House of Assembly has limited autonomy with respect to Tobago.
note: Tobago has a unicameral House of Assembly, with 15 members (12 elected) serving four - year terms; in the 2005 elections the PNM won.
The country 's highest court is the Court of Appeal, whose chief justice is appointed by the president after consultation with the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition. The current Chief Justice of Trinidad and Tobago is Ivor Archie. Final appeal on some matters is decided by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London. Trinidad and Tobago was chosen by its Caribbean neighbours (Caricom) to be the headquarters site of the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) which was supposed to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the fall of 2003. However, the government has been unable to pass legislation to effect this change.
Trinidad is divided in five Municipalities Arima, Chaguanas, Port of Spain, Point Fortin, San Fernando and nine Regional Corporations Couva - Tabaquite - Talparo, Diego Martin, Penal - Debe, Princes Town, Rio Claro - Mayaro, San Juan - Laventille, Sangre Grande, Siparia, and Tunapuna - Piarco.
Local government in Tobago is handled by the Tobago House of Assembly.
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G - 24, G - 77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, ITUC, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
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tough guise refers to a dominant construction of masculinity in this culture | Hegemonic masculinity - wikipedia
In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity is part of R.W. Connell 's gender order theory, which recognizes multiple masculinities that vary across time, culture and the individual. Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men 's dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of women, and other marginalized ways of being a man. Conceptually, hegemonic masculinity proposes to explain how and why men maintain dominant social roles over women, and other gender identities, which are perceived as "feminine '' in a given society.
As a sociologic concept, the hegemonic nature of "hegemonic masculinity '' derives from the theory of cultural hegemony, by Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci, which analyzes the power relations among the social classes of a society. Hence, in the term "hegemonic masculinity '', the adjective hegemonic refers to the cultural dynamics by means of which a social group claims, and sustains, a leading and dominant position in a social hierarchy; nonetheless, hegemonic masculinity embodies a form of social organization that has been sociologically challenged and changed.
The conceptual beginnings of hegemonic masculinity represented the culturally idealized form of manhood that was socially and hierarchically exclusive and concerned with bread - winning; that was anxiety - provoking and differentiated (internally and hierarchically); that was brutal and violent, pseudo-natural and tough, psychologically contradictory, and thus crisis - prone; economically rich and socially sustained.
Many sociologists criticized that definition of hegemonic masculinity as a fixed character - type, which is analytically limited, because it excludes the complexity of different, and competing, forms of masculinity. Consequently, hegemonic masculinity was reformulated to include gender hierarchy, the geography of masculine configurations, the processes of social embodiment, and the psycho - social dynamics of the varieties of masculinity. Moreover, proponents argue that hegemonic masculinity is conceptually useful for understanding gender relations, and is applicable to life - span development, education, criminology, the representations of masculinity in the mass communications media, the health of men and women, and the functional structure of organizations.
Terry Kupers of The Wright Institute describes the concept of hegemonic masculinity in these terms:
In contemporary American and European culture, (hegemonic masculinity) serves as the standard upon which the "real man '' is defined. According to (R.W) Connell, contemporary hegemonic masculinity is built on two legs, domination of women and a hierarchy of intermale dominance. It is also shaped to a significant extent by the stigmatization of homosexuality. Hegemonic masculinity is the stereotypic notion of masculinity that shapes the socialization and aspirations of young males. Today 's hegemonic masculinity in the United States of America and Europe includes a high degree of ruthless competition, an inability to express emotions other than anger, an unwillingness to admit weakness or dependency, devaluation of women and all feminine attributes in men, homophobia, and so forth.
The concept of hegemonic masculinity was first proposed in field reports from a study of social inequality in Australian high schools; in a related conceptual discussion of the making of masculinities and the experiences of men 's bodies; and in a debate over the role of men in Australian labor politics. These beginnings were organized into an article which critiqued the "male sex role '' literature and proposed a model of multiple masculinities and power relations. This model was integrated into a systematic sociological theory of gender. The resulting six pages in Gender and Power by R.W. Connell on "hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity '' became the most cited source for the concept of hegemonic masculinity. This concept draws its theoretical roots from the Gramscian term hegemony as it was used to understand the stabilization of class relations. The idea was then transferred to the problem of gender relations.
Hegemonic masculinity draws some of its historical roots from both the fields of social psychology and sociology which contributed to the literature about the male sex role that had begun to recognize the social nature of masculinity and the possibilities of change in men 's conduct. This literature preceded the Women 's Liberation Movement and feminist theories of patriarchy which also played a strong role in shaping the concept of hegemonic masculinity. The core concepts of power and difference were found in the gay liberation movement which had not only sought to analyze the oppression of men but also oppression by men. This idea of a hierarchy of masculinities has since persisted and strongly influenced the reformulation of the concept.
Empirical social research also played an important role as a growing body of field studies documented local gender hierarchies and local cultures of masculinities in schools, male - dominated workplaces, and village communities. Finally, the concept was influenced by psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud produced the first analytic biographies of men and showed how adult personality was a system under tension and psychoanalyst Stoller popularized the concept of gender identity and mapped its variation in boys ' development.
The particular normative form of masculinity that is the most honored way of being a man, which requires all other men to position themselves in relation to it, is known as hegemonic masculinity. Originally, hegemonic masculinity was understood as the pattern of practice that allowed men 's dominance over women to continue. In Western society, the dominant form of masculinity or the cultural ideal of manhood was primarily reflective of white, heterosexual, largely middle - class males. The ideals of manhood espoused by the dominant masculinity suggested a number of characteristics that men are encouraged to internalize into their own personal codes and which form the basis for masculine scripts of behavior. These characteristics include: violence and aggression, stoicism (emotional restraint), courage, toughness, physical strength, athleticism, risk - taking, adventure and thrill - seeking, competitiveness, and achievement and success. Hegemonic masculinity is not completely dominant, however, as it only exists in relation to non-hegemonic, subordinated forms of masculinity. The most salient example of this approach in contemporary European and American society is the dominance of heterosexual men and the subordination of homosexual men. This was manifested in political and cultural exclusion, legal violence, street violence, and economic discrimination. Gay masculinity was the most conspicuous subordinated masculinity during this period of time, but not the only one. Heterosexual men and boys with effeminate characteristics ran the risk of being scorned as well.
Hegemonic masculinity is neither normative in the numerical sense, as only a small minority of men may enact it, nor in an actual sense, as the cultural ideal of masculinity is often a fantasy figure, such as John Wayne or John Rambo. Hegemonic masculinity may not even be the commonest pattern in the everyday lives of men. Rather, hegemony can operate through the formation of exemplars of masculinity, symbols that have cultural authority despite the fact that most men and boys can not fully live up them. Hegemonic masculinity imposes an ideal set of traits which stipulate that a man can never be unfeminine enough. Thus, fully achieving hegemonic masculinity becomes an unattainable ideal.
Complicity to the aforementioned masculine characteristics was another key feature of the original framework of hegemonic masculinity. Yet still since men benefit from the patriarchal dividend, they generally gain from the overall subordination of women. However, complicity is not so easily defined as pure subordination since marriage, fatherhood, and community life often involve extensive compromises with women rather than simple domination over them. In this way hegemony is not gained through necessarily violent or forceful means, but it is achieved through culture, institutions, and persuasions.
The interplay of gender with class and race creates more extensive relationships among masculinities. For example, new information technology has redefined middle - class masculinities and working - class masculinities in different ways. In a racial context, hegemonic masculinity among whites sustains the institutional oppression and physical terror that have framed the making of masculinities in black communities. It has been suggested that historically suppressed groups like inner city African - American males exhibit the more violent standards of hegemonic masculinity in response to their own subordination and lack of control. This idea of marginalization is always relative to what is allowed by the dominant group, therefore creating subsets of hegemonic masculinity based on existing social hierarchies.
As the earliest model of this concept grew, so did the scrutiny and criticisms surrounding it. The following principal criticisms have been identified since debate about the concept began in the early 1990s.
The underlying concept of masculinity has been argued as flawed from both a realist and a poststructuralist point of view. To Hearn, the concept of masculinity is blurred, uncertain in its meaning, and tends to deemphasize issues of power and domination. To Petersen, the concept of masculinity is flawed because it reduces the character of men or imposes a false unity of a fluid and contradictory reality. The concept of masculinity is criticized for being framed within a heteronormative conception of gender that oversimplified male - female difference and ignores differences and exclusions within the gender categories. The concept of masculinity is said to rest logically on a dichotomization of sex (biological) and gender (cultural) and thus marginalizes or naturalizes the body. Brod observes that there is a tendency in men 's studies field to proceed as if women were not a relevant part of the analysis and therefore to analyze masculinities by looking only at men and relations among men. Therefore, a consistently relational approach to gender is being called upon.
Early criticisms of the concept raised the question of who actually represents hegemonic masculinity. Many men who hold great social power do not embody an ideal masculinity. Martin criticizes the concept for leading to inconsistent applications sometimes referring to a fixed type and other times to whatever the dominant form is. Wetherell and Edley contend this concept fails to specify what conformity to hegemonic masculinity actually looks like in practice. Similarly Whitehead suggests there is confusion over who actually is a hegemonically masculine man. Inspired by Gramsci 's differentiation between hegemony as a form of ideological consent and dominance as an expression of conflict Groes - Green has argued that when hegemonic masculinities are challenged in a society dominant masculinities are emerging based on bodily powers, such as violence and sexuality, rather than based on economic and social powers. Through examples from his fieldwork among youth in Maputo, Mozambique he shows that this change is related to social polarization, new class identities and the undermining of breadwinner roles and ideologies in a neoliberal economy.
It has also been argued that the concept of hegemonic masculinity does not adequately describe a realness of power. Holter argues that the concept constructs power from the direct experience of women rather than from the structural basis of women 's subordination. Holter believes in distinguishing between patriarchy and gender and argues further that it is a mistake to treat a hierarchy of masculinities constructed within gender relations as logically continuous with the patriarchal subordination of women. In response to the adverse connotations surrounding the concept, Collier remarks that hegemonic masculinity is solely associated with negative characteristics that depict men as unemotional, aggressive, independent, and non-nurturing without recognizing positive behaviors such as bringing home a wage or being a father.
Several authors have argued that the concept of hegemonic masculinity is based on an unsatisfactory theory of the subject because it does not rely enough upon discourses of masculinity. Wetherell and Edley argue that hegemonic masculinity can not be understood as the characteristics that constitute any group of men. To Whitehead the concept fails to specify how and why some heterosexual men legitimate, reproduce, and generate their dominance and do so as a social minority since they are outnumbered by women and other men they dominate. A related criticism also derives from psychoanalysis which has criticized the lack of attention given to how men actually psychologically relate to hegemonic masculinity. For example, Laurie argues that the hegemonic masculinity framework lends itself to a modified essentialism, wherein the "achievement of masculine goals is frequently attributed to a way of thinking understood as inherent to the male psyche, and in relation to an innate disposition for homosocial bonding ''.
There is considerable evidence that hegemonic masculinity is not a self - reproducing form. Demetriou suggests this is because a kind of simplification has occurred. He identifies two forms of hegemony, internal and external. External hegemony relates to the institutionalization of men 's dominance over women and internal hegemony refers to the position of one group of men over all other men. Scholars commonly do not clarify or acknowledge the relationship between the two. This suggests that subordinated and marginalized masculinities do not impact the construction of hegemonic masculinity as much as critics suggest it should.
In one of the most widely cited works analyzing the concept, Connell and Messerschmidt sought to reformulate their theory of hegemonic masculinity in light of certain criticisms. They readjusted their framework to address four main areas: the nature of gender hierarchy, the geography of masculine configurations, the process of social embodiment, and the dynamics of masculinities.
Gender hierarchy seeks to explain not only why men hold a superior position to women but how each group influences one another. Research has documented the durability of nonhegemonic patterns of masculinity, which may represent well - crafted responses to racial / ethnic marginalization, physical disability, class inequality, or stigmatized sexuality. Hegemony may be accomplished by the incorporation of such masculinities into functioning gender order rather than by active oppression in the form of degradation or violence. An example would include that of the mainstream adoption of black hip hop culture which was created in response to urban structural inequalities. Another example is that of "protest masculinity '', in which local working - class settings, sometimes involving ethnically marginalized men, embodies the claim to power typical of regional hegemonic masculinities in Western countries, but lack the economic resources and institutional authority that underpins the regional and global patterns.
This new emphasis on gender hierarchy seeks to take a more relational approach to women as well. Women are central in many of the processes constructing masculinities, as mothers, schoolmates, girlfriends, sexual partners, wives, and workers in the gender division of labor. Gender hierarchies are affected by new configurations of women 's identity and practice so more attention has been given to the historical interplay of femininities and masculinities.
Change in locally specific constructions of hegemonic masculinity has been a consistent theme of masculinity research, but given the growing attention to globalization, the significance of transnational arenas for the construction of masculinity has also been argued. Hooper described the deployment of masculinities in the arenas of international relations, and Connell proposed a model of "transnational business masculinity '' among jet - setting corporate executives. Because of this, Connell and Messerschmidt have proposed hegemonic masculinities be analyzed at three levels: local, regional, and global. The links between these levels are critical to gender politics since interventions at any level giving women more power and representation can influence from the top down or from the bottom up. Additionally, adopting a framework that distinguishes between the three levels allows one to recognize the importance of place without making generalizations about independent cultures or discourses.
Social embodiment calls for a more rigid definition of what a hegemonically masculine man is and how the idea is actually carried out in real life. The pattern of embodiment involved in hegemony has been recognized in the earliest formulations of the concept but called for more theoretical attention. The importance of masculine embodiment for identity and behavior emerges in many contexts. For example, in youth, skill in physical activity becomes a prime indicator of masculinity. This notion continues to manifest itself into many different health and sexual practices such as eating meat or having multiple sexual partners. The emergence of transgender issues has made it particularly clear that embodiment be given more focus in reconceptualizations. The circuits of social embodiment may be very direct and simple or may be long and complex, passing through institutions, economic relations, cultural symbols, and so forth without ceasing to involve material bodies.
New theory has recognized the layering and potential internal contradictions within all practices that construct masculinities. This is a departure from a unitary masculinity and focus on compromised formations between contradictory desires or emotions. Masculinities are configurations of practice that are constructed, unfold, and change through time. One area of focus may represent that of Western fathers given the gender division of labor in child care, the "long hours culture '' of professions and management, and the preoccupation of rich fathers with managing their wealth. While these practices may adhere to conventional Western ideas of hegemonic masculinity, this may not necessarily translate into a satisfying life experience. As gender relations evolve and women 's movements grow stronger, the dynamics of masculinities may see a complete abolition of power differentials and a more equitable relationship between men and women and between men and other men. This positive hegemony remains a key strategy for contemporary efforts at reforming gender relations. Groes - Green has argued that Connell 's theory of masculinities risks excluding the possibility of more gender equitable or "philogynous '' forms of masculinity such as those he has identified in Mozambique. He urges social researchers to begin developing theories and concepts that can improve an understanding of how more positive, alternative and less dominant masculinities may develop even if these are always embedded in local gender power relations.
Children learn at an early age, mostly through educational and peer interactions, what it means to be a boy and what it means to be a girl, and are quick to demonstrate that they understand these roles. This notion of "doing '' gender involves differentiating between boys and girls from the day they are born and perpetuating the discourses of gender difference. The idea of dualism of the genders are misconstrued by dominant ideology and feeds into social norms of masculinity. Children learn and show development of gender identity as an ongoing process, based on social situations. Gendered toys can play a large role in demonstrating the preferred actions and behavior of young boys in early childhood. The male role is also reinforced by observing older boys and reactions of authority figures, including parents.
Although gender socialization is well underway before children reach preschool, stereotypical differences between boys and girls are typically reinforced, rather than diminished, by their early educational childhood experiences. Teachers have a large role in reinforcing gender stereotypes by limiting children 's choices at this young age, thus not allowing boys to explore their feelings or their understandings about gender freely. This is done through the endorsement of hegemonic masculinity embodying physical domination, strength, competitiveness, sport, courage, and aggression. These gendered performances are based on society 's construction of femininity and masculinity in relation to heterosexuality. Heteronormativity is the standard for children; despite their obvious sexual innocence, heterosexuality is ingrained in children in their acting of gender from an early age.
Another factor that contributes to gendered behavior and roles is the greater visibility, importance, and presence of males than females in literature, and in the language that teachers use for communication and instruction. Male - generic pronouns are a special problem in early childhood settings. A recommended method to help gender barriers disappear is specific training for teachers and more education on the topic for parents. Though, an ultimate conclusion by one author notes that young children know, feel, and think gender despite the wishes of adults to make gender disappear in their lives.
A lifespan perspective must be considered when discussing gender normalization. But one must also consider cultural hegemony in this stage of the lifespan as a child develops more of an understanding of their culture and begins to display original ideas of cultural norms as well as social norms. According to the constructivist emphasis, the man / woman dichotomy is not the "natural '' state, but rather a potent metaphor in Western cultures. Building social relationships and developing individuality are essential benchmarks for this age of middle childhood, which ranges from eight years old to puberty. A young boy is trying to navigate falling within the social structure that has been laid out for him, which includes interacting with both sexes, and a dominant notion of maleness. The gender environmentalism, which emphasizes the role of societal practices in generating and maintaining gender differentiation, still plays a part in this stage of life, but is possibly more influenced by immediate and close interactions with boys close to their age. The boys organize themselves in a hierarchical structure in which the high - status boys decide what is acceptable and valued -- that which is hegemonically masculine -- and what is not. A boy 's rank in the hierarchy is chiefly determined by his athletic ability.
One site where gender is performed and socialized is in sport. Violent sports such as football are fundamental in naturalizing the equation of maleness with violence. Displays of strength and violence, through sports like football, help to naturalize elements of competition and hierarchy as inherently male behaviour. There is considerable evidence that males are hormonally predisposed to higher levels of aggression on average that females, due to the effects of testosterone. However, the violent and competitive nature of sports like football can only be an exclusively masculine domain if girls and women are excluded from participating altogether. The only means through which women are permitted to participate in football is as the passive spectator or cheerleader, although women do sometimes participate in other violent contact sports, such as boxing.
When a child engages in behavior or uses something that is more often associated with the opposite sex, this is referred to as crossing gender borders. When gender borders are crossed in adolescence, the children are policed by themselves. Conflicts and disagreements between boys are resolved by name - calling and teasing, physical aggression, and exclusion from the group. This brings confusion to the natural order of building their individualism, and stifles their creativity and freeplay, critical to developing lifelong skills in problem solving and decision making. Another notion which further confuses youth is "multiple masculinities '' is introduced where variables such as social class, race, ethnicity, generation, and family status determines how these young men must perform their masculinity. Boys who fail to fit the social norm are forced to enter adolescence having experienced alienation from their social group and marginalized from the social order they strive to achieve in this stage of life.
The last stage of childhood, adolescence, marks the onset of puberty and the eventual beginning of adulthood. Hegemonic masculinity then positions some boys, and all girls, as subordinate or inferior to others. Bullying is another avenue in which young men assert their dominance over less "masculine '' boys. In this bullying schema, adolescent boys are motivated to be at the top of the scale by engaging in more risk taking activities as well. Oftentimes bullying is motivated by social constructs and generalized ideas of what a young man should be. Gendered sexuality in adolescence refers to the role gender takes in the adolescent 's life and how it is informed by and impacts others ' perceptions of their sexuality. This can lead to gay bashing and other forms of discrimination if young men seem not to perform the appropriate masculinity.
The male gender role is not biologically fixed, yet it is a result of the internalization of culturally defined gender norms and ideologies. In this stage this is an important point as developmental psychologists recognize change in relations with parents, peers, and even their own self - identity. This is a time of confusion and disturbance; they feel influenced as a result of asserted hegemonic masculinity as well as social factors that lead them to become more self - conscious. De Visser et al., show that although men need not engage in all masculine behavior to be considered masculine, enacting in more masculine behaviors increases the likelihood they will be considered more masculine, otherwise known as building "masculine capital ''. It has been suggested that boys ' emotional stoicism leaves them unable to recognize their own and others ' emotions, which leaves a risk for developing psychological distress and empty interpersonal skills. Boys in their adolescence are pressured to act masculine in order to fit the hegemonic ideals, yet the possibility of suffering long - term psychological damage as a result looms overhead.
The 1995 documentary, The Celluloid Closet discusses the depictions of homosexuals throughout film history. Furthermore, considering the media so heavily associates masculinity with heterosexual sex, it is no wonder that gay men in the media are given more feminine attributes, such as fragility, sensitivity, and a disregard for violence. Their disinterest in objectifying women 's bodies makes them appear un-masculine. In Jackson Katz ' film Tough Guise: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity, he explains: "We ca n't show any emotion except anger. We ca n't think too much or seem too intelligent. We ca n't back down when someone disrespects us. We have to show we 're tough enough to inflict physical pain and take it in turn. We 're supposed to be sexually aggressive with women. And then we 're taught that if we step out of this box, we risk being seen as soft, weak, feminine, or gay ''.
Hegemonic masculinity has been used in education studies to understand the dynamics of classroom life, including patterns of resistance and bullying among boys. It was also used to explore relations to the curriculum and the difficulties in gender - neutral pedagogy. It was used to understand teaching strategies and teacher identities among such groups as physical education instructors. This concept has also been helpful in structuring violence - prevention programs for youth. and emotional education programs for boys.
Hegemonic masculinity has greatly influenced criminology as data reflects that men and boys perpetuate more conventional crimes and more serious crimes than women and girls. Moreover, men are responsible for much more white - collar crimes than women as well. The concept of hegemonic masculinity helped in theorizing the relationship among masculinities and a variety of crimes. It was also used in studies on specific crimes by boys and men, such as rape in Switzerland, murder in Australia, football hooliganism and white - collar crime in England, and assaultive violence in the United States. Regarding costs and consequences, research in criminology showed how particular patterns of aggression were linked with hegemonic masculinity, not because criminals already had dominant positions, but because they were pursuing them.
Hegemonic masculinity has also been employed in studying media representations of men. Because the concept of hegemony helps to make sense of both the diversity and the selectiveness of images in mass media, media researchers have begun mapping the relations between different masculinities. Portrayals of masculinity in men 's lifestyle magazines have been studied and researchers found elements of hegemonic masculinity woven throughout them. Commercial sports are a focus of media representations of masculinity, and the developing field of sports sociology found significant use of the concept of hegemonic masculinity. It was deployed in understanding the popularity of body - contact confrontational sports which function as an endlessly renewed symbol of masculinity and in understanding the violence and homophobia frequently found in sporting environments. American football, and the prevalence of concussions in the sport, is a particularly salient example of the impacts of hegemonic masculinity. With the dominant mode of hegemonic masculinity valuing emotionlessness, invulnerability, toughness, and risk - taking, concussions have become normalized. Players have accepted them as simply "part of the game ''. If a man does not play through a concussion, he risks being blamed for the team 's loss, or labelled as effeminate. It is noble to play in pain, nobler to play in agony, and noblest if one never exhibits any sign of pain at all. Coaches buy into this unwritten code of masculinity as well, by invoking euphemisms such as "he needs to learn the difference between injury and pain '', while also questioning a player 's masculinity to get him back on the field quickly. Players, coaches, and trainers subscribe to the hegemonic model, thus creating a culture of dismissiveness, often resulting in concussions, which can lead to brain diseases like CTE.
Hegemonic masculinity has been increasingly used to understand men 's health practices and determinants. Practices such as playing through physical injuries and risk - taking sexual behavior such as unprotected sex with multiple partners have been studied. The concept has also been used to understand men 's exposure to risk and their difficulty in responding to disability and injury. Hegemonic masculine ideals, especially stoicism, emotionlessness, and invulnerability can help explain an aversion to seeking mental health care. Men are less likely than women to seek professional services psychiatrists or counsellors, informal help through friends, and are more likely to report that they would never seek psychotherapy for depression. In fact, men who adhere to the masculine norm of stoicism have difficulty in identifying grief, sadness, or a depressed mood, some of the conventional diagnostic symptoms of depression. Recognition of weakness would be a recognition of femininity, and as such, men distract themselves, avoid the problem, or get angry -- one of the few emotions permissible under hegemonic masculine norms -- when depressive symptoms surface. On a global scale, the impact of hegemonic masculinity has been considered in determining unequal social and political relations which are deleterious to the health of both men and women.
Hegemonic masculinity has proved significant in organizational studies as the gendered character of workplaces and bureaucracies has been increasingly recognized. A particular focus has been placed on the military, where specific patterns of hegemonic masculinity have been entrenched but have been increasingly problematic. These studies found that negative hegemonically masculine characteristics related to violence and aggression were required to thrive in the military at all ranks and in all branches. Additionally homophobic ideals were commonplace and further subordinated men in these positions. Studies have also traced the institutionalization of hegemonic masculinities in specific organizations and their role in organizational decision making. This can be related to the glass ceiling and gender pay gap women experience.
Hegemonic masculinity has impacted both conflict and international relations, serving as a foundation for militarism. Charlotte Hooper discusses how US foreign policy, following the Vietnam War, was seen as a way of bolstering America 's manhood. It was believed that the Vietcong, often categorized "as a bunch of women and children '', had humiliated and emasculated America. In order to regain its manhood -- both domestically and internationally -- America needed to develop a hyper - masculinized and aggressive breed of foreign policy. Hooper also discusses the idea that since the international sphere is largely composed of men, it may greatly shape both "the production and maintenance of masculinities. '' War, then, exists in a unique feedback loop whereby it is not only perpetuated by hegemonic masculinity, but also legitimates masculinity.
Hooper discusses how military combat has been fundamental to the very composition of masculinity "symbolically, institutionally '', and culturally through body shape. Moreover, Hooper discusses how women are seen as life givers, while men are believed to be life takers. As a result, men can only exist as men if they are willing to charge into war, thereby expressing their "enduring ' natural aggression '. '' Furthermore, this perception also explains the traditional "exclusion of women from combat '', while furthering the myth "that military service is the fullest expression of masculinity. '' This has troubling implications for the continuation of war, and for the enshrinement of masculine norms. Hooper also ideates about the instillation of militarized masculinity in boys, discussing how military service is a "rite of passage '' for young men. As such, "war and the military represent one of the major sites where hegemonic masculinities '' are formed and enshrined.
Militarized hegemonic masculinity has also impacted perceptions of citizenship as well as the LGBT community. Conscription is fairly common throughout the world, and has also been utilized in America during key conflicts. The majority of men expect conscription to be the price of adult citizenship, but religious objectors and homosexuals have been largely excluded from this. These restrictions have led to the perceived subordinate status of these groups, and their subsequent exclusion from full citizenship, in the same fashion that women have been excluded. This is reflective of the notion that men unable to, or unwilling to fight for their country are more effeminate, as they are breaking with hegemonic norms. The perceptions that homosexuals are unfit for service, and that women have a responsibility at home, is reflective of the heteronormative nature of the military. The institutional composition of the military, itself, reinforces this hegemony through the armed branch 's subordination to a "dominating and organizationally competent '' branch. Essentially, there is an armed wing, which is masculinized through conflict, and there is a dominating branch that is masculinized through power. The hierarchical nature of the military is used to enforce, replicate, and enhance hegemonic masculinity.
Male rape is especially prevalent in male dominant environments, such as in the military and prison. In a popular 2014 GQ article titled "Son, Men Do n't Get Raped, '' nearly 30 sexual assault survivors come forward to discuss rape in the military. According to the Pentagon, thirty - eight military men are sexually assaulted every day (Penn). The majority of the victim 's stories involve a highly ranked perpetrator, such as senior aides, recruiters, or sergeants, which are positions that young soldiers look up to. Some victims describe being weaker than the attacker and physically unable to stop the rape, while others felt too mentally dominated to speak up. Either way, the men were met with defeat and emasculation. In the article, James Asbrand, a PTSD psychologist explains, "The rape of a male soldier has a particular symbolism. ' In a hyper masculine culture, what 's the worst thing you can do to another man? ' Force him into what the culture perceives as a feminine role. Completely dominate and rape him '' (Penn). Asbrand refers to the military as a hyper masculine environment, which is consistent with its media portrayal. Joining the army is considered a noble act for men, which military movies, advertisements, and video games reinforce. Because of this, it is no surprise that recruits would likely embody stereotypical masculine personas, and therefore contribute to an environment of competition.
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gossip girl season 5 episode 10 free online | Gossip Girl (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American teen drama television series Gossip Girl premiered on The CW on September 26, 2011, and concluded on May 14, 2012, consisting of 24 episodes. Based on the novel series of the same name by Cecily von Ziegesar, the series was developed for television by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage. The CW officially renewed the series for a fifth season on April 26, 2011.
It was later announced that Taylor Momsen, who played Jenny Humphrey since the pilot, and Jessica Szohr, who joined the series as Vanessa Abrams in season one, would not be returning for the fifth season as regulars. Kaylee DeFer was upgraded to a series regular status in her roles as Serena 's cousin, Charlie Rhodes, and aspiring actress / con artist Ivy Dickens. Hugo Becker also reprises his role as Blair 's love interest, Prince Louis Grimaldi of Monaco.
With the confirmation of the 2011 -- 12 schedule, The CW announced that Gossip Girl would be returning to Mondays at 8: 00pm as a lead - in to Hart of Dixie.
While working as a production assistant in Hollywood, Serena makes a mistake while trying to impress her new boss (Michael Michele). Chuck and Nate arrive in Los Angeles to visit Serena where Nate gets involved with a shady older woman (Elizabeth Hurley) and Chuck has a meeting of minds with actress / stuntwoman Zoë Bell (playing herself) as he struggles to get over Blair. Meanwhile, Blair and Louis return to New York from Monaco after spending the summer planning their wedding. Louis ' problem in supporting Blair 's difficult choices and nearly impossible demands threatens their relationship when she begins to see him as weak. Also, Dan gets help from Louis in a desperate attempt to prevent his book from being published in a local magazine. It is revealed in this episode that Dorota is pregnant and expecting her second child. Towards the end of the episode, it is also hinted that Blair is the one that is pregnant in which Dorota lied for her. As she is fitted for her wedding dress, the dress fitter says that by the time of her wedding she will be showing. Also, Serena runs into Charlie in Los Angeles still unaware of her real identity: Ivy Dickens, who has moved to California with her boyfriend, Max.
Blair tries to conceal the news of her recent pregnancy from Louis as the arrival of her future sister - in - law Beatrice (Roxane Mesquida) nears. Nate reconnects with the mysterious Diana Payne (Elizabeth Hurley), a woman whom he had a fling with in Los Angeles who offers him a job opportunity to work at her publishing company, called Spectator, in New York. Meanwhile, Dan is desperately in need of help from Chuck to stop his novel from being published, but finds out that Chuck is hiding a secret. Ivy, still in character as Charlie, tries to avoid her real identity from an unsuspecting Serena but her plans affects her life in L.A. with her unsuspecting boyfriend Max. Blair 's plan does n't go accordingly; since Beatrice overhears her tell Dan that she 's pregnant, not bulimic.
Serena and Charlie return to New York. Worrying that her identity will be revealed, Ivy decides to start making her own choice by being a part of New York 's social society as Charlie. Meanwhile, Dan learns that his former mentor, Noah Shapiro, is responsible for publishing his novel. After his attempts at stopping Noah fail, Dan soon ends up in the spotlight. Chuck tries to break through his emotional block. Unknowingly, Nate is persuaded by the ruthless maneater Diana to cross moral lines while interviewing a couple at the Jenny Packham fashion show. Lily is finally released from house arrest and attends the fashion show with Rufus, despite the fact that her social life is in shambles. After learning that Ivy stole some of Charlie 's trust fund money for herself, Carol Rhodes tracks down Ivy to New York where Ivy threatens to reveal their scam, as well as implicate Serena and the entire Van Der Woodsen family, if Carol does not back away. Elsewhere, a very reluctant Blair decides she does not want to learn who the father of her unborn child is, but is later seen telling Chuck that she is pregnant with Louis ' baby, but adds "Part of me wished it was yours ''. He is both amazed and hurt. When Blair tells Louis that she is pregnant, he is ecstatic, but at the end Blair is seen hiding the test results in a drawer. Also, Nate finds Ivy 's missing cell phone with her text messages from her boyfriend Max, but does not make the connection that Ivy and Charlie are one and the same.
Dan is about to be announced as author of Inside so he gives a copy of the book to Blair, Serena, Nate, Chuck and Rufus hoping they will be supportive at his upcoming book party. In the book, Dan described Serena as the "old Serena '': drinking, dating teachers, being shallow, partying, reckless, and having random sex. Nate does n't receive a character description, but is joined with Eric (a younger, gay character with political relatives). Chuck is described as being lonely, cynical and without any friends or family. The book talks about Blair and Dan having sex, and when Louis reads it he says he ca n't trust Blair anymore. Blair is afraid she will have to raise the baby on her own if he leaves and finally tells Serena. Louis apologizes for his behavior and agrees to trust Blair. Even Rufus becomes angry and alienated with Dan when he says he had never regretted leaving the music industry to have a family, until upon reading the book, which portrays him as marrying Lily just for money. Meanwhile, Diana makes the connection of Ivy and Charlie being the same person and forces Charlie to work for her at Spectator. Also, Serena 's boss tells her to get the film rights for Inside and that she has only one week, forcing Serena to choose between Dan and her career.
Louis ' mother Princess Sophie and his sister Beatrice pay another visit to New York where Blair announces her pregnancy to everyone. While her stepfather and mother, Cyrus and Eleanore, decide to throw a Yom Kippur dinner party to celebrate, Sophie and Beatrice try to get Blair to accept a series of conditions following the marriage. Blair naturally refuses, and Louis must choose between standing beside Blair or his mother. Meanwhile, Serena tries to get back into Dan 's good graces after her boss tells her to ask Dan to gain the movie rights to his book. Charlie asks Nate for help after Diana gives her a difficult assignment to find more dirt on the Van der Woodsen family kept in the family safe. As Rufus and Lily continue to avoid talking with Dan over his book, Chuck connects with an attractive therapist who rebuffs his advances and seems to see right through his character for who he really is.
Blair tries out three of her former minions for her Bridesmaids slots, and Charlie willingly teams up with the group in order to seek out a story where she proves herself to be more than a match for the Mean Girls. Nate becomes more frustrated that Diana refuses to publicly speak about their romance. So, Nate tries to make Diana jealous by asking Charlie to accompany him to Diana 's party celebrating the opening of her new gossip Internet blog at Spectator. Meanwhile, Serena is forced by her boss, Jane, to secure the screenwriting rights for Dan 's book, who quickly realizes that Jane wants someone else to write the screenplay in order to make the movie even more sordid and absurd as well as marketable. Also, Chuck discovers that his therapist, Dr. Eliza Barnes, has been recruited by Louis in order to dissuade Chuck from pursuing Blair any further.
Several of the group attend a performance of Punchdrunk 's provocative theater experience, "Sleep No More '', which translates to masks, anonymity and some surprising romantic twists by the end of the evening. Dorota follows Blair to the performance to stop her from trying to prove that Chuck 's attempts to reform himself into a better man is a scam. Meanwhile, Diana sets her sights to snag Serena a job at Spectator as part of her twisted quest to ruin Gossip Girl 's website. Charlie / Ivy 's ex-boyfriend, Max, arrives in town for an interview look for her, and ends up as Serena 's date to the performance. Diana sets about manipulating Max, Serena, Charlie, and Nate, hoping to cause a major confrontation for her own deranged enjoyment. Elsewhere, Dan sets out on his book tour, but Rufus and Lily discover that he is n't exactly having the experience as he claims to be. At the end, more shocking twists are revealed as the evil Diana and Nate 's crooked grandfather, William van der Bilt, are revealed to have been working together to orchestrate Nate 's employment with Diana as part of sinister grand plan for Nate, while Max, sent away by Diana on a ruse, accidentally discovers Ivy 's double life of impersonating Serena 's cousin Charlie.
Serena is hard at work planning a dream bridal shower for Blair, but it should come as no surprise that Serena has to plant some false information about the shower in order to keep Blair from finding out all the details. Meanwhile, Chuck and Dan decide to spend the day together to distract themselves from the fact that they did n't make the invite list for Blair 's shower. Nate and Serena find a silver bullet in Diana 's war against Gossip Girl when they uncover a list of all of Gossip Girl 's contacts, but struggle about whether to use it or not. But when the list is leaked anyway, Nate and Serena accuse each other, then Nate accuses Diana, but Blair finds out that the culprit is Louis. Elsewhere, Max confronts Ivy about her double life of impersonating Charlie who tells him that Charlie is her real identity. But Max quickly sees through Ivy 's lies and instead of informing Lily or Serena or the authorities with what he knows, he instead blackmails Ivy for a large sum of money. Also, William van der Bilt makes his presence known where he forces Diana to quit as editor - in - chief of Spectator so that Nate can take her place. Chuck tells Dan that he is in love with Blair. The episode ends with Blair visiting Chuck at the Empire after she learns from Serena that Chuck really has changed.
CeCe Rhodes arrives back in New York where Lily and Serena are planning to throw her a Studio 54 party in her honor. Serena continues dating Max who begins blackmailing Charlie. Meanwhile, Dan meets with his publicist Alessandra where they create rival "Dan fan '' and "Dan hater '' accounts on Twitter in order to create online buzz for his book. Blair attempts to figure out how to make Louis more like the "new '' Chuck by spending the day with Chuck. She accompanies him to therapy and demands to know how he 's improved himself only to find out that he 's let her go. Upset she runs home and later reveals to Chuck that she 's afraid she is the one that brings the dark side out in him and Louis. Chuck assures her that she is "the lightest thing that ever came into my life '' and tells her he let her go because she asked him to. He just wants her to be happy. Also, Nate is the new boss of the Spectator and one of his employees finds out that his cousin Tripp 's wife, Maureen, might be having an affair. He soon figures out, however, that Maureen is faking an affair in order to create a sympathetic image for Tripp in the public eye before the upcoming election. Serena learns about Ivy and Max and breaks up with him and Carol Rhodes visits to help find a cover story to get "Charlie '' her trust fund and to help keep her there where she 's loved. In the final confrontation, everyone believes Ivy 's false story that she really is Charlie and pretended to be Ivy when she was with Max, even though he calls her a liar and says otherwise. Ivy also finds out that CeCe is sick, but keeps it a secret. The episode ends with Max reaffirming his threats to Ivy to expose her scam, Chuck telling Nate that he still loves Blair, and Blair looking despondent in her bedroom, refusing to talking to Louis who is out of the country.
Serena and Lily prepare Charlie for her first debutante ball to welcome her into New York high society, but the vindictive Max is determined to reveal Charlie / Ivy 's secret by any means necessary. Meanwhile, Blair must choose where she stands with both Louis and Chuck as she hides out at the Humphrey loft in Brooklyn from the press. Dan realizes that it is time to tell Blair the truth about his feelings for her. Louis returns to New York where he meets with Serena and confides in her about his fears about his future with Blair. Nate learns that his grandfather, William van der Bilt, owns the majority of stock shares at Spectator and he influenced Diana to hire him. William invites Nate to an upstate retreat, but Nate 's cousin, Tripp, has been excluded. After Dan sacrifices his own love for Blair for her happiness, Chuck and Blair are hurried into a car from Charlie 's debutante ball. Their car is tailed by vicious paparazzi (Charlie sent a blast to Gossip Girl and tipped them off in order to keep them away from her) who cause them to crash, leaving Chuck fighting for his life and the pregnant Blair fighting to keep her baby. After Max 's pleas to both Serena and Nate about Charlie 's real identity fall on deaf ears, he has a run - in with Tripp van der Bilt whom he apparently tells his story about Ivy. Charlie calls Carol Rhodes to tell her that she is leaving New York City after she tells Rufus that she is a fraud. Also, Diana is called by Jack Bass and informed about Chuck and Blair 's car accident; she is somehow involved.
Through a series of emotional flashbacks, Blair reveals to Serena what really happened in the aftermath of her car crash with Chuck. Dan tries to help Blair recover, while both Chuck and Louis mistaken their bonding as an affair. Meanwhile, Nate discovers information about the accident that suggests possible foul play. Having successfully shut down Gossip Girl 's website, Serena is reluctant to become the next Gossip Girl as her work at Spectator News takes off. Elsewhere, Lily is worried by Charlie 's long absence and decides to hire a private detective to track her down despite Rufus ' objections. Vera Wang makes a cameo as herself at Blair 's dress fitting.
Blair decides to throw herself a bachelorette party, but shady enemies who include Beatrice (Roxane Mesquida), and her co-conspirator cousin Father Cavette, scheme to ruin and humiliate Blair, with an unknowing Chuck as their patsy, in order to prevent Blair 's upcoming marriage by any means necessary. Meanwhile, Nate, with the distant assistance of Gossip Girl, finally discovers that Tripp was responsible for the car accident that affected Blair and Chuck and he contacts William van der Bilt for help to expose Tripp 's scheme. Also, Serena and Dan continue their fake relationship to protect Blair while Dan becomes uncertain about writing again.
In the 100th episode, Blair 's wedding day finally arrives, along with a vengeful Georgina Sparks and her co-conspirator husband who are determined to ruin Blair 's wedding by any means necessary. Meanwhile, Serena decides that she has to tell Dan how she feels while Nate unknowingly meets the real Charlie Rhodes working as a waitress at the reception. Elsewhere, Chuck must decide whether or not to make a final grand gesture to show Blair how he feels until Blair 's mother, Eleanor, approaches him to persuade him to stop the wedding. Blair 's estranged father Harold, and her stepfather, Cyrus, try to get Blair to choose one of them to escort her down the aisle, while Louis ' mother, Sophia, again tries to tell him that Blair is not, and never will be, trustworthy. During the wedding, Gossip Girl leaks a video which shows Blair confessing her love for Chuck. However, an interrupted wedding continues and Blair is officially declared the Princess of Monaco. However, at the reception, Louis reveals to Blair that the wedding stands as contracted and "a show '', and their love does not exist, to which Blair reacts in distress and runs away with Dan. The identity of Gossip Girl 's successor is revealed at the end of the episode.
Following the wedding, Blair tries to leave for the Dominican Republic, with the help of Dan, to get a divorce from Louis without his consent due to a loophole in the Dominican Republic 's law. However, she realizes that she forgot her passport and so asks Dorota for help. Serena, Chuck, Nate reluctantly team up with Georgina to find Blair, until Georgina gets a tip from one of her sources and she leaves. Georgina then, as Gossip Girl, informs Louis and Sophia of Blair 's location. Nate, Serena and Chuck eventually find Blair in a hotel room with Dan. Sophia finds Blair and threatens to forcefully sell Eleanor 's company as dowry if Blair chooses not to return, on which Blair reluctantly decides to go back. Elsewhere, Nate has another meeting with the real Charlie Rhodes, who goes by the name of Lola. At the end, it is implied that neither Chuck nor Serena, who takes the blame, leaked the video of Blair confessing her love for Chuck. It is revealed that Georgina is simply filling in for Gossip Girl ever since she abandoned the blog after Chuck and Blair 's car accident.
It 's Valentine 's Day on the Upper East Side and Blair ca n't resist playing Cupid for someone she loves as she tries to get Serena and Dan back together. Georgina is intent on stirring up more drama and trouble since taking over Gossip Girl 's website. With the help of a group of informants, Georgina decides to crash Nate 's Valentine 's Day party which is being held at the Empire Hotel, while Chuck does not feel in the holiday spirit and falls into his old habits. Meanwhile, Ivy Dickens returns to New York for a quick visit, but has a run - in with the real Charlie Rhodes, working at the party, whom Nate is still pining after. Serena is shocked by something she witnesses at the party when Dan and Blair 's relationship takes a turn when Dan kisses Blair and she kisses him back. Georgina figures out that Dan was the one who leaked the video of Blair confessing her love for Chuck at her wedding, but keeps silent when Dan discovers her own secret of being Gossip Girl. Charlie discovers Ivy, whom she used to know from acting school, has been impersonating her and also remains quiet as she sets out to investigate her. Ivy is also revealed to have spent the last three months hiding out in the Hamptons where she keeps a bedside vigil at a local hospice for a terminally sick CeCe Rhodes.
Dan feels honored when he learns that Upright Citizen 's Brigade theater troupe is performing excerpts from his book, Inside. Meanwhile, Blair tries to prove Serena 's suspicions about her feelings for Dan are wrong, in order to save their relationship. A jealous and vindictive Chuck maliciously plots to sabotage Dan 's writing career. On her way out of town, Ivy Dickens ends up on a collision course with the Van der Woodsens and destiny as she continues to look after the cancer - stricken CeCe. Charlie / Lola continues to investigate Ivy 's origins as well as keep what she is doing a secret from Nate and everyone else. Carol Rhodes also arrives back in New York after learning from Lily and Serena about Cece 's medical turn for the worse. It is here at the hospital, that Ivy and Charlie run into each other once again, where this time Charlie finally reveals in front of the whole Van der Woodsen family that Ivy (whom they still know as Charlie) is an impostor. Carol, unable to lie any more, tells the truth about Ivy and all about their scheme. Blair admits to her feelings for Dan. At the end of the episode CeCe dies.
Blair thinks her stepfather may have found a potential loophole in her prenuptial agreement that would allow her to escape her marriage to Louis. CeCe Rhodes, before her death, arranged for a secret Irish - themed wake to take place at Van der Woodsen penthouse. Georgina Sparks decides to leave her post at Gossip Girl to her loyal but incompetent husband, Phil, and crash the wake to stir up more trouble. Chuck learns that Dan was the one who sent the video of him and Blair at her wedding ceremony and sends a blast to Gossip Girl. However, Phil inadvertently leaves Chuck 's name in the blast. William Van der Woodsen (William Baldwin) returns to the Upper East Side for the wake, and is the executor of CeCe 's estate. Ivy Dickens is announced as CeCe 's heir and we learn that CeCe was apparently aware the whole time of Ivy 's real identity. Ivy evicts both Lily and Rufus from the Van der Woodsen penthouse. Carol Rhodes also reveals the identity of Charlie 's father as William Van der Woodsen. The real Charlie ' Lola ' Rhodes continues her affair with Nate but has little interest in getting to know her family until Georgina suggests to her there may be another reason why her mother hid her from them. We learn that Blair 's personal accountant, Estée, is in love with Louis, and she convinces Blair to agree to having her marriage annulled as long as she does n't say a word to the media, including Gossip Girl. However this is all a ruse perpetrated by Georgina herself, who sends a photo of Blair and Dan kissing to Gossip Girl and the Waldorf 's are once again threatened with responsibility of paying the dowry and declaring bankruptcy. Blair tells Chuck that she will always love him but is not in love with him anymore. Georgina no longer wants to act as Gossip Girl after revealing to everyone that she has been filling in for the real Gossip Girl. She sends her computer to Serena and leaves for Monaco to help annul Blair 's marriage... in exchange for a favor down the road. Blair tells Dan that he 's the one who has her heart and they begin a relationship.
Chuck invites his uncle, Jack, back to New York to thank him for saving his life in the car accident by donating blood, but starts to doubt Jack 's story when Chuck investigates and learns that Jack was recently diagnosed positive with Hepatitis C, and a test on Chuck turns to be negative. Meanwhile, Blair and Dan attempt to consummate their new relationship, but unexpected roadblocks get in their way. Serena takes over the role of Gossip Girl after receiving Georgina 's package, but learns that the job is trickier than she thought. Elsewhere, Ivy believes she has found an ally in William in her quest to be accepted into high society on the Upper East Side. Lily tries to adjust to living in Brooklyn at the Humphrey loft with Rufus until the war against Ivy is settled. Lola decides to help her family, seeing as they are all she has left. Also, Nate is hopeful that a new investor will save his newspaper Spectator. The episode concludes with the real Gossip Girl ready to resume her post, and requesting that Serena give the site back. Chuck discovers that it is his mother who donated the blood.
Serena is determined to turn Lola into the next "it - girl '' of the Upper East Side, starting with trying to persuade Lola to model at a Kiki de Montparnasse lingerie show. Meanwhile, Chuck reaches out to Blair for advice about his past but is rejected as she believes he has a hidden agenda. Diana Payne 's return to The Spectator starts a power struggle with Nate for control, while Lola reacts with jealousy; but everything is not what it appears. It is discovered that Chuck paid Blair 's dowry to get rid of Louis ' family. Also, Rufus and Lily have a falling out after Lily goes behind Rufus ' back to play a simple scheme to remove Ivy from their penthouse.
Blair and Dan throw a salon as a way of coming out as a couple, but drama caused by their friends derail the night. Lola finds out Serena is posing as Gossip Girl but does n't tell Nate, knowing he would be hurt by the revelation. Lily cuts off Rufus ' debit card after she finds out he has been paying for a hotel for Ivy. It is revealed at the end that Diana is really Chuck 's mother, she was too young to raise a baby and gave him to Elizabeth to look after.
Blair feels like her Upper East Side status might be slipping away and devises a plan to assure that does n't happen by upstaging Dan at a publishers gathering. Meanwhile, Lily throws a family gathering including William, Carol, and Lola in an attempt to prove the van der Woodsen family is as united as ever, but Lily has an ulterior motive. Finally, Nate digs into Diana 's past and is surprised by what he discovers.
Chuck, Nate, Blair, Serena and Lola team up to uncover what they think is an explosive secret between Diana and Jack. Meanwhile, Dan is offered a prestigious fellowship in Rome for the summer, but turns it down for his relationship with Blair. Dan tells Blair he loves her but she does n't say it back. Nate and Lola team up with Gossip Girl to take back the site from Serena leaving her hopeless. Diana is seen to be running a high class brothel service. At the end of the episode Chuck finds out his father Bart Bass is still alive.
Blair enlists Serena to be her stand - in at an important meeting when Blair finds herself needing to be in two places at the same time as Dan seeks to meet with a college rep from Italy for his oversees summer stay in Italy. Meanwhile, Ivy and Lola team up to help Chuck with a personal vendetta against an old enemy of Bart Bass '. Also, Nate makes a decision about the future with Diana.
In the fifth season finale, when Gossip Girl begins to upload excerpts from Blair 's diary, her love life begins to unravel causing her to choose between Dan and Chuck. Serena is banished from the Waldorf apartment for her part in the reveal of Blair 's diary, she then retaliates by trying to seduce Dan with the help of Blair 's minions. Nate asks Lola to move in with him, but she turns him down when she tells him that her acting group is going on tour. Meanwhile at the Shephard divorce party, Serena and Dan have sex, but when Dan learns she videotaped their encounter just to hurt Blair, he furiously leaves. Elsewhere, Lily chooses to annul her marriage to Rufus, since her marriage to Bart is still valid. Lola receives her share of the Van der Woodsen estate from her biological father, William Van der Woodsen, and also learns that Lily intentionally sabotaged Carol 's defense in court to keep her imprisoned as well as destroyed Ivy 's case in order to keep Cece 's wealth all for herself. Blair accepts an offer from Eleanor to take over her fashion company. Following a Bass Industries press conference, Blair chooses Chuck over Dan, but Chuck rebuffs her when he is preoccupied with his father 's return as head of Bass Industries who ousts Chuck to reclaim his former position as CEO. One week later; Lola hands over her inheritance share to Ivy, who in return promises to keep in touch and help her bring down their common enemy: Lily. Lola leaves town to go on tour with her acting troupe, while Ivy returns to Florida to plot her revenge against Lily. The disgraced Serena leaves town and reverts back to her old self by taking drugs and sleeping with her dealer, whilst the alienated Dan leaves for Rome and prepares to write another hurtful, tell - all book about the Upper East Side with the help of Georgina Sparks. Nate receives CCTV footage from Diana Payne of the real Gossip Girl (a hooded masked figure) stealing Serena 's laptop on the night of Bart 's return. Whilst in Paris, Blair goes to a casino where Chuck and Jack are scheming to bring down Bart Bass and tells Chuck it 's now her turn to fight for him.
The CW officially renewed the series for a fifth season on April 26, 2011.
On May 19, 2011, with the reveal of The CW 's 2011 -- 12 television schedule, Gossip Girl stayed on Monday night and moved to the 8: 00 pm Eastern / 7: 00 pm Central timeslot as a lead - in to Hart of Dixie, which is produced by Gossip Girl 's executive producers Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage. The fifth season premiered on Monday, September 26, 2011.
Filming for the season began on July 7, 2011. On August 3, 2011, The CW ordered two additional episodes for the fifth season, which will now total at 24. Executive producer Joshua Safran announced that he would be "pulling out all the stops '' to make the 100th episode of the show special, which is expected to air in January. On the date of the season premiere, the show used footage of the New York cityscape that showed the World Trade Center before the September 11 attacks. Footage containing the World Trade Center have been omitted by films and TV shows such as Sex and the City and The Sopranos to honor individuals who died in the attacks. The network has not responded to criticism regarding the usage of the footage.
Despite dwindling ratings, series executives are confident the show will be renewed for a sixth season. Head of Warner Bros. Television, Peter Roth is also confident that the show will return, stating, "I ca n't really say at this point, but I would hope and expect that there would be at least another year -- if not years -- to come. '' Later on, executive producer Stephanie Savage hinted that a sixth and final season is likely. "We 're not writing a series finale this year, '' said Savage. She added "I checked in with the bosses to make sure we 're not shooting ourselves in the foot '' and said the cast contracts run out at the end of the next season so "that feels like probably an organic ending point ''.
St. Vincent performed "Cruel '' and "Cheerleader '' from her Strange Mercy album during the Valentine 's Day episode.
Blake Lively, Leighton Meester, Penn Badgley, Chace Crawford, and Ed Westwick all returned as series regulars. Kaylee DeFer was upgraded to series regular status, while Taylor Momsen and Jessica Szohr exited the show, though they were both invited back as guest stars. Kelly Rutherford and Matthew Settle also returned as regulars.
On April 6, 2011, 10 Things I Hate About You star Ethan Peck landed a guest - starring role on the show. Peck made his debut in the fourth season finale and was in talks with producers for a recurring role for the fifth season. Peck would later film his scenes with Lively for the season premiere. French actress and model Roxane Mesquida was cast as Beatrice, Louis ' sister and Blair 's nemesis in a recurring role for the fifth season. Actress Elizabeth Hurley was cast as media mogul Diana Payne and starred in a multi-episode arc, with the character being described as "a sexy, smart, self - made media mogul and an all - around force to be reckoned with. '' Former Lost actor Marc Menard joined the cast in the role of Father Cavalia, a handsome priest from Monaco who will preside over Blair 's wedding.
Brian J. Smith, known for his role on Stargate Universe, had been cast as a love interest for Serena while she is in Los Angeles and would appearing on the show as Max, an aspiring chef. Connor Paolo, who went on to become a regular on ABC 's Revenge, did not return to the show as Eric van der Woodsen stating, "I 'm done. You should never go back in life. Only forward. '' In an interview with Elle magazine on August 16, 2011, Momsen stated that she had quit the series to focus fully on her music career. Hollywood stuntwoman Zoë Bell was slated to appear on the show and made her debut in the season premiere. New York magazine noted the appearance of American novelist Jay McInerney, who reprised his role as writer Jeremiah Harris. Aaron Tveit, who previously portrayed Nate 's cousin Tripp van der Bilt in the third season, returned to the show for a multi-episode arc.
Michelle Trachtenberg reprised her role as Georgina Sparks, who was last seen in the fourth season finale. She made her first appearance during the show 's 100th episode. Also returning was William Baldwin as Serena and Eric 's father, William van der Woodsen, for the season 's 17th episode, which aired in February 2012. It was also reported that Desmond Harrington, who made a cameo appearance in the fall finale, would return as Chuck 's uncle, Jack Bass. Also guest starring was One Life to Live 's alum David A. Gregory as a friend of the real Charlie Rhodes (Ella Rae Peck). Cobra Starship 's Gabe Saporta made a cameo in season 5 finale.
Season five opens in Los Angeles, where a vacationing Chuck and Nate decide to visit Serena, who is working on a film set. Back in New York, Blair learns that planning a royal wedding can be stressful, especially with a baby on the way, and Dan discovers the consequences of writing candidly about his closest friends. Also, the surprise return of cousin Charlie will threaten to destroy the van der Woodsen family.
Confused about Chuck 's sudden change, Blair is determined to prove his behaviour is an act to win her back.
The series ' 100th episode focused on Blair 's wedding to prince Louis. "I think it 's our biggest episode since the pilot '', said executive producer Joshua Safran.
With the move to 8: 00pm, The CW charged $50,304 for a 30 - second advertising slot before the fifth season began airing.
The season premiere was watched by 1.37 million viewers and received a 0.7 rating in the Adults 19 -- 49 demo, down 0.3 compared to last season 's premiere. Episode 23 hit a new series low, hitting for the fourth time a total viewership below the one - million - viewer mark, to 869,000 viewers and a 0.4 in the 18 - 49 demographic.
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what are the animals in ice age 2 | Ice Age: the Meltdown - Wikipedia
Ice Age: The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer - animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox. As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age, it focuses on The Herd escaping an upcoming flood, during which Manny finds love. It was directed by Carlos Saldanha, co-director of the first film, with the music composed by John Powell. The original voice cast -- Ray Romano, John Leguizamo, Denis Leary and Chris Wedge -- is joined by Queen Latifah, Seann William Scott and Josh Peck.
The film premiered in Belgium on March 1, 2006. It was eventually released in 70 countries, with the last release being in China, on June 9, 2006. The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $660 million. Three more sequels were released -- Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009, Ice Age: Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age: Collision Course in 2016.
In the opening scene, Scrat, the saber - toothed squirrel climbs a glacier to bury his acorn, but accidentally opens a hole in it, causing water to spurt out. The world of ice is slowly melting. The creatures of the Ice Age are all shown enjoying themselves on slides and pools made by the melting ice; among them the three protagonists of the first film: Manny the woolly mammoth, Sid the ground sloth, and Diego the saber - toothed cat. Sid opens a small day camp, where none of the younger creatures take him seriously, nor do Manny and Diego, which leaves Sid seeking a daring deed. Fast Tony the giant armadillo, a local con artist is claiming that the earth will flood and that the bark and reeds which he sells are needed to stay alive. Manny dismisses the idea, but is distracted when he sees that Sid will try to high dive from a giant waterfall known as "the Eviscerator ''; as Manny goes with Diego to the top of the Eviscerator to save Sid from his act of daredevilry, suddenly the ice under Diego 's feet begins breaking, causing him to bolt in fear, this also made Sid figure out that Diego is afraid of the water. The Herd figure that the pleasant weather has caused the ice shelves to melt, and it is kept from destroying the valley only by the glaciers, which have formed a dam.
A lone vulture warns the animals that a giant tree can act as a boat and save them if they make it to the end of the valley within three days time, and all soon set out to find it. As the animals begin their journey, Sid teases Manny about Mammoths being "extinct ''. During the evacuation, a glacier which contains two sea reptiles from the Mesozoic era, Cretaceous a Cymbospondylus and Maelstrom a Pliosauroidea, breaks off.
When Manny is briefly separated from them, Diego and Sid encounter two mischievous opossums named Crash and Eddie who drive them nuts by playing Whac - A-Mole with them. Manny is still worried about being the last mammoth alive and his family, who had been killed by humans, but is surprised when he encounters Ellie, a female woolly mammoth who believes she is an opossum and Crash and Eddie 's adoptive sister. Sid invites her to tag along with the group to escape the flood, and she brings her brothers. After a dangerous encounter with Cretaceous and Maelstrom while crossing a pond, Sid prompts Diego to encourage him to admit and face his fears - Diego insists that "fear is for prey '', so Sid points out that Diego is behaving as if he is the water 's prey. They discover an area which Ellie recalls as the place where she was adopted. She finally realizes she is a mammoth and also expresses her suspicions about how different she was from other opossums. Despite this bonding moment with Manny, she distances herself from him when he suggests "saving their species ''. Ellie and Manny ultimately make up when they must co-operate to save the group when the ground cracks under their feet. Sid is kidnapped by a tribe of mini-sloths who believe Sid to be a god. Sid lights a fire for them, and believes that he has finally found respect, but they plan to sacrifice him by tossing him into a volcano; Sid narrowly escapes. The next morning, Sid tells the others his experience but none are convinced. After being harassed by vultures, the group finds the boat behind a field of hot geysers, which separates Manny, Sid and Diego from Ellie and her brothers when they argue about which way 's safest to go through.
When the flood comes, Manny saves Ellie from drowning as she is caught in a cave (due to falling rocks), while Diego overcomes his fear of water to save Sid, Crash and Eddie from drowning. Cretaceous and Maelstrom arrive, but due to Manny 's quick thinking, they are finished off by a rock which falls on them, killing them both. The other animals are at the mercy of the water currents. Meanwhile, Scrat climbs up the glacier and at the top sticks the acorn he has into the ice. This forms a crack in the glacier, which widens into a fissure, diverting the flood and saving the animals in the valley; Scrat is then washed away. In the final scene, a herd of mammoths show up, proving mammoths are n't extinct. But Manny and Ellie decide to remain together anyway, taking Sid, Diego and the opossum brothers along. Sid encounters the mini-sloths again - they believe Sid stopped the flood and invite him to be their leader. Diego, surprised to see the mini-sloths are real, convinces Sid to stay with the others, admitting that Sid is a vital part of their ' herd '.
The epilogue shows Scrat having a near death experience after falling into the fissure. He enters a heaven full of acorns. Suddenly, he finds himself torn away. He unhappily wakes up, having been resuscitated by Sid, who he proceeds to viciously attack.
After the release of Ice Age in March 2002, executive producer Chris Meledandri commented on the potential Ice Age sequel: "The success of Ice Age is something that gives us additional momentum. It 's too early to say, but it 's certainly something we 'll explore. '' By June 2002, Blue Sky Studios was already working on the sequel. In 2003, Lori Forte, the producer of the first film, signed a multi-year deal with Fox Feature Films to develop and produce animated films, including a potential Ice Age sequel. During an interview with Denis Leary in July 2003, he said that he had expressed hope to reprise his role as Diego in the sequel: "I think there 's a story -- the people at Fox are working on one right now. I think they 're talking about going back into the studios something around late Fall. '' In that same year, 2006 was reported as the planned release year, and by August 2004, its final release date, March 31, 2006, had been set.
Initially developed under the working title of Ice Age 2, it was renamed by June 2005 to Ice Age 2: The Meltdown, but for the film 's final release in March 2006, the creators decided to remove the number 2, calling it Ice Age: The Meltdown. However, in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Mexico, and Australia, its title is promoted as Ice Age 2: The Meltdown. Also, most of the sponsors of the film had the 2 in their packaging after the name change (they however did edit the 2 out of their TV ads).
Carlos Saldanha, the director of the film, strove to make the characters eyes appear alive and not mechanical. "You want the facial expressions to work. I wanted it to be so that if you looked into their eyes, you would know what they were thinking. '' in his own words. The characters, despite being from the last movie, were remodeled for the sequel.
As an additional marketing ploy a special "anti-cell '' spot was created with Sid complaining to the audience about a ringing cellular phone. The same was done for Brother Bear, I, Robot, Kung Fu Panda, and Robots.
On Family Guy 's episode "Sibling Rivalry '', Scrat is shown trying to take three nuts out of the side of a glacier; Peter shows up and tries to stop him, admonishing the squirrel for stealing, which drives Scrat to subsequently attack Peter. Apart from Peter, the scene was rendered in 3D (Family Guy is normally drawn in 2D), and Scrat was voiced by Chris Wedge who voices him in the films. The episode originally aired the week before the film opened. Fox aired promotions for the film throughout the evening. During the same evening of this cameo, Sid was hosting the entire FOX line - up, showing up in intermittent times between commercials.
Re-edited scenes of Ice Age: The Meltdown were shown in Airhead candy commercials on several kids ' channels and programs, such as the Disney Channel, Nickelodeon, ABC Kids on ABC, and more. It shows, in part, that after Scrat defeats a school of piranha, he proudly displays an Airhead packet (replaced by an acorn in the actual film), when suddenly an eagle comes over and swipes it from him.
One of the posters for the film was a parody of an iPod advertisement, with "iAge '' replacing "iPod '' and an acorn replacing an iPod.
The score is by John Powell; the soundtrack also features the song "Food Glorious Food '' from the musical and film Oliver!. Powell composed brand new music for the film that replaced the theme songs from the previous film. Aram Khachaturian 's Adagio from Spartacus is featured during Scrat 's Heavenly vision.
Ice Age: The Meltdown was composed by John Powell and was released on March 28, 2006 by Varèse Sarabande Records.
Ice Age: The Meltdown had its world premiere on March 19, 2006, at the Mann 's Grauman Chinese Theater in Los Angeles, California. The film was re-released in 3D on October 13, 2014 in China only.
The film exceeded expectations by opening with an $68,033,544 in its first weekend. This was the second biggest opening for a non-summer, non-holiday release, after the $83,848,082 of The Passion of the Christ. But the record for highest grossing weekend for March only lasted a year, due to the $70,885,301 weekend of 300. The film grossed a total of $195,330,621 at United States and Canadian box offices, making it the first film in 2006 to pass the $100 million mark. The film has grossed $660,940,780 worldwide and it is the 66th highest - grossing film of all time. Ice Age: The Meltdown was the highest grossing animated film worldwide of 2006, but lost to Cars for being the highest grossing animated film in North America.
Ice Age: The Meltdown received mixed reviews, with Rotten Tomatoes giving the film a "rotten '' rating, with 57 % of reviews positive. The consensus statement reads: "Despite its impressive animation and the hilarious antics of the saber - toothed squirrel Scrat, Ice Age 2: The Meltdown comes up short on the storytelling front. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, calculated a score of 58, placing it at the high end of the site 's "mixed or average reviews '' category. Roger Ebert gave the film two - and - a-half stars out of four, stating "the first Ice Age movie more or less exhausted these characters and their world, and the meltdown does n't add much. ''
CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave The Meltdown an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Ice Age: The Meltdown was released on Blu - ray Disc and DVD were released in the North America on November 21, 2006 according to the official web store. They were released in the UK on October 23, 2006, and both include a new Scrat short, No Time for Nuts.
A 2006 video and computer game based on the film was developed and published by Vivendi Games, and the Wii version was released shortly after the launch of the system.
The third Ice Age film, Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs was released on July 1, 2009. It was again directed by Carlos Saldanha, and it tells a story of the protagonists discovering a tropical world inhabited by dinosaurs.
The fourth film, Ice Age: Continental Drift, was released in 3 - D on July 13, 2012. It was directed by Steve Martino and Mike Thurmeier -- the first time without Carlos Saldanha. Scrat 's never - ending pursuit of acorns has world - changing consequences, separating Manny, Sid and Diego from the rest, forcing them to stand up to a pirate gang.
The fifth film, Ice Age: Collision Course, was released in 3D on July 22, 2016.
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what version fire tv stick do i have | Amazon Fire TV - wikipedia
Amazon Fire TV is a digital media player and its microconsole remote developed by Amazon. The player is a small network appliance entertainment device that streams digital audio / video content to a high - definition television from the home (internet) network. The player also allows users to play video games with the included remote, via a mobile app, or with an optional game controller.
Limited Amazon Fire TV functionality is also available as the Amazon Fire TV Stick. By convention, Fire TV refers to the set - top box and Fire TV Stick refers to the plugin stick.
The first - generation Fire TV device featured 2 GB of RAM, MIMO dual - band Wi - Fi, and a Bluetooth remote control with a microphone for voice search. It supported 1080p streaming and Dolby Digital Plus 7.1 surround sound but was dependent on internet bandwidth of the user. Unveiled on April 2, 2014, the Amazon Fire TV (1st Generation) was made available for purchase in the US the same day for US $99 and was launched with a video game called Sev Zero.
In 2015, the Amazon Fire TV (2nd Generation) was released with improved processor speed and 4K UHD support. Amazon Fire TV is also available in the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan and launched in India in 2016.
The first Fire TV (codenamed "Bueller '' after the eponymous character from Ferris Bueller 's Day Off) offers HDMI and optical audio, with support for Dolby Digital Plus and 7.1 surround sound pass - through, along with an Ethernet port and a USB 2.0 port. According to Amazon, the Fire TV is designed to outpace competitors like the Apple TV and Roku in performance: The 0.72 - inch - thick box features a 1.7 GHz quad - core CPU (Qualcomm Snapdragon 8064), 2 GB of RAM and 8 GB of internal storage, along with a dual - band wireless radio for 1080p streaming over 802.11 a / b / g / n Wi - Fi and a 10 / 100 ethernet connection. The company said that it does not intend the Fire TV to compete with gaming consoles; instead, its gaming capabilities are geared toward people who do not already own a console but may play games on a smartphone or tablet. It has a dedicated controller accessory.
Amazon released a 2nd - generation Fire TV, codenamed "Sloane '', in late 2015. The 2nd generation features 4K Ultra High Definition support, improved processor performance, and a MediaTek 8173C chipset to support H. 265 (HEVC), VP8, and VP9 codecs. Wireless hardware upgrades includes a dual - band 802.11 a / b / g / n / ac Wi - Fi with 2x2 MIMO and Bluetooth 4.1.
On September 27, 2017, Amazon announced the third generation Fire TV alongside 5 other new Amazon products.
On November 19, 2014, Amazon released a smaller version of the Fire TV called the Fire TV Stick. Codenamed "Montoya '', it is an HDMI - port plug - in device that replicates much of the functionality of the larger Fire TV. Its hardware is slightly different, it has 1 GB of RAM, 8 GB of internal storage, weighs 0.9 oz. (25.1 g) and it uses a Broadcom BCM28155 dual - core 1.0 GHz Cortex - A9 processor and a Broadcom VideoCore IV GPU. Wireless hardware includes a dual - band 802.11 a / b / g / n Wi - Fi with 2x2 MIMO and Bluetooth 3.0 The Fire TV Stick is bundled with a remote control, in either of two variants; one with voice search on the remote and one without.
On October 20, 2016, Amazon released Fire TV Stick with Alexa Voice Remote, codenamed "Tank ''. Other than the new remote, the updates include MediaTek MT8127D Quad - core ARM 1.3 GHz processor with a Mali - 450 MP4 GPU, and support for the H. 265 (HEVC) codec. Wireless hardware upgrades includes a dual - band 802.11 a / b / g / n / ac Wi - Fi with 2x2 MIMO and Bluetooth 4.1. It retains the 1GB of RAM and 8GB of storage and weighs slightly more at 1.1 oz. (32.0 g).
The device initially ran Fire OS 3.0, based on Android Jelly Bean 4.2. According to Amazon, that made it "simple for developers to port their services and games over to Fire TV. ''
In November 2017, Amazon launched the Fire TV version of the Amazon Silk web browser. In December 2017, Mozilla launched a Fire TV version of the Mozilla Firefox browser.
On March 24, 2015, Amazon announced an update to the Fire TV software to provide the following additional features which address some of the concerns raised in early reviews:
2x ARM Cortex - A53 @ 1.573 GHz
Support
(512 MB system, 512 MB video)
HID, SPP Profiles
HID, SPP Profiles
HID, HFP, SPP profiles
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Dan Seifert from The Verge reviewed Fire TV on April 4, 2014, giving it an 8.8 / 10 and largely praising its current functionality and future potential. Dave Smith from ReadWrite wrote: "Fire TV aims to be the cure for what ails TV set - top boxes. '' GeekWire editor Andy Liu 's review is headlined "Amazon 's Fire TV sets a new bar for streaming boxes. '' Ars Technica praised the device specs that are better than the competition, the build quality was high, and if you use Amazon content, the microphone works very well. However, the reviewer did not like that media browsing puts Amazon content in the front thus making other apps less convenient, the game selection is limited and many games are unoptimized, and its free space is only 5.16 GB, limiting the number of games that can be installed.
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where does the funding for section 8 come from | Section 8 (housing) - wikipedia
Section 8 of the Housing Act of 1937 (42 U.S.C. § 1437f), often called Section 8, as repeatedly amended, authorizes the payment of rental housing assistance to private landlords on behalf of approximately 4.8 million low - income households, as of 2008, in the United States. The largest part of the section is the Housing Choice Voucher program which pays a large portion of the rents and utilities of about 2.1 million households. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development manages Section 8 programs.
The Housing Choice Voucher Program provides "tenant - based '' rental assistance, so a tenant can move from one unit of at least minimum housing quality to another. It also allows individuals to apply their monthly voucher towards the purchase of a home, with over $17 billion going towards such purchases each year (from ncsha.org analysis). The maximum allowed voucher is $2,000 a month.
Section 8 also authorizes a variety of "project - based '' rental assistance programs, under which the owner reserves some or all of the units in a building for low - income tenants, in return for a federal government guarantee to make up the difference between the tenant 's contribution and the rent in the owner 's contract with the government. A tenant who leaves a subsidized project will lose access to the project - based subsidy.
The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) have created a program called Veterans Affairs Supportive Housing (VASH), or HUD - VASH, which distributes roughly 10,000 vouchers per year at a cost of roughly $75 million per year to eligible homeless and otherwise vulnerable U.S. armed forces veterans. This program was created to pair HUD - funded vouchers with VA - funded services such as health care, counseling, and case management.
Federal housing assistance programs started during the Great Depression. In the 1960s and 1970s, the federal government created subsidy programs to increase the production of low - income housing and to help families pay their rent. In 1965, the Section 236 Leased Housing Program amended the U.S. Housing Act. This subsidy program, the predecessor to the modern program, was not a pure housing allowance program. Housing authorities selected eligible families from their waiting list, placed them in housing from a master list of available units, and determined the rent that tenants would have to pay. The housing authority would then sign a lease with the private landlord and pay the difference between the tenant 's rent and the market rate for the same size unit. In the agreement with the private landlord, housing authorities agreed to perform regular building maintenance and leasing functions for Section 236 tenants, and annually reviewed the tenant 's income for program eligibility and rent calculations.
The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1970 introduced the federal Experimental Housing Allowance Program (EHAP) and the Community Development Corporation and authorized larger outlays for housing subsidy programs and rent supplements for moderate - income households.
In the 1970s, when studies showed that the worst housing problem afflicting low - income people was no longer substandard housing, but the high percentage of income spent on housing, Congress passed the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974, further amending the U.S. Housing Act of 1937 to create the Section 8 Program. In the Section 8 Program, tenants pay about 30 percent of their income for rent, while the rest of the rent is paid with federal money.
The Section 8 program initially had three subprograms -- New Construction, Substantial Rehabilitation, and Existing Housing Certificate programs. The Moderate Rehabilitation Program was added in 1978, the Voucher Program in 1983, and the Project - based Certificate program in 1991. The number of units a local housing authority can subsidize under its Section 8 programs is determined by Congressional funding. Since its inception, some Section 8 programs have been phased out and new ones created, although Congress has always renewed existing subsidies.
The 2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act (Public Law 110 - 161) enacted December 26, 2007, allocated $75 million funding for the HUD - Veterans Affairs Supportive Housing (HUD - VASH) voucher program, authorized under section 8 (o) (19) of the United States Housing Act of 1937. This new program combines HUD Housing Choice Voucher rental assistance for homeless veterans with case management and clinical service support which is provided by Veterans Affairs administration at its own medical centers and also in the community.
The main Section 8 program involves the voucher program. A voucher may be either "project - based '' -- where its use is limited to a specific apartment complex (public housing agencies (PHAs) may reserve up to 20 % of its vouchers as such) -- or "tenant - based '', where the tenant is free to choose a unit in the private sector, is not limited to specific complexes, and may reside anywhere in the United States (including Puerto Rico) where a PHA operates a Section 8 program.
Under the voucher program, individuals or families with a voucher find and lease a unit (either in a specified complex or in the private sector) and pay a portion of the rent. Most households pay 30 % of their adjusted income for Section 8 housing. Adjusted income is a household 's gross (total) income minus deductions for dependents under 18 years of age, full - time students, disabled persons, or an elderly household, and certain disability assistance and medical expenses.
There is an asset test in addition to earned income. Over a certain amount, HUD will add income even if the Section 8 tenant does not receive any interest income from, for example, a bank account. HUD calls this "imputed income from assets '' and, in the case of a bank account, HUD establishes a standard "Passbook Savings Rate '' to calculate the imputed income from the asset. By increasing the amount of a tenant 's total income, the amount of imputed income from assets may affect a tenant 's assigned portion of rent.
The PHA pays the landlord the remainder of the rent. Each year, the federal government looks at the rents being charged for privately owned apartments in different communities, as well as the costs of utilities (heat, electricity, etc.) in those communities. The Fair Market Rents (FMRs) are amounts (rents plus utilities) for medium - quality apartments of different sizes in a particular community. As an example, 2012 FMR for 1 bedroom housing in San Francisco is $1,522 and in New York is $1,280 while in many other places it is less than $500.
The landlord can not charge a Section 8 tenant more than a reasonable rent and can not accept payments outside the contract.
In addition, landlords, although required to meet fair housing laws, are not required to participate in the Section 8 program. As a result, some landlords will not accept a Section 8 tenant. This can be attributed to such factors as:
Depending on state laws, refusing to rent to a tenant solely for the reason that they have Section 8 may be illegal. Landlords can use only general means of disqualifying a tenant (credit, criminal history, past evictions, etc.).
However, other landlords willingly accept Section 8 tenants, due to:
Whether voucher - or project - based, all subsidized units must meet the HQS, thus ensuring that the family has a healthy and safe place to live. This improvement in the landlord 's private property is an important byproduct of this program, both for the individual families and for the larger goal of community development.
Applicants may apply for a Section 8 housing voucher at any county or city housing authority office in their state, and although rules vary according to each authority, in general, residents of a particular area who receive a voucher from the jurisdiction in which they live may use the voucher anywhere in the country, but nonresidents of the jurisdiction must live in the jurisdiction that issues the voucher to them for 12 months before they can move to a different area. Also, priority for vouchers is often reserved for those who reside in the service area of that housing authority.
In many localities, the PHA waiting lists for Section 8 vouchers may be thousands of families long, waits of three to six years to obtain vouchers is common, and many lists are closed to new applicants. Wait lists are often briefly opened (often for just five days), which may occur as little as once every seven years. Some PHAs use a "lottery '' approach, where there can be as many as 100,000 applicants for 10,000 spots on the waitlist, with spots being awarded on the basis of weighted or non-weighted lotteries, with priority sometimes given to local residents, the disabled, veterans, and the elderly. There is no guarantee that anyone will ever receive a spot on the waiting list.
Families who participate in the program must abide by a series of rules and regulations, often referred to as "family obligations '', in order to maintain their voucher, including accurately reporting to the PHA all changes in household income and family composition so the amount of their subsidy (and the applicable rental unit size limitation) can be updated accordingly. In recent years, the HUD Office of the Inspector General has spent more time and money on fraud detection and prevention.
There is a provision for disabled people who have a Section 8 subsidized dwelling to have their rent frozen for a specified time if they are working part - time below a certain amount of money. This is called the Earned Income Disallowance or Earned Income Disregard (EID) and is stipulated under US 24 CFR 5.617, "Self - sufficiency incentives for persons with disabilities -- Disallowance of increase in annual income ''. This was enacted as part of Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act of 1998 (QHWRA) (Sec. 508 (b); 42 U.S.C. 1437a (d). This requires Public Housing Authorities and some owners, in calculating rent, to temporarily "disregard '' increased income earned when certain public housing residents and disabled participants in certain housing assistance programs return / go to work or job - related programs. The idea is to foster self - sufficiency for those who are on subsidies and disability and other assistance.
Howard Husock, vice president for policy research at the Manhattan Institute, heavily criticized Section 8 in a 2003 book on housing policy as a vehicle for exporting inner city social problems to the suburbs.
Hanna Rosin, an American journalist, has argued that Section 8 has led to crime being more evenly spread out across U.S. metropolitan areas, without any net decrease. This was the core thesis of her article published by The Atlantic in 2008, in which she linked Section 8 to a crime wave in the Memphis, Tennessee, metropolitan area. Rosin 's article attempted to position Memphis as just one particularly troubling example of a nationwide trend: "Still, researchers around the country are seeing the same basic pattern: projects coming down in inner cities and crime pushing outward, in many cases destabilizing cities or their surrounding areas. '' Rosin 's article has been highly influential among politicians in cities claiming to be negatively affected by Section 8, such as Lancaster, California.
Rosin 's article was later criticized by Greg Anrig in an article published on The American Prospect. In the article, Anrig accuses Rosin of placing an excessive amount of blame on housing policy for the reported increase in crime. The article makes reference to the fact that Rosin never made a conclusive argument that those who participate in Section 8 were responsible for the higher rates of crime, as those who receive housing support are subject to screenings based on drug use and previous criminal activity. Rosin instead relies on a heat map of crime created by Richard Janikowski and Phyllis Betts who are reported to have said they were "(...) amazed -- and deflated -- to see how perfectly the two data sets fit together. ''
Janikowski and Betts later disavowed any connection between housing vouchers and increases in crime in the area in a later letter to the editor for the Atlantic. Rosin failed to mention that there was a consistent decrease and increase in crime from inner - cities to the inner - ring suburbs across most metropolitan areas due to shifting populations. Anrig argues that economic factors are more likely responsible for Memphis 's increase in crime, as male unemployment almost doubled between the years of 1990 and 2000. Anrig also makes reference to Moving to Opportunity (MTO), a randomized policy experiment. The study concludes that there was no increase in violent crime for the participants of subsidized housing or their surrounding neighborhoods in the five cities tested; Memphis was not a part of the study. Even though the participants were far more likely to stay in poorer areas when given the chance to leave, families still received a modest academic and psychological benefit. In fact, according to a paper prepared for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Office of Policy Development and Research rather than increasing crime, those who use housing vouchers are more likely to move into areas where crime is increasing.
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when was instant replay first used in mlb | Instant replay in Major League Baseball - wikipedia
Major League Baseball (MLB) allows the use of instant replay review to allow league officials to review certain types of plays in order to determine the accuracy of the initial call of the umpires on the field. Reviews may be initiated either by a team 's manager with limitations or by the umpires themselves. All instant - replay reviews are examined by an umpire at the Replay Command Center in New York City, who has the final decision as to whether to uphold or overturn the initial call.
MLB was the last of the four major North American professional sports leagues to implement an instant replay review system. Instant replay review was first implemented during the 2008 season. Under that system, only the umpire crew chief could initiate a review, and one or more members of the umpiring crew would review the video at the stadium and render the decision to uphold or overturn the call. Only boundary home run calls could be reviewed, either if the initial call was a home run but might not have been (e.g., spectator interference or a foul ball near the foul pole) or if the initial call was not a home run but might have been (e.g., the ball hit an object such as a railing beyond the outfield wall and then bounced back onto the field).
The current instant replay system was implemented in the 2014 season. Under the current system each manager is allotted one challenge per game, with additional challenges granted only if the previous one was successful. From the eighth inning on, the umpire crew chief is allowed to initiate his own replay review. The umpire crew chief is also allowed to initiate a review during any inning if the play in question is a boundary home run call.
The following plays may be subjected to instant replay review:
To initiate a managers 's challenge, a manager must enter the field of play and verbally tell the umpire he will use his challenge. Teams are allowed to have a replay assistant in the booth watch the replay and talk with a coach via the dugout telephone to decide if the team should challenge the call. A player or coach in the dugout will signal to the manager whether or not to use the challenge.
When a play is reviewed, at least two umpires, (including the crew chief) will go to an area behind home plate where they will meet a technician. The technician hands the umpires headsets where they can communicate with the umpires at the Replay Command Center in New York City. During the review, the replay may be displayed on the stadium video screen. Once the call is determined, the field technician will leave and the crew chief will signal the final call. If a manager enters the field of play to argue a reviewed call, he will be automatically ejected from the game.
Instant replay in MLB actually had been used once before in the 1999 season during a Florida Marlins home game at Pro Player Stadium. This was the first instance in which instant replay was utilized in Major League Baseball. While playing the St. Louis Cardinals, Cliff Floyd hit a ball off of the top of the left field scoreboard. Originally ruled a double, then ruled a home run, NL Umpire Frank Pulli reverted the call back to a double, after consulting a TV monitor in the Marlins dugout. The Cardinals won the game, 5 - 2, and the Marlins protested the use of the TV monitor. The National League Office declared the umpires erred in using instant replay, and the American League Office concurred that instant replay was not to be used in the future. However, the Marlins protest was denied on the grounds that it was a judgment call rather than a rules violation as such, and the play stood. MLB did not use instant replay again for almost a decade.
Although not an exact "instant '' replay, a controversial play in the 1969 World Series involving a J.C. Martin bunt attempt led Commissioner Bowie Kuhn to study the videotape the next day, to assure himself and to announce that a reasonable call had been made by the umpires.
Major League Baseball instant replay was instituted on August 28, 2008 by commissioner Bud Selig. "I believe that the extraordinary technology that we now have merits the use of instant replay on a very limited basis '', Commissioner Selig said. "The system we have in place will ensure that the proper call is made on home run balls and will not cause a significant delay to the game. ''
Although MLB was the last of the four major United States professional sports leagues to implement an instant replay review system, replay was used 123 times between August 28, 2008 and the conclusion of the 2010 season (with 48 of those instances resulting in overturned calls).
Replay made its official, sanctioned MLB debut at Tropicana Field on September 3, 2008 after Alex Rodriguez of the New York Yankees hit a ball near the left - field foul pole that was initially ruled a home run by third base umpire Brian Runge. Tampa Bay Rays manager Joe Maddon and catcher Dioner Navarro argued that the ball was foul and asked for a review. After a conversation among the umpires, crew chief Charlie Reliford allowed the replay, which was sent by MLB.com logger Dominic Sims, to take place and after review, upheld the home run call.
The first instance of an umpire 's call being overturned by instant replay also occurred at Tropicana Field. On September 19, 2008, in the bottom of the 4th inning with two men on, Carlos Peña of the Rays hit the ball just over the fence in right field. The umpires originally ruled that there was spectator interference, but after several minutes of viewing replays, the umpires returned to the field and signaled it a home run, extending the Rays ' lead to 9 - 0 at that point.
Aside from the two aforementioned reviews at Tampa Bay, review was used five additional times during the 2008 regular season: twice at Houston, and once each at Seattle, San Francisco, and Philadelphia.
On March 16, 2009, during the 2009 World Baseball Classic, instant replay was requested for the first time in the tournament 's history at Dolphin Stadium to give Venezuela a home run against Puerto Rico. Crew chief Ed Rapuano stated in a postgame press conference that there was never any replay, because the "war room '' in New York City was unable to send him a replay of the play in question due to technical difficulties. The umpires, two from the United States and two from Japan, then worked with a translator to make a final ruling. Three of the four umpires said they believed it was a home run, and when third - base umpire Hitoshi Watarida was asked by Rapuano if he was "110 percent sure '' that it was a home run, Watarida said yes. Nearly 10 minutes after first entering the dugout, the umpires returned to the field and awarded the Venezuelan team with a home run.
Instant replay instead made its WBC debut during the 2013 World Baseball Classic as umpires upheld a home run call during a Mexico vs. USA game.
On June 19, 2009, instant replay was used twice in a game for the first time, during a Detroit Tigers vs. Milwaukee Brewers game.
On October 31, 2009, instant replay was used for the first time in a World Series, when in the fourth inning of Game 3 of the World Series, Alex Rodriguez hit a ball that bounced off the camera in right field. Initially called as a double, the umpires reviewed the play, and determined that had the camera not been in its location, the ball probably would have left the park, and a home run was awarded to Rodriguez, making the score 3 - 2.
On June 1, 2011, Billy Butler of the Kansas City Royals hit a fly ball to left field in the bottom of the ninth inning of a scoreless game against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The ball hit off the fence over the left - field wall and skipped back onto the field. It was ruled a double and Jeff Francoeur held at third. Manager Ned Yost argued that it was a home run. The umpires reviewed it and saw that the ball hit off the back part of the fence and went back onto the field (Kauffman Stadium 's configuration allows for this play to be officiated as a home run). After review, the umpires accordingly ruled home run, granting the Royals a 2 - 0 victory. This was the second walk - off home run reviewed by instant replay in MLB history.
On June 29, 2011, Jorge Posada of the New York Yankees hit a fly ball to right field. The ball bounced off the wall and a fan reached over to grab it. Originally ruled a base hit, instant replay showed that the fan touched the ball as it bounced back onto the field. After the review, the umpires called it a home run.
On August 17, 2011, Billy Butler hit a fly ball to left field. It hit off the railing in left. Brett Gardner grabbed the ball when it came back in and threw it into the infield. The umpires called it a home run. Joe Girardi came out to argue. The umpires looked at the review. The replays showed that the ball hit off the wall in left, exited the field and returned; the call stood, giving Butler his 15th home run of the season.
On August 18, 2011, Justin Morneau hit a deep fly ball to right field that appeared to go just to the right side of the foul pole for a foul ball. However, the umpires immediately called it a home run. For the second straight night, Joe Girardi came out to argue the call and ask for a review. The umpires reviewed and ruled that the ball did indeed go past the right side of the foul pole, thus calling it a foul ball. Twins manager Ron Gardenhire came out to argue the call and was ejected from the game by home plate umpire Brian O'Nora for arguing a decision to change a call after looking at instant replay, which pursuant to MLB rule, shall result in an automatic ejection.
On September 4, 2011, Hunter Pence of the Philadelphia Phillies hit a fly ball to deep right field. Originally ruled a live ball, instant replay showed Marlins right fielder Bryan Petersen was interfered with by multiple fans during his opportunity to catch a ball, under Rule 2.00 INTERFERENCE (d) (1) and (2). After instant replay review, first base umpire and crew chief Joe West ruled Pence out under the provisions of spectator interference, Rule 3.16, and sent Phillies baserunner Ryan Howard back to first base. For the second time in less than a month, a manager was ejected arguing the instant replay decision: Charlie Manuel was ejected and elected to play the game under protest. On September 7, 2011, MLB VP of Baseball Operations Joe Torre denied the first ever protest associated with authorized instant replay usage.
During the 2011 American League Division Series, Robinson Canó of the New York Yankees hit a fly ball to left field. It bounced off the wall and back into play. Cano argued that the ball went over the wall. Instant replay showed that the ball bounced off the wall and narrowly missed a fan, bouncing back into play. Therefore, the call stood.
On May 8, 2013, Adam Rosales of the Oakland Athletics hit a game tying home run, but was initially ruled a double, as the ball hit a railing behind the wall in left field and bounced back on the field. Despite video replays clearly indicating a home run, umpire Ángel Hernández upheld the original ruling. Oakland manager Bob Melvin was ejected for arguing and the Cleveland Indians held on to win 4 - 3.
Instant replay was not expanded in 2012, and Executive Vice President of Baseball Operations Joe Torre confirmed that instant replay would again not be expanded in time for Opening Day 2013, putting off plans for another season. On August 15, 2013, Major League Baseball announced that it would expand its video review process for the 2014 season, granting managers one challenge over the first six innings of games and two from the seventh inning until the end of the game. Calls that are challenged would be reviewed by a crew in MLB headquarters in New York City, who make the final ruling.
As part of the 2014 collective bargaining agreement between MLB 's owners and players union (MLBPA), and approval by the umpires union (WUA), two additional elements were added to the replay rules. Instant replay was expanded to include fair and foul calls and balls that are caught or trapped by the player catching the ball. It also expanded interference reviews beyond the home run boundary to all walls.
Following the conclusion of the 2013 World Series, MLB announced it would test expanded instant replay as proposed for 2014 for a week 's slate of games in the Arizona Fall League. During the second inning of the Tuesday, November 5 Solar Sox - Rafters game played at Talking Stick, first base umpire Sean Barber ruled batter CJ Cron out at first base on a close play. Manager Bill Richardson approached plate umpire Hal Gibson to challenge the play, initiating the first video review conducted by off - field umpires and relayed via headset to the plate umpire; Barber 's out call was upheld after the review. In total, four plays were reviewed during the debut game, with instant replay affirming the umpire 's on - field call all four times.
The first overturned call occurred during November 6 's Rafters - Scorpions game when umpires used replay to reverse an out call on a stolen base attempt. The game also featured a rare multi-replay challenge, as video review upheld two umpiring calls in one play -- batter Kyle Kubitza 's touch of second base as well as his slide into third base ahead of a tag.
In total, fifteen calls were challenged with three overturned upon instant replay review, resulting in a 20 % overturn rate.
To accommodate the anticipated expansion of instant replay, MLB promoted seven minor league umpires to the full - time major league staff on January 14, 2014. Two days later, on January 16, MLB officially announced the approval of expanded instant replay for use during the 2014 season, whose terms were modified after negotiations with the MLBPA and WUA. According to its terms, managers will be allotted one challenge per game (two if the first challenge results in an overturned call) while the umpiring crew chief will be empowered to initiate a review in innings 7 and later. The umpires will also be allowed to review a home run call at any time. Once a call is challenged an umpire requests a video review, fellow umpires in New York 's Replay Operations Center will watch video of the play in question using the "indisputable video evidence '' standard when deciding whether to overturn a call. The following plays will be reviewable under the system:
Judgment calls not specified above, including, but not limited to, pitches called ball or strike, obstruction, interference, the infield fly rule, and checked swings are not reviewable.
On March 31, 2014, the first instant replay challenge logged was sent by former MLB.com logger Drew "Cashmere '' Schaefer with the MLB Replay Tech in NYC being Timothy Akins as Chicago Cubs manager Rick Renteria challenged a potential double play in the top of fifth inning against the Pittsburgh Pirates, disputing the call on the field that pitcher Jeff Samardzija was out at first. The umpires confirmed the call on the field, and the Cubs lost the challenge. From announcement of the challenge to confirmation of the call, the process took 1 minute and 40 seconds, longer than MLB 's hope for 60 to 90 seconds per review. Later that day, the first successful challenge took place when Atlanta Braves manager Fredi González challenged the call of a Ryan Braun single. It was overturned to an out in a review that took 58 seconds, although the Braves lost the game to the Milwaukee Brewers 2 - 0; coincidentally, former Brewers owner and MLB commissioner Bud Selig was in attendance for the first successful challenge. Moments later, the aforementioned Cubs -- Pirates game had the second overturned call (and the first in extra innings) when Emilio Bonifacio was called safe on a pickoff attempt by Bryan Morris. Pirates manager Clint Hurdle successfully challenged the call, and was said to influence the outcome of the game, a 1 - 0 Pirates victory. Finally, the first umpire - initiated review took place in a game between the Oakland Athletics and Cleveland Indians when umpire Mike Winters wanted to confirm that Oakland catcher John Jaso did not unnecessarily block the plate as Michael Brantley attempted to score.
As of the 2014 All - Star Break, instant replay was generally well received by managers, players, and umpires. Managers challenged 606 calls, or an average of one every 2.35 games, of which 52 % were overturned. Including situations where umpires request the Replay Operations Center to review a call, 47.7 % of calls are overturned. However, MLB informally allows up to 30 seconds to have the team 's video coordinator signal a call to the manager. When situations where the manager comes out on the field to await a decision from a team video coordinator are included, MLB estimates the percentage of calls overturned decreases to 21 %. The average replay review takes one minute and fifty seconds, which is higher than MLB 's original goal of 90 seconds per review.
One side effect has been the addition of 12 new umpires, the most since 1999, to MLB staff, due to the need to staff the Replay Operations Center with two crews. However, statistics show that umpiring quality has remained constant despite the additions, with four out of the top seven umpires with reversals those who have umpired more than 1,600 games.
The following changes were made in 2015:
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who sings in what love got to do with it | What 's Love Got to Do with It (film) - wikipedia
What 's Love Got to Do with It is a 1993 American biographical film directed by Brian Gibson, loosely based on the life of American - born singer Tina Turner. It stars Angela Bassett as Tina Turner and Laurence Fishburne as Ike Turner.
The screenplay was adapted by Kate Lanier from the book I, Tina written by Tina Turner and Kurt Loder. Both Ike and Tina Turner assigned rights to Lanier for their lives to be dramatized in the film. The film 's soundtrack featured the hit song "I Do n't Wanna Fight '', which went to number one in seven countries. In the United States, the film grossed almost $40 million and around $20 million in rentals. In the United Kingdom, it grossed nearly £ 10 million.
Born and raised in Nutbush, Tennessee, Anna Mae Bullock (Tina 's birth name) grows up in an unhappy family, with her parents leaving and abandoning her at a young age. Following her grandmother 's death, she relocates to St. Louis, reuniting with her mother and close sister Alline. Anna Mae pursues a chance to be a professional singer after seeing charismatic bandleader Ike Turner perform one night. Later she wins her spot in Turner 's band after singing onstage and he begins mentoring her. In time, an unexpected romance develops between the two after she moves into Ike 's home. Shortly afterwards, they marry and begin having musical success together as Ike and Tina Turner.
The marriage quickly turns violent when Ike starts physically dominating her, leaving her no chance to escape. In public, Tina rises from local St. Louis phenomenon into an R&B superstar with Ike growing increasingly jealous of the attention given to her. Ike turns to drugs and his abusive behavior worsens. As Tina seeks solace in her chaotic life, a friend turns her on to Buddhism, eventually convincing her that reciting the Lotus Sutra and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo will help "change her life. '' Tina grows increasingly confident afterwards and in a final fight with Ike finally musters the courage to defend herself, eventually leaving Ike after they arrive at a hotel.
Winning the right to retain her stage name after their divorce, Tina continues working to pay bills. She gets a break after meeting Roger Davies, who eventually helps her realize her dreams of rock stardom. Despite Ike 's attempts to win her back, Tina eventually prevails and finds solo success, accomplishing her dreams without Ike.
Halle Berry, Robin Givens, Pam Grier, Whitney Houston, Janet Jackson, and Vanessa L. Williams and were all considered for the role of Tina Turner. Whitney Houston was actually offered the role, but had to decline due to imminent maternity. Jenifer Lewis, who plays Tina 's mother in this film, originally auditioned to play Tina Turner, as well; Born in 1957, Lewis is one year older than Angela Bassett.
Angela Bassett auditioned for the role in October 1992 and was chosen only a month before production began in December. During that time she had to learn not only how to talk like Turner but to dance and move like her. She would have been willing to try to do the singing as well, but ' ' not in the time we had, ' ' she said. ' ' I did think about it for a second, though. ' ' Instead, she lip syncs to soundtracks recorded by Tina Turner and Fishburne. Bassett worked with Tina Turner, but only ' ' a little bit. ' ' Turner helped most with the re-creations of her famed dance routines.
All the Ike and Tina Turner songs used in the film were newly re-recorded versions featuring Tina Turner covering her own songs. On "Proud Mary '' and "It 's Gonna Work Out Fine '', Laurence Fishburne sings Ike Turner 's parts. For Tina Turner 's solo recordings, the original masters were used, including the Phil Spector - produced "River Deep - Mountain High ''.
Laurence Fishburne was offered the role of Ike Turner five times and turned it down each time. ' ' It was pretty one - sided, ' ' said Fishburne, who turned down the project based on the script he first read. Ike, Fishburne added, was ' ' obviously the villain of the piece, but there was no explanation as to why he behaved the way he behaved - why she was with him for 16 to 20 years, what made her stay. ' ' The writers made some changes and though Ike is still shown as a pretty despicable sort, the film offers at least some insight into him - most notably a scene in which Ike recalls watching, at age 6, his father 's death from wounds suffered in a fight over a woman. The changes helped persuade Fishburne to do the role, but he says that Bassett 's casting as Tina played a key part. ' ' She was the deciding factor, really, ' ' he said.
Fishburne did not have Ike Turner around as a role model as much as he would have liked. He did meet Ike Turner once, though, during production of the film. "He was not particularly welcome on this project, '' Fishburne says. The actor 's only meeting was a brief introduction when Ike showed up at the Turners ' former home in Baldwin Hills during a location shoot. Ike signed some autographs and showed Fishburne his walk. "It was nice to meet him, '' says Fishburne. "Regardless of his actions, he was so much a part of Tina 's life. The movie is about him just as much as her. It 's unfortunate that he was n't welcomed, that both of them were n't around more. ''
In his autobiography Taking Back My Name, Ike Turner claims the movie damaged his reputation immensely and attacks many of the scenes for being either not strictly accurate or completely fabricated. Director Brian Gibson had no contact with Ike. "I never spoke to him, '' says Gibson. "I was not allowed to. Disney felt that it would not be a good idea. '' Tina herself admitted she wish the film had more truth to it. Since they sold the right to use their name and image for the film, neither Tina nor Ike had control over the script. Tina 's more graphic accounts of Ike 's abuse in her book were not added to the film.
Bassett was injured while filming the first spousal abuse sequence. She fell off the back of a high - rise sofa, put her hands out to reduce the impact, and suffered a hairline fracture of her right hand. She only tried the stunt fall once, and footage leading up to the mishap appears in the film.
Actress Vanessa Bell Calloway, who plays the fictional character Jackie, was leery of chanting the Buddhist words because of her strong Christian faith. Director Brian Gibson allowed her to form the words with her lips silently during filming and added the words with a voice double in post-production. She also appeared alongside Tina in the music video of "What 's Love Got to Do with It ''.
Though the film took its story from Tina Turner 's autobiography, I, Tina, it was determined to be only loosely based on the book, meaning certain events in the film were "fictionalized for dramatic purposes ''. Examples of the fictionalized scenes include:
Bassett won a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Comedy / Musical and an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Motion Picture. Laurence Fishburne was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and Bassett was nominated for Best Actress in a Leading Role. The film won an American Choreography Award for one of its dance sequences.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
The movie received critical acclaim. It currently holds a 96 % "fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 49 reviews with the consensus: "With a fascinating real - life story and powerhouse performances from Angela Bassett and Laurence Fishburne, What 's Love Got to Do with It is a ca n't miss biopic. ''
Ike Turner complained that Fishburne 's portrayal of him was inaccurate.
Phil Spector slammed the movie (and the book) as a "piece of trash '', which "demonized and vilified Ike ''.
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what was the nickname of the nile river | Nile - wikipedia
The Nile (Arabic: النيل , Egyptian Arabic en - Nīl, Standard Arabic an - Nīl; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲱ, P (h) iaro; Ancient Egyptian: Ḥ'pī and Jtrw; Biblical Hebrew: היאור, Ha - Ye'or or השיחור, Ha - Shiḥor) is a major north - flowing river in northeastern Africa, and is commonly regarded as the longest river in the world, though some sources claim that the Amazon River is longer. The Nile, which is 6,853 km (4,258 miles) long, is an "international '' river as its drainage basin covers eleven countries, namely, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt. In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan.
The Nile has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The White Nile is considered to be the headwaters and primary stream of the Nile itself. The Blue Nile, however, is the source of most of the water and silt. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, with the most distant source still undetermined but located in either Rwanda or Burundi. It flows north through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile (Amharic: ዓባይ, ʿĀbay) begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet just north of the Sudanese capital of Khartoum.
The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Sudanese desert to Egypt, then ends in a large delta and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks.
In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥ'pī or Iteru (Hapy), meaning "river ''. In Coptic, the words piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic) meaning "the river '' (lit. p (h). iar - o "the. canal - great '') come from the same ancient name.
The English name Nile and the Arabic names en - Nîl and an - Nîl both derive from the Latin Nilus and the Ancient Greek Νεῖλος. Beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed. Hesiod at his Theogony refers that Nilus (Νεῖλος) was one of the Potamoi (river gods), son of Oceanus and Tethys. Another possible etymology derives it from a Semitic Nahal, meaning "river ''. The standard English names "White Nile '' and "Blue Nile '', to refer to the river 's source, derive from Arabic names formerly applied only to the Sudanese stretches which meet at Khartoum.
Above Khartoum, the Nile is also known as the White Nile, a term also used in a limited sense to describe the section between Lake No and Khartoum. At Khartoum the river is joined by the Blue Nile. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift.
The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometers (1,256,591 sq mi), about 10 % of the area of Africa. The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the discharge at any given point along the mainstem depends on many factors including weather, diversions, evaporation and evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow.
The source of the Nile is sometimes considered to be Lake Victoria, but the lake has feeder rivers of considerable size. The Kagera River, which flows into Lake Victoria near the Tanzanian town of Bukoba, is the longest feeder, although sources do not agree on which is the longest tributary of the Kagera and hence the most distant source of the Nile itself. It is either the Ruvyironza, which emerges in Bururi Province, Burundi, or the Nyabarongo, which flows from Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda. The two feeder rivers meet near Rusumo Falls on the Rwanda - Tanzania border.
In 2010, an exploration party went to a place described as the source of the Rukarara tributary, and by hacking a path up steep jungle - choked mountain slopes in the Nyungwe forest found (in the dry season) an appreciable incoming surface flow for many kilometres upstream, and found a new source, giving the Nile a length of 6,758 km (4,199 mi).
Gish Abay is reportedly the place where the "holy water '' of the first drops of the Blue Nile develop.
Formerly Lake Tanganyika drained northwards along the African Rift Valley into the White Nile, making the Nile about 1,400 kilometers (870 mi) longer, until it was blocked in Miocene times by the bulk of the Virunga Volcanoes.
The Nile leaves Lake Nyanza (Victoria) at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda, as the Victoria Nile. It flows north for some 130 kilometers (81 mi), to Lake Kyoga. The last part of the approximately 200 kilometers (120 mi) river section starts from the western shores of the lake and flows at first to the west until just south of Masindi Port, where the river turns north, then makes a great half circle to the east and north until Karuma Falls. For the remaining part it flows merely westerly through the Murchison Falls until it reaches the very northern shores of Lake Albert where it forms a significant river delta. The lake itself is on the border of DR Congo, but the Nile is not a border river at this point. After leaving Lake Albert, the river continues north through Uganda and is known as the Albert Nile.
The river flows into South Sudan just south of Nimule, where it is known as the Bahr al Jabal ("Mountain River ''). Just south of the town it has the confluence with the Achwa River. The Bahr al Ghazal, itself 716 kilometers (445 mi) long, joins the Bahr al Jabal at a small lagoon called Lake No, after which the Nile becomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the White Nile, from the whitish clay suspended in its waters. When the Nile floods it leaves a rich silty deposit which fertilizes the soil. The Nile no longer floods in Egypt since the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1970. An anabranch river, the Bahr el Zeraf, flows out of the Nile 's Bahr al Jabal section and rejoins the White Nile.
The flow rate of the Bahr al Jabal at Mongalla, South Sudan is almost constant throughout the year and averages 1,048 m / s (37,000 cu ft / s). After Mongalla, the Bahr Al Jabal enters the enormous swamps of the Sudd region of South Sudan. More than half of the Nile 's water is lost in this swamp to evaporation and transpiration. The average flow rate of the White Nile at the tails of the swamps is about 510 m / s (18,000 cu ft / s). From here it soon meets with the Sobat River at Malakal. On an annual basis, the White Nile upstream of Malakal contributes about fifteen percent of the total outflow of the Nile River.
The average flow of the White Nile at Malakal, just below the Sobat River, is 924 m / s (32,600 cu ft / s); the peak flow is approximately 1,218 m / s (43,000 cu ft / s) in October and minimum flow is about 609 m / s (21,500 cu ft / s) in April. This fluctuation is due the substantial variation in the flow of the Sobat, which has a minimum flow of about 99 m / s (3,500 cu ft / s) in March and a peak flow of over 680 m / s (24,000 cu ft / s) in October. During the dry season (January to June) the White Nile contributes between 70 percent and 90 percent of the total discharge from the Nile.
Below Renk the White Nile enters Sudan, it flows north to Khartoum and meets the Blue Nile.
The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over six groups of cataracts, from the sixth at Sabaloka just north of Khartoum northward to Abu Hamed. Due to the tectonic uplift of the Nubian Swell, the river is then diverted to flow for over 300 km south - west following the structure of the Central African Shear Zone embracing the Bayuda Desert. At Al Dabbah it resumes its northward course towards the first Cataract at Aswan forming the ' S ' - shaped Great Bend of the Nile already mentioned by Eratosthenes.
In the north of Sudan the river enters Lake Nasser (known in Sudan as Lake Nubia), the larger part of which is in Egypt.
Below the Aswan High Dam, at the northern limit of Lake Nasser, the Nile resumes its historic course.
North of Cairo, the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the Rosetta Branch to the west and the Damietta to the east, forming the Nile Delta.
Below the confluence with the Blue Nile the only major tributary is the Atbara River, roughly halfway to the sea, which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) long. The Atbara flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period of January to June, it typically dries up. It joins the Nile approximately 300 kilometers (200 mi) north of Khartoum.
The Blue Nile (Ge'ez ጥቁር ዓባይ Ṭiqūr ʿĀbbāy (Black Abay) to Ethiopians; Arabic: النيل الأزرق ; transliterated: an - Nīl al - Azraq) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 kilometres to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the Nile. Ninety percent of the water and ninety - six percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile originates in Ethiopia, with fifty - nine percent of the water from the Blue Nile (the rest being from the Tekezé, Atbarah, Sobat, and small tributaries). The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season in the summer, however, when rainfall is especially high on the Ethiopian Plateau; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile (Sobat, Blue Nile, Tekezé, and Atbarah) have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts the blue Nile dries out completely.
The flow of the Blue Nile varies considerably over its yearly cycle and is the main contribution to the large natural variation of the Nile flow. During the dry season the natural discharge of the Blue Nile can be as low as 113 m / s (4,000 cu ft / s), although upstream dams regulate the flow of the river. During the wet season the peak flow of the Blue Nile often exceeds 5,663 m / s (200,000 cu ft / s) in late August (a difference of a factor of 50).
Before the placement of dams on the river the yearly discharge varied by a factor of 15 at Aswan. Peak flows of over 8,212 m / s (290,000 cu ft / s) occurred during late August and early September, and minimum flows of about 552 m / s (19,500 cu ft / s) occurred during late April and early May.
The Bahr al Ghazal and the Sobat River are the two most important tributaries of the White Nile in terms of discharge.
The Bahr al Ghazal 's drainage basin is the largest of any of the Nile 's sub-basins, measuring 520,000 square kilometers (200,000 sq mi) in size, but it contributes a relatively small amount of water, about 2 m / s (71 cu ft / s) annually, due to tremendous volumes of water being lost in the Sudd wetlands.
The Sobat River, which joins the Nile a short distance below Lake No, drains about half as much land, 225,000 km (86,900 sq mi), but contributes 412 cubic meters per second (14,500 cu ft / s) annually to the Nile. When in flood the Sobat carries a large amount of sediment, adding greatly to the White Nile 's color.
The Yellow Nile is a former tributary that connected the Ouaddaï Highlands of eastern Chad to the Nile River Valley c. 8000 to c. 1000 BC. Its remains are known as the Wadi Howar. The wadi passes through Gharb Darfur near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile near the southern point of the Great Bend.
The Nile (iteru in Ancient Egyptian) has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the Stone Age, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. However, the Nile used to run much more westerly through what is now Wadi Hamim and Wadi al Maqar in Libya and flow into the Gulf of Sidra. As sea level rose at the end of the most recent ice age, the stream which is now the northern Nile pirated the ancestral Nile near Asyut, this change in climate also led to the creation of the current Sahara desert, around 3400 BC.
The present Nile is at least the fifth river that has flowed north from the Ethiopian Highlands. Satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. An Eonile canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents an ancestral Nile called the Eonile that flowed during the later Miocene (23 -- 5.3 million years before present). The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean; several natural gas fields have been discovered within these sediments.
During the late - Miocene Messinian salinity crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred metres below world ocean level at Aswan and 2,400 m (7,900 ft) below Cairo. This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment when the Mediterranean was recreated. At some point the sediments raised the riverbed sufficiently for the river to overflow westward into a depression to create Lake Moeris.
Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. The Nile was much longer at that time, with its furthest headwaters in northern Zambia.
There are two theories about the age of the integrated Nile. One is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age, and that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly of which fed a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and Sudan. Rushdi Said postulated that Egypt itself supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history.
The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile and the Atbara and Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into Tertiary times.
Salama suggested that during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 million to 2.588 million years ago) a series of separate closed continental basins each occupied one of the major parts of the Sudanese Rift System: Mellut rift, White Nile rift, Blue Nile rift, Atbara rift and Sag El Naam rift. The Mellut Rift Basin is nearly 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) deep at its central part. This rift is possibly still active, with reported tectonic activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The Sudd swamps which form the central part of the basin may still be subsiding. The White Nile Rift System, although shallower than the Bahr el Arab rift, is about 9 kilometers (5.6 mi) deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be 5 -- 9 kilometers (3.1 -- 5.6 mi). These basins were not interconnected until their subsidence ceased, and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill and connect them. The Egyptian Nile connected to the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial headwaters during the current stages of tectonic activity in the Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift Systems. The connection of the different Niles occurred during cyclic wet periods. The River Atbara overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods that occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. The Blue Nile connected to the main Nile during the 70,000 -- 80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile to the main system some 12,500 years ago.
The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that "Egypt was the gift of the Nile ''. An unending source of sustenance, it provided a crucial role in the development of Egyptian civilization. Silt deposits from the Nile made the surrounding land fertile because the river overflowed its banks annually. The Ancient Egyptians cultivated and traded wheat, flax, papyrus and other crops around the Nile. Wheat was a crucial crop in the famine - plagued Middle East. This trading system secured Egypt 's diplomatic relationships with other countries, and contributed to economic stability. Far - reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times.
Water buffalo were introduced from Asia, and Assyrians introduced camels in the 7th century BC. These animals were killed for meat, and were domesticated and used for ploughing -- or in the camels ' case, carriage. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient means of transportation for people and goods. The Nile was an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. Hapy was the god of the annual floods, and both he and the pharaoh were thought to control the flooding. The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god Ra, the Sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death.
As the Nile was such an important factor in Egyptian life, the ancient calendar was even based on the 3 cycles of the Nile. These seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each, were called Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet, which means inundation, was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving several layers of fertile soil behind, aiding in agricultural growth. Peret was the growing season, and Shemu, the last season, was the harvest season when there were no rains.
Owing to their failure to penetrate the sudd wetlands of South Sudan, the upper reaches of the Nile remained largely unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Various expeditions failed to determine the river 's source. Agatharcides records that in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the Blue Nile to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the Ethiopian Highlands, but no European of antiquity is known to have reached Lake Tana.
The Tabula Rogeriana depicted the source as three lakes in 1154.
Europeans began to learn about the origins of the Nile in the 15th and 16th centuries, when travelers to Ethiopia visited Lake Tana and the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake. Although James Bruce claimed to be the first European to have visited the headwaters, modern writers give the credit to the Jesuit Pedro Páez. Páez 's account of the source of the Nile is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia. It was published in full only in the early 20th century, although it was featured in works of Páez 's contemporaries, including Baltazar Téllez, Athanasius Kircher and by Johann Michael Vansleb.
Europeans had been resident in Ethiopia since the late 15th century, and one of them may have visited the headwaters even earlier without leaving a written trace. The Portuguese João Bermudes published the first description of the Tis Issat Falls in his 1565 memoirs, compared them to the Nile Falls alluded to in Cicero 's De Republica. Jerónimo Lobo describes the source of the Blue Nile, visiting shortly after Pedro Páez. Telles also used his account.
The White Nile was even less understood. The ancients mistakenly believed that the Niger River represented the upper reaches of the White Nile. For example, Pliny the Elder wrote that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower Mauretania '', flowed above ground for "many days '' distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the Masaesyli, then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days ' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians. '' A merchant named Diogenes reported that the Nile 's water attracted game such as buffalo.
Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in 1858 when the British explorer John Hanning Speke reached its southern shore while traveling with Richard Francis Burton to explore central Africa and locate the great lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water '' for the first time, Speke named the lake after the then Queen of the United Kingdom. Burton, recovering from illness and resting further south on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, was outraged that Speke claimed to have proved his discovery to be the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A very public quarrel ensued, which sparked a great deal of intense debate within the scientific community and interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke 's discovery. British explorer and missionary David Livingstone pushed too far west and entered the Congo River system instead. It was ultimately Welsh - American explorer Henry Morton Stanley who confirmed Speke 's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at Ripon Falls on the Lake 's northern shore.
European involvement in Egypt goes back to the time of Napoleon. Laird Shipyard of Liverpool sent an iron steamer to the Nile in the 1830s. With the completion of the Suez Canal and the British takeover of Egypt in the 1870s, more British river steamers followed.
The Nile is the area 's natural navigation channel, giving access to Khartoum and Sudan by steamer. The Siege of Khartoum was broken with purpose - built sternwheelers shipped from England and steamed up the river to retake the city. After this came regular steam navigation of the river. With British Forces in Egypt in the First World War and the inter-war years, river steamers provided both security and sightseeing to the Pyramids and Thebes. Steam navigation remained integral to the two countries as late as 1962. Sudan steamer traffic was a lifeline as few railways or roads were built in that country. Most paddle steamers have been retired to shorefront service, but modern diesel tourist boats remain on the river.
The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length. Winter winds blow south, up river, so ships could sail up river, and down river using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan High Dam ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara. The rivers 's flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile, which are sections of faster - flowing water with many small islands, shallow water, and rocks, which form an obstacle to navigation by boats. The Sudd wetlands in Sudan also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and impede water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to canalize (the Jonglei Canal) to bypass the swamps.
Nile cities include Khartoum, Aswan, Luxor (Thebes), and the Giza -- Cairo conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan, north of the Aswan Dam. This part of the river is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. Many cruise ships ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. Security concerns have limited cruising on the northernmost portion for many years.
A computer simulation study to plan the economic development of the Nile was directed by H.A.W. Morrice and W.N. Allan, for the Ministry of Hydro - power of the Republic of the Sudan, during 1955 -- 1957 Morrice was their Hydrological Adviser, and Allan his predecessor. M.P. Barnett directed the software development and computer operations. The calculations were enabled by accurate monthly inflow data collected for 50 years. The underlying principle was the use of over-year storage, to conserve water from rainy years for use in dry years. Irrigation, navigation and other needs were considered. Each computer run postulated a set of reservoirs and operating equations for the release of water as a function of the month and the levels upstream. The behavior that would have resulted given the inflow data was modeled. Over 600 models were run. Recommendations were made to the Sudanese authorities. The calculations were run on an IBM 650 computer. Simulation studies to design water resources are discussed further in the article on hydrology transport models, that have been used since the 1980s to analyze water quality.
Despite the development of many reservoirs, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan, but Egypt was nourished by water impounded in Lake Nasser. Drought has proven to be a major cause of fatality in the Nile River basin. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group around 170 million people have been affected by droughts in the last century with half a million lives lost. From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.
The Nile 's water has affected the politics of East Africa and the Horn of Africa for many decades. Countries including Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have complained about Egyptian domination of its water resources. The Nile Basin Initiative promotes a peaceful cooperation among those states.
Several attempts have been made to establish agreements between the countries sharing the Nile waters. It is very difficult to have all these countries agree with each other given the self - interest of each country and their political, strategic, and social differences. On 14 May 2010 at Entebbe, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda signed a new agreement on sharing the Nile water even though this agreement raised strong opposition from Egypt and Sudan. Ideally, such international agreements should promote equitable and efficient usage of the Nile basin 's water resources. Without a better understanding about the availability of the future water resources of the Nile River, it is possible that conflicts could arise between these countries relying on the Nile for their water supply, economic and social developments.
The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendrik Coetzee, became the first to navigate the White Nile 's entire length of approximately 3,700 kilometres (2,300 mi). The expedition began at the White Nile 's source, Lake Victoria in Uganda, on 17 January 2004 and arrived safely at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, four and a half months later.
The Blue Nile Expedition, led by geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first people to descend the entire Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Their approximately 5,230 kilometres (3,250 mi) journey took 114 days: from 25 December 2003 to 28 April 2004. Though their expedition included others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to complete the entire journey. Although they descended whitewater manually the team used outboard motors for much of their journey.
On 29 January 2005 Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner completed the first human powered transit of Ethiopia 's Blue Nile. Their journey of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) took five months. They recount that they paddled through two war zones, regions notorious for bandits, and were arrested at gunpoint.
On 30 April 2005 a team led by South Africans Peter Meredith and Hendrik Coetzee became the first to navigate the major remote source of the White Nile, the Akagera river that starts as the Ruvyironza in Bururi Province, Burundi, and ends at Lake Victoria, Uganda.
The following bridges cross the Blue Nile and connect Khartoum to Khartoum North:
The following bridges cross the White Nile and connect Khartoum to Omdurman:
the following bridges cross from Omdurman: to Khartoum North:
The following bridges cross to Tuti from Khartoum states three cities
Other bridges
Riverboat on the Nile, Egypt 1900
Marsh along the Nile
A river boat crossing the Nile in Uganda
Murchison Falls in Uganda, between Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga
The Nile in Luxor
The river Nile flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.
The following is an annotated bibliography of key written documents for the Western exploration of the Nile.
17th century
18th century
1800 -- 1850
1850 -- 1900
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san francisco community college district (city college of san francisco) | City College of San Francisco - wikipedia
Coordinates: 37 ° 43 ′ 33 '' N 122 ° 27 ′ 01 '' W / 37.725716 ° N 122.450178 ° W / 37.725716; - 122.450178
City College of San Francisco (CCSF or City College) is a public two - year community college in San Francisco, California. Founded as a junior college in 1935, the College plays an important local role, annually enrolling as many as one in nine San Francisco residents. CCSF is accredited by the Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges (ACCJC) of the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
Comprising the entire San Francisco Community College District, CCSF is the only community college in San Francisco. The Ocean Avenue campus, bordering the Sunnyside, Westwood Park and Ingleside neighborhoods, is the college 's largest location. The College has other campuses in South San Francisco, Financial District, Little Saigon, South of Market, Bayview - Hunters Point, Marina District, North of Panhandle, and Mission District.
CCSF offers courses in more than 50 academic programs and over 100 occupational disciplines. There is a wide selection of credit courses that lead to an associate degree, which can be used to meet the general education requirements for transfer to four - year institutions. City College of San Francisco currently has articulation agreements with the California State University, the University of California, and other private and public universities in California and across the United States. Free non-credit courses in subjects such as ESL and citizenship as well as adult education classes are also provided.
The founding of a junior college in San Francisco had long been the dream of Archibald Jeter Cloud, the Chief Deputy Superintendent of the San Francisco Unified School District (SFUSD). In response to Black Tuesday and the ensuing Great Depression, Cloud worked to convince the San Francisco Board of Education of the necessity of a junior college in Depression - era San Francisco and of the District 's financial ability to form one. Cloud 's presentation of fiscal studies in 1934 convinced the Board of the availability of Federal and State funding for a junior college. City College of San Francisco was established by the Board of Education of the San Francisco Unified School District on February 15, 1934 and officially opened on August 26, 1935 as San Francisco Junior College. The College had no central campus at the time. Instruction began on September 4, 1935, with morning classes held at the University of California Extension building on Powell Street and afternoon classes held at Galileo High School. The long distance between the two locations gave the College the nickname "Trolley Car College. '' Increasing enrollment gave way to the College 's expansion to Lick - Wilmerding High School, Samuel Gompers Trade School, Marina Junior High School, and other locations. A permanent main campus near Ocean Avenue was approved by the San Francisco Board of Education in 1937 and opened in 1940 with the opening of Science Hall.
In February 1948, the name was changed to City College of San Francisco. It now consists of eleven campuses, the Ocean Campus being the primary one.
In 1970, the College separated from San Francisco Unified School District. The College continued to hold noncredit education programs throughout San Francisco 's neighborhoods. However, as a result of CCSF 's rapid growth, the San Francisco Community College District divided the programs between a division for credit courses at the Ocean Campus and one other division for noncredit courses throughout locations in San Francisco. The two educational divisions merged as a single division in 1990 with program locations held at campuses of City College of San Francisco.
Since the 1990s, the College has significantly renovated and expanded its locations and developed new buildings and facilities throughout San Francisco.
Since its founding in 1935, City College has evolved into a multicultural, multi-campus community college that is one of the largest in the country. CCSF offers courses in more than 50 academic programs and over 100 occupational disciplines. There is a full range of credit courses leading to the Associate of Arts and Associate of Science degrees, most of which meet the general education requirements for transfer to a four - year colleges and universities.
In 2012, the college began experiencing significant public turmoil. On July 2, 2012, the Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges (ACCJC), gave the college eight months to prove it should remain accredited and ordered it to "make preparations for closure ''. As summarized by the San Francisco Chronicle in 2015, "the commission has never found wrongdoing or substandard instruction, but has said the college should lose accreditation because of tangled governance structures, poor fiscal controls and insufficient self - evaluation and reporting. '' In September 2012, the state chancellor 's office warned that a special trustee would be appointed to oversee the institution 's finances if the college did not voluntarily invite one; the board of trustees voted to invite a special trustee, despite student protests and objection. A report issued by California 's Fiscal Crisis & Management Assistance team in September 2012 found the institution to be in a "perilous financial position '' caused largely by "poor decisions and a lack of accountability.
In July of 2013, the ACCJC elected to take action to terminate the college 's accreditation, subject to a one - year review and appeal period. The decision was based on a variety of deficiencies in standards. A Fiscal Crisis & Management Assistance Team report was expected to be released by the end of July 2013. Nearly two months later, San Francisco city attorney Dennis Herrera filed two legal challenges to stop the ACCJC from revoking City College of San Francisco 's accreditation alleging conflicts of interest, a faulty evaluation process, and a politically motivated decision - making process. The 2013 decision to revoke accreditation in 2014 was put on hold pending the legal challenges. In January 2015, with the legal conflict still ongoing, ACCJC said that CCSF remained out of compliance with standards in 32 areas but granted the college a two - year extension for resolving these issues and avoiding a shutdown.
In 2017, ACCJC reaffirmed the college 's accreditation for seven years. It operates with approximately $22 M annual Stabilization funding from the California legislature which will expire in 2021. For the 2017 / 18 Fiscal year, the Board of Trustees approved a $49 M Deficit budget.
After the accreditation crisis in 2012, CCSF was having low student enrollment issues. In the years that followed the crisis, student enrollment went from 90,000 students down to 60,000 students by 2017. In February 2017, the City of San Francisco began offering free tuition at CCSF for San Francisco city residents in a two year pilot program called "Free City College ''. The money for the free tuition was raised from Proposition W, a transfer of properties tax on property sold over $5 million. By Fall 2017, student enrollment was increased by 16 % (4,900 students).
CCSF is part of the San Francisco Community College District which is independent and co-extensive with the City and County of San Francisco and part of the California Community Colleges System. The district 's Board of Trustees is elected by San Francisco residents. District funds are allocated from the state legislature, local property taxes, student tuition and fees, lottery funds, sales tax funds, and miscellaneous sources.
Unique to California Community Colleges, CCSF support staff are pooled in the County of San Francisco 's Civil Service system, so they may transfer between the community college and other City / County of San Francisco departments and participate in the City and County 's benefit programs. This is an exception to academic independence enabled by Education Code section 88137. College administrators do not have control of hiring and placement of classified staff. Although it allows for benefit and seniority portability, CCSF classified staff are not paid at the same rate as their equivalent in other city / county department, so transfer to the college is effectively a demotion.
On July 3, 2013, the Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges voted to revoke CCSF 's accreditation, effective July 31, 2014. ACCJC has made recommendations to the college several times about major problems. In July 2012, ACCJC gave the college eight months to prove it should remain accredited and ordered it to "make preparations for closure ''. Once the accreditation expires, the college may close indefinitely, "unless an appeal is successful or if the college can make enough progress to win an extension ''. It was announced on July 3, 2013, that "the college system 's Board of Governors will appoint a special trustee ' with extraordinary powers ' in (the second week of July 2013) to replace the trustees. That person will run the college with the aim of restoring it to full favor ''.
City College of San Francisco is located in an urban environment and has the associated crime rate. All campuses are maintained by the San Francisco Community College District Police Department (SFCCDPD). The SFCCDPD has twenty eight police officers and nine civilian employees.
Although most colleges and universities have auxiliary foundations for fundraising, the foundation of City College 's assets were frozen in 2010 for illegal use, leading to felony money laundering charges against the College 's Chancellor. The Foundation subsequently made a break from the College, and today, the college has a quasi-endowment of a little over $1 M that it does not control.
CCSF officially opened in 1935, during the Depression era, at the Industrial school, a school for juvenile delinquents, at the Ocean / Phelan Avenue site. Instruction began on September 4, 1935, with morning classes held at the University of California Extension Division building on Powell Street and afternoon classes at Galileo High School with students moving between sites using the trolley system at the time. As the student population grew, classes became available at other sites across San Francisco at a variety of sites. As Juila Bergman writes in the book City College of San Francisco, "Thus, in a real sense, the history of the college is a history of San Francisco and its transportation system. ''
Today it has a main campus (called Ocean Campus) but it also has 10 other satellite locations located across San Francisco. Commonly called "campuses, '' but recently renamed as "centers, '' these are technically "Academic Centers '' and "outreach Operations '' in the state - approved framework of the California Community Colleges System, having less than the range of educational facilities and services offered at a typical community college campus.
The Airport Center is not state approved and has never been state approved, and the other centers are grandfathered but would not be permitted to open under current California Community College guidelines.
Most of the early art on CCSF campus was due to the work of Timothy L. Pflueger, the architect who was in charge of designing CCSF in the 1930s. Pflueger was on a committee of well - known Beaux - Arts architects organizing and designing the Golden Gate International Exposition (GGIE) and he put together a large exhibit of Art in Action in 1940, showcasing a number of artists (from various genres) on display, engaged in creating works. Many of these artworks from GGIE now permanetely live at CCSF 's Ocean Campus.
Diego Rivera 's work Pan American Unity, originally created for the Golden Gate International Exposition in 1940, has been displayed at the theater at the Ocean Campus of San Francisco City College since 1961. This large mural stands, 22 ' high and 74 ' long made up of 5 panels. The mural was entitled by Rivera, "Unión de la Expresión Artistica del Norte y Sur de este Continente '' (The Marriage of the Artistic Expression of the North and of the South on this Continent) but now commonly called Pan American Unity. There are three self - portraits and a portrait on his wife, artist Frida Kahlo within this mural. As of 2014, City College is in the process of supporting The Diego Rivera Mural Project, with goals return of the mural to the position of public importance, stabilize the environment for the mural and secure funding to make the project self supportive.
Frederick E. Olmsted 's 1941 Theory and Science mural is located at CCSF 's Ocean Campus in the Science Hall 's west entrance. This is two 12 ′ x 8 ′ tempera frescos murals and depicts a range of careers in the sciences, featuring men, women and people of color doing things such as viewing bacteria through a microscope, conducting field research, and excavating dinosaur remains. Olmsted also created two large, limestone sculptures of Leonardo da Vinci and Thomas Edison heads that are on display in the Ocean Campus middle courtyard. The giant Leonardo da Vinci and Thomas Edison heads were created in 1940 as part of the Golden Gate International Exposition 's Art in Action exhibition and later given to CCSF for care and display.
Beniamino Bufano was a California - based Italian American sculptor, best known for his large - scale monuments representing peace. Bufano 's sculpture Saint Francis of the Guns of 1968 stands at San Francisco City College in front of the Science Building. It is a statue of Saint Francis of Assisi -- San Francisco 's namesake -- made from melted - down guns mixed with bronze to prevent rust from the city 's dampness; this work was inspired by that year 's assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy. The sculpture is of a 9 - ft tall figure of a robed Catholic saint, his arms spread in peaceful greeting. On his robe, Bufano created a mosaic tile mural showing the glowing heads of four of America 's assassinated leaders: Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., Robert Kennedy and John F. Kennedy. This was one of Bufano 's last works before he died.
Dudley C. Carter has three works at the CCSF Ocean Campus, including The Ram sometimes called Mountain Ram, Goddess of the Forest, and The Beast sculptures. Dudley had donated The Ram because he knew it was the school mascot and it had been part of the Golden Gate International Exposition 's Arts in Action exhibition. The Ram sculpture stood outside on the campus periodically changing locations from time to time, students would coat it in paint with campus colors red and white. Sometimes rival schools would repaint The Ram in their own school colors. By 1980 The Ram had many layers of paint and damage and in Spring of 1983 it was restored by Carter with use of a pick axe and its original, natural redwood. Currently located in the lobby of Conlan Hall, on the Ocean Campus. The Goddess of the Forest is another redwood sculpture created during GGIE, it is very large standing at 26 feet tall and had a girth at the base of 21 feet. For years this piece was located at Golden Gate Park, until 1986 when it began to show distress and decay. It was then moved to CCSF to an indoor location awaiting restoration.
In 2004, the then Governor of Veracruz, Mexico, Miguel Alemán Velazco presented CCSF with a reproduction of an Olmec colossal head in honor of the new Pan-American Center. The gift, a 14 - ton, 9 - foot tall replica of "El Rey '' (The King) San Lorenzo # 1 created in volcanic tuff is now the centerpiece of the proposed Frida Kahlo Garden next to the Diego Rivera Theater at City College of San Francisco. The artist that carved the replica was Ignacio Perez Solano, also known as "il Maestro. '' This is only one of five Olmec heads reproductions in the United States and is viewed by some as the "mother culture '' of Mexico.
Two 50 ′ x 45 ′ low - relief polished marble mosaics by the Swiss - born artist Herman Volz are located in the south portico of San Francisco City College 's Science Hall, located on Ocean Campus. The murals are named Organic and Inorganic Science. The imagery of the mosaics represent fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics with text accompanying the mural that reads ' Give me a base and I move the world. ' These murals were originally part of the Golden Gate International Exposition 's Art in Action show in 1940 on Treasure Island before they were moved to the college. The two mosaics took two years to install with a staff of eight workmen, Juan Breda served as assistant mosaicist for the project. The murals were restored in 2005.
City College of San Francisco has over 50 educational programs and more than 100 work training programs. CCSF has a transfer rate to four - year institutions of 60 %, with 45.8 % of transfer students transferring with an associate degree.
Founded in 1936, the two - year hospitality program is the oldest of any kind on emphasizing culinary arts, with an annual average enrollment of 200 international students. This program offers culinary art, food service management, and hotel management.
The current facilities in Statler Wing are now home to a café (currently named Radius 99), cafeteria, and fine dining restaurant (Pierre Coste Room); four kitchens, a bake shop, three lecture rooms, a lecture / demonstration auditorium, the Alice Statler Library and Gifford Resource Center. The department has an ongoing enrollment of over 250 students from around the world.
The Student Activities Office provides resources, support and leadership training for eight Associated Students Councils and more than 80 clubs and student organizations. It sponsors a wide variety of concerts and lectures throughout the year. It funds the Book Loan Program, Dr. Betty Shabazz Family Resource Center, Multi-Cultural Resource Center, Queer Resource Center, Student Health, Students Supporting Students mentoring program, and Women 's Resource Center.
Students can also avail themselves of the Fitness Center, enjoy nationally ranked intercollegiate sports, and participate in the College 's award - winning intercollegiate Speech and Debate Program. The College also features a student - run newspaper, The Guardsman, an award - winning magazine, ETC as well as television and radio stations. Performances given by students in music, dance, and theatre Arts further enhance campus life.
Currently, there is a Queer Alliance student group and a Queer Resource Center on campus. The Queer Resource Center is an academic and informational resource center for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, gender queer, intersex, questioning, and straight allies. The Queer Resource Center aims to empower and celebrate its demographic as well as its community. The center has participated in anti-violence, anti-homophobia, and anti-transphobia rallies and workshops. The center has struggled with funding although this has caught the attention of politicians, notably the Green Party, whose candidate for board of trustees John Rizzo has promised funds for more LGBT studies and the Queer Resource Center.
On campus, there are numerous student activity groups, gender - specific courses, and health services. For example, the Women 's Resource Center and Library (Smith Hall, 103 -- 104) offers women on campus an opportunity to network with academic support services and resources, and Project Survive is a campus peer education group working to promote healthy relationships and end abuse and sexual violence.
Intercollegiate athletics are offered for men and women. College teams belong in the CCCAA Coast Conference North Section and competes with teams from other colleges. Intercollegiate sports include baseball, basketball, cross-country, football, soccer, softball, tennis, track, badminton, volleyball, and judo. These teams are all nicknamed the Rams. City College of San Francisco Football Teams have won ten national championships. The annual rivalry football game is played against the College of San Mateo Football team.
All of the CCSF Rams teams are based on the Ocean Campus. The home venue for baseball is Carter Field. Softball is played at Fairmont Park. Football as well as track and field use Rams Stadium. A new Soccer Practice Field has been built north of the stadium. The Wellness Center, south of Rams Stadium, houses staff offices, weight rooms, a swimming pool, lockrooms, classrooms, and an indoor gym. East of Rams Stadium used to be the former site of the North Gym and the South Gym, which used to contain the lockrooms, weight rooms, and staff offices. The Tennis Courts are across an access road from the former gyms.
This is a list of notable alumni from City College of San Francisco, listed in alphabetical order by last name.
This is a list of notable faculty from City College of San Francisco, listed in alphabetical order by last name.
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where does the lava from volcanoes come from | Lava - wikipedia
Lava is molten rock generated by geothermal energy and expelled through fractures in planetary crust or in an eruption, usually at temperatures from 700 to 1,200 ° C (1,292 to 2,192 ° F). The structures resulting from subsequent solidification and cooling are also sometimes described as lava. The molten rock is formed in the interior of some planets, including Earth, and some of their satellites, though such material located below the crust is referred to by other terms.
A lava flow is a moving outpouring of lava created during a non-explosive effusive eruption. When it has stopped moving, lava solidifies to form igneous rock. The term lava flow is commonly shortened to lava. Although lava can be up to 100,000 times more viscous than water, lava can flow great distances before cooling and solidifying because of its thixotropic and shear thinning properties.
Explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra, rather than lava flows. The word lava comes from Italian, and is probably derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with extruded magma (molten rock below the Earth 's surface) was apparently in a short account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4, 1737. Serao described "a flow of fiery lava '' as an analogy to the flow of water and mud down the flanks of the volcano following heavy rain.
The composition of almost all lava of the Earth 's crust is dominated by silicate minerals, mostly feldspars, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas and quartz.
Igneous rocks, which form lava flows when erupted, can be classified into three chemical types: felsic, intermediate, and mafic (four if one includes the super-heated ultramafic). These classes are primarily chemical, however, the chemistry of lava also tends to correlate with the magma temperature, its viscosity and its mode of eruption.
Felsic or silicic lavas such as rhyolite and dacite typically form lava spines, lava domes or "coulees '' (which are thick, short lava flows) and are associated with pyroclastic (fragmental) deposits. Most silicic lava flows are extremely viscous, and typically fragment as they extrude, producing blocky autobreccias. The high viscosity and strength are the result of their chemistry, which is high in silica, aluminium, potassium, sodium, and calcium, forming a polymerized liquid rich in feldspar and quartz, and thus has a higher viscosity than other magma types. Felsic magmas can erupt at temperatures as low as 650 to 750 ° C (1,202 to 1,382 ° F). Unusually hot (> 950 ° C; > 1,740 ° F) rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in the Snake River Plain of the northwestern United States.
Intermediate or andesitic lavas are lower in aluminium and silica, and usually somewhat richer in magnesium and iron. Intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas, and may occur on steep composite volcanoes, such as in the Andes. Poorer in aluminium and silica than felsic lavas, and also commonly hotter (in the range of 750 to 950 ° C (1,380 to 1,740 ° F)), they tend to be less viscous. Greater temperatures tend to destroy polymerized bonds within the magma, promoting more fluid behaviour and also a greater tendency to form phenocrysts. Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker groundmass, and also occasionally amphibole or pyroxene phenocrysts.
Mafic or basaltic lavas are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures in excess of 950 ° C (1,740 ° F). Basaltic magma is high in iron and magnesium, and has relatively lower aluminium and silica, which taken together reduces the degree of polymerization within the melt. Owing to the higher temperatures, viscosities can be relatively low, although still thousands of times higher than water. The low degree of polymerization and high temperature favors chemical diffusion, so it is common to see large, well - formed phenocrysts within mafic lavas. Basalt lavas tend to produce low - profile shield volcanoes or "flood basalt fields '', because the fluidal lava flows for long distances from the vent. The thickness of a basalt lava, particularly on a low slope, may be much greater than the thickness of the moving lava flow at any one time, because basalt lavas may "inflate '' by supply of lava beneath a solidified crust. Most basalt lavas are of ʻAʻā or pāhoehoe types, rather than block lavas. Underwater, they can form pillow lavas, which are rather similar to entrail - type pahoehoe lavas on land.
Ultramafic lavas such as komatiite and highly magnesian magmas that form boninite take the composition and temperatures of eruptions to the extreme. Komatiites contain over 18 % magnesium oxide, and are thought to have erupted at temperatures of 1,600 ° C (2,910 ° F). At this temperature there is no polymerization of the mineral compounds, creating a highly mobile liquid with viscosity as low as that of water. Most if not all ultramafic lavas are no younger than the Proterozoic, with a few ultramafic magmas known from the Phanerozoic. No modern komatiite lavas are known, as the Earth 's mantle has cooled too much to produce highly magnesian magmas.
Some lavas of unusual composition have erupted onto the surface of the Earth. These include:
The term "lava '' can also be used to refer to molten "ice mixtures '' in eruptions on the icy satellites of the Solar System 's gas giants. (See cryovolcanism).
In general, the composition of a lava determines its behavior more than the temperature of its eruption. The viscosity of lava is important because it determines how the lava will behave. Lavas with high viscosity are rhyolite, dacite, andesite and trachyte, with cooled basaltic lava also quite viscous; those with low viscosities are freshly erupted basalt, carbonatite and occasionally andesite.
Highly viscous lava shows the following behaviors:
Highly viscous lavas do not usually flow as liquid, and usually form explosive fragmental ash or tephra deposits. However, a degassed viscous lava or one which erupts somewhat hotter than usual may form a lava flow.
Lava with low viscosity shows the following behaviors:
Lavas also may contain many other components, sometimes including solid crystals of various minerals, fragments of exotic rocks known as xenoliths and fragments of previously solidified lava.
Lava flow speeds vary based primarily on viscosity and slope. In general, lava flows slowly (0.25 mph), with maximum speeds between 6 -- 30 mph on steep slopes. An exceptional speed of 20 -- 60 mph was recorded following the collapse of a lava lake at Mount Nyiragongo.
The physical behavior of lava creates the physical forms of a lava flow or volcano. More fluid basaltic lava flows tend to form flat sheet - like bodies, whereas viscous rhyolite lava flows forms knobbly, blocky masses of rock.
General features of volcanology can be used to classify volcanic edifices and provide information on the eruptions which formed the lava flow, even if the sequence of lavas have been buried or metamorphosed.
The ideal lava flow will have a brecciated top, either as pillow lava development, autobreccia and rubble typical of ʻaʻā and viscous flows, or a vesicular or frothy carapace such as scoria or pumice. The top of the lava will tend to be glassy, having been flash frozen in contact with the air or water.
The centre of a lava flow is commonly massive and crystalline, flow banded or layered, with microscopic groundmass crystals. The more viscous lava forms tend to show sheeted flow features, and blocks or breccia entrained within the sticky lava. The crystal size at the centre of a lava will in general be greater than at the margins, as the crystals have more time to grow.
The base of a lava flow may show evidence of hydrothermal activity if the lava flowed across moist or wet substrates. The lower part of the lava may have vesicles, perhaps filled with minerals (amygdules). The substrate upon which the lava has flowed may show signs of scouring, it may be broken or disturbed by the boiling of trapped water, and in the case of soil profiles, may be baked into a brick - red terracotta.
Discriminating between an intrusive sill and a lava flow in ancient rock sequences can be difficult. However, some sills do not usually have brecciated margins, and may show a weak metamorphic aureole on both the upper and lower surface, whereas a lava will only bake the substrate beneath it. However, it is often difficult in practice to identify these metamorphic phenomena because they are usually weak and restricted in size. Peperitic sills, intruded into wet sedimentary rocks, commonly do not bake upper margins and have upper and lower autobreccias, closely similar to lavas.
ʻAʻā is one of three basic types of flow lava. ʻAʻā is basaltic lava characterized by a rough or rubbly surface composed of broken lava blocks called clinker. The Hawaiian word was introduced as a technical term in geology by Clarence Dutton.
The loose, broken, and sharp, spiny surface of an ʻaʻā flow makes hiking difficult and slow. The clinkery surface actually covers a massive dense core, which is the most active part of the flow. As pasty lava in the core travels downslope, the clinkers are carried along at the surface. At the leading edge of an ʻaʻā flow, however, these cooled fragments tumble down the steep front and are buried by the advancing flow. This produces a layer of lava fragments both at the bottom and top of an ʻaʻā flow.
Accretionary lava balls as large as 3 metres (10 feet) are common on ʻaʻā flows. ʻAʻā is usually of higher viscosity than pāhoehoe. Pāhoehoe can turn into ʻaʻā if it becomes turbulent from meeting impediments or steep slopes.
The sharp, angled texture makes ʻaʻā a strong radar reflector, and can easily be seen from an orbiting satellite (bright on Magellan pictures).
ʻAʻā lavas typically erupt at temperatures of 1,000 to 1,100 ° C (1,830 to 2,010 ° F).
The word is also spelled aa, aʻa, ʻaʻa, and a-aa, and pronounced / ˈɑː (ʔ) ɑː /. It originates from Hawaiian where it is pronounced (ʔəˈʔaː), meaning "stony rough lava '', but also to "burn '' or "blaze ''.
Pāhoehoe (/ pəˈhoʊiˈhoʊi / or / pɑːˈhoʊeɪhoʊeɪ /; from Hawaiian (paːˈhoweˈhowe), meaning "smooth, unbroken lava ''), also spelled pahoehoe, is basaltic lava that has a smooth, billowy, undulating, or ropy surface. These surface features are due to the movement of very fluid lava under a congealing surface crust. The Hawaiian word was introduced as a technical term in geology by Clarence Dutton.
A pāhoehoe flow typically advances as a series of small lobes and toes that continually break out from a cooled crust. It also forms lava tubes where the minimal heat loss maintains low viscosity. The surface texture of pāhoehoe flows varies widely, displaying all kinds of bizarre shapes often referred to as lava sculpture. With increasing distance from the source, pāhoehoe flows may change into ʻaʻā flows in response to heat loss and consequent increase in viscosity. Pahoehoe lavas typically have a temperature of 1,100 to 1,200 ° C (2,010 to 2,190 ° F).
On the Earth, most lava flows are less than 10 km (6.2 mi) long, but some pāhoehoe flows are more than 50 km (31 mi) long.
The rounded texture makes pāhoehoe a poor radar reflector, and is difficult to see from an orbiting satellite (dark on Magellan picture).
Block lava flows are typical of andesitic lavas from stratovolcanoes. They behave in a similar manner to ʻaʻā flows but their more viscous nature causes the surface to be covered in smooth - sided angular fragments (blocks) of solidified lava instead of clinkers. Like in ʻaʻā flows, the molten interior of the flow, which is kept insulated by the solidified blocky surface, overrides the rubble that falls off the flow front. They also move much more slowly downhill and are thicker in depth than ʻaʻā flows.
Lava domes and coulées are associated with felsic lava flows ranging from dacite to rhyolite. The very viscous nature of these lava cause them to not flow far from the vent, causing the lava to form a lava dome at the vent. When a dome forms on an inclined surface it can flow in short thick flows called coulées (dome flows). These flows often travel only a few kilometers from the vent.
Pillow lava is the lava structure typically formed when lava emerges from an underwater volcanic vent or subglacial volcano or a lava flow enters the ocean. However, pillow lava can also form when lava is erupted beneath thick glacial ice. The viscous lava gains a solid crust on contact with the water, and this crust cracks and oozes additional large blobs or "pillows '' as more lava emerges from the advancing flow. Since water covers the majority of Earth 's surface and most volcanoes are situated near or under bodies of water, pillow lava is very common.
Because it is formed from viscous molten rock, lava flows and eruptions create distinctive formations, landforms and topographical features from the macroscopic to the microscopic.
Volcanoes are the primary landforms built by repeated eruptions of lava and ash over time. They range in shape from shield volcanoes with broad, shallow slopes formed from predominantly effusive eruptions of relatively fluid basaltic lava flows, to steeply - sided stratovolcanoes (also known as composite volcanoes) made of alternating layers of ash and more viscous lava flows typical of intermediate and felsic lavas.
A caldera, which is a large subsidence crater, can form in a stratovolcano, if the magma chamber is partially or wholly emptied by large explosive eruptions; the summit cone no longer supports itself and thus collapses in on itself afterwards. Such features may include volcanic crater lakes and lava domes after the event. However, calderas can also form by non-explosive means such as gradual magma subsidence. This is typical of many shield volcanoes.
Cinder cones and spatter cones are small - scale features formed by lava accumulation around a small vent on a volcanic edifice. Cinder cones are formed from tephra or ash and tuff which is thrown from an explosive vent. Spatter cones are formed by accumulation of molten volcanic slag and cinders ejected in a more liquid form.
Another Hawaiian English term derived from the Hawaiian language, a kīpuka denotes an elevated area such as a hill, ridge or old lava dome inside or downslope from an area of active volcanism. New lava flows will cover the surrounding land, isolating the kīpuka so that it appears as a (usually) forested island in a barren lava flow.
Lava domes are formed by the extrusion of viscous felsic magma. They can form prominent rounded protuberances, such as at Valles Caldera. As a volcano extrudes silicic lava, it can form an inflation dome, gradually building up a large, pillow - like structure which cracks, fissures, and may release cooled chunks of rock and rubble. The top and side margins of an inflating lava dome tend to be covered in fragments of rock, breccia and ash.
Examples of lava dome eruptions include the Novarupta dome, and successive lava domes of Mount St Helens.
Lava tubes are formed when a flow of relatively fluid lava cools on the upper surface sufficiently to form a crust. Beneath this crust, which being made of rock is an excellent insulator, the lava can continue to flow as a liquid. When this flow occurs over a prolonged period of time the lava conduit can form a tunnel - like aperture or lava tube, which can conduct molten rock many kilometres from the vent without cooling appreciably. Often these lava tubes drain out once the supply of fresh lava has stopped, leaving a considerable length of open tunnel within the lava flow.
Lava tubes are known from the modern day eruptions of Kīlauea, and significant, extensive and open lava tubes of Tertiary age are known from North Queensland, Australia, some extending for 15 kilometres (9 miles).
A lava fountain is a volcanic phenomenon in which lava is forcefully but non-explosively ejected from a crater, vent, or fissure. The highest lava fountains recorded were during the 1999 eruption of Mount Etna in Italy, which reached heights of 2,000 m (6,562 ft). However, lava fountains observed during Mount Vesuvius ' 1779 eruption are believed to have reached at least 3,000 m (9,843 ft). Lava fountains may occur as a series of short pulses, or a continuous jet of lava. They are commonly associated with Hawaiian eruptions.
Rarely, a volcanic cone may fill with lava but not erupt. Lava which pools within the caldera is known as a lava lake. Lava lakes do not usually persist for long, either draining back into the magma chamber once pressure is relieved (usually by venting of gases through the caldera), or by draining via eruption of lava flows or pyroclastic explosion.
There are only a few sites in the world where permanent lakes of lava exist. These include:
Lava deltas form wherever sub-aerial flows of lava enter standing bodies of water. The lava cools and breaks up as it encounters the water, with the resulting fragments filling in the seabed topography such that the sub-aerial flow can move further offshore. Lava deltas are generally associated with large - scale, effusive type basaltic volcanism.
Lava flows are enormously destructive to property in their path. However, casualties are rare since flows are usually slow enough for people and animals to escape, though this is dependent on the viscosity of the lava. Nevertheless, injuries and deaths have occurred, either because they had their escape route cut off, because they got too close to the flow or, more rarely, if the lava flow front travels too quickly. This notably happened during the eruption of Nyiragongo in Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo). On the night of 10 January 1977 a crater wall was breached and a fluid lava lake drained out in under an hour. The resulting flow sped down the steep slopes at up to 100 km / h (62 mph), and overwhelmed several villages while residents were asleep. As a result of this disaster, the mountain was designated a Decade Volcano in 1991.
Deaths attributed to volcanoes frequently have a different cause, for example volcanic ejecta, pyroclastic flow from a collapsing lava dome, lahars, poisonous gases that travel ahead of lava, or explosions caused when the flow comes into contact with water. A particularly dangerous area is called a lava bench. This very young ground will typically break - off and fall into the sea.
Areas of recent lava flows continue to represent a hazard long after the lava has cooled. Where young flows have created new lands, land is more unstable and can break - off into the sea. Flows often crack deeply, forming dangerous chasms, and a fall against ' a'a lava is similar to falling against broken glass. Rugged hiking boots, long pants, and gloves are recommended when crossing lava flows.
Diverting a lava flow is extremely difficult, but it can be accomplished in some circumstances, as was once partially achieved in Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland.
Tephra is volcanic ash, lapilli, volcanic bombs or volcanic blocks.
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who has appeared in i'm a celebrity | List of i 'm a celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! contestants (uk) - wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! is a British reality television show in which celebrity contestants live together in a jungle environment for a few weeks, with no luxuries or contact from the outside world. The celebrities have to complete Bushtucker Trials to earn food for camp; else they have to survive off of basic rations. The first series aired in 2002, and seventeen complete series have aired on ITV up to the end of the latest series in December 2017. All series have been filmed in Queensland, Australia. During each series, contestants are progressively eliminated on the basis of public voting, with the eventual winner being crowned either King or Queen of the Jungle.
As of series 17, 197 celebrities have competed. Television personality and former model Katie Price is the only celebrity to have competed in two separate series, whilst Sex Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren is the only person to withdraw from the show before even entering the jungle. In the show 's history, eighteen celebrities have withdrawn or walked, before being voted out. In total, there have been ten Kings and seven Queens of the Jungle.
Coordinates: 28 ° 15 ′ 42.75 '' S 153 ° 21 ′ 1.79 '' E / 28.2618750 ° S 153.3504972 ° E / - 28.2618750; 153.3504972
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which of the following can be considered a separate sovereign for double jeopardy purposes | Double jeopardy Clause - wikipedia
The Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides: "(N) or shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb... '' The four essential protections included are prohibitions against, for the same offense:
Jeopardy attaches in jury trial when the jury is empaneled and sworn in, in a bench trial when the court begins to hear evidence after the first witness is sworn in, or when a court accepts a defendant 's plea unconditionally. Jeopardy does not attach in a retrial of a conviction that was reversed on appeal on procedural grounds (as opposed to evidentiary insufficiency grounds), in a retrial for which "manifest necessity '' has been shown following a mistrial, and in the seating of another grand jury if the prior one refuses to return an indictment.
In United States v. Felix 503 U.S. 378 (1992), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled: "a (n)... offense and a conspiracy to commit that offense are not the same offense for double jeopardy purposes. ''
Sometimes the same conduct may violate different statutes. If all elements of a lesser offense are relied on to prove a greater offense, the two crimes are the "same offense '' for double jeopardy purposes, and the doctrine will bar the second prosecution. In Blockburger v. United States, 284 U.S. 299 (1932), the Supreme Court held that "where the same act or transaction constitutes a violation of two distinct statutory provisions, the test to be applied to determine whether there are two offenses or only one, is whether each provision requires proof of an additional fact which the other does not ''. The test was applied in Brown v. Ohio, 432 U.S. 161 (1977), where the defendant had first been convicted of operating an automobile without the owner 's consent, and later of stealing the same automobile. The Supreme Court concluded that the same evidence was necessary to prove both offenses, and that in effect there was only one offense. Therefore, it overturned the second conviction.
In other cases, the same conduct may constitute multiple offenses under the same statute, for instance where one robs many individuals at the same time. There is no explicit bar to separate prosecutions for different offenses arising under the same "criminal transaction '', but it is not permissible for the prosecution to re-litigate facts already determined by a jury. In Ashe v. Swenson, 397 U.S. 436 (1970), the defendant was accused of robbing seven poker players during a game. John Ashe was first tried for, and acquitted of, robbing only one of the players; the defense did not contest that a robbery actually took place. The state then tried the defendant for robbing the second player; stronger identification evidence led to a conviction. The Supreme Court, however, overturned the conviction. It was held that in the first trial, since the defense had not presented any evidence that there was no robbery, the jury 's acquittal had to be based on the conclusion that the defendant 's alibi was valid. Since one jury had held that the defendant was not present at the crime scene, the State could not re-litigate the issue.
Once acquitted, a defendant may not be retried for the same offense: "A verdict of acquittal, although not followed by any judgment, is a bar to a subsequent prosecution for the same offense. '' Acquittal by directed verdict is also final and can not be appealed by the prosecution. An acquittal in a trial by judge (bench trial) is also generally not appealable by the prosecution. A trial judge may normally enter an acquittal if he deems the evidence insufficient for conviction. If the judge makes this ruling before the jury reaches its verdict, the judge 's determination is final. If, however, the judge overrules a conviction by the jury, the prosecution may appeal to have the conviction reinstated. Additionally, although a judge may overrule a guilty verdict by a jury, he or she does not have the same power to overrule a not guilty verdict.
More specifically, as stated in Ashe v. Swenson, 397 U.S. 436 (1970): "... when an issue of ultimate fact has once been determined by a valid and final judgment, that issue can not again be litigated between the same parties in any future lawsuit. '' Res judicata is a term of general application. Underneath that conceptual umbrella is the concept of collateral estoppel. As applied to double jeopardy, the court will use collateral estoppel as its basis for forming an opinion.
If a defendant charged with murder in the first degree is convicted for murder in the second degree, and later the jury 's conviction is overturned on procedural grounds, the defendant may be retried for second degree but not first degree murder; the jury, by convicting the defendant of second degree murder, is deemed to have implicitly acquitted them of first degree murder.
As double jeopardy applies only to charges that were the subject of an earlier final judgment, there are many situations in which it does not apply, despite the appearance of a retrial. For example, a second trial held after a mistrial does not violate the double jeopardy clause because a mistrial ends a trial prematurely without a judgment of guilty or not, as decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Josef Perez (1824). Cases dismissed because of insufficient evidence may constitute a final judgment for these purposes, though many state and federal laws allow for substantially limited prosecutorial appeals from these orders. Also, a retrial after a conviction that has been set aside following the grant of a motion for new trial, that has been reversed on appeal, or that has been vacated in a collateral proceeding (such as habeas corpus) would not violate double jeopardy because the judgment in the first trial had been invalidated. In all of these cases, however, the previous trials do not entirely vanish. Testimony from them may be used in later retrials, such as to impeach contradictory testimony given at any subsequent proceeding.
Prosecutors may appeal when a trial judge sets aside a jury verdict for conviction with a judgment notwithstanding verdict for the defendant. A successful appeal by the prosecution would simply reinstate the jury verdict and so would not place the defendant at risk of another trial.
If a defendant appeals a conviction and is successful in having it overturned, they are subject to retrial.
Retrial is not possible if the verdict is overturned on the grounds of evidentiary insufficiency, rather than on the grounds of procedural faults. As noted above, if the trial court made a determination of evidentiary insufficiency, the determination would constitute a final acquittal; in Burks v. United States 437 U.S. 1, (1978), the Court held that "it should make no difference that the reviewing court, rather than the trial court, determined the evidence to be insufficient. ''
If the earlier trial is a fraud, double jeopardy will not prohibit a new trial because the party acquitted has prevented themselves from being placed into "jeopardy '' to begin with.
The Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment does not attach in a grand jury proceeding, or bar a grand jury from returning an indictment when a prior grand jury has refused to do so.
A person who is convicted of one set of charges can not in general be tried on additional charges related to the crime unless said additional charges cover new facts against which the person in question has not yet been acquitted or convicted. The test that determines whether this can occur is the Blockburger test.
An example of this are the charges of "conspiring to commit murder '' and "murder ''. Both charges typically have facts distinct from each other. A person can be charged with "conspiring to commit murder '' even if the murder never actually takes place if all facts necessary to support the charge can be demonstrated through evidence. Further, a person convicted or acquitted of murder can, additionally, be tried on conspiracy as well if it has been determined after the conviction or acquittal that a conspiracy did, in fact, take place.
Mistrials are generally not covered by the double jeopardy clause. If a judge dismisses the case or concludes the trial without deciding the facts in the defendant 's favor (for example, by dismissing the case on procedural grounds), the case is a mistrial and may normally be retried. Furthermore, if a jury can not reach a verdict, the judge may declare a mistrial and order a retrial as was addressed in United States v. Josef Perez, 22 U.S. 579 (1824). When the defendant moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial, even if the prosecutor or judge caused the error that forms the basis of the motion. An exception exists, however, where the prosecutor or judge has acted in bad faith. In Oregon v. Kennedy, 456 U.S. 667 (1982), the Supreme Court held that "only where the governmental conduct in question is intended to ' goad ' the defendant into moving for a mistrial may a defendant raise the bar of double jeopardy to a second trial after having succeeded in aborting the first on his own motion. ''
The defendant may not be punished twice for the same offense. In certain circumstances, however, a sentence may be increased. It has been held that sentences do not have the same "finality '' as acquittals, and may therefore be reviewed by the courts.
The prosecution may not seek capital punishment in the retrial if the jury did not impose it in the original trial. The reason for this exception is that before imposing the death penalty the jury has to make several factual determinations and if the jury does not make these it is seen as the equivalent of an acquittal of a more serious offense.
In Arizona v. Rumsey, 467 U.S. 203 (1984), a judge had held a separate hearing after the jury trial to decide if the sentence should be death or life imprisonment, in which he decided that the circumstances of the case did not permit death to be imposed. On appeal, the judge 's ruling was found to be erroneous. However, even though the decision to impose life instead of death was based on an erroneous interpretation of the law by the judge, the conclusion of life imprisonment in the original case constituted an acquittal of the death penalty and thus death could not be imposed upon a subsequent trial. Even though the acquittal of the death penalty was erroneous in that case, the acquittal must stand.
Double jeopardy also does not apply if the later charge is civil rather than criminal in nature, which involves a different legal standard (crimes must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, whereas civil wrongs need only be proven by preponderance of evidence or in some matters, clear and convincing evidence). Acquittal in a criminal case does not prevent the defendant from being the defendant in a civil suit relating to the same incident (though res judicata operates within the civil court system). For example, O.J. Simpson was acquitted of a double homicide in a California criminal prosecution, but lost a civil wrongful death claim brought over the same victims.
If the defendant happened to be on parole from an earlier offense at the time, the act for which he or she was acquitted may also be the subject of a parole violation hearing, which is not considered to be a criminal trial. Since parolees are usually subject to restrictions not imposed on other citizens, evidence of actions that were not deemed to be criminal by the court may be re-considered by the parole board. This legal board could deem the same evidence to be proof of a parole violation. Most states ' parole boards have looser rules of evidence than is found in the courts -- for example, hearsay that had been disallowed in court might be considered by a parole board. Finally, like civil trials parole violation hearings are also subject to a lower standard of proof so it is possible for a parolee to be punished by the parole board for criminal actions that he or she was acquitted of in court.
In the American military, courts - martial are subject to the same law of double jeopardy, since the Uniform Code of Military Justice has incorporated all of the protections of the U.S. Constitution. The non-criminal proceeding non-judicial punishment (or NJP) is considered to be akin to a civil case and is subject to lower standards than a court - martial, which is the same as a civilian court of law. NJP proceedings are commonly used to correct or punish minor breaches of military discipline. If a NJP proceeding fails to produce conclusive evidence, however, the commanding officer (or ranking official presiding over the NJP) is not allowed to prepare the same charge against the military member in question. In a court - martial, acquittal of the defendant means he is protected permanently from having those charges reinstated.
The most famous American court case invoking the claim of double jeopardy is probably the second murder trial in 1876 of Jack McCall, killer of Wild Bill Hickok. McCall was acquitted in his first trial, which Federal authorities later ruled to be illegal because it took place in an illegal town, Deadwood, then located in South Dakota Indian Territory. At the time, Federal law prohibited all except Native Americans from settling in the Indian Territory. McCall was retried in Federal Indian Territorial court, convicted, and hanged in 1877. He was the first person ever executed by Federal authorities in the Dakota Territory.
Double jeopardy also does not apply if the defendant were never tried from the start. Charges that were dropped or put on hold for any reason can always be reinstated in the future -- if not barred by some statute of limitations.
Although the Fifth Amendment initially applied only to the federal government, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that the double jeopardy clause applies to the states as well through incorporation by the Fourteenth Amendment (Benton v. Maryland).
The government of the United States and of each State therein may each enact their own laws and prosecute crimes pursuant thereto, provided there is no prohibition by the Constitution of the United States or of the state in question. Such is known as the "dual sovereignty '' or "separate sovereigns '' doctrine.
The earliest case at the Supreme Court of the United States to address the matter is Fox v. State of Ohio in 1847, in which the petitioner, Malinda Fox, was appealing a conviction of a state crime of passing a counterfeit silver dollar. The power to coin money is granted exclusively to Congress, and it was argued that Congress 's power precludes the power of any State from prosecuting any crimes pertaining to the money, an argument the Supreme Court rejected in upholding Fox 's conviction.
A case that followed on Fox is United States v. Cruikshank, in which the Supreme Court stated that the government of the United States is a separate sovereign from any State:
This does not, however, necessarily imply that the two governments possess powers in common, or bring them into conflict with each other. It is the natural consequence of a citizenship which owes allegiance to two sovereignties, and claims protection from both. The citizen can not complain, because he has voluntarily submitted himself to such a form of government. He owes allegiance to the two departments, so to speak, and within their respective spheres must pay the penalties which each exacts for disobedience to its laws. In return, he can demand protection from each within its own jurisdiction.
In 1920 the United States was fresh in to the Prohibition Era. In one prosecution that occurred in Washington state, a defendant named Lanza was charged under a Washington statute and simultaneously under a United States statute, with the federal indictment stating several facts also stated in the Washington indictment. The Supreme Court addressed the question of the Federal government and a State government having separate prosecutions on the same facts in United States v. Lanza:
We have here two sovereignties, deriving power from different sources, capable of dealing with the same subject matter within the same territory. Each may, without interference by the other, enact laws to secure prohibition, with the limitation that no legislation can give validity to acts prohibited by the amendment. Each government in determining what shall be an offense against its peace and dignity is exercising its own sovereignty, not that of the other.
It follows that an act denounced as a crime by both national and state sovereignties is an offense against the peace and dignity of both and may be punished by each. The Fifth Amendment, like all the other guaranties in the first eight amendments, applies only to proceedings by the federal government (Barron v. City of Baltimore, 7 Pet. 243), and the double jeopardy therein forbidden is a second prosecution under authority of the federal government after a first trial for the same offense under the same authority.
There may also be Federal laws that call other facts into question beyond the scope of any State law. A state may try a defendant for murder, after which the Federal government might try the same defendant for a Federal crime (perhaps a civil rights violation or a kidnapping) connected to the same act. The officers of the Los Angeles Police Department who were charged with assaulting Rodney King in 1991 were acquitted by a jury of the Superior Court, but some were later convicted and sentenced in Federal court for violating King 's civil rights. Similar legal processes were used for prosecuting racially motivated crimes in the Southern United States in the 1960s during the time of the Civil Rights Movement, when those crimes had not been actively prosecuted, or had resulted in acquittals by juries that were thought to be racist or overly sympathetic with the accused in local courts.
Federal jurisdiction may apply because the defendant is a member of the armed forces or the victim (s) are armed forces members or dependents. U.S. Army Master Sergeant Timothy B. Hennis was acquitted in state court in North Carolina for the murders in 1985 of Kathryn Eastburn (age 31) and her daughters Kara, age five, and Erin, age three, who were stabbed to death in their home near Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Two decades later, Hennis was recalled to active duty, court - martialed by the Army for the crime, and convicted. Richard Dieter, executive director of the Death Penalty Information Center, observed of this case, "Certainly, no one (in the US) has been exonerated and then returned to death row for the same crime except Hennis. ''
Furthermore, as ruled in Heath v. Alabama (1985), the "separate sovereigns '' rule allows two states to prosecute for the same criminal act. For example, if a man stood in New York and shot and killed a man standing over the border in Connecticut, both New York and Connecticut could charge the shooter with murder.
Only the states and tribal jurisdictions are recognized as possessing a separate sovereignty, whereas territories, commonwealths (for example, Puerto Rico), the military and naval forces, and the capital city of Washington, D.C., are exclusively under Federal sovereignty. Acquittal in the court system of any of these entities would therefore preclude a re-trial (or a court - martial) in any court system under Federal jurisdiction.
Though the Supreme Court of the United States has recognized the dual sovereignty doctrine as an exception to double jeopardy, the United States will not exercise its dual sovereignty power on everyone who becomes subject to it. As a self - imposed limitation on its dual sovereignty power, the United States Department of Justice has a policy called the "Petite '' policy, named after Petite v. United States, 361 U.S. 529 (1960). The formal name of the policy is "Dual and Successive Prosecution Policy '' and it "establishes guidelines for the exercise of discretion by appropriate officers of the Department of Justice in determining whether to bring a federal prosecution based on substantially the same act (s) or transactions involved in a prior state or federal proceeding. ''
Under this policy, the Department of Justice presumes that any prosecution at the State level for any fact applicable to any Federal charge vindicates any Federal interest in those facts, even if the outcome is an acquittal. As an example, a person who commits murder within the jurisdiction of a State is subject to that State 's murder statute and the United States murder statute (18 U.S.C. § 1111). The Federal government will defer to the State to prosecute under their statute. Whatever the outcome of the trial, acquittal or conviction, the Department of Justice will presume that prosecution to vindicate any Federal interest and will not initiate prosecution under the United States Code.
However that presumption can be overcome. The policy stipulates five criteria that may overcome that presumption (particularly for an acquital at the State level):
The presumption may be overcome even when a conviction was achieved in the prior prosecution in the following circumstances:
The presumption also may be overcome, irrespective of the result in a prior state prosecution, in those rare cases where the following three conditions are met:
The existence of any of these criteria is to be determined by an Assistant Attorney General of the United States. If a prosecution is determined to have proceeded without authorization, the Federal government may and has requested the Court vacate an indictment. Such a move is in line with the Courts vacating indictments wherein prosecutions were discovered to have violated Department of Justice policy. Indictments have also been vacated when the Federal government first represents to the Court the prosecution was authorized but later determines that authorization to have been mistaken.
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how old is the girl who played matilda now | Mara Wilson - wikipedia
Mara Elizabeth Wilson (born July 24, 1987) is an American writer and former child actress. Her best known roles include Natalie Hillard in Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), Susan Walker in Miracle on 34th Street (1994), Matilda Wormwood in Matilda (1996), and Lily Stone in Thomas and the Magic Railroad (2000). Since retiring from film acting, Wilson has focused on writing, penning the play Sheeple which was produced for the New York International Fringe Festival in 2013 as well as publishing a memoir, Where Am I Now?: True Stories of Girlhood and Accidental Fame (2016).
Mara Elizabeth Wilson was born on July 24, 1987, in Burbank, California. Her father, Mike Wilson, was a television broadcast engineer, and her mother, Suzie Wilson (née Shapiro; deceased), was a homemaker. Wilson 's mother was Jewish, and her father is of part Irish descent. She was raised Jewish, and became an atheist when she was 15. She has three older brothers -- Danny, Jon, and Joel -- and a younger sister, Anna. Political commentator Ben Shapiro is her maternal cousin. Her mother was diagnosed with breast cancer on March 10, 1995, and died on April 26, 1996, after production on Matilda had wrapped. Accordingly, the film was dedicated to Suzie 's memory. After her mother died, Wilson lost some of her passion for acting.
Wilson became interested in acting after watching her oldest brother Danny act. Mara 's parents refused to let her act, but they eventually reluctantly agreed to let her go into acting. After acting in commercials for Lunchables, Bank of America, Texaco, and Marshall 's, Mara was invited to audition for the 1993 comedy film Mrs. Doubtfire and won the part of Natalie Hillard. This was followed by the 1994 remake of Miracle on 34th Street. In 1994, she had a recurring role as Nikki Petrova on Melrose Place and played Barbara Barton in the television film A Time to Heal.
Wilson sang "Make ' Em Laugh '' at the 67th Academy Awards telecast on March 27, 1995, with Tim Curry and Kathy Najimy. In 1995, she won the ShoWest Award for "Young Star of the Year ''. Her performances in those films caught the attention of Danny DeVito which led to her being cast as Matilda Wormwood in Matilda. She then went on to star in A Simple Wish alongside Martin Short.
In 1999, she played Willow Johnson in the 1999 Disney Channel television film Balloon Farm.
Wilson auditioned for the 1998 remake of The Parent Trap, but she was considered to be too young for the role.
In 1998 Wilson went to a table reading of What Dreams May Come starring Robin Williams, but she did not get the part.
Wilson appeared in the 2000 children 's fantasy adventure film Thomas and the Magic Railroad, it was her last feature film until 2015. At that point, scripts were being sent to her that she did not have to go to auditions. After Thomas and the Magic Railroad, Wilson retired from acting.
Before taking a 12 - year hiatus from acting, she got the script for Donnie Darko but declined to audition for the film.
In 2012, Wilson appeared briefly in one episode of a web series called Missed Connection in the role of Bitty and made special appearances on internet review shows for That Guy with the Glasses -- most notably a comedic turn playing an adult Matilda during a review of Matilda by The Nostalgia Chick, Lindsay Ellis. That year, when asked why she quit film acting, Wilson explained: "Film acting is not very fun. Doing the same thing over and over again until, in the director 's eyes, you ' get it right ', does not allow for very much creative freedom. The best times I had on film sets were the times the director let me express myself, but those were rare. '' Wilson appeared in the 2015 comedy - drama film Billie Bob Joe, it was her first feature film in over 15 years.
Wilson has a recurring role on the podcast Welcome to Night Vale as "The Faceless Old Woman Who Secretly Lives in Your Home '', as well as her own storytelling show called What Are You Afraid Of? Her goal is to turn What Are You Afraid Of? into a podcast. In 2016, Wilson made a brief return to television by appearing as a waitress on an episode of Broad City. She also voiced Jill Pill, a writer / director anthropomorphic spider, in season 3 of BoJack Horseman.
In May 2013, Wilson wrote an article for online magazine Cracked.com, offering her opinion of the delinquency of some former child stars. As of that year, she works for Publicolor. Her play Sheeple was produced in 2013 for the New York International Fringe Festival. In an interview that December, Wilson stated that her film acting days are over, and that she is instead focusing on writing.
Wilson went to the Idyllwild Arts Academy near Palm Springs, California, and graduated in 2009 from New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts. While at New York University she appeared in her own one - woman show called Were n't You That Girl?
When Wilson was 12, she was diagnosed with obsessive - compulsive disorder. Wilson has struggled with anxiety and depression. In 2015, she teamed up with Project UROK, a nonprofit organization whose mission is to aid teens with mental illness. Wilson appeared in a video in which she talks about the mental illnesses she has experienced, including anxiety, depression, and obsessive - compulsive disorder. She also discussed her history with mental illness on Paul Gilmartin 's Mental Illness Happy Hour podcast. She has also been diagnosed with ADHD.
In 2013, Wilson lived in Queens, New York, and was involved with New York storytelling and comedy.
Following the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, Wilson came out as bisexual in solidarity with the LGBT community.
In an NPR interview, Nancy Cartwright stated that a young Mara Wilson was the inspiration for a character 's voice on The Simpsons episode "Bart Sells His Soul ''.
Wilson won a Young Artist Award for her role in A Simple Wish in "Best Performance in a Feature Film Leading Young Actress '' and a Young Star Award for Matilda in "Best Performance by a Young Actress in a Comedy Film ''. She was twice nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor, for Matilda and A Simple Wish.
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who plays hotch's wife in criminal minds | Meredith Monroe - wikipedia
Meredith Monroe (born December 30, 1969) is an American actress best known for portraying Andie McPhee on Dawson 's Creek from 1998 to 2003, and her recurring role as Haley Hotchner on Criminal Minds.
Monroe was born on December 30, in Houston, Texas. Her parents divorced when she was two, and she was subsequently raised in Hinsdale, Illinois. She studied at Hinsdale Central High School and after graduating moved to New York to pursue a modeling career. In 1995, she appeared in a number of TV commercials and magazine advertisements for L'Oreal hair - care, Disney Resort, Huffy bicycles, Ford cars, and Mattel toys.
In 1996, Monroe made the transition into acting when she was cast as Tracy Dalken in ABC series Dangerous Minds, which led to a small recurring role on Sunset Beach as Rachel, a pregnant teenager. This led to her being cast as a series regular on Dawson 's Creek in the role of Andie. She was a series regular in seasons 2 and 3, appeared in several episodes at the beginning and end of season 4, and was a special guest star in the series finale in season 6 (though her scenes were cut from the televised episode, appearing only on the DVD extended - cut release).
She is also known for her role in Criminal Minds as Haley Hotchner, Aaron Hotchner 's wife. Monroe left the series after her character was murdered by a recurring villain, The Boston Reaper (C. Thomas Howell), in the 100th episode. In 2018, she joined the cast of 13 Reasons Why in season two as Carolyn, the mother of Alex Standall.
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which channel does riverdale come on in india | Colors Infinity - Wikipedia
Colors Infinity is an English language general entertainment channel, part of Viacom 18 family, which was announced on 1 July 2015. It is an international channel. It was launched on 31 July 2015 simultaneously with its HD channel. It is co-curated by Karan Johar and Alia Bhatt. Colors Infinity, from September 2015 onward has started airing TV series within 12 hours after their airing in America. Till date they have various segments such as Back - to - back episodes, Instant Premieres, Live binge, Infinity - On - Demand and Original shows. It mainly airs American and British TV Series.
It is Available on all major DTH, IPTV and cable Platforms such as Tata Sky, Airtel Digital TV, Videocon D2H, Dish TV, Reliance Digital TV, Sun Direct, DEN Networks, PEO TV and GTPL.
Along with airing syndicated TV Series from all s also started producing its own original series. Till date it has produced Four original series.
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what are the names of the 7 deadly sins | Seven deadly sins - wikipedia
Catholicism portal
The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, is a grouping and classification of vices within Christian teachings. Behaviours or habits are classified under this category if they directly give birth to other immoralities. According to the standard list, they are pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath and sloth, which are also contrary to the seven virtues. These sins are often thought to be abuses or excessive versions of one 's natural faculties or passions (for example, gluttony abuses one 's desire to eat).
This classification originated with the desert fathers, especially Evagrius Ponticus, who identified seven or eight evil thoughts or spirits that one needed to overcome. Evagrius ' pupil John Cassian, with his book The Institutes, brought the classification to Europe, where it became fundamental to Catholic confessional practices as evident in penitential manuals, sermons like "The Parson 's Tale '' from Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales, and artworks like Dante 's Purgatory (where the penitents of Mount Purgatory are depicted as being grouped and penanced according to the worst capital sin they committed). The Catholic Church used the concept of the deadly sins in order to help people curb their inclination towards evil before dire consequences and misdeeds could occur; the leader - teachers especially focused on pride (which is thought to be the sin that severs the soul from Grace, and the one that is representative and the very essence of all evil) and greed, both of which are seen as inherently sinful and as underlying all other sins to be prevented. To inspire people to focus on the seven deadly sins, the vices are discussed in treatises and depicted in paintings and sculpture decorations on Catholic churches as well as older textbooks.
While the seven deadly sins as we know them did not originate with the Greeks or Romans, there were ancient precedents for them. Aristotle 's Nicomachean Ethics lists several positive, healthy human qualities, excellences, or virtues. Aristotle argues that for each positive quality there are two negative vices that are found on each extreme of the virtue. Courage, for example, is the human excellence or virtue in facing fear and risk. Excessive courage makes one rash, while a deficiency of courage makes one cowardly. This principle of virtue found in the middle or "mean '' between excess and deficiency is Aristotle 's notion of the golden mean. Aristotle lists virtues like courage, temperance or self - control, generosity, "greatness of soul, '' proper response to anger, friendliness, and wit or charm.
Roman writers like Horace extolled the value of virtue while listing and warning against vices. His first epistles says that "to flee vice is the beginning of virtue, and to have got rid of folly is the beginning of wisdom. ''
The modern concept of the seven deadly sins is linked to the works of the fourth - century monk Evagrius Ponticus, who listed eight evil thoughts in Greek as follows:
They were translated into the Latin of Western Christianity (largely due to the writings of John Cassian), thus becoming part of the Western tradition 's spiritual pietas (or Catholic devotions), as follows:
These "evil thoughts '' can be categorized into three types:
In AD 590 Pope Gregory I revised this list to form the more common list. Gregory combined tristitia with acedia, and vanagloria with superbia, and added envy, in Latin, invidia. Gregory 's list became the standard list of sins. Thomas Aquinas uses and defends Gregory 's list in his Summa Theologica although he calls them the "capital sins '' because they are the head and form of all the others. The Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church, and Methodist Church, among other Christian denominations, continue to retain this list. Moreover, modern day evangelists, such as Billy Graham have explicated the seven deadly sins.
Most of the capital sins, with the sole exception of sloth, are defined by Dante Alighieri as perverse or corrupt versions of love for something or another: lust, gluttony, and greed are all excessive or disordered love of good things; sloth is a deficiency of love; wrath, envy, and pride are perverted love directed toward other 's harm. In the seven capital sins are seven ways of eternal death. The capital sins from lust to envy are generally associated with pride, which has been labeled as the father of all sins, etc.
Lust, or lechery (Latin, "luxuria '' (carnal)), is intense longing. It is usually thought of as intense or unbridled sexual desire, which leads to fornication, adultery, rape, bestiality, and other immoral sexual acts. However, lust could also mean simply desire in general; thus, lust for money, power, and other things are sinful. In accordance with the words of Henry Edward Manning, the impurity of lust transforms one into "a slave of the devil ''.
Lust, if not managed properly, can subvert propriety.
German philosopher Schopenhauer wrote as follows:
"Lust is the ultimate goal of almost all human endeavour, exerts an adverse influence on the most important affairs, interrupts the most serious business, sometimes for a while confuses even the greatest minds, does not hesitate with its trumpery to disrupt the negotiations of statesmen and the research of scholars, has the knack of slipping its love - letters and ringlets even into ministerial portfolios and philosophical manuscripts ''.
Dante defined lust as the disordered love for individuals, thus possessing at least the redeeming feature of mutuality, unlike the graver sins, which constitute an increasingly agonised focussing upon the solitary self (a process begun with the more serious sin of gluttony). It is generally thought to be the least serious capital sin as it is an abuse of a faculty that humans share with animals, and sins of the flesh are less grievous than spiritual sins (love excessive, not love turning ever further awry toward hatred of man and God).
In Dante 's Purgatorio, the penitents walk deliberately through the purifying flames of the uppermost of the terraces of Mount Purgatory so as to purge themselves of lustful thoughts and feelings and finally win the right to reach the Earthly Paradise at the summit. In Dante 's Inferno, unforgiven souls guilty of the sin of lust are whirled around for all eternity in a perpetual tempest, symbolic of the passions by which, through lack of self - control, they were buffeted helplessly about in their earthly lives.
Gluttony (Latin, gula) is the overindulgence and overconsumption of anything to the point of waste. The word derives from the Latin gluttire, meaning to gulp down or swallow.
In Christianity, it is considered a sin if the excessive desire for food causes it to be withheld from the needy.
Because of these scripts, gluttony can be interpreted as selfishness; essentially placing concern with one 's own impulses or interests above the well - being or interests of others.
During times of famine, war, and similar periods when food is scarce, it is possible for one to indirectly kill other people through starvation just by eating too much or even too soon.
Medieval church leaders (e.g., Thomas Aquinas) took a more expansive view of gluttony, arguing that it could also include an obsessive anticipation of meals, and the constant eating of delicacies and excessively costly foods. Aquinas went so far as to prepare a list of five ways to commit gluttony, comprising:
Of these, ardenter is often considered the most serious, since it is extreme attachment to the pleasure of mere eating, which can make the committer eat impulsively; absolutely and without qualification live merely to eat and drink; lose attachment to health - related, social, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures; and lose proper judgement: an example is Esau selling his birthright for ordinary food of bread and pottage of lentils. His punishment was that of the "profane person... who, for a morsel of meat sold his birthright. '' We learn that "he found no place for repentance, though he sought it carefully, with tears. ''
Greed (Latin, avaritia), also known as avarice, cupidity, or covetousness, is, like lust and gluttony, a sin of desire. However, greed (as seen by the Church) is applied to an artificial, rapacious desire and pursuit of material possessions. Thomas Aquinas wrote, "Greed is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things. '' In Dante 's Purgatory, the penitents were bound and laid face down on the ground for having concentrated excessively on earthly thoughts. Hoarding of materials or objects, theft and robbery, especially by means of violence, trickery, or manipulation of authority are all actions that may be inspired by Greed. Such misdeeds can include simony, where one attempts to purchase or sell sacraments, including Holy Orders and, therefore, positions of authority in the Church hierarchy.
In the words of Henry Edward, avarice "plunges a man deep into the mire of this world, so that he makes it to be his god. ''
As defined outside Christian writings, greed is an inordinate desire to acquire or possess more than one needs, especially with respect to material wealth. Like pride, it can lead to not just some, but all evil.
Sloth (Latin, tristitia or acedia ("without care '')) refers to a peculiar jumble of notions, dating from antiquity and including mental, spiritual, pathological, and physical states. It may be defined as absence of interest or habitual disinclination to exertion.
In his Summa Theologica, Saint Thomas Aquinas defined sloth as "sorrow about spiritual good ''.
The scope of sloth is wide. Spiritually, acedia first referred to an affliction attending religious persons, especially monks, wherein they became indifferent to their duties and obligations to God. Mentally, acedia has a number of distinctive components of which the most important is affectlessness, a lack of any feeling about self or other, a mind - state that gives rise to boredom, rancor, apathy, and a passive inert or sluggish mentation, Physically, acedia is fundamentally associated with a cessation of motion and an indifference to work; it finds expression in laziness, idleness, and indolence.
Sloth includes ceasing to utilize the seven gifts of grace given by the Holy Spirit (Wisdom, Understanding, Counsel, Knowledge, Piety, Fortitude, and Fear of the Lord); such disregard may lead to the slowing of one 's spiritual progress towards eternal life, to the neglect of manifold duties of charity towards the neighbor, and to animosity towards those who love God.
Sloth has also been defined as a failure to do things that one should do. By this definition, evil exists when "good '' people fail to act.
Edmund Burke (1729 -- 1797) wrote in Present Discontents (II. 78) "No man, who is not inflamed by vain - glory into enthusiasm, can flatter himself that his single, unsupported, desultory, unsystematic endeavours are of power to defeat the subtle designs and united Cabals of ambitious citizens. When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle. ''
Unlike the other capital sins, which are sins of committing immorality, sloth is a sin of omitting responsibilities. It may arise from any of the other capital vices; for example, a son may omit his duty to his father through anger. While the state and habit of sloth is a mortal sin, the habit of the soul tending towards the last mortal state of sloth is not mortal in and of itself except under certain circumstances.
Emotionally and cognitively, the evil of acedia finds expression in a lack of any feeling for the world, for the people in it, or for the self. Acedia takes form as an alienation of the sentient self first from the world and then from itself. Although the most profound versions of this condition are found in a withdrawal from all forms of participation in or care for others or oneself, a lesser but more noisome element was also noted by theologians. From tristitia, asserted Gregory the Great, "there arise malice, rancour, cowardice, (and) despair... '' Chaucer, too, dealt with this attribute of acedia, counting the characteristics of the sin to include despair, somnolence, idleness, tardiness, negligence, indolence, and wrawnesse, the last variously translated as "anger '' or better as "peevishness ''. For Chaucer, human 's sin consists of languishing and holding back, refusing to undertake works of goodness because, he / she tells him / her self, the circumstances surrounding the establishment of good are too grievous and too difficult to suffer. Acedia in Chaucer 's view is thus the enemy of every source and motive for work.
Sloth not only subverts the livelihood of the body, taking no care for its day - to - day provisions, but also slows down the mind, halting its attention to matters of great importance. Sloth hinders the man in his righteous undertakings and thus becomes a terrible source of human 's undoing.
In his Purgatorio Dante portrayed the penance for acedia as running continuously at top speed.
Dante describes acedia as the failure to love God with all one 's heart, all one 's mind and all one 's soul; to him it was the middle sin, the only one characterised by an absence or insufficiency of love. Some scholars have said that the ultimate form of acedia was despair which leads to suicide.
Wrath (Latin, ira) can be defined as uncontrolled feelings of anger, rage, and even hatred. Wrath often reveals itself in the wish to seek vengeance. In its purest form, wrath presents with injury, violence, and hate that may provoke feuds that can go on for centuries. Wrath may persist long after the person who did another a grievous wrong is dead. Feelings of wrath can manifest in different ways, including impatience, hateful misanthropy, revenge, and self - destructive behavior, such as drug abuse or suicide.
"People who fly into a rage always make a bad landing. ''
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, the neutral act of anger becomes the sin of wrath when it 's directed against an innocent person, when it 's unduly strong or long - lasting, or when it desires excessive punishment. "If anger reaches the point of a deliberate desire to kill or seriously wound a neighbor, it is gravely against charity; it is a mortal sin. '' (CCC 2302) Hatred is the sin of desiring that someone else may suffer misfortune or evil, and is a mortal sin when one desires grave harm. (CCC 2302 - 03)
People feel angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are certain someone else is responsible, and when they feel they can still influence the situation or cope with it.
Dante described vengeance as "love of justice perverted to revenge and spite ''.
In accordance with Henry Edward, angry people are "slaves to themselves ''.
Envy (Latin, invidia), like greed and lust, is characterized by an insatiable desire. It can be described as a sad or resentful covetousness towards the traits or possessions of someone else. It arises from vainglory, and severs a man from his neighbor.
Malicious envy is similar to jealousy in that they both feel discontent towards someone 's traits, status, abilities, or rewards. A difference is that the envious also desire the entity and covet it. Envy can be directly related to the Ten Commandments, specifically, "Neither shall you covet... anything that belongs to your neighbour '' - a statement that may also be related to greed. Dante defined envy as "a desire to deprive other men of theirs ''. In Dante 's Purgatory, the punishment for the envious is to have their eyes sewn shut with wire because they gained sinful pleasure from seeing others brought low. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the struggle aroused by envy has three stages: during the first stage, the envious person attempts to lower another 's reputation; in the middle stage, the envious person receives either "joy at another 's misfortune '' (if he succeeds in defaming the other person) or "grief at another 's prosperity '' (if he fails); the third stage is hatred because "sorrow causes hatred ''.
Envy is said to be the motivation behind Cain murdering his brother, Abel, as Cain envied Abel because God favored Abel 's sacrifice over Cain 's.
Bertrand Russell said that envy was one of the most potent causes of unhappiness, bringing sorrow to committers of envy whilst giving them the urge to inflict pain upon others.
In accordance with the most widely accepted views, only pride weighs down the soul more than envy among the capital sins. Just like pride, envy has been associated directly with the devil, for Wisdom 2: 24 states: '' the envy of the devil brought death to the world, ".
Pride (Latin, superbia) is considered, on almost every list, the original and most serious of the seven deadly sins: the perversion of the faculties that make humans more like God -- dignity and holiness. It is also thought to be the source of the other capital sins. Also known as hubris (from ancient Greek ὕβρις), or futility, it is identified as dangerously corrupt selfishness, the putting of one 's own desires, urges, wants, and whims before the welfare of people.
In even more destructive cases, it is irrationally believing that one is essentially and necessarily better, superior, or more important than others, failing to acknowledge the accomplishments of others, and excessive admiration of the personal image or self (especially forgetting one 's own lack of divinity, and refusing to acknowledge one 's own limits, faults, or wrongs as a human being).
What the weak head with strongest bias rules, Is pride, the never - failing vice of fools.
As pride has been labelled the father of all sins, it has been deemed the devil 's most prominent trait. C.S. Lewis writes, in Mere Christianity, that pride is the "anti-God '' state, the position in which the ego and the self are directly opposed to God: "Unchastity, anger, greed, drunkenness, and all that, are mere fleabites in comparison: it was through Pride that the devil became the devil: Pride leads to every other vice: it is the complete anti-God state of mind. '' Pride is understood to sever the spirit from God, as well as His life - and - grace - giving Presence.
One can be prideful for different reasons. Author Ichabod Spencer states that "(s) piritual pride is the worst kind of pride, if not worst snare of the devil. The heart is particularly deceitful on this one thing. '' Jonathan Edwards said "(r) emember that pride is the worst viper that is in the heart, the greatest disturber of the soul 's peace and sweet communion with Christ; it was the first sin that ever was, and lies lowest in the foundation of Satan 's whole building, and is the most difficultly rooted out, and is the most hidden, secret and deceitful of all lusts, and often creeps in, insensibly, into the midst of religion and sometimes under the disguise of humility. ''
In Ancient Athens, hubris was considered one of the greatest crimes and was used to refer to insolent contempt that can cause one to use violence to shame the victim. This sense of hubris could also characterize rape. Aristotle defined hubris as shaming the victim, not because of anything that happened to the committer or might happen to the committer, but merely for the committer 's own gratification. The word 's connotation changed somewhat over time, with some additional emphasis towards a gross over-estimation of one 's abilities.
The term has been used to analyse and make sense of the actions of contemporary heads of government by Ian Kershaw (1998), Peter Beinart (2010) and in a much more physiological manner by David Owen (2012). In this context the term has been used to describe how certain leaders, when put to positions of immense power, seem to become irrationally self - confident in their own abilities, increasingly reluctant to listen to the advice of others and progressively more impulsive in their actions.
Dante 's definition of pride was "love of self perverted to hatred and contempt for one 's neighbour ''.
Pride is associated with more intra-individual negative outcomes and is commonly related to expressions of aggression and hostility (Tangney, 1999). As one might expect, pride is not always associated with high self - esteem but with highly fluctuating or variable self - esteem. Excessive feelings of pride have a tendency to create conflict and sometimes terminating close relationships, which has led it to be understood as one of the few emotions with no clear positive or adaptive functions (Rhodwalt, et al.).
Pride is generally associated with an absence of humility. It may also be associated with a lack of knowledge. John Gay states that "By ignorance is pride increased; They most assume who know the least. ''
In accordance with the Sirach 's author 's wording, the heart of a proud man is "like a partridge in its cage acting as a decoy; like a spy he watches for your weaknesses. He changes good things into evil, he lays his traps. Just as a spark sets coals on fire, the wicked man prepares his snares in order to draw blood. Beware of the wicked man for he is planning evil. He might dishonor you forever. '' In another chapter, he says that "the acquisitive man is not content with what he has, wicked injustice shrivels the heart. ''
Benjamin Franklin said "In reality there is, perhaps no one of our natural passions so hard to subdue as pride. Disguise it, struggle with it, stifle it, mortify it as much as one pleases, it is still alive and will every now and then peep out and show itself; you will see it, perhaps, often in this history. For even if I could conceive that I had completely overcome it, I should probably be proud of my humility. '' Joseph Addison states that "There is no passion that steals into the heart more imperceptibly and covers itself under more disguises than pride. ''
The proverb "pride goeth (goes) before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall '' (from the biblical Book of Proverbs, 16: 18) (or pride goeth before the fall) is thought to sum up the modern use of pride. Pride is also referred to as "pride that blinds, '' as it often causes a committer of pride to act in foolish ways that belie common sense. In other words, the modern definition may be thought of as, "that pride that goes just before the fall. '' In his two - volume biography of Adolf Hitler, historian Ian Kershaw uses both ' hubris ' and ' nemesis ' as titles. The first volume, Hubris, describes Hitler 's early life and rise to political power. The second, Nemesis, gives details of Hitler 's role in the Second World War, and concludes with his fall and suicide in 1945.
Much of the 10th and part of 11th chapter of the Book of Sirach discusses and advises about pride, hubris, and who is rationally worthy of honor. It goes:
"Do not store up resentment against your neighbor, no matter what his offence; do nothing in a fit of anger. Pride is odious to both God and man; injustice is abhorrent to both of them. Sovereignty is forced from one nation to another because of injustice, violence, and wealth. How can there be such pride in someone who is nothing but dust and ashes? Even while he is living, man 's bowels are full of rottenness. Look: the illness lasts while the doctor makes light of it; and one who is king today will die tomorrow. Once a man is dead, grubs, insects, and worms are his lot. The beginning of man 's pride is to separate himself from the Lord and to rebel against his Creator. The beginning of pride is sin. Whoever perseveres in sinning opens the floodgates to everything that is evil. For this the Lord has inflicted dire punishment on sinners; he has reduced them to nothing. The Lord has overturned the thrones of princes and set up the meek in their place. The Lord has torn up the proud by their roots and has planted the humble in their place. The Lord has overturned the land of pagans and totally destroyed them. He has devastated several of them, destroyed them and removed all remembrance of them from the face of the earth. Pride was not created for man, nor violent anger for those born of woman. Which race is worthy of honor? The human race. Which race is worthy of honor? Those who are good. Which race is despicable? The human race. Which race is despicable? Those who break the commandments. The leader is worthy of respect in the midst of his brethren, but he has respect for those who are good. Whether, they be rich, honored or poor, their pride should be in being good. It is not right to despise the poor man who keeps the law; it is not fitting to honor the sinful man. The leader, the judge, and the powerful man are worthy of honor, but no one is greater than the man who is good. A prudent slave will have free men as servants, and the sensible man will not complain. Do not feel proud when you accomplished your work; do not put on airs when times are difficult for you. Of greater worth is the man who works and lives in abundance than the one who shows off and yet has nothing to live on. My son, have a modest appreciation of yourself, estimate yourself at your true value. Who will defend the man who takes his own life? Who will respect the man who despises himself? The poor man will be honored for his wisdom and the rich man, for his riches. Honored when poor - how much more honored when rich! Dishonored when rich - how much more dishonored when poor! The poor man who is intelligent carries his head high and sits among the great. Do not praise a man because he is handsome and do not hold a man in contempt because of his appearance. The bee is one of the smallest winged insects but she excels in the exquisite sweetness of her honey. Do not be irrationally proud just because of the clothes you wear; do not be proud when people honor you. Do you know what the Lord is planning in a mysterious way? Many tyrants have been overthrown and someone unknown has received the crown. Many powerful men have been disgraced and famous men handed over to the power of others. Do not reprehend anyone unless you have been first fully informed, consider the case first and thereafter make your reproach. Do not reply before you have listened; do not meddle in the disputes of sinners. My child, do not undertake too many activities. If you keep adding to them, you will not be without reproach; if you run after them, you will not succeed nor will you ever be free, although you try to escape. ''
Jacob Bidermann 's medieval miracle play, Cenodoxus, pride is the deadliest of all the sins and leads directly to the damnation of the titulary famed Parisian doctor. In Dante 's Divine Comedy, the penitents are burdened with stone slabs on their necks to keep their heads bowed.
Acedia (Latin, acedia "without care '') (from Greek ἀκηδία) is the neglect to take care of something that one should do. It is translated to apathetic listlessness; depression without joy. It is related to melancholy: acedia describes the behaviour and melancholy suggests the emotion producing it. In early Christian thought, the lack of joy was regarded as a willful refusal to enjoy the goodness of God; by contrast, apathy was considered a refusal to help others in time of need.
Acēdia is negative form of the Greek term κηδεία, which has a more restricted usage. ' Kēdeia ' refers specifically to spousal love and respect for the dead. The positive term ' kēdeia ' thus indicates love for one 's family, even through death. It also indicates love for those outside one 's immediate family, specifically forming a new family with one 's "beloved. '' Seen in this way, ' acēdia ' indicates a rejection of familial love. Nonetheless, the meaning of ' acēdia ' is far more broad, signifying indifference to everything one experiences.
Pope Gregory combined this with tristitia into sloth for his list. When Thomas Aquinas described acedia in his interpretation of the list, he described it as an uneasiness of the mind, being a progenitor for lesser sins such as restlessness and instability. Dante refined this definition further, describing acedia as the failure to love God with all one 's heart, all one 's mind and all one 's soul; to him it was the middle sin, the only one characterised by an absence or insufficiency of love. Some scholars have said that the ultimate form of acedia was despair which leads to suicide.
Acedia is currently defined in the Catechism of the Catholic Church as spiritual sloth, which would be believing spiritual tasks to be too difficult. In the fourth century, Christian monks believed acedia was not primarily caused by laziness, but by a state of depression that caused spiritual detachment.
Vainglory (Latin, vanagloria) is unjustified boasting. Pope Gregory viewed it as a form of pride, so he folded vainglory into pride for his listing of sins. According to Thomas Aquinas, it is the progenitor of envy.
The Latin term gloria roughly means boasting, although its English cognate -- glory -- has come to have an exclusively positive meaning; historically, the term vain roughly meant futile, but by the 14th century had come to have the strong narcissistic undertones, that it still retains today. As a result of these semantic changes, vainglory has become a rarely used word in itself, and is now commonly interpreted as referring to vanity (in its modern narcissistic sense).
With Christianity, historic Christian denominations such as the Catholic Church and Protestant Churches, including the Lutheran Church, recognize seven virtues, which correspond inversely to each of the seven deadly sins.
Confession is the act of admitting the commission of a sin to a priest, who in turn will forgive the person in the name (in the person) of Christ, give a penance to (partially) make up for the offense, and advise the person on what he or she should do afterwards.
According to a 2009 study by Fr Roberto Busa, a Jesuit scholar, the most common deadly sin confessed by men is supposedly lust, and by women, pride. It was unclear whether these differences were due to the actual number of transgressions committed by each sex, or whether differing views on what "counts '' or should be confessed caused the observed pattern.
The second book of Dante 's epic poem The Divine Comedy is structured around the seven deadly sins. The most serious sins, found at the lowest level, are the abuses of the most divine faculty. For Dante and other thinkers, a human 's rational faculty makes humans more like God. Abusing that faculty with pride or envy weighs down the soul the most. Abusing one 's passions with wrath or a lack of passion as with sloth also weighs down the soul but not as much as the abuse of one 's rational faculty. Finally, abusing one 's desires to have one 's physical needs met via greed, gluttony, or lust abuses a faculty that humans share with animals. This is still an abuse that weighs down the soul, but it does not weigh it down like other abuses. Thus, the top levels of the Mountain of Purgatory have the top listed sins, while the lowest levels have the more serious sins of wrath, envy, and pride.
The last tale of the Canterbury Tales, the "Parson 's Tale '' is not a tale but a sermon that the parson gives against the seven deadly sins. This sermon brings together many common ideas and images about the seven deadly sins. This tale and Dante 's work both show how the seven deadly sins were used for confessional purposes or as a way to identify, repent of, and find forgiveness for one 's sins.
The Dutch artist created a series of prints showing each of the seven deadly sins. Each print features a central, labeled image that represents the sin. Around the figure are images that show the distortions, degenerations, and destructions caused by the sin. Many of these images come from contemporary Dutch aphorisms.
Spenser 's work, which was meant to educate young people to embrace virtue and avoid vice, includes a colourful depiction of the House of Pride. Lucifera, the lady of the house, is accompanied by advisers who represent the other seven deadly sins.
This work satirized capitalism and its painful abuses as its central character, the victim of a split personality, travels to seven different cities in search of money for her family. In each city she encounters one of the seven deadly sins, but those sins ironically reverse one 's expectations. When the character goes to Los Angeles, for example, she is outraged by injustice, but is told that wrath against capitalism is a sin that she must avoid.
Between 1945 and 1949, the American painter Paul Cadmus created a series of vivid, powerful, and gruesome paintings of each of the seven deadly sins.
Ferdinand Mount maintains that liquid currentness, especially through tabloids, has surprisingly given valor to vices, causing society to regress into that of primitive pagans: "covetousness has been rebranded as retail therapy, sloth is downtime, lust is exploring your sexuality, anger is opening up your feelings, vanity is looking good because you 're worth it and gluttony is the religion of foodies ''.
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when was great british bake off 2018 filmed | The Great British Bake Off - Wikipedia
The Great British Bake Off (often referred to as Bake Off or GBBO) is a British television baking competition produced by Love Productions, in which a group of amateur bakers compete against each other in a series of rounds, attempting to impress a group of judges with their baking skills, with a contestant being eliminated in each round, with the winner being selected from the remaining contestants that make it to the finals. The show 's first episode was aired on 17 August 2010, with its first four series broadcast on BBC Two, until its growing popularity led the BBC to move it to BBC One for the next three series. After its seventh series, Love Productions signed a three - year deal with Channel 4 to produce the show for the broadcaster.
The programme was originally presented by Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc, with judges Mary Berry and Paul Hollywood. The current presenters are Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig with Hollywood and Prue Leith as the judges. In chronological order, the winners are Edd Kimber, Joanne Wheatley, John Whaite, Frances Quinn, Nancy Birtwhistle, Nadiya Hussain, Candice Brown, Sophie Faldo and Rahul Mandal.
The show has become a significant part of British culture and is credited with reinvigorating interest in baking throughout the United Kingdom and Ireland, with many of its participants, including winners, having gone on to start a career based on bakery, while the BAFTA award - winning programme has spawned a number of specials and spin - off shows -- a celebrity charity series in aid of Sport Relief / Comic Relief or Stand Up To Cancer; Junior Bake Off for young children (broadcast on the CBBC channel); after - show series An Extra Slice; and Bake Off: The Professionals for teams of pastry chefs. The show 's format was used as the basis for two BBC Two series, The Great British Sewing Bee and The Great Pottery Throw Down, and, in addition to the show being shown in other countries (in the United States and Canada, the show is referred to as The Great British Baking Show), the format has also been sold to many countries around the world where local versions of the show are produced.
The idea of the baking competition was conceived by producer Anna Beattie after she spoke to a friend who had seen ' bake - offs ' in America. Beattie was also inspired by the classic English village fête baking competitions; she said: "I loved that idea of village fetes and an old - fashioned baking competition with people who only wanted to bake a good cake. '' However, Beattie failed to interest any channel in the idea for four years. In early 2009, they pitched the idea to Janice Hadlow, the then controller of BBC Two. The pitch was successful, and Hadlow and the Commissioning Editor Charlotte Moore commissioned the programme, which was then developed over the next six months. The development team first selected Mary Berry as a judge, and following an audition Paul Hollywood was also appointed. Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc were approached to be presenters of the show. Reproducing the surroundings of the English village fête, the series is filmed in bunting - draped marquees in scenic gardens.
On 17 August 2010, the first episode of The Great British Bake Off was shown on BBC Two. It stayed on BBC Two for four years, grew in popularity and became the most popular programme on that channel. In its fifth series it was moved to BBC One where it stayed for three years. It was the most - watched programme on British television in 2015 and 2016. Following extended negotiations, Love Productions announced that the seventh series of the show would be the last broadcast by the BBC. On 12 September 2016, Love agreed to a three - year deal to broadcast the show on Channel 4. Giedroyc and Perkins subsequently announced that they would not be returning when the show moves to its new network. On 22 September, Berry announced that she would also be leaving the show when it moved to Channel 4, while Hollywood later announced he would stay. In March 2017, it was announced that Prue Leith would join Hollywood as a judge, while Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig would take over as presenters.
The programme operates on a weekly elimination process to find the best all - around baker from the contestants, who are all amateurs. The applicants to the show are assessed by a researcher, followed by an audition in London with two of their bakes. They then undergo a screen test and an interview with a producer. A second audition involves the applicants baking two recipes for the judges in front of the cameras. Ten contestants were chosen for the first series, twelve for the following two series, thirteen for the fourth, and back to twelve from series five onwards.
In each episode, the amateur bakers are given three challenges: a signature bake, a technical challenge, and a show - stopper. The three challenges take place over two days, and the filming takes up to 16 hours a day. The contestants are assessed by the judges who then choose a "Star Baker '' for the week (introduced in series 2), and a contestant is also eliminated. In the final round, three bakers are left and a winner is chosen from the three.
In the first series, the location of the cast and crew moves from town to town each week, but starting from the second series, the competition is held in one location in a specially constructed marquee. Interspersed in the programme are the background of the contestants as well as video vignettes on the history of baking. What each baker intends to bake during a particular challenge is illustrated using animated graphics. These graphics have been created by illustrator Tom Hovey since the show 's inception in 2010.
Series 1 of The Great British Bake Off saw ten home bakers take part in a bake - off to test their baking skills as they battled to be crowned the Great British Bake Off 's best amateur baker. Each week the nationwide tour saw the bakers put through three challenges in a particular discipline. The rounds took place in various locations across the UK, with the final round being held at Fulham Palace, London.
The three finalists were Ruth Clemens, Miranda Gore Browne, and Edd Kimber. On 21 September 2010, Edd Kimber was crowned the best amateur baker.
The number of amateur baker contestants increased to twelve for the second series. Unlike Series 1, this year The Great British Bake Off stayed in one location -- Valentines Mansion, a 17th - century mansion house in Redbridge, London.
The finalists were Holly Bell, Mary - Anne Boermans, and the winning contestant Joanne Wheatley.
A third series of The Great British Bake Off began on 14 August 2012. The series was filmed at Harptree Court in East Harptree, Somerset.
The finalists were Brendan Lynch, James Morton and John Whaite, the last of whom won the final in a surprise result.
In the U.S., the third series was broadcast as season 5 on PBS.
The fourth series of The Great British Bake Off started on 20 August 2013 on BBC Two. The series was again filmed at Harptree Court in East Harptree, Somerset. The final was won by Frances Quinn, with Ruby Tandoh and Kimberley Wilson as runners up.
In the U.S., the fourth series was broadcast as season 2 on PBS, and on Netflix as Collection 2.
The fifth series of The Great British Bake Off began airing on 6 August 2014 on BBC One. This series was filmed at Welford Park in Berkshire. There were twelve bakers taking part. Mary Berry and Paul Hollywood returned as judges, whilst Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc continued to present the series. Richard Burr was awarded the largest number of star baker designations of any series so far, but was beaten by Nancy Birtwhistle in the final.
A spin - off show The Great British Bake Off: An Extra Slice, hosted by comedian Jo Brand on BBC Two, was also launched as a companion series this year. Each episode was broadcast two days after the main show but later moved to the same night. The show includes interviews with eliminated contestants.
In the U.S., the fifth series was broadcast as season 1 on PBS, and on Netflix as Collection 1.
The sixth series began on 5 August 2015 on BBC One, again from Welford Park in Berkshire. Spin - off show The Great British Bake Off: An Extra Slice returned for a second series, with Jo Brand as host. This series was won by Nadiya Hussain, with Ian Cumming and Tamal Ray as runners up.
In the U.S., the sixth series was broadcast as season 3 on PBS, and on Netflix as Collection 3.
The seventh series began on 24 August 2016 on BBC One, once again from Welford Park in Berkshire, a later than usual start following the BBC 's coverage of the Olympic Games. This series was won by Candice Brown, with Jane Beedle and Andrew Smyth as runners up.
In the U.S., the seventh series was broadcast as season 4 on PBS, and on Netflix as Collection 4.
The eighth series of The Great British Bake Off began airing on 29 August 2017. This is the first series of The Great British Bake Off to be broadcast on Channel 4 following its move from the BBC. The series features new hosts Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig, and new judge Prue Leith along with returning judge Paul Hollywood. This series was won by Sophie Faldo, with Kate Lyon and Steven Carter - Bailey finishing as runners - up.
The eighth series is broadcast on Netflix as Collection 5.
The ninth series of The Great British Bake Off began airing on 28 August 2018.
On October 30th 2018, Rahul Mandal was announced as the winner of The Great British Bake Off 2018. The runners - up were Ruby Bhogal and Kim - Joy Hewlett.As part of their second last challenge the bakers were told to bake pitta bread on an open fire
Periodically, accidents and other errors have influenced the results of a round of judging. Several have had a significant impact on what a baker presents, notably:
The early reviews for the first series were mixed. Lucy Mangan of The Guardian wondered if "competitive baking (is) a contradiction in terms '' and found the proceedings humourless. Iain Hollingshead of The Daily Telegraph was scathing, describing the presenters as "annoying '', the judge Paul Hollywood as looking "sinister without being interesting '', and that the audience would be so bored that they "could certainly forgive the cameraman if he were to commit hara - kiri in a giant pool of egg and flour. ''
However, reviews from the later series were more positive. Andrew Collins of The Guardian called it "the nicest show on television '' and judged it the best TV programme of 2012. Rachel Ward of The Daily Telegraph thought the programme "had just the right consistency of mouth - watering morsels, good humour, and fascinating history '', while Tom Sutcliffe of The Independent considered the contest "perfectly baked ''.
Bake Off was moved to Channel 4 in 2017, and reviews of the programme on the channel were largely positive, although a few felt that it did not compare well to the BBC version. Mark Lawson of The Guardian described the programme on Channel 4 as "both exactly the same but also just subtly different enough '', and that "only someone desperate to dislike the re-plated show could argued that (it) has soured, spoiled or binned its recipe ''. Michael Hogan of The Telegraph thought that "Mary, Mel and Sue might be gone but the show 's recipe remains as winning as ever. The four Cs -- chemistry, camaraderie, comedy, cakes -- were all present and correct. '' Anna Leszkiewicz of the New Statesman however considered that while the format had been left largely unchanged and the contestants "irresistibly likeable '', "every single change to the show has been for the worse ''.
The show has become a significant part of British culture and is credited with spurring an interest in home baking, with supermarkets and department stores in the UK reporting sharp rises in sales of baking ingredients and accessories. It was also credited with reviving the Women 's Institute, whose membership reached its highest level since the 1970s. The show also boosted the sales of bakery books and the number of baking clubs, and independent bakeries also showed an increase. According to one analyst, more than three - fifths of adults have baked at home at least once in 2013 compared with only a third in 2011.
The first series of The Great British Bake Off premiered in August 2010 with moderate ratings of just over 2 million viewers for its first episode. This was enough to place it in BBC Two 's top ten for that week, and over the series the audience grew to over three million, with the semi-final and final both achieving first place in BBC Two 's weekly ratings. During the second series, the ratings gradually increased, and it became a surprise hit with nearly 4 million watching each episode. Week two was the last time that the show was out - rated by another BBC Two programme in the same week (it came second to the drama Page Eight); from then until the show 's move to BBC One, every competition episode would be the channel 's number one rated programme of the week. By its final episode it had averaged 4.56 million viewers, peaking at 5.1 million in its last 15 minutes.
The ratings continued to strengthen in the third series, and the show began to beat its competition in its timeslot. The final of the series where John Whaite was crowned the winner saw its highest rating yet, with an average of 6.5 million viewers that peaked at 7.2 million, which made it the second highest - rated BBC Two - originated show after Top Gear since at least 2006. The fourth series achieved some of the highest ratings seen on BBC Two. The viewer count for its premiere episode was more than two million higher than that of the previous series, while the final episode was seen by 9.1 million viewers at its peak, more than twice the number of viewers on BBC One and ITV. The final episode is the most - watched show on BBC Two since the present ratings system was introduced in 2002, beating the previous record set by Top Gear. As a result of its high ratings, the show was moved to BBC One.
After its move to BBC One, the opening episode was watched by over 7 million viewers according to overnight figures, beating the figure of 5.6 million for the opening episode of the previous year. the Bingate controversy surrounding episode four helped the show gain its biggest ever audience of 10.3 million viewers, with 2 million people who watched it on BBC iPlayer. The final of the show gained an overnight viewing figure of 12.29 million, then the highest viewing figure of the year for a non-sporting event on UK TV. In the following year, the top ten ratings for 2015 was also dominated by The Great British Bake Off, with seven of the year 's ten most - watched television programmes being episodes of the show, topped by the final episode with 15.05 million viewers. In the last series on the BBC in 2016, nine of the top ten most - watched programmes of the year were episodes of the show, with 16.03 million viewers watching the finale.
The first series broadcast by Channel 4 opened with average viewing figures of 5.8 million, rising to 6.5 million to include those watching on Channel 4 + 1, and 9.46 million for the 7 - day rating. Although the overnight figure was the lowest for an opening episode since 2013, it was Channel 4 's biggest audience since the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 Paralympics. This series attracted an average audience of 9 million viewers on Channel 4.
In September 2012, production company Love Productions was sanctioned by the BBC for product placement of Smeg fridges. The issue came to light after a viewer wrote to the Radio Times complaining of "blatant product promotion ''. After an investigation, the BBC said Love Production 's loan agreement with Smeg did not meet editorial guidelines and was being revised for the third series, and that appropriate retrospective hire payments would be made. The BBC asked Smeg to remove a notice from its website promoting its association with the show, which it has since done.
The fourth series suffered allegations of Paul Hollywood 's favouritism towards Ruby Tandoh, and personal attacks on Tandoh by various people including the chef Raymond Blanc. Both Paul Hollywood and Ruby Tandoh denied the accusation.
In the fourth episode of the fifth series, there was controversy around the elimination of contestant Iain Watters. During the final showstopper round contestants were tasked with producing a Baked Alaska. Iain 's ice cream was shown as having not set and in a show of frustration he threw his bake in the bin. The editing of the show suggested that another contestant, Diana Beard, had caused the failure by removing the ice cream from a freezer, and the perceived "sabotage '' resulted in an uproar on social media networks. However, unseen footage broadcast in the accompanying programme An Extra Slice shows Luis holding the large floor freezer that contained Iain 's ice cream open as he piped the sides of his own baked Alaska, while Mel warns him to pipe quickly and close the freezer. Later in the episode, when Iain removes his ice cream to begin the next step of his dish, it is still quite soft, indicating it went into the freezer he shared with Diana without being completely frozen. Various members of the cast posted comments in support of Diana and a BBC spokesman later issued a statement that "Diana removing Iain 's ice cream from the freezer for less than a minute was in no way responsible for Iain 's departure. ''
More than 800 complaints were lodged with the BBC over the incident and some also complained to the communication watchdog Ofcom.
A number of viewers complained to the BBC feedback show Points of View in the fifth series about the "constant smutty remarks '' from the presenters Mel and Sue. This series was seen as having more innuendos than previous ones; some reviewers noted the "extra pinch of saucy spice '' and "the increasingly filthy - minded hosts Mel Giedroyc and Sue Perkins ''. The series 3 winner John Whaite however argued that innuendo is part of what made the show a success, whilst judge Paul Hollywood described the innuendos as banter in the spirit of the Carry On films and is a part of British culture, a view shared by others.
The success of The Great British Bake Off led to the BBC commissioning many other series closely following the format from Love Productions for example The Great British Sewing Bee and The Great Pottery Throw Down. However the 2014 series Hair using the same format was produced in house by the BBC, Love Productions responded by making preparations to sue the BBC for infringing their copyright. Although the matter was kept quiet, with the BBC settling out of court and compensating Love Productions, the matter soured relations between the BBC and Love Productions. In September 2016, it was announced that the BBC had lost the broadcast rights of the show to Channel 4. Channel 4 offered £ 25 million for the show outbidding the £ 15 million offered by the BBC. In January 2017 the BBC waived its rights to keep the program off the air until 2018, and wished the programme "well for the future ''.
On 31 October 2017, judge Prue Leith accidentally revealed the winner of Series 8 on Twitter twelve hours before the finale was due to air. This caused uproar among many fans of the show. She quickly deleted the tweet and apologised to the fans who saw it.
The Great British Bake Off was nominated for a Rose d'Or in the Lifestyle section of the 2012 competition and won. The programme has been nominated a number of times in various categories for the BAFTA awards and won in 2012, 2013, and 2016. It also won two 2015 National Television Award for Skills Challenge Show.
The UK version of The Great British Bake Off is broadcast in many countries and it has been sold to 196 territories as of 2015. The format has also been sold to 20 territories by 2015, making it the third most successful BBC format after Dancing with the Stars (Strictly Come Dancing) and The Weakest Link. Many of these shows have been successful. The Junior Bake Off format has also been sold to Thailand.
Beginning in 2014, the US broadcaster PBS has aired several series of the show under the name The Great British Baking Show. The change of name was necessary due to the fact that "Bake - Off '' is a registered trademark of Pillsbury in the United States. The fifth series was broadcast as Season 1 in Winter 2014 -- 2015; the fourth series was then broadcast as Season 2 in Fall 2015, the sixth series was broadcast as Season 3 in Summer 2016, and the seventh series was broadcast as Season 4 in Summer 2017. After the move from original distributor BBC Worldwide in 2018, PBS chose to air BBC 's third series as Season 5 instead of licensing the eighth series from Channel 4. As of 2018, PBS has the rights to air the second BBC series as Season 6 in 2019, and has chosen to not license the Channel 4 series.
The CBC began broadcasting The Great British Bake Off in Canada in August 2016, starting with the sixth series and also with the Great British Baking Show title. The seventh series aired the year after.
Current and upcoming versions include:
Legend: Airing or in production No longer airing
Episode viewing figures from BARB.
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where does the last name holden come from | Holden - Wikipedia
Holden, formally known as General Motors Holden, is an Australian automobile importer and a former automobile manufacturer with its headquarters in Port Melbourne, Victoria. The company was founded in 1856 as a saddlery manufacturer in South Australia. In 1908 it moved into the automotive field, becoming a subsidiary of the United States - based General Motors (GM) in 1931, when the company was renamed General Motors - Holden 's Ltd. It was renamed Holden Ltd in 1998, and General Motors Holden in 2005.
Holden sells the remaining stock of the locally produced range of Commodore vehicles, and imported GM models. Holden has offered badge engineered models in sharing arrangements with Chevrolet, Isuzu, Nissan, Opel, Suzuki, Toyota and Vauxhall Motors. In 2013 the vehicle lineup consisted of models from GM Korea, GM Thailand, GM in the US, and self - developed Commodore, Caprice, and Ute. Holden also distributed the European Opel brand in Australia in 2012 until the Opel brand 's Australian demise in mid-2013.
From 1994 to 2017, all Australian - built Holden vehicles were manufactured in Elizabeth, South Australia, and engines were produced at the Fishermans Bend plant in Melbourne. Historically, production or assembly plants were operated in all mainland states of Australia. The consolidation of car production at Elizabeth was completed in 1988, but some assembly operations continued at Dandenong until 1994.
General Motors assembly plants were operated in New Zealand from 1926 until 1990 by General Motors New Zealand Limited in an earlier and quite separate operation from Holden in Australia. Although Holden 's involvement in exports has fluctuated since the 1950s, the declining sales of large cars in Australia led the company to look to international markets to increase profitability. From 2010 Holden incurred losses due to the strong Australian dollar, and reductions of government grants and subsidies. This led to the announcement on 11 December 2013 that Holden would cease vehicle and engine production by the end of 2017. However, the company will continue to have a large and ongoing presence in Australia importing and selling cars as national sales company. Holden will retain their design centre, but with reduced staffing.
On 20 October 2017, the end of the era for the Australian manufacturing industry came with the closure of the vehicle plant in Elizabeth, South Australia. The brand will continue as an importer of vehicles.
In 1852, James Alexander Holden emigrated to South Australia from Walsall, England and in 1856 established J.A. Holden & Co, a saddlery business in Adelaide. In 1879 JA Holden 's eldest son Henry James (HJ) Holden, became a partner and effectively managed the company. In 1885, German - born H.A. Frost joined the business as a junior partner and J.A. Holden & Co became Holden & Frost Ltd. Edward Holden, James ' grandson, joined the firm in 1905 with an interest in automobiles. From there, the firm evolved through various partnerships and, in 1908, Holden & Frost moved into the business of minor repairs to car upholstery. The company began re-body older chassis using motor bodies produced by FT Hack and Co from 1914. Holden & Frost mounted the body, painted and trimmed it. The company began to produce complete motorcycle sidecar bodies after 1913. After 1917, wartime trade restrictions led the company to start full - scale production of vehicle body shells. H.J. Holden founded a new company in late 1917, and registered Holden 's Motor Body Builders Ltd (HMBB) on 25th February 1919 specialising in car bodies and using the former FT Hack & Co facility at 400 King William Street in Adelaide before erecting a large 4 story factory on the site.
By 1923, HMBB were producing 12,000 units per year. During this time, HMBB assembled bodies for Ford Motor Company of Australia until its Geelong plant was completed. From 1924, HMBB became the exclusive supplier of car bodies for GM in Australia, with manufacturing taking place at the new Woodville plant. These bodies were made to suit a number of chassis imported from manufacturers such as Chevrolet and Dodge. In 1926 General Motors (Australia) was established with assembly plants at Newstead, Queensland; Marrickville, New South Wales; City Road, Melbourne; Birkenhead, South Australia; and Cottesloe, Western Australia using bodies produced by Holden Motor Body Builders and imported complete knock down (CKD) chassis. In 1930 alone, the still independent Woodville plant built bodies for Austin, Chrysler, DeSoto, Morris, Hillman, Humber, Hupmobile and Willys - Overland as well GM cars. The last of this line of business was the assembly of Hillman Minx sedans in 1948. The Great Depression led to a substantial downturn in production by Holden, from 34,000 units annually in 1930 to just 1,651 units one year later. In 1931 General Motors purchased Holden Motor Body Builders and merged it with General Motors (Australia) Pty Ltd to form General Motors - Holden 's Ltd (GM - H). Throughout the 1920s Holden also supplied tramcars to the Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board, of which several examples have been preserved in both Australia and New Zealand.
Holden 's second full - scale car factory, located in Fishermans Bend (Port Melbourne), was completed in 1936, with construction beginning in 1939 on a new plant in Pagewood, New South Wales. However, World War II delayed car production with efforts shifted to the construction of vehicle bodies, field guns, aircraft and engines. Before the war ended, the Australian Government took steps to encourage an Australian automotive industry. Both GM and Ford provided studies to the Australian Government outlining the production of the first Australian - designed car. Ford 's proposal was the government 's first choice, but required substantial financial assistance. GM 's study was ultimately chosen because of its low level of government intervention. After the war, Holden returned to producing vehicle bodies, this time for Buick, Chevrolet, Pontiac and Vauxhall. The Oldsmobile Ace was also produced from 1946 to 1948.
From here, Holden continued to pursue the goal of producing an Australian car. This involved compromise with GM, as Holden 's managing director, Laurence Hartnett, favoured development of a local design, while GM preferred to see an American design as the basis for "Australia 's Own Car ''. In the end, the design was based on a previously rejected post-war Chevrolet proposal. The Holden was launched in 1948, creating long waiting lists extending through 1949 and beyond. The name "Holden '' was chosen in honour of Sir Edward Holden, the company 's first chairman and grandson of J.A. Holden. Other names considered were "GeM '', "Austral '', "Melba '', "Woomerah '', "Boomerang '', "Emu '' and "Canbra '', a phonetic spelling of Canberra. Although officially designated "48 - 215 '', the car was marketed simply as the "Holden ''. The unofficial usage of the name "FX '' originated within Holden, referring to the updated suspension on the 48 - 215 of 1953.
During the 1950s, Holden dominated the Australian car market. GM invested heavily in production capacity, which allowed the company to meet increased post-war demand for motor cars. Less expensive four - cylinder cars did not offer Holden 's ability to deal with rugged rural areas. 48 - 215 sedans were produced in parallel with the 50 - 2106 coupé utility from 1951; the latter was known colloquially as the "ute '' and became ubiquitous in Australian rural areas as the workhorse of choice. Production of both the utility and sedan continued with minor changes until 1953, when they were replaced by the facelifted FJ model, introducing a third panel van body style. The FJ was the first major change to the Holden since its 1948 introduction. Over time it gained iconic status and remains one of Australia 's most recognisable automotive symbols. A new horizontally slatted grille dominated the front - end of the FJ, which received various other trim and minor mechanical revisions. In 1954 Holden began exporting the FJ to New Zealand. Although little changed from the 48 - 215, marketing campaigns and price cuts kept FJ sales steady until a completely redesigned model was launched. At the 2005 Australian International Motor Show in Sydney, Holden paid homage to the FJ with the Efijy concept car.
Holden 's next model, the FE, launched in 1956; offered in a new station wagon body style dubbed "Station Sedan '' in the company 's sales literature. In the same year Holden commenced exports to Malaya, Thailand and North Borneo. Strong sales continued in Australia, and Holden achieved a market share of more than 50 percent in 1958 with the revised FC model. This was the first Holden to be tested on the new Holden Proving Ground based in Lang Lang, Victoria. 1957 saw Holden 's export markets grow to 17 countries, with new additions including Indonesia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Fiji, Sudan, the East Africa region and South Africa. Indonesian market cars were assembled locally by P.T. Udatin. The opening of the Dandenong, Victoria, production facility in 1956 brought further jobs; by 1959 Holden employed 19,000 workers country - wide. In 1959 complete knock down assembly began in South Africa and Indonesia.
In 1960, Holden introduced its third major new model, the FB. The car 's style was inspired by 1950s Chevrolets, with tailfins and a wrap - around windshield with "dog leg '' A-pillars. By the time it was introduced, many considered the appearance dated. Much of the motoring industry at the time noted that the adopted style did not translate well to the more compact Holden. The FB became the first Holden that was adapted for left - hand - drive markets, enhancing its export potential, and as such was exported to New Caledonia, New Hebrides, the Philippines, and Hawaii.
In 1960, Ford unveiled the new Falcon in Australia, only months after its introduction in the United States. To Holden 's advantage, the Falcon was not durable, particularly in the front suspension, making it ill - suited for Australian conditions. In response to the Falcon, Holden introduced the facelifted EK series in 1961; the new model featured two - tone paintwork and optional Hydramatic automatic transmission. A restyled EJ series came in 1962, debuting the new luxury oriented Premier model. The EH update came a year later bringing the new Red motor, providing better performance than the previous Grey motor. The HD series of 1965 saw the introduction of the Powerglide automatic transmission. At the same time, an "X2 '' performance option with a more powerful version of the 179 - cubic - inch (2.9 L) six - cylinder engine was made available. In 1966, the HR was introduced, including changes in the form of new front and rear styling and higher - capacity engines. More significantly, the HR fitted standard front seat belts; Holden thus became the first Australian automaker to provide the safety device as standard equipment across all models. This coincided with the completion of the production plant in Acacia Ridge, Queensland. By 1963, Holden was exporting cars to Africa, the Middle East, South - East Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the Caribbean.
Holden began assembling the compact HA series Vauxhall Viva in 1964. This was superseded by the Holden Torana in 1967, a development of the Viva ending Vauxhall production in Australia. Holden offered the LC, a Torana with new styling, in 1969 with the availability of Holden 's six - cylinder engine. In the development days, the six - cylinder Torana was reserved for motor racing, but research had shown that there was a business case for such a model. The LC Torana was the first application of Holden 's new three - speed Tri-Matic automatic transmission. This was the result of Holden 's A $16.5 million transformation of the Woodville, South Australia factory for its production.
Holden 's association with the manufacture of Chevrolets and Pontiacs ended in 1968, coinciding with the year of Holden 's next major new model, the HK. This included Holden 's first V8 engine, a Chevrolet engine imported from Canada. Models based on the HK series included an extended - length prestige model, the Brougham, and a two - door coupé, the Monaro. The mainstream Holden Special was rebranded the Kingswood, and the basic fleet model, the Standard, became the Belmont. On 3 March 1969 Alexander Rhea, managing director of General Motors - Holden 's at the time, was joined by press photographers and the Federal Minister of Shipping and Transport, Ian Sinclair as the two men drove the two millionth Holden, an HK Brougham off the production line. This came just over half a decade since the one millionth car, an EJ Premier sedan rolled off the Dandenong line on 25 October 1962. Following the Chevrolet V8 fitted to the HK, the first Australian - designed and mass - produced V8, the Holden V8 engine debuted in the Hurricane concept of 1969 before fitment to facelifted HT model. This was available in two capacities: 253 cubic inches (4.1 L) and 308 cubic inches (5.0 L). Late in HT production, use of the new Tri-Matic automatic transmission, first seen in the LC Torana was phased in as Powerglide stock was exhausted, but Holden 's official line was that the HG of 1971 was the first full - size Holden to receive it.
Despite the arrival of serious competitors -- namely, the Ford Falcon, Chrysler Valiant, and Japanese cars -- in the 1960s, Holden 's locally produced large six - and eight - cylinder cars remained Australia 's top - selling vehicles. Sales were boosted by exporting the Kingswood sedan, station wagon, and utility body styles to Indonesia, Trinidad and Tobago, Pakistan, the Philippines, and South Africa in complete knock down form.
Holden launched the new HQ series in 1971. At this time, the company was producing all of its passenger cars in Australia, and every model was of Australian design; however, by the end of the decade, Holden was producing cars based on overseas designs. The HQ was thoroughly re-engineered, featuring a perimeter frame and semi-monocoque (unibody) construction. Other firsts included an all - coil suspension and an extended wheelbase for station wagons, while the utilities and panel vans retained the traditional coil / leaf suspension configuration. The series included the new prestige Statesman brand, which also had a longer wheelbase, replacing the Brougham. The Statesman remains noteworthy because it was not marketed as a "Holden '', but rather a "Statesman ''.
The HQ framework led to a new generation of two - door Monaros, and, despite the introduction of the similar sized competitors, the HQ range became the top - selling Holden of all time, with 485,650 units sold in three years. 14,558 units were exported and 72,290 CKD kits were constructed. The HQ series was facelifted in 1974 with the introduction of the HJ, heralding new front panel styling and a revised rear fascia. This new bodywork was to remain, albeit with minor upgrades through the HX and HZ series. Detuned engines adhering to government emission standards were brought in with the HX series, whilst the HZ brought considerably improved road handling and comfort with the introduction of "Radial Tuned Suspension '' (RTS). As a result of GM 's toying with the Wankel rotary engine, as used by Mazda of Japan, an export agreement was initiated in 1975. This involved Holden exporting with powertrains, HJ, and later, HX series Premiers as the Mazda Roadpacer AP. Mazda then fitted these cars with the 13B rotary engine and three - speed automatic transmission. Production ended in 1977, after just 840 units sold.
During the 1970s, Holden ran an advertising jingle "Football, Meat Pies, Kangaroos and Holden cars '', based on the "Baseball, Hot Dogs, Apple Pies and Chevrolet '' jingle used by Chevrolet in the United States. Also, development of the Torana continued in with the larger mid-sized LH series released in 1974, offered only as a four - door sedan. The LH Torana was one of the few cars worldwide engineered to accommodate four -, six - and eight - cylinder engines. This trend continued until Holden introduced the Sunbird in 1976; essentially the four - cylinder Torana with a new name. Designated LX, both the Sunbird and Torana introduced a three - door hatchback variant. A final UC update appeared in 1978. During its production run, the Torana achieved legendary racing success in Australia, achieving victories at the Mount Panorama Circuit in Bathurst, New South Wales.
In 1975, Holden introduced the compact Gemini, the Australian version of the "T - car '', based on the Opel Kadett C. The Gemini was an overseas design developed jointly with Isuzu, GM 's Japanese affiliate; and was powered by a 1.6 - litre four - cylinder engine. Fast becoming a popular car, the Gemini rapidly attained sales leadership in its class, and the nameplate lived on until 1987.
Holden 's most popular car to date, the Commodore, was introduced in 1978 as the VB. The new family car was loosely based on the Opel Rekord E body shell, but with the front from the Opel Senator grafted to accommodate the larger Holden six - cylinder and V8 engines. Initially, the Commodore maintained Holden 's sales leadership in Australia. However, some of the compromises resulting from the adoption of a design intended for another market hampered the car 's acceptance. In particular, it was narrower than its predecessor and its Falcon rival, making it less comfortable for three rear - seat passengers. With the abandonment of left - hand drive markets, Holden exported almost 100,000 Commodores to markets such as New Zealand, Thailand, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Indonesia, Malta and Singapore.
Holden discontinued the Torana in 1979 and the Sunbird in 1980. After the 1978 introduction of the Commodore, the Torana became the "in - between '' car, surrounded by the smaller and more economical Gemini and the larger, more sophisticated Commodore. The closest successor to the Torana was the Camira, released in 1982 as Australia 's version of GM 's medium - sized "J - car ''.
The 1980s were challenging for Holden and the Australian automotive industry. The Australian Government tried to revive the industry with the Button car plan, which encouraged car makers to focus on producing fewer models at higher, more economical volumes, and to export cars. The decade opened with the shut - down of the Pagewood, New South Wales production plant and introduction of the light commercial Rodeo, sourced from Isuzu in Japan. The Rodeo was available in both two - and four - wheel drive chassis cab models with a choice of petrol and diesel powerplants. The range was updated in 1988 with the TF series, based on the Isuzu TF. Other cars sourced from Isuzu during the 1980s were the four - wheel drive Jackaroo (1981), the Shuttle (1982) van and the Piazza (1986) three - door sports hatchback. The second generation Holden Gemini from 1985 was also based on an Isuzu design, although, its manufacture was undertaken in Australia.
While GM Australia 's commercial vehicle range had originally been mostly based on Bedford products, these had gradually been replaced by Isuzu products. This process began in the 1970s and by 1982 Holden 's commercial vehicle arm no longer offered any Bedford products.
The new Holden WB commercial vehicles and the Statesman WB limousines were introduced in 1980. However, the designs, based on the HQ and updated HJ, HX and HZ models from the 1970s were less competitive than similar models in Ford 's lineup. Thus, Holden abandoned those vehicle classes altogether in 1984. Sales of the Commodore also fell, with the effects of the 1979 energy crisis lessening, and for the first time the Commodore lost ground to the Ford Falcon. Sales in other segments also suffered when competition from Ford intensified, and other Australian manufacturers: Mitsubishi, Nissan and Toyota gained market share. When released in 1982, the Camira initially generated good sales, which later declined because buyers considered the 1.6 - litre engine underpowered, and the car 's build and ride quality below - average. The Camira lasted just seven years, and contributed to Holden 's accumulated losses of over A $500 million by the mid-1980s.
In 1984, Holden introduced the VK Commodore, with significant styling changes from the previous VH. The Commodore was next updated in 1986 as the VL, which had new front and rear styling. Controversially, the VL was powered by the 3.0 - litre Nissan RB30 six - cylinder engine and had a Nissan - built, electronically controlled four - speed automatic transmission. Holden even went to court in 1984 to stop local motoring magazine Wheels from reporting on the matter. The engine change was necessitated by the legal requirement that all new cars sold in Australia after 1986 had to consume unleaded petrol. Because it was unfeasible to convert the existing six - cylinder engine to run on unleaded fuel, the Nissan engine was chosen as the best engine available. However, changing exchange rates doubled the cost of the engine and transmission over the life of the VL. The decision to opt for a Japanese - made transmission led to the closure of the Woodville, South Australia assembly plant. Confident by the apparent sign of turnaround, GM paid off Holden 's mounted losses of A $780 million on 19 December 1986. At GM headquarters ' request, Holden was then reorganised and recapitalised, separating the engine and car manufacturing divisions in the process. This involved the splitting of Holden into Holden 's Motor Company (HMC) and Holden 's Engine Company (HEC). For the most part, car bodies were now manufactured at Elizabeth, South Australia, with engines as before, confined to the Fishermans Bend plant in Port Melbourne, Victoria. The engine manufacturing business was successful, building four - cylinder Family II engines for use in cars built overseas. The final phase of the Commodore 's recovery strategy involved the 1988 VN, a significantly wider model powered by the American - designed, Australian - assembled 3.8 - litre Buick V6 engine.
Holden began to sell the subcompact Suzuki Swift - based Barina in 1985. The Barina was launched concurrently with the Suzuki - sourced Holden Drover, followed by the Scurry later on in 1985. In the previous year, Nissan Pulsar hatchbacks were rebadged as the Holden Astra, as a result of a deal with Nissan. This arrangement ceased in 1989 when Holden entered a new alliance with Toyota, forming a new company: United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI). UAAI resulted in Holden selling rebadged versions of Toyota 's Corolla and Camry, as the Holden Nova and Apollo respectively, with Toyota re-branding the Commodore as the Lexcen.
The company changed throughout the 1990s, increasing its Australian market share from 21 percent in 1991 to 28.2 percent in 1999. Besides manufacturing Australia 's best selling car, which was exported in significant numbers, Holden continued to export many locally produced engines to power cars made elsewhere. In this decade, Holden adopted a strategy of importing cars it needed to offer a full range of competitive vehicles. During 1998, General Motors - Holden 's Ltd name was shortened to "Holden Ltd ''.
On 26 April 1990, GM 's New Zealand subsidiary Holden New Zealand announced that production at the assembly plant based in Trentham would be phased out and vehicles would be imported duty - free -- this came after the 1984 closure of the Petone assembly line due to low output volumes. During the 1990s, Holden, other Australian automakers and trade unions pressured the Australian Government to halt the lowering of car import tariffs. By 1997, the federal government had already cut tariffs to 22.5 percent, from 57.5 percent ten years earlier; by 2000, a plan was formulated to reduce the tariffs to 15 percent. Holden was critical, saying that Australia 's population was not large enough, and that the changes could tarnish the local industry.
Holden re-introduced its defunct Statesman title in 1990 -- this time under the Holden marque, as the Statesman and Caprice. For 1991, Holden updated the Statesman and Caprice with a range of improvements, including the introduction of four - wheel anti-lock brakes (ABS); although, a rear - wheel system had been standard on the Statesman Caprice from March 1976. ABS was added to the short - wheelbase Commodore range in 1992. Another returning variant was the full - size utility, and on this occasion it was based on the Commodore. The VN Commodore received a major facelift in 1993 with the VR -- compared to the VN, approximately 80 percent of the car model was new. Exterior changes resulted in a smoother overall body and a "twin - kidney '' grille -- a Commodore styling trait that remained until the 2002 VY model and, as of 2013, remains a permanent staple on HSV variants.
Holden introduced the all - new VT Commodore in 1997, the outcome of a A $600 million development programme that spanned more than five years. The new model featured a rounded exterior body shell, improved dynamics and many firsts for an Australian - built car. Also, a stronger body structure increased crash safety. The locally produced Buick - sourced V6 engine powered the Commodore range, as did the 5.0 - litre Holden V8 engine, and was replaced in 1999 by the 5.7 - litre LS unit.
The UAAI badge - engineered cars first introduced in 1989 sold in far fewer numbers than anticipated, but the Holden Commodore, Toyota Camry, and Corolla were all successful when sold under their original nameplates. The first generation Nova and the donor Corolla were produced at Holden 's Dandenong, Victoria facility until 1994. UAAI was dissolved in 1996, and Holden returned to selling only GM products. The Holden Astra and Vectra, both designed by Opel in Germany, replaced the Toyota - sourced Holden Nova and Apollo. This came after the 1994 introduction of the Opel Corsa replacing the already available Suzuki Swift as the source for the Holden Barina. Sales of the full - size Holden Suburban SUV sourced from Chevrolet commenced in 1998 -- lasting until 2001. Also in 1998, local assembly of the Vectra began at Elizabeth, South Australia. These cars were exported to Japan and Southeast Asia with Opel badges. However, the Vectra did not achieve sufficient sales in Australia to justify local assembly, and reverted to being fully imported in 2000.
Holden 's market surge from the 1990s reversed in the 2000s decade. In Australia, Holden 's market share dropped from 27.5 percent in 2000 to 15.2 percent in 2006. From March 2003, Holden no longer held the number one sales position in Australia, losing ground to Toyota.
This overall downturn affected Holden 's profits; the company recorded a combined gain of A $842.9 million between 2002 and 2004, and a combined loss of A $290 million between 2005 and 2006. Factors contributing to the loss included the development of an all - new model, the strong Australian dollar and the cost of reducing the workforce at the Elizabeth plant, including the loss of 1,400 jobs after the closure of the third - shift assembly line in 2005, after two years in operation. Holden fared better in 2007, posting an A $6 million loss. This was followed by an A $70.2 million loss in the 2008, an A $210.6 million loss in 2009, and a profit of A $112 million in 2010. On 18 May 2005, "Holden Ltd '' became "GM Holden Ltd '', coinciding with the resettling to the new Holden headquarters on 191 Salmon Street, Port Melbourne, Victoria.
Holden caused controversy in 2005 with their Holden Employee Pricing television advertisement, which ran between October and December 2005. The campaign publicised, "for the first time ever, all Australians can enjoy the financial benefit of Holden Employee Pricing ''. However, this did not include a discounted dealer delivery fee and savings on factory fitted options and accessories that employees received. At the same time, employees were given a further discount between 25 and 29 percent on selected models.
Holden revived the Monaro coupe in 2001. Based on the VT Commodore architecture, the coupe attracted worldwide attention after being shown as a concept car at Australian auto shows. The VT Commodore received its first major update in 2002 with the VY series. A mildly facelifted VZ model launched in 2004, introducing the High Feature engine. This was built at the Fishermans Bend facility completed in 2003, with a maximum output of 900 engines per day. This has reportedly added A $5.2 billion to the Australian economy; exports account for about A $450 million alone. After the VZ, the High Feature engine powered the all - new Holden Commodore (VE). In contrast to previous models, the VE no longer used an Opel - sourced platform adapted both mechanically and in size, but was based on the GM Zeta platform that was earmarked to become a "Global RWD Architecture '', until plans were cancelled due to the 2007 / 08 global financial crisis.
Throughout the 1990s, Opel had also been the source of many Holden models. To increase profitability, Holden looked to the South Korean Daewoo brand for replacements after acquiring a 44.6 percent stake -- worth US $251 million -- in the company in 2002 as a representative of GM. This was increased to 50.9 percent in 2005, but when GM further increased its stake to 70.1 percent around the time of its 2009 Chapter 11 reorganisation, Holden 's interest was relinquished and transferred to another (undisclosed) part of GM.
The commencement of the Holden - branded Daewoo models began with the 2005 Holden Barina, which based on the Daewoo Kalos, replaced the Opel Corsa as the source of the Barina. In the same year, the Viva, based on the Daewoo Lacetti, replaced the entry - level Holden Astra Classic, although the new - generation Astra introduced in 2004 continued on. The Captiva crossover SUV came next in 2006. After discontinuing the Frontera and Jackaroo models in 2003, Holden was only left with one all - wheel drive model: the Adventra, a Commodore - based station wagon. The fourth model to be replaced with a South Korean alternative was the Vectra by the mid-size Epica in 2007. As a result of the split between GM and Isuzu, Holden lost the rights to use the "Rodeo '' nameplate. Consequently, the Holden Rodeo was facelifted and relaunched as the Colorado in 2008. Following Holden 's successful application for a A $149 million government grant to build a localised version of the Chevrolet Cruze in Australia from 2011, Holden in 2009 announced that it would initially import the small car unchanged from South Korea as the Holden Cruze.
Following the government grant announcement, Kevin Rudd, Australia 's Prime Minister at the time, stated that production would support 600 new jobs at the Elizabeth facility; however, this failed to take into account Holden 's previous announcement, whereby 600 jobs would be shed when production of the Family II engine ceased in late 2009. In mid-2013, Holden sought a further A $265 million, in addition to the A $275 million that was already committed by the governments of Canberra, South Australia and Victoria, to remain viable as a car manufacturer in Australia. A source close to Holden informed the Australian news publication that the car company is losing money on every vehicle that it produces and consequently initiated negotiations to reduce employee wages by up to A $200 per week to cut costs, following the announcement of 400 job cuts and an assembly line reduction of 65 (400 to 335) cars per day. Between 2001 to 2012, Holden received over A $150 million a year in subsidy from Australian government. The subsidy from 2007 was more than Holden 's capital investment of the same period. From 2004, Holden was only able to make a profit in 2010 and 2011.
In March 2012, Holden was given a $270 million lifeline by the Gillard Federal Government, Weatherill and Baillieu ministries. In return, Holden planned to inject over $1 billion into car manufacturing in Australia. They estimated the new investment package would return around $4 billion to the Australian economy and see GM Holden continue making cars in Australia until at least 2022.
Industry Minister Kim Carr confirmed on 10 July 2013 that talks had been scheduled between the Australian government and Holden. On 13 August 2013, 1,700 employees at the Elizabeth plant in northern Adelaide voted to accept a three - year wage freeze in order to decrease the chances of the production line 's closure in 2016. Holden 's ultimate survival, though, depended on continued negotiations with the Federal Government -- to secure funding for the period from 2016 to 2022 -- and the final decision of the global headquarters in Detroit, US.
Following an unsuccessful attempt to secure the extra funding required from the new Liberal / National coalition government, on 10 December 2013, General Motors announced that Holden would cease engine and vehicle manufacturing operations in Australia by the end of 2017. As a result, 2,900 jobs would be lost over four years. Beyond 2017 Holden 's Australian presence will consist of: a national sales company, a parts distribution centre and a global design studio.
In May 2014 GM reversed their decision to abandon the Lang Lang Proving Ground and decided to keep it as part of their engineering capability in Australia.
In 2015, Holden again began selling a range of Opel - derived cars comprising the Astra VXR and Insignia VXR (both based on the OPC models sold by Vauxhall) and Cascada. Later that year, Holden also announced plans to sell the European Astra and the Korean Cruze alongside each other from 2017.
In December 2015, Belgian entrepreneur Guido Dumarey commenced negotiations to buy the Commodore manufacturing plant in South Australia, with a view to continue producing a rebadged Zeta - based premium range of rear and all - wheel drive vehicles for local and export sales. The proposal was met with doubt in South Australia, and it later came to nothing. On 20 October 2017 it ceased manufacturing vehicles in Australia.
On 8 May 2015 Jeff Rolfs, Holden 's CFO, became interim chairman and managing director. Holden announced on 6 February 2015 that Mark Bernhard would return to Holden as chairman and managing director, the first Australian to hold the post in 25 years. In 2010 vehicles were sold countrywide through the Holden Dealer Network (310 authorised stores and 12 service centres), which employed more than 13,500 people.
In 1987, Holden Special Vehicles (HSV) was formed in partnership with Tom Walkinshaw, who primarily manufactured modified, high - performance Commodore variants. To further reinforce the brand, HSV introduced the HSV Dealer Team into the V8 Supercar fold in 2005 under the naming rights of Toll HSV Dealer Team.
The logo, or "Holden lion and stone '' as it is known, has played a vital role in establishing Holden 's identity. In 1928, Holden 's Motor Body Builders appointed Rayner Hoff to design the emblem. The logo refers to a prehistoric fable, in which observations of lions rolling stones led to the invention of the wheel. With the 1948 launch of the 48 - 215, Holden revised its logo and commissioned another redesign in 1972 to better represent the company. The emblem was reworked once more in 1994.
Holden began to export vehicles in 1954, sending the FJ to New Zealand. Exports to New Zealand have continued ever since, but to broaden their export potential, Holden began to cater their Commodore, Monaro and Statesman / Caprice models for both right - and left - hand drive markets. The Middle East is now Holden 's largest export market, with the Commodore sold as the Chevrolet Lumina since 1998, and the Statesman since 1999 as the Chevrolet Caprice. Commodores are also sold as the Chevrolet Lumina in Brunei, Fiji and South Africa, and as the Chevrolet Omega in Brazil. Pontiac in North America also imported Commodore sedans from 2008 through to 2009 as the G8. The G8 's cessation was a consequence of GM 's Chapter 11 bankruptcy resulting in the demise of the Pontiac brand.
Sales of the Monaro began in 2003 to the Middle East as the Chevrolet Lumina Coupe. Later on that year, a modified version of the Monaro began selling in the United States (but not Canada) as the Pontiac GTO, and under the Monaro name through Vauxhall dealerships in the United Kingdom. This arrangement continued through to 2005 when the car was discontinued. The long - wheelbase Statesman sales in the Chinese market as the Buick Royaum began in 2005, before being replaced in 2007 by the Statesman - based Buick Park Avenue. Statesman / Caprice exports to South Korea also began in 2005. These Korean models were sold as the Daewoo Statesman, and later as the Daewoo Veritas from 2008. Holden 's move into international markets has been profitable; export revenue increased from A $973 million in 1999 to just under $1.3 billion in 2006.
Since 2011 the WM Caprice has been exported to North America as the Chevrolet Caprice PPV, a version of the Caprice built exclusively for law enforcement in North America sold only to police. Since 2007, the HSV - based Commodore has been exported to the United Kingdom as the Vauxhall VXR8.
In 2013, it was announced that exports of the Commodore would resume to North America in the form of the VF Commodore as the Chevrolet SS sedan for the 2014 model year. The Chevrolet SS Sedan was imported to the United States (but again, not to Canada) again for 2015 with only minor changes, notably the addition of Magnetic Ride Control suspension and a Tremec TR - 6060 manual transmission. For the 2016 model year, the SS sedan received a facelift based on the VF Series II Commodore unveiled in September 2015. In 2017, production of Holden 's last two American exports, the SS and the Caprice PPV was discontinued.
Holden has been involved with factory backed teams in Australian touring car racing since 1968. The main factory - backed teams have been the Holden Dealer Team (1969 -- 1987) and the Holden Racing Team (1990 -- 2016). Since 2017, Triple Eight Race Engineering has been Holden 's factory team. Holden has won the Bathurst 1000 32 times, more than any other manufacturer, and has won the Australian Touring Car and Supercars Championship title 20 times. Brad Jones Racing, Charlie Schwerkolt Racing, Erebus Motorsport, Tekno Autosports and Walkinshaw Andretti United also run Holden Commodores in the series.
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what is the citizens united v. fec case | Citizens United v. FEC - wikipedia
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission 558 U.S. 310 (2010) is a landmark U.S. constitutional law and corporate law case dealing with regulation of campaign spending by organizations. The United States Supreme Court held (5 -- 4) on January 21, 2010 that freedom of speech prohibits the government from restricting independent political expenditures by nonprofit corporations, for - profit corporations, labor unions, and other associations.
In the case, the conservative non-profit organization Citizens United wanted to air a film critical of Hillary Clinton and to advertise the film during television broadcasts shortly before the 2008 Democratic primary election in which Clinton was running for U.S. President. This would violate a federal statute prohibiting certain electioneering communications near an election. The court found the provisions of the law that prohibited corporations and unions from making such electioneering communications to conflict with the U.S. Constitution.
However, the court upheld requirements for public disclosure by sponsors of advertisements. The case did not affect the federal ban on direct contributions from corporations or unions to candidate campaigns or political parties.
The decision was highly controversial when announced and remains a subject of much discussion today.
In the case, No. 08 - 205, 558 U.S. 310 (2010), the conservative non-profit organization Citizens United wanted to air a film critical of Hillary Clinton and to advertise the film during television broadcasts, which was a violation of the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, commonly known as the McCain -- Feingold Act or "BCRA '' (pronounced "bik - ruh ''). Section 203 of BCRA defined an "electioneering communication '' as a broadcast, cable, or satellite communication that mentioned a candidate within 60 days of a general election or 30 days of a primary, and prohibited such expenditures by corporations and unions. The United States District Court for the District of Columbia held that § 203 of BCRA applied and prohibited Citizens United from advertising the film Hillary: The Movie in broadcasts or paying to have it shown on television within 30 days of the 2008 Democratic primaries. The Supreme Court reversed this decision, striking down those provisions of BCRA that prohibited corporations (including nonprofit corporations) and unions from making independent expenditures and "electioneering communications ''. The majority decision overruled Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce (1990) and partially overruled McConnell v. Federal Election Commission (2003). The Court, however, upheld requirements for public disclosure by sponsors of advertisements (BCRA § 201 and § 311). The case did not involve the federal ban on direct contributions from corporations or unions to candidate campaigns or political parties, which remain illegal in races for federal office.
The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (known as BCRA or McCain -- Feingold Act) -- specifically § 203, which modified the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, 2 U.S.C. § 441b -- prohibited corporations and unions from using their general treasury to fund "electioneering communications '' (broadcast advertisements mentioning a candidate) within 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election. During the 2004 presidential campaign, a conservative nonprofit 501 (c) (4) organization named Citizens United filed a complaint before the Federal Election Commission (FEC) charging that advertisements for Michael Moore 's film Fahrenheit 9 / 11, a docudrama critical of the Bush administration 's response to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, constituted political advertising and thus could not be aired within the 30 days before a primary election or 60 days before a general election. The FEC dismissed the complaint after finding no evidence that broadcast advertisements for the film and featuring a candidate within the proscribed time limits had actually been made. The FEC later dismissed a second complaint which argued that the movie itself constituted illegal corporate spending advocating the election or defeat of a candidate, which was illegal under the Taft - Hartley Act of 1947 and the Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974. In dismissing that complaint, the FEC found that:
The complainant alleged that the release and distribution of FAHRENHEIT 9 / 11 constituted an independent expenditure because the film expressly advocated the defeat of President Bush and that by being fully or partially responsible for the film 's release, Michael Moore and other entities associated with the film made excessive and / or prohibited contributions to unidentified candidates. The Commission found no reason to believe the respondents violated the Act because the film, associated trailers and website represented bona fide commercial activity, not "contributions '' or "expenditures '' as defined by the Federal Election Campaign Act.
In the wake of these decisions, Citizens United sought to establish itself as a bona fide commercial film maker, producing several documentary films between 2005 and 2007. By early 2008, it sought to run television commercials to promote its political documentary Hillary: The Movie and to air the movie on DirecTV.
In December 2007, Citizens United filed a complaint in U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia challenging the constitutionality of several statutory provisions governing "electioneering communications ''. It asked the court to declare that corporate and union funding restrictions were unconstitutional on its face, as applied to Hillary: The Movie and to enjoin the Federal Election Commission from enforcing its regulations. Citizens United also argued that the Commission 's disclosure and disclaimer requirements were unconstitutional as applied to the movie pursuant to the Supreme Court decision in Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc... It also sought to enjoin funding, disclosure and disclaimer requirements as applied to Citizens United 's intended ads for the movie.
In accordance with special rules in section 403 of the BCRA, a three - judge court was convened to hear the case. On January 15, 2008, the court denied Citizens United 's motion for a preliminary injunction, finding that the suit had little chance of success because the movie had no reasonable interpretation other than as an appeal to vote against Senator Clinton, that it was therefore express advocacy, not entitled to exemption from the ban on corporate funding of electioneering communications, and that television advertisements for the movie within 30 days of a primary violated the BCRA restrictions on "electioneering communications ''. The court held that the Supreme Court in McConnell v. FEC (2003) had found the disclosure requirements constitutional as to all electioneering communications, and Wisconsin RTL did not disturb this holding because the only issue of that case was whether speech that did not constitute the functional equivalent of express advocacy could be banned during the relevant pre-election period.
On July 18, 2008, the District Court granted summary judgement to the Federal Election Commission. In accordance with the special rules in the BCRA, Citizens United appealed to the Supreme Court which docketed the case on August 18, 2008 and granted certiorari on November 14, 2008.
The Supreme Court heard oral argument on March 24, 2009 and then asked for further briefs on June 29; the re-argument was heard on September 9, 2009.
During the original oral argument, Deputy Solicitor General Malcolm L. Stewart (representing the FEC) argued that under Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, the government would have the power to ban books if those books contained even one sentence expressly advocating the election or defeat of a candidate and were published or distributed by a corporation or labor union. In response to this line of questioning, Stewart further argued that under Austin the government could ban the digital distribution of political books over the Amazon Kindle or prevent a union from hiring an author to write a political book.
According to a 2012 article in The New Yorker by Jeffrey Toobin, the Court expected after oral argument to rule on the narrow question that had originally been presented: could Citizens United show the film? At the subsequent conference among the justices after oral argument, the vote was 5 -- 4 in favor of Citizens United being allowed to show the film. The justices voted the same as they had in Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc., a similar 2007 case, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas and Alito in the majority.
Chief Justice John Roberts wrote the initial opinion of the Court, holding that the BCRA allowed the showing of the film. A draft concurring opinion by Justice Kennedy argued that the court could and should have gone much further. The other justices in the majority began agreeing with Kennedy, and convinced Roberts to reassign the writing and allow Kennedy 's concurrence to become the majority opinion.
On the other side, John Paul Stevens, the most senior justice in the minority, assigned the dissent to David Souter, who announced his retirement from the Court while he was working on it. The final draft went beyond critiquing the majority. Toobin described it as "air (ing) some of the Court 's dirty laundry, '' writing that Souter 's dissent accused Roberts of having manipulated Court procedures to reach his desired result -- an expansive decision that, Souter claimed, changed decades of election law and ruled on issues neither party to the litigation had presented.
According to Toobin, Roberts was concerned that Souter 's dissent, likely to be his last opinion for the Court, could "damage the Court 's credibility. '' He agreed with the minority to withdraw the opinion and schedule the case for reargument. However, when he did, the "Questions Presented '' to the parties were more expansive, touching on the issues Kennedy had identified. According to Toobin, the eventual result was therefore a foregone conclusion from that point on. Toobin 's account has been criticized for drawing conclusions unsupported by the evidence in his article.
On June 29, 2009, the last day of the term, the Court issued an order directing the parties to re-argue the case on September 9 after briefing whether it might be necessary to overrule Austin and / or McConnell v. Federal Election Commission to decide the case. Justice Stevens noted in his dissent that in its prior motion for summary judgment Citizens United had abandoned its facial challenge of BCRA § 203, with the parties agreeing to the dismissal of the claim.
Justice Sotomayor sat on the bench for the first time during the second round of oral arguments. This was the first case argued by then - Solicitor General and future Supreme Court Justice Elena Kagan. Former Bush Solicitor General Ted Olson and First Amendment lawyer Floyd Abrams argued for Citizens United, and former Clinton Solicitor General Seth Waxman defended the statute on behalf of various supporters. Legal scholar Erwin Chemerinsky called it "one of the most important First Amendment cases in years ''.
Justice Kennedy 's majority opinion found that the BCRA § 203 prohibition of all independent expenditures by corporations and unions violated the First Amendment 's protection of free speech. The majority wrote, "If the First Amendment has any force, it prohibits Congress from fining or jailing citizens, or associations of citizens, for simply engaging in political speech. ''
Justice Kennedy 's opinion also noted that because the First Amendment does not distinguish between media and other corporations, the BCRA restrictions improperly allowed Congress to suppress political speech in newspapers, books, television, and blogs. The Court overruled Austin, which had held that a state law that prohibited corporations from using treasury money to support or oppose candidates in elections did not violate the First and Fourteenth Amendments. The Court also overruled that portion of McConnell that upheld BCRA 's restriction of corporate spending on "electioneering communications ''. The Court 's ruling effectively freed corporations and unions to spend money both on "electioneering communications '' and to directly advocate for the election or defeat of candidates (although not to contribute directly to candidates or political parties).
The majority ruled that the Freedom of the Press clause of the First Amendment protects associations of individuals in addition to individual speakers, and further that the First Amendment does not allow prohibitions of speech based on the identity of the speaker. Corporations, as associations of individuals therefore, have free speech rights under the First Amendment. Because spending money is essential to disseminating speech, as established in Buckley v. Valeo, limiting a corporation 's ability to spend money is unconstitutional because it limits the ability of its members to associate effectively and to speak on political issues.
The decision overruled Austin because that decision allowed different restrictions on speech - related spending based on corporate identity. Additionally, the decision said that Austin was based on an "equality '' rationale -- trying to equalize speech between different speakers -- that the Court had previously rejected as illegitimate under the First Amendment in Buckley. The Michigan statute at issue in Austin had distinguished between corporate and union spending, prohibiting the former while allowing the latter. The Austin Court, over the dissent by Justices Scalia, Kennedy, and O'Connor, had held that such distinctions were within the legislature 's prerogative. In Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, however, the majority argued that the First Amendment purposefully keeps the government from interfering in the "marketplace of ideas '' and "rationing '' speech, and it is not up to the legislatures or the courts to create a sense of "fairness '' by restricting speech.
The majority also criticized Austin 's reasoning that the "distorting effect '' of large corporate expenditures constituted a risk of corruption or the appearance of corruption. Rather, the majority argued that the government had no place in determining whether large expenditures distorted an audience 's perceptions, and that the type of "corruption '' that might justify government controls on spending for speech had to relate to some form of "quid pro quo '' transaction: "There is no such thing as too much speech. '' The public has a right to have access to all information and to determine the reliability and importance of the information. Additionally, the majority did not believe that reliable evidence substantiated the risk of corruption or the appearance of corruption, and so this rationale did not satisfy strict scrutiny.
The Court 's opinion relied heavily on the reasoning and principles of the landmark campaign finance case of Buckley and First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, in which the Court struck down a broad prohibition against independent expenditures by corporations in ballot initiatives and referenda. Specifically, the Court echoed Bellotti 's rejection of categories based on a corporation 's purpose. The majority argued that to grant Freedom of the Press protections to media corporations, but not others, presented a host of problems; and so all corporations should be equally protected from expenditure restrictions.
The Court found that BCRA § § 201 and 311, provisions requiring disclosure of the funder, were valid as applied to the movie advertisements and to the movie itself. The majority ruled for the disclosure of the sources of campaign contributions, saying that
... prompt disclosure of expenditures can provide shareholders and citizens with the information needed to hold corporations and elected officials accountable for their positions and supporters. Shareholders can determine whether their corporation 's political speech advances the corporation 's interest in making profits, and citizens can see whether elected officials are "in the pocket '' of so - called moneyed interests... This transparency enables the electorate to make informed decisions and give proper weight to different speakers and messages.
Chief Justice Roberts, with whom Justice Alito joined, wrote separately "to address the important principles of judicial restraint and stare decisis implicated in this case ''.
Roberts wrote to further explain and defend the Court 's statement that "there is a difference between judicial restraint and judicial abdication. '' Roberts explained why the Court must sometimes overrule prior decisions. Had prior Courts never gone against stare decisis (that is, against precedent), for example, "segregation would be legal, minimum wage laws would be unconstitutional, and the Government could wiretap ordinary criminal suspects without first obtaining warrants ''. Roberts ' concurrence recited a plethora of case law in which the court had ruled against precedent. Ultimately, Roberts argued that "stare decisis... counsels deference to past mistakes, but provides no justification for making new ones ''.
Justice Scalia joined the opinion of the Court, and wrote a concurring opinion joined by Justice Alito in full and by Justice Thomas in part. Scalia addressed Justice Stevens ' dissent, specifically with regard to the original understanding of the First Amendment. Scalia said Stevens ' dissent was "in splendid isolation from the text of the First Amendment... It never shows why ' the freedom of speech ' that was the right of Englishmen did not include the freedom to speak in association with other individuals, including association in the corporate form. '' He further considered the dissent 's exploration of the Framers ' views about the "role of corporations in society '' to be misleading, and even if valid, irrelevant to the text. Scalia principally argued that the First Amendment was written in "terms of speech, not speakers '' and that "Its text offers no foothold for excluding any category of speaker. '' Scalia argued that the Free Press clause was originally intended to protect the distribution of written materials and did not only apply to the media specifically. This understanding supported the majority 's contention that the Constitution does not allow the Court to separate corporations into media and non-media categories.
Justice Thomas wrote a separate opinion concurring in all but the upholding of the disclosure provisions. In order to protect the anonymity of contributors to organizations exercising free speech, Thomas would have struck down the reporting requirements of BCRA § 201 and § 311 as well, rather than allowing them to be challenged only on a case - specific basis. Thomas 's primary argument was that anonymous free speech is protected and that making contributor lists public makes the contributors vulnerable to retaliation, citing instances of retaliation against contributors to both sides of a then recent California voter initiative. Thomas also expressed concern that such retaliation could extend to retaliation by elected officials. Thomas did not consider "as - applied challenges '' to be sufficient to protect against the threat of retaliation.
A dissenting opinion by Justice Stevens was joined by Justice Ginsburg, Justice Breyer, and Justice Sotomayor. To emphasize his unhappiness with the majority, Stevens read part of his 90 - page dissent from the bench. Stevens concurred in the Court 's decision to sustain BCRA 's disclosure provisions but dissented from the principal holding of the Court. He argued that the Court 's ruling "threatens to undermine the integrity of elected institutions across the Nation. The path it has taken to reach its outcome will, I fear, do damage to this institution. '' He added: "A democracy can not function effectively when its constituent members believe laws are being bought and sold. ''
Stevens also argued that the Court addressed a question not raised by the litigants when it found BCRA § 203 to be facially unconstitutional, and that the majority "changed the case to give themselves an opportunity to change the law ''. He argued that the majority had expanded the scope beyond the questions presented by the appellant and that therefore a sufficient record for judging the case did not exist. Stevens argued that at a minimum the Court should have remanded the case for a fact - finding hearing, and that the majority did not consider other compilations of data, such as the Congressional record for justifying BCRA § 203.
Stevens referenced a number of major cases to argue that the Court had long recognized that to deny Congress the power to safeguard against "the improper use of money to influence the result (of an election) is to deny to the nation in a vital particular the power of self protection ''. After recognizing that in Buckley v. Valeo the Court had struck down portions of a broad prohibition of independent expenditures from any sources, Stevens argued that nevertheless Buckley recognized the legitimacy of "prophylactic '' measures for limiting campaign spending and found the prevention of "corruption '' to be a reasonable goal for legislation. Consequently, Stevens argued that Buckley left the door open for carefully tailored future regulation. Although the majority echoed many of the arguments in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, Stevens argued that the majority opinion contradicted the reasoning of other campaign finance cases -- in particular, Austin v. Michigan State Chamber of Commerce and McConnell v. Federal Election Commission -- and found it telling that the majority, when citing such cases, referenced mainly dissenting opinions.
Stevens ' dissent specifically sought to address a number of the majority 's central arguments:
First, Stevens argued that the majority failed to recognize the possibility for corruption outside strict quid pro quo exchanges. He referenced facts from a previous BCRA challenge to argue that, even if the exchange of votes for expenditures could not be shown, contributors gain favorable political access from such expenditures. The majority considered access to be insufficient justification for limiting speech rights.
Stevens, however, argued that in the past, even when striking down a ban on corporate independent expenditures, the Court "never suggested that such quid pro quo debts must take the form of outright vote buying or bribes '' (Bellotti). Buckley, he said, also acknowledged that large independent expenditures present the same dangers as quid pro quo arrangements, although Buckley struck down limits on such independent expenditures. Using the record from a previous BCRA § 203 challenge, he argued that independent expenditures were sometimes a factor in gaining political access and concluded that large independent expenditures generate more influence than direct campaign contributions. Furthermore, Stevens argued that corporations could threaten Representatives and Senators with negative advertising to gain unprecedented leverage. Stevens supported his argument by citing Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co., where the Court held that $3 million in independent expenditures in a judicial race raised sufficient questions about a judge 's impartiality to require the judge to recuse himself in a future case involving the spender. Stevens argued that it was contradictory for the majority to ignore the same risks in legislative and executive elections, and argued that the majority opinion would exacerbate the problem presented in Caperton because of the number of states with judicial elections and increased spending in judicial races.
Second, Stevens argued that the majority did not place enough emphasis on the need to prevent the "appearance of corruption '' in elections. Earlier cases, including Buckley and Bellotti, recognized the importance of public confidence in democracy. Stevens cited recent data indicating that 80 % of the public view corporate independent expenditures as a method used to gain unfair legislative access. Stevens predicted that if the public believes that corporations dominate elections, disaffected voters will stop participating.
Third, Stevens argued that the majority 's decision failed to recognize the dangers of the corporate form. Austin held that the prevention of corruption, including the distorting influence of a dominant funding source, was a sufficient reason for regulating corporate independent expenditures. In defending Austin, Stevens argued that the unique qualities of corporations and other artificial legal entities made them dangerous to democratic elections. These legal entities, he argued, have perpetual life, the ability to amass large sums of money, limited liability, no ability to vote, no morality, no purpose outside profit - making, and no loyalty. Therefore, he argued, the courts should permit legislatures to regulate corporate participation in the political process.
Legal entities, Stevens wrote, are not "We the People '' for whom our Constitution was established. Therefore, he argued, they should not be given speech protections under the First Amendment. The First Amendment, he argued, protects individual self - expression, self - realization and the communication of ideas. Corporate spending is the "furthest from the core of political expression '' protected by the Constitution, he argued, citing Federal Election Commission v. Beaumont, and corporate spending on politics should be viewed as a business transaction designed by the officers or the boards of directors for no purpose other than profit - making. Stevens called corporate spending "more transactional than ideological ''. Stevens also pointed out that any member of a corporation may spend personal money on promoting a campaign because BCRA only prohibited the use of general treasury money.
Fourth, Stevens attacked the majority 's central argument: that the prohibition of spending guards free speech and allows the general public to receive all available information. Relying on Austin, Stevens argued that corporations "unfairly influence '' the electoral process with vast sums of money that few individuals can match, which distorts the public debate. Because a typical voter can only absorb so much information during a relevant election period, Stevens described "unfair corporate influence '' as the potential to outspend others, to push others out of prime broadcasting spots and to dominate the "marketplace of ideas ''. This process, he argued, puts disproportionate focus on this speech and gives the impression of widespread support regardless of actual support. Thus, this process marginalizes the speech of other individuals and groups.
Stevens referred to the majority 's argument that "there is no such thing as too much speech '' as "facile '' and a "straw man '' argument. He called it an incorrect statement of First Amendment law because the Court recognizes numerous exceptions to free speech, such as fighting words, obscenity restrictions, time, place and manner restrictions, etc. Throughout his dissent, Stevens said that the majority 's "slogan '' ignored the possibility that too much speech from one source could "drown out '' other points of view.
Fifth, Stevens criticized the majority 's fear that the government could use BCRA § 203 to censor the media. The focus placed on this hypothetical fear made no sense to him because it did not relate to the facts of this case -- if the government actually attempted to apply BCRA § 203 to the media (and assuming that Citizens United could not constitute "media ''), the Court could deal with the problem at that time. Stevens described the majority 's supposed protection of the media as nothing more than posturing. According to him, it was the majority 's new rule, announced in this case, that prohibited a law from distinguishing between "speakers '' or funding sources. This new rule would be the only reason why media corporations could not be exempted from BCRA § 203. In this, Stevens and the majority conceptualize the First Amendment 's protection of "the press '' quite differently. Stevens argues that the "Press '' is an entity, which can be distinguished from other persons and entities which are not "press ''. The majority opinion viewed "freedom of the press '' as an activity, applicable to all citizens or groups of citizens seeking to publish views.
Sixth, Stevens claimed that the majority failed to give proper deference to the legislature. Stevens predicted that this ruling would restrict the ability of the states to experiment with different methods for decreasing corruption in elections. According to Stevens, this ruling virtually ended those efforts, "declaring by fiat '' that people will not "lose faith in our democracy ''. Stevens argued that the majority 's view of a self - serving legislature, passing campaign - spending laws to gain an advantage in retaining a seat, coupled with "strict scrutiny '' of laws, would make it difficult for any campaign finance regulation to be upheld in future cases.
Seventh, Stevens argued that the majority opinion ignored the rights of shareholders. A series of cases protects individuals from legally compelled payment of union dues to support political speech. Because shareholders invest money in corporations, Stevens argued that the law should likewise help to protect shareholders from funding speech that they oppose. The majority, however, argued that ownership of corporate stock was voluntary and that unhappy shareholders could simply sell off their shares if they did not agree with the corporation 's speech. Stevens also argued that Political Action Committees (PACs), which allow individual members of a corporation to invest money in a separate fund, are an adequate substitute for general corporate speech and better protect shareholder rights. The majority, by contrast, had argued that most corporations are too small and lack the resources and raw number of shareholders and management staff necessary to maintain compliance, accounting and administrative costs of a PAC. In this dispute, the opposing views essentially discussed differing types of entities: Stevens focused his argument on large, publicly held corporations while the justices in the majority, particularly Justice Scalia 's concurring opinion, placed an emphasis on small, closely held corporations and non-profits.
Stevens called the majority 's faith in "corporate democracy '' an unrealistic method for a shareholder to oppose political funding. A derivative suit is slow, inefficient, risky and potentially expensive. Likewise, shareholder meetings only happen a few times a year, not prior to every decision or transaction. Rather, the officers and boards control the day - to - day spending, including political spending. According to Stevens, the shareholders have few options, giving them "virtually nonexistent '' recourse for opposing a corporation 's political spending. Furthermore, most shareholders use investment intermediaries, such as mutual funds or pensions, and by the time a shareholder may find out about a corporation 's political spending and try to object, the damage is done and the shareholder has funded disfavored speech.
Stevens concluded his dissent:
At bottom, the Court 's opinion is thus a rejection of the common sense of the American people, who have recognized a need to prevent corporations from undermining self government since the founding, and who have fought against the distinctive corrupting potential of corporate electioneering since the days of Theodore Roosevelt. It is a strange time to repudiate that common sense. While American democracy is imperfect, few outside the majority of this Court would have thought its flaws included a dearth of corporate money in politics.
There was a wide range of reactions to the case from politicians, academics, attorneys, advocacy groups and journalists.
Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, a plaintiff in the earlier related decision McConnell v. FEC, said:
For too long, some in this country have been deprived of full participation in the political process. With today 's monumental decision, the Supreme Court took an important step in the direction of restoring the First Amendment rights of these groups by ruling that the Constitution protects their right to express themselves about political candidates and issues up until Election Day. By previously denying this right, the government was picking winners and losers. Our democracy depends upon free speech, not just for some but for all.
Republican campaign consultant Ed Rollins opined that the decision adds transparency to the election process and will make it more competitive.
Citizens United, the group filing the lawsuit, said, "Today 's U.S. Supreme Court decision allowing Citizens United to air its documentary films and advertisements is a tremendous victory, not only for Citizens United but for every American who desires to participate in the political process. '' During litigation, Citizens United had support from the United States Chamber of Commerce and the National Rifle Association.
Campaign finance attorney Cleta Mitchell, who had filed an amicus curiae brief on behalf of two advocacy organizations opposing the ban, wrote that "The Supreme Court has correctly eliminated a constitutionally flawed system that allowed media corporations (e.g., The Washington Post Co.) to freely disseminate their opinions about candidates using corporate treasury funds, while denying that constitutional privilege to Susie 's Flower Shop Inc... The real victims of the corporate expenditure ban have been nonprofit advocacy organizations across the political spectrum. ''
Heritage Foundation fellow Hans A. von Spakovsky, a former Republican member of the Federal Election Commission, said "The Supreme Court has restored a part of the First Amendment that had been unfortunately stolen by Congress and a previously wrongly - decided ruling of the court. ''
Libertarian Cato Institute analysts John Samples and Ilya Shapiro wrote that restrictions on advertising were based on the idea "that corporations had so much money that their spending would create vast inequalities in speech that would undermine democracy ''. However, "to make campaign spending equal or nearly so, the government would have to force some people or groups to spend less than they wished. And equality of speech is inherently contrary to protecting speech from government restraint, which is ultimately the heart of American conceptions of free speech. ''
The American Civil Liberties Union filed an amicus brief that supported the decision, saying that "section 203 should now be struck down as facially unconstitutional '', though membership was split over the implications of the ruling and its board sent the issue to its special committee on campaign finance for further consideration. On March 27, 2012, the ACLU reaffirmed its stance in support of the Supreme Court 's Citizens United ruling.
Bradley A. Smith, professor of law at Capital University Law School, former chairman of the FEC, founder of the Center for Competitive Politics and a leading proponent of deregulation of campaign finance, wrote that the major opponents of political free speech are "incumbent politicians '' who "are keen to maintain a chokehold on such speech ''. Empowering "small and midsize corporations -- and every incorporated mom - and - pop falafel joint, local firefighters ' union, and environmental group -- to make its voice heard '' frightens them. In response to statements by President Obama and others that the ruling would allow foreign entities to gain political influence through U.S. subsidiaries, Smith pointed out that the decision did not overturn the ban on political donations by foreign corporations and the prohibition on any involvement by foreign nationals in decisions regarding political spending by U.S. subsidiaries, which are covered by other parts of the law.
Campaign finance expert Jan Baran, a member of the Commission on Federal Ethics Law Reform, agreed with the decision, writing that "The history of campaign finance reform is the history of incumbent politicians seeking to muzzle speakers, any speakers, particularly those who might publicly criticize them and their legislation. It is a lot easier to legislate against unions, gun owners, ' fat cat ' bankers, health insurance companies and any other industry or ' special interest ' group when they ca n't talk back. '' Baran further noted that in general conservatives and libertarians praised the ruling 's preservation of the First Amendment and freedom of speech, but that liberals and campaign finance reformers criticized it as greatly expanding the role of corporate money in politics.
Attorney Kenneth Gross, former associate general counsel of the FEC, wrote that corporations relied more on the development of long - term relationships, political action committees and personal contributions, which were not affected by the decision. He held that while trade associations might seek to raise funds and support candidates, corporations which have "signed on to transparency agreements regarding political spending '' may not be eager to give.
The New York Times asked seven academics to opine on how corporate money would reshape politics as a result of the court 's decision. Three of the seven wrote that the effects would be minimal or positive: Christopher Cotton, a University of Miami School of Business assistant professor of economics, wrote that "There may be very little difference between seeing eight ads or seeing nine ads (compared to seeing one ad or two). And, voters recognize that richer candidates are not necessarily the better candidates, and in some cases, the benefit of running more ads is offset by the negative signal that spending a lot of money creates. Eugene Volokh, a professor of law at UCLA, stated that the "most influential actors in most political campaigns '' are media corporations which "overtly editorialize for and against candidates, and also influence elections by choosing what to cover and how to cover it ''. Holding that corporations like Exxon would fear alienating voters by supporting candidates, the decision really meant that voters would hear "more messages from more sources ''. Joel Gora, a professor at Brooklyn Law School who had previously argued the case of Buckley v. Valeo on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union, said that the decision represented "a great day for the First Amendment '' writing that the Court had "dismantled the First Amendment ' caste system ' in election speech ''.
The Editorial Board of the San Antonio Express - News criticized McCain -- Feingold 's exception for media corporations from the ban on corporate electioneering, writing that it "makes no sense '' that the paper could make endorsements up until the day of the election but advocacy groups could not. "While the influence of money on the political process is troubling and sometimes corrupting, abridging political speech is the wrong way to counterbalance that influence. ''
Anthony Dick in National Review countered a number of arguments against the decision, asking rhetorically, "is there something uniquely harmful and / or unworthy of protection about political messages that come from corporations and unions, as opposed to, say, rich individuals, persuasive writers, or charismatic demagogues? '' He noted that "a recent Gallup poll shows that a majority of the public actually agrees with the Court that corporations and unions should be treated just like individuals in terms of their political - expenditure rights ''. A Gallup poll taken in October 2009 and released soon after the decision showed 57 percent of those surveyed agreed that contributions to political candidates are a form of free speech and 55 percent agreed that the same rules should apply to individuals, corporations and unions. Sixty - four percent of Democrats and Republicans believed campaign donations are a form of free speech.
Chicago Tribune editorial board member Steve Chapman wrote "If corporate advocacy may be forbidden as it was under the law in question, it 's not just Exxon Mobil and Citigroup that are rendered mute. Nonprofit corporations set up merely to advance goals shared by citizens, such as the American Civil Liberties Union and the National Rifle Association, also have to put a sock in it. So much for the First Amendment goal of fostering debate about public policy. ''
President Barack Obama stated that the decision "gives the special interests and their lobbyists even more power in Washington -- while undermining the influence of average Americans who make small contributions to support their preferred candidates ''. Obama later elaborated in his weekly radio address saying, "this ruling strikes at our democracy itself '' and "I ca n't think of anything more devastating to the public interest ''. On January 27, 2010, Obama further condemned the decision during the 2010 State of the Union Address, stating that, "Last week, the Supreme Court reversed a century of law to open the floodgates for special interests -- including foreign corporations -- to spend without limit in our elections. Well, I do n't think American elections should be bankrolled by America 's most powerful interests, or worse, by foreign entities. '' On television, the camera shifted to a shot of the SCOTUS judges in the front row directly in front of the President while he was making this statement, and Justice Samuel Alito was frowning, shaking his head side to side while mouthing the words "Not true ''.
Democratic Senator Russ Feingold, a lead sponsor of the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, stated "This decision was a terrible mistake. Presented with a relatively narrow legal issue, the Supreme Court chose to roll back laws that have limited the role of corporate money in federal elections since Teddy Roosevelt was president. '' Representative Alan Grayson, a Democrat, stated that it was "the worst Supreme Court decision since the Dred Scott case, and that the court had opened the door to political bribery and corruption in elections to come. Democratic congresswoman Donna Edwards, along with constitutional law professor and Maryland Democratic State Senator Jamie Raskin, have advocated petitions to reverse the decision by means of constitutional amendment. Rep. Leonard Boswell introduced legislation to amend the constitution. Senator John Kerry also called for an Amendment to overrule the decision. On December 8, 2011, Senator Bernie Sanders proposed the Saving American Democracy Amendment, which would reverse the court 's ruling.
Republican Senator John McCain, co-crafter of the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and the party 's 2008 presidential nominee, said "there 's going to be, over time, a backlash... when you see the amounts of union and corporate money that 's going to go into political campaigns ''. McCain was "disappointed by the decision of the Supreme Court and the lifting of the limits on corporate and union contributions '' but not surprised by the decision, saying that "It was clear that Justice Roberts, Alito and Scalia, by their very skeptical and even sarcastic comments, were very much opposed to BCRA. '' Republican Senator Olympia Snowe opined that "Today 's decision was a serious disservice to our country. ''
Although federal law after Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission still prohibited corporate contributions to all political parties, Sanda Everette, co-chair of the Green Party, stated that "The ruling especially hurts the ability of parties that do n't accept corporate contributions, like the Green Party, to compete. '' Another Green Party officer, Rich Whitney, stated "In a transparently political decision, a majority of the US Supreme Court overturned its own recent precedent and paid tribute to the giant corporate interests that already wield tremendous power over our political process and political speech. ''
Ralph Nader condemned the ruling, saying that "With this decision, corporations can now directly pour vast amounts of corporate money, through independent expenditures, into the electoral swamp already flooded with corporate campaign PAC contribution dollars. '' He called for shareholder resolutions asking company directors to pledge not to use company money to favor or oppose electoral candidates. Pat Choate, former Reform Party candidate for Vice President, stated, "The court has, in effect, legalized foreign governments and foreign corporations to participate in our electoral politics. ''
Senator Bernie Sanders, a contender in the 2016 Democratic Primary, has filed a constitutional amendment to overturn the Supreme Court 's Decision. Further, both Sanders and Hillary Clinton said that, if they were elected, they would only have appointed Supreme Court Justices who were committed to the repeal of Citizens United. In September 2015, Sanders said that "the foundations of American Democracy are being undermined '' and called for sweeping campaign finance reform.
Ambassador Janez Lenarčič, speaking for the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe 's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (which has overseen over 150 elections) said the ruling may adversely affect the organization 's two commitments of "giving voters a genuine choice and giving candidates a fair chance '' in that "it threatens to further marginalize candidates without strong financial backing or extensive personal resources, thereby in effect narrowing the political arena ''.
The constitutional law scholar Laurence H. Tribe wrote that the decision "marks a major upheaval in First Amendment law and signals the end of whatever legitimate claim could otherwise have been made by the Roberts Court to an incremental and minimalist approach to constitutional adjudication, to a modest view of the judicial role vis - à - vis the political branches, or to a genuine concern with adherence to precedent '' and pointed out, "Talking about a business corporation as merely another way that individuals might choose to organize their association with one another to pursue their common expressive aims is worse than unrealistic; it obscures the very real injustice and distortion entailed in the phenomenon of some people using other people 's money to support candidates they have made no decision to support, or to oppose candidates they have made no decision to oppose. ''
Former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, whose opinions had changed from dissenting in Austin v. Michigan State Chamber of Commerce to co-authoring (with Stevens) the majority opinion in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission twelve years later, criticized the decision only obliquely, but warned, "In invalidating some of the existing checks on campaign spending, the majority in Citizens United has signaled that the problem of campaign contributions in judicial elections might get considerably worse and quite soon. ''
Richard L. Hasen, professor of election law at Loyola Law School, argued that the ruling "is activist, it increases the dangers of corruption in our political system and it ignores the strong tradition of American political equality ''. He also described Justice Kennedy 's "specter of blog censorship '' as sounding more like "the rantings of a right - wing talk show host than the rational view of a justice with a sense of political realism ''.
Kathleen M. Sullivan, professor at Stanford Law School and Steven J. Andre, adjunct professor at Lincoln Law School, argued that two different visions of freedom of speech exist and clashed in the case. An egalitarian vision skeptical of the power of large agglomerations of wealth to skew the political process conflicted with a libertarian vision skeptical of government being placed in the role of determining what speech people should or should not hear. Wayne Batchis, Professor at the University of Delaware, in contrast, argues that the Citizens United decision represents a misguided interpretation of the non-textual freedom of association.
The four other scholars of the seven writing in the aforementioned New York Times article were critical. Richard L. Hasen, Distinguished Professor of election law at Loyola Law School argued differently from his Slate article above, concentrating on the "inherent risk of corruption that comes when someone spends independently to try to influence the outcome of judicial elections '', since judges are less publicly accountable than elected officials. Heather K. Gerken, Professor of Law at Yale Law School wrote that "The court has done real damage to the cause of reform, but that damage mostly came earlier, with decisions that made less of a splash. '' Michael Waldman, director of the Brennan Center for Justice at N.Y.U. School of Law, opined that the decision "matches or exceeds Bush v. Gore in ideological or partisan overreaching by the court '', explaining how "Exxon or any other firm could spend Bloomberg - level sums in any congressional district in the country against, say, any congressman who supports climate change legislation, or health care, etc. '' and Fred Wertheimer, founder and president of Democracy 21 considered that "Chief Justice Roberts has abandoned the illusory public commitments he made to ' judicial modesty ' and ' respect for precedent ' to cast the deciding vote for a radical decision that profoundly undermines our democracy, '' and that "Congress and presidents past have recognized this danger and signed numerous laws over the years to prevent this kind of corruption of our government. ''
The New York Times stated in an editorial, "The Supreme Court has handed lobbyists a new weapon. A lobbyist can now tell any elected official: if you vote wrong, my company, labor union or interest group will spend unlimited sums explicitly advertising against your re-election. '' Jonathan Alter called it the "most serious threat to American democracy in a generation ''. The Christian Science Monitor wrote that the Court had declared "outright that corporate expenditures can not corrupt elected officials, that influence over lawmakers is not corruption, and that appearance of influence will not undermine public faith in our democracy ''.
In 2012, Ben Cohen, the co-founder of Ben & Jerry 's ice cream, founded Stamp Stampede, a sustained protest to demonstrate widespread support for a proposed constitutional amendment to overturn Citizens United. The campaign encourages people to rubber stamp messages such as "Not To Be Used for Bribing Politicians '' on paper currency. In 2014, Cohen told Salon, "As long as the Supreme Court rules money is speech, corporations and the wealthy are using it by giving piles of it to politicians to pass or not pass laws that they want. Now, the rest of the people, (those) who do n't have that money, can actually make their voice heard by using money to stamp a message out. ''
Most blogs avoided the theoretical aspects of the decision and focused on more personal and dramatic elements, including the Barack Obama -- Samuel Alito face - off during the President 's State of the Union address. There, President Obama argued that the decision "reversed a century of law '' (the federal ban on corporate contributions dates back to the 1907 Tillman Act, and the ban on union and corporate expenditures dates from 1947) and that it would allow "foreign corporations to spend without limits in our elections '', during which Justice Alito, in the audience, perceptibly mouthed the words "not true ''. This event received extensive comment from political bloggers, with a substantial amount of the coverage concentrated on whether or not foreign corporations would be able to make substantial political contributions in US elections. In the opinion, the Court had specifically indicated it was not overturning the ban on foreign contributions.
An ABC -- Washington Post poll conducted February 4 -- 8, 2010, showed that 80 % of those surveyed opposed (and 65 % strongly opposed) the Citizens United ruling, which the poll described as saying "corporations and unions can spend as much money as they want to help political candidates win elections ''. Additionally, 72 % supported "an effort by Congress to reinstate limits on corporate and union spending on election campaigns ''. The poll showed large majority support from Democrats, Republicans and independents.
A Gallup Poll conducted in October 2009, after oral argument, but released after the Supreme Court released its opinion, found that 57 percent of those surveyed "agreed that money given to political candidates is a form of free speech '' and 55 percent agreed that the "same rules should apply to individuals, corporations and unions ''. However, in the same poll respondents by 52 % to 41 % prioritized limits on campaign contributions over protecting rights to support campaigns and 76 % thought the government should be able to place limits on corporation or union donations.
Separate polls by various conservative organizations, including the plaintiff Citizens United and the Center for Competitive Politics, found support for the decision. In particular, the Center for Competitive Politics poll found that 51 % of respondents believed that Citizens United should have a right to air ads promoting Hillary: The Movie. The poll also found that only 22 percent had heard of the case.
SpeechNow is a nonprofit, unincorporated association organized as a section 527 entity under the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. The organization was formed by individuals who seek to pool their resources to make independent expenditures expressly advocating the election or defeat of federal candidates. SpeechNow planned to accept contributions only from individuals, not corporations or other sources prohibited under the Federal Election Campaign Act. On February 14, 2008, SpeechNow and several individual plaintiffs filed a complaint in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia challenging the constitutionality of the Federal Election Campaign Act provisions governing political committee registration, contribution limits and disclosure. The plaintiffs contended that the Act unconstitutionally restricts their association guaranteed under the First Amendment. By requiring registration as a political committee and limiting the monetary amount that an individual may contribute to a political committee, SpeechNow and the other plaintiffs asserted that the Act unconstitutionally restricted the individuals ' freedom of speech by limiting the amount that an individual can contribute to SpeechNow and thus the amount the organization may spend. SpeechNow also argued that the reporting required of political committees is unconstitutionally burdensome.
On March 26, 2010, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled in SpeechNow.org. v. FEC that the contribution limits of 2 U.S.C. § 441a were unconstitutional as applied to individuals ' contributions to SpeechNow. The court also ruled that the reporting requirements of 2 U.S.C. § § 432, 433 and 434 (a) and the organizational requirements of 2 U.S.C. § 431 (4) and § 431 (8) can be constitutionally applied to SpeechNow. A unanimous nine - judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals struck down the federal limits on contributions to federal political committees that make only independent expenditures and do not contribute to candidates or political parties. This type of "independent expenditure committee '' is inherently non-corruptive, the Court reasoned, and therefore contributions to such a committee can not be limited based on the government 's interest in preventing political corruption. In light of the Supreme Court 's decision in Citizens United v. FEC, in which the Supreme Court held that the government has no anti-corruption interest in limiting independent expenditures, the appeals court ruled that "contributions to groups that make only independent expenditures can not corrupt or create the appearance of corruption. '' As a result, the court of appeals held that the government has no anti-corruption interest in limiting contributions to an independent group such as SpeechNow. Contribution limits as applied to SpeechNow "violate the First Amendment by preventing (individuals) from donating to SpeechNow in excess of the limits and by prohibiting SpeechNow from accepting donations in excess of the limits. '' The court noted that its holding does not affect direct contributions to candidates, but rather contributions to a group that makes only independent expenditures. The appeals court held that, while disclosure and reporting requirements do impose a burden on First Amendment interests, they "' impose no ceiling on campaign related activities ' '' and "' do not prevent anyone from speaking. ' '' Furthermore, the court held that the additional reporting requirements that the Commission would impose on SpeechNow if it were organized as a political committee are minimal, "given the relative simplicity with which SpeechNow intends to operate. '' Since SpeechNow already had a number of "planned contributions '' from individuals, the court ruled that SpeechNow could not compare itself to "ad hoc groups that want to create themselves on the spur of the moment. '' Since the public has an interest in knowing who is speaking about a candidate and who is funding that speech, the court held that requiring such disclosure and organization as a political committee are sufficiently important governmental interests to justify the additional reporting and registration burdens on SpeechNow.
On June 27, 2011, ruling in the consolidated cases of Arizona Free Enterprise Club 's Freedom Club PAC v. Bennett (No. 10 - 238) and McComish v. Bennett (No. 10 - 239), the Supreme Court deemed unconstitutional an Arizona law that provided extra taxpayer - funded support for office seekers who have been outspent by privately funded opponents or by independent political groups. A conservative 5 -- 4 majority of justices said the law violated free speech, concluding the state was impermissibly trying to "level the playing field '' through a public finance system. Arizona lawmakers had argued there was a compelling state interest in equalizing resources among competing candidates and interest groups. Opponents said the law violated free - speech rights of the privately financed candidates and their contributors, inhibiting fundraising and spending, discouraging participation in campaigns and limiting what voters hear about politics. Chief Justice John Roberts said in the court 's majority opinion that the law substantially burdened political speech and was not sufficiently justified to survive First Amendment scrutiny.
As a consequence of the decision, states and municipalities are blocked from using a method of public financing that is simultaneously likely to attract candidates fearful they will be vastly outspent and sensitive to avoiding needless government expense. "The government can still use taxpayer funds to subsidize political campaigns, but it can only do that in a manner that provides an alternative to private financing '' said William R. Maurer, a lawyer with Institute for Justice, which represented several challengers of the law. "It can not create disincentives. '' The ruling meant the end of similar matching - fund programs in Connecticut, Maine and a few other places according to David Primo, a political science professor at University of Rochester who was an expert witness for the law 's challengers.
Despite the Citizens United ruling, In December 2011, the Montana Supreme Court, in Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana, upheld that state 's law limiting corporate contributions. Examining the history of corporate interference in Montana government that led to the Corrupt Practices Law, the majority decided that the state still had a compelling reason to maintain the restrictions. It ruled that these restrictions on speech were narrowly tailored and withstood strict scrutiny and thus did not contradict Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission.
While granting permission to file a certiorari petition, the US Supreme Court agreed to stay the Montana ruling, although Justices Ginsburg and Breyer wrote a short statement urging the Court "to consider whether, in light of the huge sums of money currently deployed to buy candidate 's allegiance, Citizens United should continue to hold sway ''. In June 2012, over the dissent of the same four judges who dissented in Citizens United, the Court simultaneously granted certiorari and summarily reversed the decision in American Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Bullock, 567, U.S. __ (2012). The Supreme Court majority rejected the Montana Supreme Court arguments in a two paragraph, twenty line per curiam opinion, stating that these arguments "either were already rejected in Citizens United, or fail to meaningfully distinguish that case. '' The ruling makes clear that states can not bar corporate and union political expenditures in state elections.
In addition to limiting the size of donations to individual candidates and parties, the Federal Election Campaign Act also includes aggregate caps on the total amount that an individual may give to all candidates and parties. In 2012, Shaun McCutcheon, a Republican Party activist, sought to donate more than was allowed by the federal aggregate limit on federal candidates. McCutcheon et al filed suit against the Federal Election Commission (FEC). In 2014, the US Supreme Court reversed a ruling of the DC District Court 's dismissal of McCutcheon v. FEC and struck down the aggregate limits. The plurality opinion invalidated only the aggregate contribution limits, not limits on giving to any one candidate or party. The decisive fifth vote for McCutcheon came from Justice Thomas, who concurred in the judgment on the grounds that all contribution limits are unconstitutional.
The New York Times reported that 24 states with laws prohibiting or limiting independent expenditures by unions and corporations would have to change their campaign finance laws because of the ruling.
After Citizens United and SpeechNow.org numerous state legislatures raised their limits on contributions to candidates and parties. At the federal level, lawmakers substantially increased contribution limits to political parties as part of the 2014 budget bill. Such changes are widely perceived as efforts to place candidates and parties on something closer to equal footing with organizations making independent expenditures.
While many states and the federal government have raised contribution limits in response to Citizens United, proposals aimed at discouraging political spending, or providing for public financing of campaigns, have been less successful.
Senator Dick Durbin (D - IL) proposed that candidates who sign up small donors receive $900,000 in public money, but the proposal has not been acted on by Congress. Others proposed that laws on corporate governance be amended to assure that shareholders vote on political expenditures.
In February 2010, Senator Charles E. Schumer of New York, immediate past Chairman of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, and Representative Chris Van Hollen of Maryland, Chairman of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, outlined legislation aimed at undoing the decision. In April 2010, they introduced such legislation in the Senate and House, respectively. On June 24, 2010, H.R. 5175 (The DISCLOSE Act) passed in the House of Representatives but failed in the Senate. It would have required additional disclosure by corporations of their campaign expenditures. The law, if passed, would also have prohibited political spending by U.S. companies with twenty percent or more foreign ownership, and by most government contractors. The DISCLOSE Act included exemptions to its rules given to certain special interests such as the National Rifle Association and the American Association of Retired Persons. These gaps within the proposal attracted criticism from lawmakers on both political parties. "They are auctioning off pieces of the First Amendment in this bill... The bigger you are, the stronger you are, the less disclosure you have, '' said Republican Congressman Dan Lungren of California. Democratic Congressman Adam Schiff of California commented, "I wish there had been no carve - outs ''. The bill was criticized as prohibiting much activity that was legal before Citizens United.
The DISCLOSE Act twice failed to pass the U.S. Senate in the 111th Congress, in both instances reaching only 59 of the 60 votes required to overcome a unified Republican filibuster. A scaled down version of the DISCLOSE Act was reintroduced in both the House and Senate in 2012 but did not pass.
Some have argued for a constitutional amendment to overturn the decision. Although the decision does not address "corporate personhood, '' a long - established judicial and constitutional concept, much attention has focused on that issue. Move to Amend, a coalition formed in response to the ruling, seeks to amend the Constitution to abolish corporate personhood, thus stripping corporations of all rights under the Constitution. In an online chat with web community Reddit, President Obama endorsed further consideration of a constitutional amendment and stated "Over the longer term, I think we need to seriously consider mobilizing a constitutional amendment process to overturn Citizens United (assuming the Supreme Court does n't revisit it) ''. He further elaborated that "Even if the amendment process falls short, it can shine a spotlight on the super-PAC phenomenon and help apply pressure for change. ''
Members of 16 state legislatures have called for a constitutional amendment to reverse the court 's decision: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and West Virginia.
Most of these are non-binding resolutions. However, three states -- Vermont, California, and Illinois -- called for an Article V Convention to draft and propose a federal constitutional amendment to overturn Citizens United. In Minnesota, the Minnesota Senate passed a similar resolution, "Senate File No. 17, '' on May 2, 2013, but the House of Representatives returned the measure to the General Calendar (meaning the measure did not pass) on May 15, 2013. Thirty - four states are needed to call an Article V convention.
On a local level, Washington D.C. and 400 other municipalities passed resolutions requesting a federal constitutional amendment.
Since Citizens United, however, 13 states have actually raised their contribution limits.
The Citizens United ruling "opened the door '' for unlimited election spending by corporations, but most of this spending has "ended up being funneled through the groups that have become known as super PACs. '' Critics predicted that the ruling would "bring about a new era of corporate influence in politics, '' allowing companies and businesspeople to "buy elections '' to promote their financial interests. Instead large expenditures, usually through "Super PACS, '' have come from "a small group of billionaires '', based largely on ideology. This has shifted power "away from the political parties and toward the... donors themselves. In part, this explains the large number and variety of candidates fielded by the Republicans in 2016. '' The ability of individuals to spend unlimited sums was first affirmed by the Supreme Court, however, not in Citizens United, but in Buckley v. Valeo, decided in 1976.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission has often been credited for the creation of "super PACs '', political action committees which make no financial contributions to candidates or parties, and so can accept unlimited contributions from individuals, corporations and unions. Certainly, the holding in Citizens United helped affirm the legal basis for super PACs by deciding that, for purposes of establishing a "compelling government interest '' of corruption sufficient to justify government limitations on political speech, "independent expenditures, including those made by corporations, do not give rise to corruption or the appearance of corruption ''.
However, it took another decision, by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Speechnow.org v. Federal Election Commission, to actually authorize the creation of super PACs. While Citizens United held that corporations and unions could make independent expenditures, a separate provision of the Federal Election Campaign Act, at least as long interpreted by the Federal Election Commission, held that individuals could not contribute to a common fund without it becoming a PAC. PACs, in turn, were not allowed to accept corporate or union contributions of any size or to accept individual contributions in excess of $5,000. In Speechnow.org, the D.C. Circuit, sitting en banc, held 9 -- 0 that in light of Citizens United, such restrictions on the sources and size of contributions could not apply to an organization that made only independent expenditures in support of or opposition to a candidate but not contributions to a candidate 's campaign.
Citizens United and SpeechNOW left their imprint on the 2012 United States presidential election, in which single individuals contributed large sums to "super PACs '' supporting particular candidates. Sheldon Adelson, the gambling entrepreneur, gave approximately fifteen million dollars to support Newt Gingrich. Foster Friess, a Wyoming financier, donated almost two million dollars to Rick Santorum 's super PAC. Karl Rove organized super PACs that spent over $300 million in support of Republicans during the 2012 elections.
In addition to indirectly providing support for the creation of super PACs, Citizens United allowed incorporated 501 (c) (4) public advocacy groups (such as the National Rifle Association, the Sierra Club, and the group Citizens United itself) and trade associations to make expenditures in political races. Such groups may not, under the tax code, have a primary purpose of engaging in electoral advocacy. These organizations must disclose their expenditures, but unlike super PACs they do not have to include the names of their donors in their FEC filings. A number of partisan organizations such as Karl Rove 's influential conservative Crossroads Grassroots Policy Strategies and the liberal 21st Century Colorado have since registered as tax - exempt 501 (c) (4) groups (defined as groups promoting "social welfare '') and engaged in substantial political spending. This has led to claims of large secret donations, and questions about whether such groups should be required to disclose their donors. Historically, such non-profits have not been required to disclose their donors or names of members. See National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama.
In an August 2015 essay in Der Spiegel, Markus Feldkirchen wrote that the Citizens United decision was "now becoming visible for the first time '' in federal elections as the super-rich have "radically '' increased donations to support their candidates and positions via super PACs. Feldkirchen also said in the first six months of 2015 the candidates and their super PACs received close to $400 million: "far more than in the entire previous campaign. '' He opined that super-rich donating more than ever before to individual campaigns plus the "enormous '' chasm in wealth has given the super-rich the power to steer the economic and political direction of the United States and undermine its democracy. In October 2015, the New York Times observed that just 158 super-rich families each contributed $250,000 or more, while an additional 200 families gave more than $100,000 for the 2016 presidential election. Both groups contributed almost half of the "early money '' for candidates in the 2016 presidential election as of June 30, 2015 through channels like super PACs legalized by the Supreme Court 's Citizens United decision.
Notes
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the ministry of utmost happiness a novel by arundhati roy | The Ministry of Utmost Happiness - Wikipedia
The Ministry of Utmost Happiness is the second novel by Indian writer Arundhati Roy, published in 2017, twenty years after her debut, The God of Small Things.
The novel weaves together stories of people navigating some of the darkest and most violent episodes of modern Indian history, from land reform that disowned poor farmers to the 2002 Godhra train burning and Kashmir insurgency. Roy 's characters run the gamut of Indian society and include an intersex woman (hijra), a rebellious architect, and her landlord who is a supervisor in the intelligence service. The narrative spans across decades and locations, but primarily takes place in Delhi and Kashmir.
Anjum
Anjum is a major character of the book who is Muslim and a hijra. On her visit to a Gujarati shrine, Anjum gets caught in a massacre of Hindu pilgrims and subsequent government reprisals against Muslims. She is anxious about the future of her own community, especially the new generation. She is born as Aftab, the long - awaited son of Jahanara Begum and Mulaqat Ali.
Mulaqat Ali
The husband of Jahanara Begum and the father of Aftab. He is a hakim, a doctor of herbal medicine, and a lover of poetry. Ali is the direct descendant of Mongol Emperor Changez Khan - through the emperor 's second - born son, Chagatai.
Zainab
A three years old girl whom Anjum picks up on the steps of the Jama Masjid. Zainab is brought up at Khwabgah and later goes on to become a fashion designer who marries Saddam.
Saddam Hussain (Dayachand)
One of the guests of Jannat Guest House. Saddam works odd jobs - in a mortuary, as a helper in a shop, a bus conductor, sells newspapers at the New Delhi railway station, a bricklayer on a construction site and as a security guard. Saddam wants to avenge his father 's death by killing Sehrawat, the Station House Officer of the Dulina police station.
Dr. Azad Bharatiya
One of the very many protestors near Jantar Mantar. He continues his 10 - year fast and runs a newsletter called "News & Views ''.
S. Tilottama
Tilottama is a student at the Architecture School who is estranged from her Syrian Christian mother - Mariyam Ipe.
Tilo becomes friends with three men - Musa Yewsi, Nagaraj Hariharan and Biplab Dasgupta whom she meets while working on sets and lighting design for the play Norman directed by David Quartermaine.
Nagaraj Hariharan
Cast as Norman in the play. He later becomes a top - notch journalist who works in Kashmir. Tilo marries Naga as suggested by Musa for strategic reasons and later abandons him.
Biplab Dasgupta
Biplab was to play the role of Garson Hobart in the play Norman. He later works for the Intelligence Bureau as Deputy Station Head for. Biplab secretly loves Tilo and rents her room after she walks out on Naga.
Musa Yeswi (Commander Gulrez)
Musa is a reticent Kashmiri man who is classmates with Tilo in Architecture School and her boyfriend. Musa later returns to his homeland to become a militant and fight for Azadi. Musa marries Arifa and fathers Miss Jebeen the First.
Begum Arifa Yeswi
Wife of Musa Yeswi. Musa meets Arifa in a stationery shop where an grenade explosion takes place.
Major Amrik Singh
A military officer in charge of counter-insurgency operations in Kashmir. Murderer of Jalib Qadri, a well - known lawyer and human rights activist. Amrik Singh, subsequently seeks asylum in the US claiming to be the victim of the tortures he has inflicted on others.
Comrade Revathy
A Maoist from East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh who is raped and tortured by policeman. She 's the mother of Udaya (Miss Jebeen the Second). Revathy leaves Udaya in Jantar Mantar.
Jahanara Begum - Mother of Aftab (Anjum). Dotes on him and takes him to the dargah of Hazrat Sarmad Shaheed. Even after Aftab moves to Khwabgah, she continues to send a hot meal every day.
Ahlam Baji - The midwife who delivers Aftab and who, during her last days, grows disoriented. She 's buried in Jahanara Begum 's family graveyard.
Ustad Hameed Khan - Musician who taught Aftab Hindustani classical music. Aftab eventually stops going to the music classes due to snickering and teasing from other children.
Imam Ziauddin - The blind imam who accompanies Anjum in the graveyard and once led the prayers at Fatehpuri Masjid
Kulsoom Bi - Ustad, guru of Khwabgah
Saeeda - The new face of Khwabgah after Anjum and is soon to take over as the ustad
Zakir Mian - Proprietor and Managing Director of A-1 Flower. He travels with Anjum.
Begum Zeenat Kauser - Anjum 's aunt and Mulaqat Ali 's older sister.
Begum Renata Mumtaj - belly dancer from Romania who grew up in Bucharest dreaming of India and its classical dancing forms. She 's buried in Jannat after her death.
Roshan Lal - Headwaiter of Rosebud Rest - O - Bar
Mr. D.D. Gupta - An old client of Anjum who is a building contractor. He moves to Baghdad so as to capitalize on escalating demand on concrete blast walls.
Loveleen Singh - Wife of Amrik Singh. She 's a victim of domestic violence.
ACP Pinky Sodhi - Assistant Commandant and brutal interrogator who worked with Amrik Singh.
Balbir Singh Sodhi - ACP Pink Sodhi 's brother. A senior police officer who had been shot down by militants in Sopore.
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who does foreign corrupt practices act apply to | Foreign Corrupt Practices Act - wikipedia
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977 (FCPA) (15 U.S.C. § 78dd - 1, et seq.) is a United States federal law known primarily for two of its main provisions, one that addresses accounting transparency requirements under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and another concerning bribery of foreign officials. The act was amended in 1988 and in 1998. As of 2012 there were continued congressional concerns. An ongoing debate asks whether FCPA enforcement discourages US companies from investing abroad.
The idea of Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) is to make it illegal for companies and their supervisors to influence foreign officials with any personal payments or rewards. The FCPA applies to any person who has a certain degree of connection to the United States and engages in foreign corrupt practices. The Act also applies to any act by U.S. businesses, foreign corporations trading securities in the U.S., American nationals, citizens, and residents acting in furtherance of a foreign corrupt practice whether or not they are physically present in the U.S. This is considered the nationality principle of the act. Any individuals that are involved in those activities may face prison time. This act was passed to make it unlawful for certain classes of persons and entities to make payments to foreign government officials to assist in obtaining or retaining business. In the case of foreign natural and legal persons, the Act covers their deeds if they are in the U.S. at the time of the corrupt conduct. This is considered the protective principle of the act. Further, the Act governs not only payments to foreign officials, candidates, and parties, but any other recipient if part of the bribe is ultimately attributable to a foreign official, candidate, or party. These payments are not restricted to monetary forms and may include anything of value. This is considered the territoriality principle of the act.
An ongoing debate asks about the law 's effects. Scholars have found that the FCPA enforcement discourages US firms from investing in foreign markets. This finding is not surprising given the well - known fact that companies engaging in mergers and acquisitions in emerging markets face a uniquely increased level of regulatory and corruption risk.
As a result of U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigations in the mid-1970s, over 400 U.S. companies admitted making questionable or illegal payments in excess of $300 million to foreign government officials, politicians, and political parties. The abuses ran the gamut from bribery of high foreign officials to secure some type of favorable action by a foreign government to so - called facilitating payments that were made to ensure that government functionaries discharged certain ministerial or clerical duties. If the official has no choice but to bribe, and bribery is legal in the country, bribing is seen as greasing the wheels. One major example was the Lockheed bribery scandals, in which officials of aerospace company Lockheed paid foreign officials to favor their company 's products. Another was the Bananagate scandal in which Chiquita Brands had bribed the President of Honduras to lower taxes. Congress enacted the FCPA to bring a halt to the bribery of foreign officials and to restore public confidence in the integrity of the American business system.
The Act was signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on December 19, 1977. The first criminal enforcement action under the Act was against Finbar Kenny. Kenny had advanced Sir Albert Henry, Prime Minister of the Cook Islands, $337,000 from postage stamp revenue for Henry 's re-election campaign. In 1979, Kenny became the first American to plead guilty of violating the FCPA, and was fined $50,000.
The Act was first amended by the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, where Title V is known as the ' Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Amendments of 1988 '. It introduced a "knowing '' standard in order to find violations of the Act, encompassing "conscious disregard '' and "willful blindness. '' Other amendments were for "bona fide '', "reasonable '' and lawful gifts under the laws of the foreign country.
The second amendment was the International Anti-Bribery Act of 1998 which was designed to implement the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention -- i.e., to include certain foreign persons and extending the scope beyond U.S. borders.
The FCPA dominated international anti-corruption enforcement from its introduction until around 2010 when other countries began introducing broader and more robust legislation, notably the United Kingdom Bribery Act 2010. The International Organization for Standardization introduced an international anti-bribery management system standard in 2016. In recent years, cooperation in enforcement action between countries has increased.
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the Department of Justice are both responsible for enforcing the FCPA. This is because the FCPA both amends an SEC Act and the criminal code. The SEC enforces the Act for companies it regulates and the Department of Justice enforces the bill regarding all other domestic companies. This split was criticized even before the act was passed. In 2010 the SEC created a specialized unit for FCPA enforcement. In 2012, the SEC and the DOJ issued their first joint guide to the FCPA.
In April 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions traveled to an ethics lawyers conference to assure them that he would continue prosecutions under the FCPA, regardless of new SEC Chairman Jay Clayton 's expressed skepticism and of President Donald Trump 's comments that it is a "horrible law '' and "the world is laughing at us ''.
The anti-bribery provisions of the FCPA make it unlawful for a U.S. person, and certain foreign issuers of securities, to make a payment to a foreign official for the purpose of obtaining or retaining business for or with, or directing business to, any person. Since the 1998 Amendment of FCPA they also apply to foreign firms and persons who take any act in furtherance of such a corrupt payment while in the U.S. The meaning of foreign official is broad. For example, an owner of a bank who is also the minister of finance would count as a foreign official according to the U.S. government. Doctors at government - owned or managed hospitals are also considered to be foreign officials under the FCPA, as is anyone working for a government - owned or managed institution or enterprise. Employees of international organizations such as the United Nations are also considered to be foreign officials under the FCPA. A 2014 federal appellate court decision has provided guidance on how the term "foreign official '' is defined under FCPA.
Because the Act concerns the intent of the bribery rather than the amount, there is no requirement of materiality. Offering anything of value as a bribe, whether cash or non-cash items, is prohibited.
The FCPA also requires companies whose securities are listed in the U.S. to meet its accounting provisions. These accounting provisions operate in tandem with the anti-bribery provisions of the FCPA, and require respective corporations to make and keep books and records that accurately and fairly reflect the transactions of the corporation and to devise and maintain an adequate system of internal accounting controls. An increasing number of corporations are taking additional steps to protect their reputation and reduce their exposure by employing the services of due diligence companies tasked with vetting third party intermediaries and identifying easily overlooked government officials embedded in otherwise privately held foreign firms. This strategy is one element of an effective FCPA Compliance Program, as it shows a sincere attempt to avoid business situations where high risk (prior history or proximity to unethical behavior) individuals are concerned.
Regarding payments to foreign officials, the act draws a distinction between bribery and facilitation or "grease payments '', which may be permissible under the FCPA, but may still violate local laws. The primary distinction is that grease payments or facilitation payments are made to an official to expedite his performance of the routine duties he is already bound to perform. The exception focuses on the purpose of the payment rather than on its value. Payments to foreign officials may be legal under the FCPA if the payments are permitted under the written laws of the host country. Certain payments or reimbursements relating to product promotion may also be permitted under the FCPA.
A U.S. company acquiring a foreign firm could face successor liability for FCPA violations committed by the foreign firm prior to being acquired. Generally, acquiring companies may be liable as a successor for pre-existing FCPA violations committed by an acquired company where those violations were subject to the FCPA 's jurisdiction when committed. This position was further confirmed by the DOJ in a 2014 opinion stating that pre-acquisition conduct by a foreign target company without a jurisdictional nexus to the U.S. would not be subject to FCPA enforcement.
Businesses increasingly focus on their core competencies, and as a result engage more third parties to provide critical business functions. Companies do not have direct control over their third - party providers, which expose them to regulatory and reputational risk of FCPA violations by those third parties. Under the FCPA, businesses are accountabile for activities involving both their internal and external relationships. Companies that operate internationally, or that engage third parties in countries with a high Corruption Perceptions Index, are especially at risk. Many companies have now adopted "anti-bribery / anti-corruption '' (ABAC) solutions to combat this risk and help protect themselves from fines and reputational damage.
ABAC compliance solutions are a subset of third party management. These systems can automatically manage third party information and monitor their ongoing activities in compliance with FCPA regulation.
Stronger DOJ and SEC enforcement has increased the prominence of the FCPA from 2010 onwards. The SEC website shows a complete list of enforcement cases since 1978. Notable select cases of the application of FCPA since 2008 are with ALCOA, Biomet, Bizjet, Hewlett Packard Company, KBR, Marubeni Corporation, News Corporation, Siemens, Smith & Nephew and Walmart de Mexico as follows:
In 2008, Siemens AG paid a $450 million fine for violating the FCPA. This is one of the largest penalties ever collected by the DOJ for an FCPA case.
In 2012, Japanese firm Marubeni Corporation paid a criminal penalty of US $54.6 million for FCPA violations when acting as an agent of the TKSJ joint venture, which comprised Technip, Snamprogetti Netherlands B.V., Kellogg Brown & Root Inc., and JGC Corporation. Between 1995 and 2004, the joint venture won four contracts in Nigeria worth more than US $6 billion, as a direct result of having paid US $51 million to Marubeni to be used to bribe Nigerian government officials.
In 2012 Smith & Nephew paid US $22.2 million to the DOJ and SEC, and Bizjet International Sales and Support Inc. paid US $11.8 million to the DOJ for bribery of foreign government officials. Both companies entered into a deferred prosecution agreement.
In March 2012, Biomet Inc. paid a criminal fine of US $17.3 million to resolve charges of FCPA violations and US $5.5 million in disgorgement of profits and pre-judgment interest to the SEC.
In January 2014, ALCOA paid $175 million in disgorgement of revenues and a fine of $209 million to settle charges that its Australian bauxite mining subsidiary retained an agent that made bribes to government officials in Bahrain and to officers of Aluminum Bahrain B.S.C. to secure long - term contracts to supply the company with bauxite ore.
In March 2014, Marubeni Corporation agreed with the DOJ to pay a US $88 million fine after pleading guilty to taking part in a scheme to pay bribes to high ranking Indonesian officials in order to secure a lucrative power project.
On February 24, 2015, the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company "Goodyear '' agreed to pay more than $16 million to settle FCPA charges that two of its African subsidiaries allegedly paid $3.2 million in bribes that generated $14,122,535 in illicit profits. The SEC FCPA charges involved Goodyear subsidiaries in Kenya and Angola for allegedly paying bribes to government and private - sector workers in exchange for sales in each country. According to the SEC because "Goodyear did not prevent or detect these improper payments because it failed to implement adequate FCPA compliance controls at its subsidiaries '' and, for the Kenyan subsidiary, "because it failed to conduct adequate due diligence '' prior to its acquisition. It was not alleged that Goodyear had any involvement with or knowledge of its subsidiaries ' improper conduct.
In 2009, former Representative William J. Jefferson, Democrat of Louisiana, was charged with violating the FCPA by bribing African governments for business interests.
In 2010 the DOJ and the SEC were investigating whether Hewlett Packard Company executives paid about $10.9 million in bribery money between 2004 and 2006 to the Prosecutor General of Russia "to win a € 35 million contract to supply computer equipment throughout Russia. '' On September 11, 2014, HP Russia pleaded guilty before U.S. District Judge D. Lowell Jensen of the Northern District of California to conspiracy and substantive violations of the anti-bribery and accounting provisions of the FCPA. The court sentenced HP Russia to pay a $58,772,250 fine.
In July 2011, the DOJ opened an inquiry into the News International phone hacking scandal that brought down News of the World, the recently closed UK tabloid newspaper. In cooperation with the Serious Fraud Office (United Kingdom), the DOJ was to examine whether News Corporation violated the FCPA by bribing British police officers. Nine police officers were convicted including a senior officer in the Met counter-terrorism command, Det Ch Insp April Casburn, former Met anti-terrorism officer Timothy Edwards, former police officer Simon Quinn, former Met officer Paul Flattley and Scott Chapman, an ex-prison officer.
An April 2012 article in the New York Times reported that a former executive of Walmart de México y Centroamérica alleged in September 2005 that Walmart de Mexico had paid bribes to officials throughout Mexico in order to obtain construction permits, that Walmart investigators found credible evidence that Mexican and American laws had been broken, and that Walmart executives in the U.S. "hushed up '' the allegations. According to an article in Bloomberg, Wal - Mart 's "probe of possible bribery in Mexico may prompt executive departures and steep U.S. government fines if it reveals senior managers knew about the payments and did n't take strong enough action, corporate governance experts said. '' Eduardo Bohorquez, the director of Transparencia Mexicana, a "watchdog '' group in Mexico, urged the Mexican government to investigate the allegations. Wal - Mart and the US Chamber of Commerce had participated in a campaign to amend FCPA; according to proponents, the changes would clarify the law, while according to opponents, the changes would weaken the law.
Other cases are with Avon Products, Invision Technologies, BAE Systems, Baker Hughes, Daimler AG, Monsanto, Halliburton, Titan Corporation, Triton Energy Limited, Lucent Technologies.
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who is the most recent appointment to the supreme court | List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest ranking judicial body in the United States. Its membership, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869, consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices, any six of whom would constitute a quorum. Justices are nominated by the President of the United States and appointed after confirmation by the United States Senate. Justices of the Supreme Court have life tenure and receive a salary which is set at $255,500 per year for the chief justice and at $244,400 per year for each associate justice as of 2014.
The Supreme Court was created in 1789 by Article III of the United States Constitution, which stipulated that the "judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court '' together with any lower courts Congress may establish. Congress organized the Court that year with the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789. It specified the Court 's original and appellate jurisdiction, created thirteen judicial districts, and fixed the number of justices at six (one chief justice and five associate justices).
Since 1789, Congress has occasionally altered the size of the Supreme Court, historically in response to the country 's own expansion in size. An 1801 act would have decreased the Court 's size to five members upon its next vacancy. However, an 1802 act negated the effects of the 1801 act upon the Court before any such vacancy occurred, maintaining the Court 's size at six members. Later legislation increased its size to seven members in 1807, to nine in 1837, and to ten in 1863. An 1866 act was to have reduced the Court 's size from ten members to seven upon its next three vacancies, and two vacancies did occur during this period. However, before a third vacancy occurred, the Judiciary Act of 1869 intervened, restoring the Court 's size to nine members, where it has remained since.
While the justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life, many have retired or resigned. Beginning in the early 20th century, many justices who left the Court voluntarily did so by retiring from the Court without leaving the federal judiciary altogether. A retired justice, according to the United States Code, is no longer a member of the Supreme Court, but remains eligible to serve by designation as a judge of a U.S. Court of Appeals or District Court, and many retired justices have served in these capacities. Historically, the average length of service on the Court has been less than 15 years. However, since 1970 the average length of service has increased to about 26 years.
There are currently eight justices serving on the Supreme Court (the ninth position has been vacant since the July 31, 2018 retirement of Justice Anthony Kennedy); listed in order of seniority, they are:
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 113 persons have served on the Court. William O. Douglas holds the record for longest tenure on the Court -- 36 years, 211 days, and Thomas Johnson 's 163 day tenure is the shortest. Five individuals were confirmed for associate justice, and later appointed chief justice separately: Charles Evans Hughes, William Rehnquist, John Rutledge, Harlan F. Stone, and Edward Douglass White. While listed twice, each of them has been assigned only one index number. The justices of the Supreme Court are:
This graphical timeline depicts the progression of the justices on the Supreme Court. Information regarding each justice 's predecessors, successors and fellow justices, as well as their tenure on the court can be gleaned (and comparisons between justices drawn) from it. Additionally, The progression of presidents, along with the number of justices each nominated, is shown at the top of the timeline to give a more detailed historical context. Regarding the associate justice seat numbers, due to the several changes in the size of the Court since 1789, two of the ten seats chronicled below -- "Seat 7 '' and "Seat 5 '' -- have been abolished, both as a result of the Judicial Circuits Act of 1866. The associate justice "seat 1 '' is currently vacant, following the retirement of Justice Anthony Kennedy.
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two things tempt governments to enact inflationary policies | Inflationary bias - Wikipedia
Inflationary bias is the outcome of discretionary government policy that, under perfect foresight in the labor market, leads to a higher than optimal level of inflation and no transitory income increase. The term may also refer to the practice of a public debt - ridden nation enacting policies which encourage inflation in the medium / long term.
The Barro -- Gordon model shows how the ability of government to manipulate leads to inflationary bias. In this model, it is assumed that a nation will attempt to keep the unemployment rate below its natural level. This will create an inflation in wages above their natural level, which ultimately results in an overall rate of inflation that is higher than the natural rate of inflation.
Traditional theories suggest that inflationary bias will exist when monetary and fiscal policy is discretionary rather than rule based. Others have suggested that the inflationary bias exists even when policy makers do not have the goal of a lower than natural rate of employment, and their policies are based on rules.
Because of the dangers of inflationary bias, several measures have been suggested to prevent it. It has been proposed that states should have conservative central bankers. It has even been suggested that states should create inflationary goals, and if this inflation rate is exceeded, there should be some form of punishment for the central banker.
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describe the struggle of the east india company with the nawab of bengal | Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad - Wikipedia
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The Nawabs of Bengal (full title, the Nawab Nizam of Bengal and Orissa) were the rulers of the then provinces of Bengal and Orissa. Between 1717 and 1765, they served as the rulers of the subah (or province) of Bengal. However, they were only nominally subordinate to the Mughal Empire. Siraj ud - Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.
In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company. The last Nawab of Bengal, Mansur Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son, Hassan Ali Mirza.
Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, following Mansur Ali Khan 's abdication They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880. They had little or no say in the share of the revenue collected and were ceased to use any force. After Indian Independence in 1947 it was declared that the princely states must accede to either India or Pakistan (East / West Pakistan). Murshidabad (the capital city) became a part of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) for two days, as it had a Muslim majority. It became a part of India on 17 August 1947, following which the Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop it. After merging with India, they had no power as the Government of India took over all the princely states in India. The house of the Nawabs appeared to have come to end in 1969 with Waris Ali Mirza being the last reigning Nawab and with no clear succession. Although he left three sons and three daughters there was no clear successor to the title after his death because he disinherited one and the others disputed his will.
Eventually, in August 2014, the Supreme Court of India declared Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Mirza (born 1942) to be the heir to the erstwhile Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad and lawful heir to the Nawab 's property and office which had been in abeyance since the death of Abbas Ali Mirza 's maternal uncle Waris Ali Mirza (the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad) in 1969. However, it is to be noted that after Indian independence in 1947, followed by the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, which marked the transformation of the Dominion of India into the Republic of India, the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution abolished all titles, except those given by the Government of India to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields. However, under the policy of Privy Purse nobles were allowed to enjoy certain privileges and keep their titles. But this policy was abolished in 1971 by the twenty - sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India. Thus the title of the "Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad '' was officially, constitutionally and legally abolished in 1971.
The term "Bengal '' incorporates to delineate the ethno - linguistic region of Bengal which including but not limited is all districts within the People 's Republic of Bangladesh, as well as West Bengal, India. During the first partition of Bengal in the early 20th century a new province, Eastern Bengal was created as a Lieutenant - Governorship along with Assam. In 1911, East Bengal (now Bangladesh) was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal Province. The Nawab thus gained rule over Orissa, which were earlier part of Bengal. So sometimes That is why the Nawabs of Bengal were also mentioned as "Nawab of Bengal '' - where Nazim (or, Subahdar) means the provincial governor - as they ruled over three subahs while the Nawabs of Murshidabad were the local ruler of the city of Murshidabad. The majority of modern Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people who speak the Bengali language.
Modern Bengal include the present day country of Bangladesh and the present day Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura
1893 map of Bengal
1831 map of Hindustan showing the then Bengal in green in the north east
The early Sultans of Bengal ruled until 1282 which was followed by the rule of several successive dynasties. Ilyas Shah founder of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, took complete charge of the then Bengal and the capital was shifted to Sonargaon (near present day, Dhaka in Bangladesh). He was one of the independent rulers of Bengal. His son, Sikandar Shah, who succeeded him, built the Adina Mosque at Pandua, near Gour, Adina Mosque in the medieval times, was considered to be the largest in undivided Bengal, as well as the entire Indian subcontinent.
The Mughal Empire emerged as a powerful Empire in northern India. Babur, who was related to two legendary warriors -- Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded north India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty. Babur thus became the first Mughal emperor. He was succeeded by his son, Humayun. At the same time, Sher Shah Suri (alias Farid Khan) of the Suri dynasty rose to prominence and established himself as the ruler of the present day Bihar by defeating Ghiyasuddin Shah. But he lost to capture the kingdom because of sudden expedition of Humayun. In 1539, Sher Khan faced Humayun in the Battle of Chausa. He forced Humayun out of India. Assuming the title Sher Shah, he ascended the throne of Delhi. He also captured Agra and established control from Bengal in the east, to the Indus River in the west. After his death he was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah Suri. But in 1544 the Suris were torn apart by internal conflicts. Humayun took this advantage and captured Lahore and Delhi, but he died in 1556 AD. He was succeeded by Akbar, who defeated Daud Khan Karrani of Bengal 's Karrani Dynasty (or, Karnani Dynasty). After this, the administration of the entire region of Bengal passed into the hands of governors appointed by the Mughal emperors, who ruled Bengal till 1716 AD.
There were several posts under the Mughal administrative system during Akbar 's reign. Diwani was a system of provincial revenue administration under the Mughals. Nizamat (civil administration) and Diwani (revenue administration) were the two main branches of the provincial administration under the Mughals. A Subahdar (provincial viceroy or governor), also called a Nizam was in - charge of the Nizamat. There was a chain of subordinate officials under the Nizams on the executive side and under Diwans on the revenue and judicial side.
Murshid Quli Khan arrived as the Diwan of Bengal in 1717 AD. Before his arrival, there were four Diwans. And, after his arrival, Azim - ush - Shan held the Nizam 's office. Azim got into conflict with Murshid Quli Khan over imperial financial control. Considering the complaint of Khan, the then Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb ordered Azim to move to Bihar. Upon his departure the two posts united in one and Murshid Quli Khan became the first Nizam cum Diwan of Bengal. Murshid Khan was appointed the "Nawab Nizam of Bengal '' and he emerged as the ruler of Bengal under the Mughals. Murshidabad remained the capital of the Nawabs of Bengal until their rule. The Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah, was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jaffer. He lost to the British East India Company, who took installed Mir Jaffer on the Masnad (throne), as a "puppet ruler '' and established itself to a political power in Bengal.
In 1765, Robert Clive, of the British East India Company, became the first British Governor of Bengal. He secured in perpetuity for the Company the Diwani (revenue and civil justice) of the then Bengal subah from the then Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II and thus the system of Dual Government was established and the Bengal Presidency was formed. In 1772 the Dual Government system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (military power and criminal justice) of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company. After the Revolt of 1857, Company rule in India ended and the British Crown took over the territories which were under the direct rule of the British East India Company in 1858, which marked the beginning of the British Raj. These territories, including the territory of the Nawab Nazims came under the direct rule of the British Crown and British Raj was established in India. Thus, the Nawab Nizams remained just the titular heads of their territory, which was now ruled by the British Crown, and they had no political or any other kind of control over the territory. The last Nawab of Bengal, Mansoor Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son.
From 1717 until 1880, three successive Islamic dynasties -- Nasiri, Afshar and Najafi -- ruled what was then known as Bengal.
The first dynasty, the Nasiri, ruled from 1717 until 1740. The founder of the Nasiri, Murshid Quli Khan, was born a poor Deccani Odia Brahmin before being sold into slavery and bought by one Haji Shafi Isfahani, a Persian merchant from Isfahan who converted him to Islam. He entered the service of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and rose through the ranks before becoming the Nawab Nizam of Bengal in 1717, a post he held until his death in 1727. He in turn was succeeded by his son - in - law, Shuja - ud - Din Muhammad Khan. After Shuja - ud - Din 's death in 1739 he was succeeded by his son, Sarfaraz Khan, who held the rank, until he was killed in the Battle of Giria in 1741, and was succeeded by Alivardi Khan, former ruler of Patna, of the Afshar Dynasty in 1740.
The second dynasty, the Afshar, ruled from 1740 to 1757. Siraj ud - Daulah (Alivardi Khan 's grandson), the last Afshar Nawab was killed in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. They were succeeded by the third and final dynasty to rule the whole Bengal, the Najafi.
Bengal Subah was one of the wealthiest parts of the Mughal empire. As the Mughal empire began to decline, the Nawabs grew in power, although nominally subordinate to the Mughal emperor. They wielded great power in their own right and finally became independent rulers of the Bengal region, for all practical purposes, by the early 1700s.
Marathas undertook six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 -- 1748. Maratha general, Raghunath Rao was able to annex Orissa to his kingdom and the larger confederacy permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa after the death of Murshid Quli Khan in 1727. Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles, Orissa, Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined. Alivardi Khan made peace with Raghunathrao in 1751 ceding in perpetuity Orissa up to the river Suvarnarekha, and agreeing to pay ₹ 12 lacs annually in lieu of the Chauth of Bengal and Bihar.
The treaty included ₹ 20 lacs as Chauth for Bengal (includes both West Bengal and Bangladesh) and ₹ 12 lacs for Bihar (including Jharkhand). After this, Maratha promised never to cross the boundary of the Nawab of Bengal 's territory.
Thus, Baji Rao is hailed as the greatest Maratha chief after Shivaji because of his success in subjecting Muslim rulers of east India in states such as Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the Maratha rule.
The break - up of the centralised Mughal empire by 1750, led to the creation of numerous semi-independent kingdoms (all provinces of the former Mughal empire). Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah was defeated by the British forces of Sir Robert Clive in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Thereafter the Nawab of Bengal became a "puppet ruler '' depending on military support from British East India company to secure their throne. Siraj - ud - Daulah was replaced by Mir Jaffer. He was personally led to the throne by Robert Clive, after triumph of the British in the battle. He briefly tried to re-assert his power by allying with the Dutch, but this plan was ended by the Battle of Chinsurah. After the defeat at Battle of Buxar and grant of the Diwani (revenue collection) of Bengal by the then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, to the British East India Company in August 1765 and the appointment of Warren Hastings by the East India Company as their first Governor General of Bengal in 1773, the Nawabs authority became restricted. By 1773, British East India company asserted much authority and formed the Bengal Presidency over areas ruled by the Nawabs i.e. the Bengal subah, along with some other regions and abolished the system of Dual Government. In 1793 (during Nawab Mubarak ud - Daulah 's reign), the Nizamat (military power, civil and criminal justice) was abolished, British East India company thus annexed this former Mughal province as part of their empire and took complete control of the region, and the Nawabs of Bengal became mere pensioners of the British East India Company. All the Diwan offices except the Diwan Ton were also abolished.
After the Revolt of 1857, Company rule in India ended, and all the territories which were under the rule of the British East India Company came under the British Crown in 1858, which marked the beginning of the British Raj. And administrative control of India came under the Indian Civil Service, which had administrative control over all areas in India, except the Princely States.
Mansoor Ali Khan (aka Feradun Jah) was the last Nawab of Bengal. During his reign the Nizamat at Murshidabad became involved in debts. The then Government of India involved it into an action of preventing further claims. Feradun Jah left Murshidabad in February 1869 and started living in England. The title of "Nawab of Bengal '' was abolished in 1880. He returned to Bombay in October 1880 but spent most of his time pleading his case against the orders of the Government of India. After it was not resolved the Nawab renounced his styles and titles of Nawab Nizam of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and abdicated in favour of his eldest son at St. Ives, Maidenhead, on 1 November 1880.
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawab Nizams of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, following Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication Nawabs of Murshidabad were the successors of the Nawabs of Bengal. After Lord Clive secured the Diwani of Bengal from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in 1765 for the East India Company they did not have any effective authority. So they lavishly enjoyed their title, privileges alongside with the honours they received. They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880. They had little or no say and ceased to control any significant force.
After Indian Independence in 1947, all the non-princely states were subject to a test of religious majority in which the Muslim majority areas formed the Dominion of Pakistan, while the other regions formed the Dominion of India. Murshidabad (the capital city for both, the Nawabs of Bengal and the Nawabs of Murshidabad) became a part of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) for two days, as it had a Muslim majority. However, it became a part of India on 17 August 1947. The Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop the palace. The Nawabs, after the takeover by the British had no actual power and after merging with India too, they had yielded power, as the Government of India took over control of all the areas that merged with India. Furthermore, with the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, the Dominion of India was transformed into the Republic of India, and the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution (which is a part of the Right to Equality, a fundamental right in India), titles were abolished. The Article prevents the state from confirming any title except those titles given by the Government to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields. Such titles and awards include the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Shri and the Padma Vibhushan (the Supreme Court of India, on 15 December 1995, upheld the validity of such awards). Thus, with the promulgation of the Constitution, the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad was abolished. And although, the Nawab Waris Ali Meerza held titles such as Raes ud - Daulah, they were not officially or legally recognised.
Although, the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad had no political power the office continued to be held by the second Nawab Bahadur Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur, who had held the office since 1906, and after his death in 1959, he was succeeded by his son, Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur. Waris Ali Meerza died in 1969, survived by his three sons and three daughters. According to the Nawab 's law, the eldest son of the Nawab succeeded him, however, Waris Ali 's eldest son, Wakif Ali Meerza Bahadur, was excluded from the succession by his father for contracting a non-Muslim marriage and for not professing the Muslim religion.
Waris Ali Meerza, the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, died in 1969, and he took no steps during his lifetime to establish his succession. And before declaring his successor Waris Ali died. There was no clear successor to Waris Ali.
Since then there was no clear successor to Waris Ali and the titular office / post was in dispute, and a legal battle ensued. And following this as the title was in dispute, a legal battle ensued. Abbas Ali Meerza claimed to be the legal heir of Waris Ali on the basis of being the son of the daughter of Waris Alis ' father, the second Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, Wasif Ali Meerza; while Sajid Ali Meerza claimed the same on the basis of being the son by mut'ah marriage of Wasif Ali. The case reached the Supreme Court and finally, the Supreme Court judges, Justice Ranjan Gogoi and Justice RK Agrawal, gave their judgement on 13 August 2014, declaring the then 72 - year - old Abbas Ali Meerza (full name, Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Meerza), who happened to be the son of the only daughter of Waris Ali 's father, Wasif Ali Meerza (the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad), the successor and the legal heir to the former Nawab of Murshidabad, Waris Ali Meerza. The Court directed Abbas Ali Meerza, son of Syed Muhammad Sadeque Ali Meerza, to be the direct descendant of Waris Ali Meerza. However, the case against the state 's annexation of the Murshidabad Estate, which is worth several thousand crores, is still on, as of 2014.
However, it is to be noted that after Indian independence in 1947, followed by the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, which marked the transformation of the Dominion of India into the Republic of India, the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution abolished all titles, except those given by the Government of India to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields. However, under the policy of Privy Purse nobles were allowed to enjoy certain privileges and keep their titles. But this policy was abolished in 1971 by the twenty - sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India. Thus the title of the "Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad '' was officially, constitutionally and legally abolished in 1971. Thus, as titles have been abolished in India, the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad no longer exists. However, Abbas Ali Meerza can now succeed Waris Ali Meerza 's office legally, but his title of the fourth Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad would be unofficial, as the title is not legally and officially recognised.
The following is a list of all the Nawabs of Bengal. Sarfaraz Khan and Mir Mohammad Jaffer Ali Khan (Mir Jaffer) were the only Nawabs to become the Nawab twice. The chronology started in 1717 with Murshid Quli Khan and ended in 1881 with Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication.
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal after the abdication in 1881 and the abolition of the title of Nawab of Bengal in 1880. There have been four Nawabs of Murshidabad, as of 2014, as follows. However, it is to be noted that Waris Ali Mirza was the last official Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, for titles like these were abolished in 1971. Though Abbas Ali Mirza is the legal heir to Waris Ali Mirza 's office, the title no longer enjoys legal sanctity owing to the abolition of the policy of Privy Purse by the twenty - sixth amendment to the Indian Constitution:
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who is responsible for maintaining law and order | Law enforcement in India - Wikipedia
Law enforcement in India is performed by numerous law enforcement agencies. Like many federal nations, the nature of the Constitution of India mandates law and order as a subject of the state, therefore the bulk of the policing lies with the respective states and territories of India.
At the federal level, the many agencies are part of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), and support the states in their duties. Larger cities also operate Police Commissionerates, under respective state police. All senior police officers in the state police forces, as well as those in the federal agencies, are members of the Indian Police Service (IPS).
The central agencies are controlled by the central Government of India. The majority of federal law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The head of each of the federal law enforcement agencies is always an Indian Police Service (IPS) officer. The constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order to the states and territories, and almost all routine policing -- including apprehension of criminals -- is carried out by state - level police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police operations and organisation by authorising the creation of Indian Police Service.
Central police forces can assist the state 's police force, but only if so requested by the state governments. In practice, the central government has largely observed these limits. During the Emergency of 1975 - 77, the constitution was amended (effective 1 February 1976) to permit the central government to dispatch and deploy its Central Armed Police forces without regard to the wishes of the states. This action proved unpopular, and the use of the Central Police Forces was controversial. After the Emergency was lifted, the constitution was amended in December 1978 to make deployment of central Police forces once again dependent on the consent of the state government.
The principal national - level organisation concerned with law enforcement is the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), which supervises a large number of government functions and agencies operated and administered by the central government. The ministry is concerned with all matters pertaining to the maintenance of public peace and order, the staffing and administration of the public services, the delineation of internal boundaries, and the administration of union territories.
In addition of being the cadre controlling authority of the Indian Police Service (IPS), the Ministry of Home Affairs maintains several agencies and organisations dealing with police and security. Police in the union territories comes directly under MHA.
The Minister of Home Affairs is the cabinet minister responsible for Ministry of Home Affairs, whereas the Home Secretary, an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, acts as the administrative head of Ministry of Home Affairs.
The Indian Border Security Force (BSF) is responsible for policing India 's land borders during peacetime and preventing trans - border crimes. It is a central police force operating under the Union Ministry of Home Affairs. It performs a variety of duties ranging from VIP security to election duties, from guarding of vital installations to counter-naxal operations.
The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 demonstrated the inadequacies of the then existing border management system and led to the formation of the Border Security Force as a unified central armed police force with the specific mandate of guarding India 's international boundary with Pakistan. The BSF 's policing capabilities were used in the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971 against the Pakistani Armed Forces in areas which were least threatened. During wartime or upon orders from the central government BSF operates under the command of the Indian Army. BSF troops took part in the Battle of Longewala in 1971 in this capacity. After the 1971 war which led to the creation of Bangladesh, the responsibility for policing the border with Bangladesh was also assigned to Border Security Force.
Although originally charged with guarding India 's external boundaries, the BSF has more recently been given the task of counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism operations. When the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir broke out in 1989, the Jammu and Kashmir state police and the thinly - deployed Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) needed extra force to cope with the spiralling violence, the Indian government deployed the BSF to Jammu and Kashmir to combat Kashmiri militants.
BSF operates a Tear - Smoke Unit situated at BSF Academy, Takenpur, Gwalior (MP), which supplies teargas and smoke shells for riot prevention to all of the state police forces. BSF operates Dog Squads and runs the National Dog Training and Research Centre. BSF is one of several Indian police forces which has its own Air and Water wings. It provides helicopter, dog and other support services to the State Police.
The primary task of CISF is providing industrial security. The Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) is used to guard industrial installations around the country owned by the Central government as well as securing seaports and airports. CISF also provides security to certain NGOs. They provide security for atomic power plants, space installations, mints, oil fields and refineries, major ports, heavy engineering plants, steel plants, barrages, fertilizer units, airports, hydroelectric / thermal power plants and other installations partially or wholly run by the government.
The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) is one of the largest Central Police organisations in the world. Its main objective is to assist and help states and union territories ' law enforcement agencies in maintaining law and order and to contain insurgency. It is also deployed as anti-terrorist unit in various regions. It is even operating abroad as part of United Nations peacekeeping missions. It performs a variety of duties ranging from VIP security to election duties, from guarding of vital installations to the counter-naxal operations.
The Indo - Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) is one of the five main Central Armed Police Forces, responsible for security along the Indo - Tibetan Border, covering 2115 km. The ITBP personnel are trained in the fields of law & order, military tactics, jungle warfare, counter insurgency and internal security
ITBP is an elite and agile force with a strength of about 90,000 personnel. It is involved in war - time and peace - time duties at the border and the surrounding areas.
The National Security Guards (NSG) is a commando unit originally created for counter-terrorism and hostage rescue missions. Raised in 1986, it is popularly known as the "Black Cats '' for the uniform worn by its operators. Like most military and elite security units in India, it is media - shy and the general Indian public is largely unaware of its capabilities and operational details.
The NSG draws its core members from the Indian Army and the balance support staff from various central police units. It is India 's premier counter-terror outfit and is typically deployed in situations that would be beyond the capabilities of regular police units. An NSG team with a dedicated transport aircraft is always stationed at Palam airport in New Delhi, ready to deploy in 30 minutes. The NSG has also been increasingly tasked with protection of VIPs. This role has expanded in recent years, as several politicians have come to view NSG protection as a status symbol. This has caused some concern among senior NSG officers and Home Ministry officials.
The Special Protection Group (SPG) is the executive protection agency of the Government of India. It is responsible for the protection of the Prime Minister of India, and his / her immediate families. The force was established in 1985 after the assassination of Indira Gandhi. It provides the security 24 by 7 all over India to Prime Minister including ex prime Ministers and their Family Members at any location across India.
The Sashastra Seema Bal, formed in the year 1963, is one of the five main Central Armed Police Forces, deployed at the Indo - Nepal and Indo - Bhutan borders. SSB is a dedicated Central Armed Police Force having more than 82,000 personnel. The SSB personnel are trained in the fields of law & order, military tactics, jungle warfare, counter insurgency and internal security. SSB personnel also serve in the Intelligence Bureau (IB), Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), Special Protection Group (SPG), National Security Guards (NSG) etc. on deputations. The officers start from the level of an Assistant Commandant (A.C), equivalent to the Deputy Superintendent of Police (Dy. SP) in a state and retire at the rank of Inspector General (IG).
The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is India 's premier investigative agency, responsible for a wide variety of criminal and national security matters. It is often cited to have been established from The Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946. However it must be noted that it was formed not by the Delhi state government but by the Central Government (Home Ministry) which controls the police in Delhi. The CBI thus, was formed by a mere resolution by the Central government than by legislation. This led to a case whereby the constitutionality of this government agency was questioned in the Narendra Kumar vs Union of India case in the High Court of Gauhati, Assam because the matter of all areas of policing (arrests, searches, etc.) is exclusive to state governments whereas the CBI was formed by the Central government with all the areas of policing when such powers regarding policing, are not given to the Central Government. The Gauhati High Court ruled that despite the lack of legislation, the CBI is a formal and authorized agency of the Central government to carry out policing all across the nation. The case was appealed to The Supreme Court of India which also stayed the High Court order in light of the fact that not only does India need a Central Police Force for policing for better integration in law and order but also the fact that the CBI had helped to carry out several pending cases and led to successes in investigations regarding infamous events such as the Anti-Sikh riots, the 2G spectrum scam, etc.
The Central Bureau of Investigation is controlled by the Department of Personnel and Training in the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions of the Union Government usually headed by a Union Minister who reports directly to the Prime Minister. It is India 's official Interpol unit. The CBI draws its officers from the best IPS and IRS officers around the country. It is responsible for investigation into various crimes and national security matters. The agency specializes in investigating crimes involving high ranking government officials and politicians and in some instances, criminal cases that do n't necessarily involve politicians or high - ranking officials, have been referred to the agency for investigation because of media and public pressure because of incompetency from the local police investigations.
The Indian Income - tax Department is India 's premier financial agency, responsible for a wide variety of financial and fiscal matters. The Tax department is controlled by the Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance of the Union Government headed by a Union Minister who reports directly to the Prime Minister. The CBDT is a part of Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance. On one hand, CBDT provides essential inputs for policy and planning of direct taxes in India, at the same time it is also responsible for administration of direct tax laws through the Income Tax Department. The Central Board of Direct Taxes is a statutory authority functioning under the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. The officials of the Board in their ex-officio capacity also function as a Division of the Ministry dealing with matters relating to levy and collection of direct taxes and matters of tax evasion and revenue intelligence.It is India 's official FATF unit. The Income tax Department draws its officers from the Indian Revenue Service officers around the country. It is responsible for investigation into various economic crimes and tax evasion. The special agents and agents are able to carry firearms when they are posted in the Directorate of Criminal Investigation (DCI) in the I-T department.
The DCI is headed by the Director General of Intelligence (Income Tax) which was created to tackle the menace of black money with cross-border ramifications. The revamp is aimed at launching ' un-intrusive ' investigations against "persons and transactions suspected to be involved in criminal activities having cross-border, inter-state or international ramifications, that pose a threat to national security and are punishable under the direct tax laws. ''
The commissioners of the intelligence directorate of I-T who are posted in cities like Delhi, Chandigarh, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and Lucknow will also take up criminal investigation work under the DCI. The intelligence wing of the I-T department has the Central Information Branch (CIB) under it, which is a repository of classified and exhaustive data on taxpayers ' financial transactions.
The Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) is an intelligence - based organisation responsible for the co-ordination of India 's anti-smuggling efforts. Officers in this organisation are drawn from the Indian Revenue Service (I.R.S.) and the Group ' B ' gazetted / Non-gazetted cadre of the Central Board of Excise and Customs
The Central Economic Intelligence Bureau (CEIB) is an Indian intelligence agency responsible for gathering information and monitoring the economic and financial sectors for economic offences and warfare
The Directorate General of Central Excise Intelligence (DGCEI) earlier known as the Directorate General of Anti-Evasion is an intelligence - based organisation responsible for the detection of tax evasion cases related to Central Excise Duty and Service tax. Officers in this organisation are drawn from the Indian Revenue Service (I.R.S.) and the Group ' B ' gazetted / Non-gazetted cadre of the Central Board of Excise and Customs.
National Investigation Agency (NIA) is the central agency to combat terror in India. The agency is empowered to deal with terror related crimes across states without special permission from the states. The National Investigation Agency Bill 2008 to create the agency was moved in Parliament by Union Home Minister on 16 December 2008. The NIA was created in response to the Nov 2008 Mumbai terror attacks as need for a central agency to combat terrorism was found. It also deals with drug trafficking and currency counterfeiting. It draws its officers from IRS and IPS.
The NCB is responsible for anti-narcotic operations all over the country. It checks the spread of contraband as well as the cultivation of drugs. The officers in this organisation are drawn from IPS and IRS.
The Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D) was set up on 28 August 1970 in furtherance of the objective of the Government of India for the modernization of Police Forces. It is involved in a research, relating to problems confronting the Indian police, the training of different ranks of Police in India, and the introduction of technology at both federal and state levels.
The National Police Commission in 1979 recommended the creation of a "Nodal Agency '' which suggested the maintenance of criminal records at all the police stations in the country and to create shareable databases at police stations and districts and at state and federal Level.
On this recommendation NCRB was created in 1986 with amalgamation of the Directorate of Coordination Police Computers, Central Finger Print Bureau, Data Section of Coordination Division of Central Bureau of Investigation and Statistical Section of the Bureau of Police Research and Development.
The Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL) is a wing of the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, which fulfils the forensic requirements in the country. It houses the only DNA repository in South and Southeast Asia.
There are seven central forensic laboratories in India, at Hyderabad, Kolkata, Bhopal, Chandigarh, Pune, Gauhati and New Delhi. CFSL Hyderabad is centre of excellence in chemical sciences, CFSL Kolkata in biological sciences and CFSL Chandigarh in physical sciences. These laboratories are under the control of the Directorate of Forensic Science (DFS) of the Ministry of Home Affairs. The laboratory in New Delhi is under the control of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and investigates cases on its behalf.
The National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (formerly the "Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science '') came into existence on 4 January 1972 on the recommendations of a Committee appointed by the University Grants Commission (UGC) to look into the applied aspects of education, training and research in the fields of Criminology and Forensic Science to commensurate with the growing needs of the country in general and the Criminal Justice System in India in particular. In September 1979, the Institute was constituted as a separate department under the Ministry of Home Affairs headed by a full - time Director. It is headed by senior IPS officers. The present Director is Shri Sandeep Mittal, IPS, who is a renowned expert in cyber security and defence. The Institute also has capacity for training and teaching roles for cybercrime investigations. The Institute conducts research in various aspects of criminoloy and forensics including cyber forensics. The words LNJN in its name indicate Lok Nayak Jaya Prakash Narayan. It is declared as a science and technology organisation by Department of Science and Technology. Over the years, the Institute has become a dependable name in capacity building of Criminal Justice Administration in India.
The controlling authority of a State Police force is the Department of Home of the State Government. The Additional Chief Secretary (Home) or Principal Secretary (Home), generally an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, acts the agency executive of the State Home Department, whereas the Chief Minister of the State or the State Cabinet Minister for Home is the Minister responsible for the State Home Department.
Each state and union territory of India has a state police force, headed by a Director General of Police ranked IPS officer.
The state police is responsible for maintaining law and order in townships of the state and the rural areas.
States such as West Bengal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra have taken steps to get their police force trained by advanced police training schools notably the Scotland Yard, Atlanta City Police of the USA and the World Police Academy of Canada. The Tamil Nadu state police is at the forefront of advancement with the Tamil Nadu Police Academy which now is seeking university status. Kerala Police is also the first police force in South Asia, to adopt community policing for effective and pro-public friendly initiatives and action.
The Police Act of 1861 established the fundamental principles of organisation for police forces in India, and, with minor modifications, continues in effect. Consequently, although state - level police forces are separate and may differ in terms of the quality of equipment and resources, their patterns of organisation and operation are markedly similar.
The DGP or IGP, answerable to the administrative head of Home Department of the state, who generally is an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer of the rank of Additional Chief Secretary to State Government or Principal Secretary to State Government. Under the inspector general are a number of police "ranges '' composed of three to six districts, headed by deputy inspectors general. District police headquarters are commanded by Superintendents of Police (SP). District Superintendents of Police (SP) have wide discretionary powers and are responsible for overseeing subordinate police stations as well as specialty elements, such as criminal investigation detachments, equipment storehouses and armories, and traffic police.
Most preventive police work is carried out by constables assigned to police stations. Depending on the number of stations there, a district may be subdivided and, in some states, further divided into police "circles '' to facilitate the supervision from district headquarters. Most of the major metropolitan areas such as Mumbai, Kolkata and Madras have Police Commissionerates, working under the State Police, headed by commissioners. Police in the states and union territories are assisted by units of volunteer Home Guards, maintained under guidelines formulated by the Ministry of Home Affairs.
In most states and territories, police forces are functionally divided into civil (unarmed) police and armed contingents. The former, staffs police stations, conduct investigations, answer routine complaints, perform traffic duties, and patrol the streets. They usually carry lathis -- bamboo staffs weighted or tipped with iron.
Contingents of armed police are divided into two groups, the district armed police and the Provincial Armed Constabulary (Pradeshik). The district armed police are organised along the lines of an army infantry battalion. They are assigned to police stations and perform guard and escort duties. Those states that maintain distinct armed contingents employ them as a reserve strike force for emergencies. Such units are organised either as a mobile armed force under direct state control or in the case of district armed police (who are not as well equipped) as a force directed by district superintendents and generally used for riot - control duty.
The Provincial Armed Constabulary is an armed reserve maintained at key locations in some states and active only on orders from the deputy inspector general and higher - level authorities. Armed constabulary are not usually in contact with the public until they are assigned to VIP duty or assigned to maintain order during fairs, festivals, athletic events, elections, and natural disasters. They may also be sent to quell outbreaks of student or labour unrest, organised crime, and communal riots; to maintain key guard posts; and to participate in antiterrorist operations. Depending on the type of assignment, the Provincial Armed Constabulary may carry only lathis.
At all levels, the senior police officers answer to the police chain of command and respond to the general direction and control of designated civilian officials. In the municipal force, the chain of command runs directly to the state home secretary rather than to the district superintendent or district officials.
Working conditions and pay are poor, especially in the lower echelons of the police forces. Recruits receive only around ₹, 9000 per month (about US $150). Opportunities for promotion are limited because of the system of horizontal entry into higher grades. Allegations of bribery, attributable to the low pay and poor working conditions, have been widespread.
Since the late 1980s, women have entered in larger numbers into the higher echelons of the Indian police, mostly through the Indian Police Service system. Women police officers were first used in 1972, and a number of women hold key positions in various state police organisations. However, their absolute numbers, regardless of rank, are small. Uniformed and undercover women police officers have been deployed in New Delhi as the Anti-Eve Teasing Squad, which combats sexual harassment against women ("Eves ''). Several women - only police stations have also been established in Tamil Nadu to handle sex crimes against women.
A 2016 commentary on Maharashtra State Police, which explains why reform is needed
Police uniforms of state police / local police varies widely according to grade, region, and kind of duty performed. Though the main service uniform for state police is the same: A khaki dress but in some cities like Kolkata have "white '' colored uniforms as standard issue, headgear like beret, peaked cap differs according to the rank and state. Officers usually wear a peaked cap while constables whereas, wear berets. The other branches like CBI do not have a fixed uniform and have a formal attire (shirt, tie, blazer etc.) with a badge. Special service armed police have different tactical uniforms with gear according to their role and function. Traffic police generally wears a white uniform.
District Superintendents of Police (SP) are not empowered as executive magistrates, in Districts, the District Magistrate and Collector (DM / Collector), who is an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, exercises these powers, such as promulgating Section 144 and granting arms licenses.
CID is constituted in each district under a Deputy Inspector General of Police for the purpose of collating and distributing information regarding organised crimes.
Some cities in India follow the Police Commissionerate System, such as Barrackpore Police Commissionerate in Kolkata. The Chief of Police Commissionerate is the Police Commissioner. Reporting to the Police Commissioner are the Joint Police Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner of Police and Assistant Commissioner of Police.
Commissioners of Police and their deputies are empowered as executive magistrates, and hence are empowered to promulgate Section 144 and to grant arms license.
The majority of police commissionerates are subordinate to the state police, the exception being Kolkata Police, which directly reports to the Home Department of West Bengal government.
Highway Police and Traffic Police in the small towns come under the state police, but Traffic Police in the cities come under the metropolitan police and state police. The Traffic Police are responsible for maintaining the smooth flow of traffic and stopping offenders in the city or town, Highway Police are responsible for securing the highways and for catching speeding offenders. Accidents, registrations, vehicle data are all looked by the Traffic Police
The State Armed Police Forces are organisations which provide the state with policing in particularly violent or serious situations. Such forces are involved with combating banditry and Naxalites. Like the Central Armed Police Forces, they are sometimes known unofficially as "paramilitary forces ''. Each state police force maintains its own State Armed Police Force (known by names such as Provincial Armed Constabulary (PAC), Special Armed Police, etc.) which is responsible for emergencies and crowd control issues. They are generally activated only on orders from the Additional Commissioner of Police, and higher - level authorities. The armed constabulary do not usually come into contact with the general public unless they are assigned to VIP duty or to maintain order during fairs, festivals, athletic events, elections, and natural disasters. They may also be sent to quell outbreaks of student or labour unrest, organised crime, and communal riots; to maintain key guard posts; and to participate in anti-terrorist operations. Depending on the type of assignment, the Armed Police force may carry only lathis or lethal weapons.
The recruitment process differs according to the level of the position, and direct entry (where an applicant does not have to start at the lowest level) is possible. The educational requirements increase with recruitments for higher posts.
The Deputy Superintendents of Police (DSP) or Assistant Superintendents of Police (ACP) are recruited every year by the UPSC (a wing of the central government) by an extremely competitive exam and are appointed into the Indian Police Service. The IPS officers are then assigned to a state force. Superintendents of Police undergo rigorous training for 44 weeks. The training programme also involves external invitees such as lawyers and management consultants. At the end of probation, they undergo an orientation training of few weeks at the assigned state 's police academy.
Lower, non-managerial positions are selected by the state or central government and are trained at Police Recruit Schools. The duration of training for inspectors is roughly a year, and for constables is nearly 9 months. The training staff for these schools are drawn from the police force itself. Police are trained in basic law, self - protection, weapon handling etc. from recruit stations best recruits are taken into special forces where they undergo special training.
Recruitment process of State police is maintained by State Police Recruitment Boards. There are some eligibility standards which are set by Indian Government depending upon the demographics of a particular state. Those who fulfill these standards, are selected for recruitment process.
Unlike in many other countries, the various state police forces in India extensively use SUVs. The Mahindra Legend Jeep used to be the most common police car in India. In recent years, other SUVs have been employed by the police, such as the Maruti Gypsy, Mahindra Bolero, Tata Sumo, Tata Safari, Chevrolet Tavera and Toyota Qualis. SUVs are known for their capabilities to move around in any sort of terrain.
MUVs are used by police in cities, including metropolitan areas like Delhi and Mumbai, Bangalore where Chevrolet Tavera (Delhi, Kochi, Kozhikode and Thiruvananthapuram), Toyota Qualis (Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai) and Suzuki Ertiga (Bangalore and Pune) are extensively used. Though most cities use SUVs and MUVs, some cities like Chennai have adopted sedans like the Hyundai Accent and Kolkata which has adopted the Tata Indigo.In the cities of Kerala like Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, and Kozhikode a special patrolling team called Pink Patrol for security of women uses Toyota Etios for patrolling. Depending upon the state, police vehicles may have individual revolving lights, strobes or light bars etc. An extensive modernisation drive has ensured that these vehicles are equipped with two - way radio sets in communication with a central control room. Highway Police vehicles generally also have equipment like speed radars, breath analysers and emergency first aid kits.
For traffic regulation and patrolling in cities, motorcycles are also used. Most of them were the Indian version of Royal Enfield Bullet. Of late, other motorcycles like the Bajaj Pulsar and TVS Apache have also started being used by the police forces. This is because of increasing congestion in cities where the heavier Bullets would prove to be unwieldy when compared to the nimbler handling the newer bikes were capable of. The bikes are provided with two - way radios, strobes and sirens & are generally painted white.
Cities like Mysore use horses too, but on special occasions usually.
The weapons and equipment issued vary from state to state and agency to agency. These equipment and weapons differ according to the roles of the agencies.
The standard equipment for a constable on their beat is the lathi (not to be confused with traditional 6 to 8 ft long ones) or baton which is generally made of bamboo, but recently polymer ones are also being issued. The riot police has numerous other equipment which include tear gas, tasers etc.
In general, Indian police constables do not carry firearms when on regular duty, though they are always available at police stations. Officers of and above the rank of Sub-Inspector or Head Constables are authorized to carry a sidearm, generally a Pistol Auto 9mm 1A or a Glock 17. Officers always carry sidearms. Traffic police officers regularly do n't carry any weapons but carry fine books and other equipment.
The firearms previously stocked at police stations include. 303 Lee -- Enfield rifles (have been replaced), 7.62 1A Self Loading Rifles, and SAF Carbine 2A1s which now have been replaced by AK - 47 and INSAS rifles. The Ordnance Factories Board is the one of the suppliers of arms, ammunition, uniforms, bullet - proof vehicles, and mine protected vehicles to the Indian police. Only the station officer can allow the use of reserve guns, to be only used in emergencies. During public unrest, protests or probable terrorist attacks, police are equipped and armed directly by the state or central government. Some special units in the state and federal level police forces also have additional automatic weapons such as AK - 47, AKM, INSAS assault rifles and Bren guns. Police special forces and SWAT units use Heckler & Koch MP5s, Brügger & Thomet MP9s, AK - 103s, and M4A1 Carbines and many more. Bullet proof jackets are generally not worn by the state police, though special units carry special tactical vests, gear and weapons according to their function and role.
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minimum age to drive transport vehicle in india | Driving licence in India - wikipedia
In India, the driving licence is the official document which authorises its holder to operate various types of motor vehicle on highways and some other roads to which the public have access. In various Indian states, they are administered by the Regional Transport Authorities / Offices (RTA / RTO). A driving licence is required in India by any person driving a vehicle on any highway or other road defined in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
A modern photo of the driving licence can also serve many of the purposes of an identity card in non-driving contexts (proof of identity (e.g. when opening a bank account) or age (e.g. when applying for a mobile connection)).
Applications for a provisional driving licence can be made from the age of 16. Valid for driving a moped or gearless motorcycle (with a capacity of up to 50 cc) from aged 16, and a car from aged 16 or older to drive any other type of vehicle. The common "All India Permit '' allows the licensee to drive throughout the country. For driving commercial / transport vehicles, one should obtain endorsement (and a minimum age of 20 years, in some states) in the driving licence to effect under s. 3 (1) of The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Until a driving test (which consists of three sections: verbal or written test (depending on the state), road sign test followed by a supervised driving examination) has been passed a driver may hold only a provisional licence and be subject to certain conditions.
The conditions attached to provisional licences of a particular category of vehicle are:
After passing a driving test, the provisional licence may be surrendered in exchange for a full Indian licence for the relevant kind of vehicle. Full car licences allow use of mopeds, motorcycles and cars.
A licence if valid for 20 years from the date of issue or till the licence holders turns 50 years of age, whichever happens earlier. The driving licence is required to be renewed after expiry of its validity.
Tests on basic driving rules are conducted at the RTOs when an individual applies for provisional licence. The theoretical test in India consists of basic road sign questions, which are the same for car and motorcycle tests:
The theory test are completed on the computer, and both must be passed in order to pass the theory test.
This is a list of the categories that might be found on a driving licence in India.
Most of the legislation regarding licensing is in the Rules of the Road Regulation and the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Private / Commercial drivers should have an additional Badge if they are driving a taxi or any other public transport vehicle. scout
India uses cumulative points systems, broadly similar but different in detail in different countries, for offenders.
Points are given for driving offences by law courts, and the licence is endorsed accordingly. An Indian driving licence may be endorsed by the courts for various offences, not only for those committed whilst driving or in charge of a vehicle. If the individual committing the offence does not hold a valid driving licence the driver is subject to be penalised or face imprisonment of up to 3 months. Violation of traffic signals, triple driving on motor cycle, using vehicles without registration or in unsafe condition may endorse and attract 3 negative points in each case.
In case of two - wheelers, helmet laws is mandatory for the main rider and the pillion rider. Offences such as for drink or drug driving are recorded on the licence and the offender is prosecuted and imprisoned.
Twelve points on the licence makes the driver liable to cancellation / suspension of driving licence for one year; accumulation of twelve points for the second consecutive time would lead to suspension of driving licence for five years.
Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving licence while driving. Under s. 130 of Motor Vehicles Act, 1988; A police officer or any other official authorised by the government can ask for vehicle - related documents, and the driver should produce them within 15 days at the police station (or the concerned department).
The law permits officials to seize a licence, and issue a temporary one for a specified time. The law also allows the state government to set the fines or prison terms for minor traffic violations, and specifies who has the rights to enforce these rules.
Every driving licence has a maximum number of endorsements allowed. If the driver does not follow the traffic rules or causes any fault, then a penalty fine is issued and an endorsement put on the licence. An excessive number of endorsements may lead to cancellation.
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what was the significance of the north african campaign | North African Campaign - wikipedia
Allied victory
Allies
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The North African Campaign of the Second World War took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts (Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War) and in Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch), as well as Tunisia (Tunisia Campaign).
The campaign was fought between the Allies, many of whom had colonial interests in Africa dating from the late 19th century, and the Axis Powers. The Allied war effort was dominated by the British Commonwealth and exiles from German - occupied Europe. The United States officially entered the war in December 1941 and began direct military assistance in North Africa on 11 May 1942.
Fighting in North Africa started with the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940. On 14 June, the British Army 's 11th Hussars (assisted by elements of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, 1st RTR) crossed the border from Egypt into Libya and captured the Italian Fort Capuzzo. This was followed by an Italian counter-offensive into Egypt and the capture of Sidi Barrani in September 1940 and again in December 1940 following a British Commonwealth counteroffensive, Operation Compass. During Operation Compass, the Italian 10th Army was destroyed and the German Afrika Korps -- commanded by Erwin Rommel, who later became known as "The Desert Fox '' -- was dispatched to North Africa in February 1941 during Operation Sonnenblume to reinforce Italian forces in order to prevent a complete Axis defeat.
A fluctuating series of battles for control of Libya and regions of Egypt followed, reaching a climax in the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942 when British Commonwealth forces under the command of Lieutenant - General Bernard Montgomery inflicted a decisive defeat on Rommel 's Afrika Korps and forced its remnants into Tunisia. After the Anglo - American landings (Operation Torch) in North - West Africa in November 1942, and subsequent battles against Vichy France forces (who then changed sides), the Allies encircled several thousand German and Italian personnel in northern Tunisia and finally forced their surrender in May 1943.
Operation Torch in November 1942 was a compromise operation that met the British objective of securing victory in North Africa while allowing American armed forces the opportunity to engage in the fight against Nazi Germany on a limited scale. In addition, as Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, had long been pleading for a second front to be opened to engage the Wehrmacht and relieve pressure on the Red Army, it provided some degree of relief for the Red Army on the Eastern Front by diverting Axis forces to the North African theatre.
Information gleaned via British Ultra code - breaking intelligence proved critical to Allied success in North Africa. Victory for the Allies in this campaign immediately led to the Italian Campaign, which culminated in the downfall of the fascist government in Italy and the elimination of Germany 's main European ally.
On 10 May 1940, the Wehrmacht had started the Battle of France (or Westfeldzug). One month later, it was plain to see that France would have to surrender within two weeks (the Armistice at Compiègne took place on 22 June 1940).
On 10 June 1940, the Kingdom of Italy aligned itself with Nazi Germany and declared war upon France and the United Kingdom. British forces (along with Indian and Rhodesian troop said under the empire) based in Egypt were ordered to undertake defensive measures, but to act as non-provocatively as possible. However, on 11 June they began a series of raids against Italian positions in Libya. Following the defeat of France on 25 June, Italian forces in Tripolitania -- facing French troops based in Tunisia -- redeployed to Cyrenaica to reinforce the Italian Tenth Army. This, coupled with the steadily degrading equipment of the British forces led General Archibald Wavell to order an end to raiding and placed the defence of the Egyptian border on a small screening force.
Italian dictator Benito Mussolini ordered the Tenth Army to invade Egypt by 8 August. Two days later, no invasion having been launched, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani that, the moment German forces launched Operation Sea Lion, he was to attack. On 8 September, the Italians -- hampered by the lack of transport and enfeebled by the low level of training among officers and weakened by the state of its supporting arms -- were ordered to invade Egypt the following day. The battle plan was to advance along the coastal road, while limited armoured forces operated on the desert flank. To counter the Italian advance, Wavell ordered his screening forces to harass the advancing Italians, falling back towards Mersa Matruh, where the main British infantry force was based. Positioned on the desert flank was the 7th Armoured Division, which would strike the flank of the Italian force.
By 16 September, the Italian force had advanced to Maktila, around 80 mi (130 km) west of Mersa Matruh, where they halted due to supply problems. Despite Mussolini urging that the advance carry on, Graziani ordered his force to dig in around Sidi Barrani, and fortified camps were established in forward locations; additional troops were also positioned behind the main force. In response to the dispersed Italian camps, the British planned a limited five - day attack, Operation Compass, to strike at these fortified camps one by one. The British Commonwealth force, totalling 36,000 men, attacked the forward elements of the 10 - division - strong Italian army on 9 December. Following their initial success, the forces of Operation Compass pursued the retreating Italian forces. In January, the small port at Bardia was taken, soon followed by the seizure of the fortified port of Tobruk. Some 40,000 Italians were captured in and around the two ports, with the remainder of the Tenth Army retreating along the coast road back to El Agheila. Richard O'Connor sent the 7th Armoured Division across the desert, with a small reconnaissance group reaching Beda Fomm some ninety minutes before the Italians, cutting off their retreat. Although desperate attempts were made to overcome the British force at the Battle of Beda Fomm, the Italians were unable to break through, and the remnants of the retreating army surrendered. Thus, over the course of 10 weeks Allied forces had destroyed the Italian Tenth Army and reached El Agheila, taking 130,000 prisoners of war in the process.
Mussolini requested help from his German ally while the Italian Commando Supremo speedily sent several large motorized and armoured forces to protect their colonies in North Africa. This greatly expanded reinforcement included the soon to be renowned Ariete Armoured division under General Ettore Baldassarre. Meanwhile, the Germans hastily assembled a motorized force, whose lead elements arrived in Tripoli in February. This relatively small expeditionary force, termed the Afrika Korps by Hitler, was placed under the command of Erwin Rommel. His orders were to reinforce the Italians and block Allied attempts to drive them out of the region. However, the initial commitment of only one panzer division and subsequently, no more than two panzer and one motorized divisions, indicated the limited extent of German involvement and commitment in this theater of operations. The bulk of the reinforcements were Italian and therefore it was up to the Italians to do the bulk of the fighting. The forward Allied force -- now named XIII Corps -- adopted a defensive posture and over the coming months was built up, before having most of its veteran forces redeployed to Greece. In addition, the 7th Armoured Division was withdrawn to the Nile delta. The veteran forces were replaced by inexperienced forces, ill - equipped to face German armour.
Although Rommel had been ordered to simply hold the line, an armoured reconnaissance soon became a full - fledged offensive from El Agheila in March 1941. In March -- April, the Allied forces were forced back and leading general officers captured. The Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk, and the remaining British and Commonwealth forces withdrew a further 100 mi (160 km) east to the Libyan -- Egyptian border. With Tobruk under siege from the main Italian - German force, a small battlegroup continued to press eastwards. Capturing Fort Capuzzo and Bardia in passing, it then advanced into Egypt, and by the end of April had taken Sollum and the tactically important Halfaya Pass. Rommel garrisoned these positions, reinforcing the battle - group and ordering it onto the defensive.
Though isolated by land, Tobruk 's garrison continued to receive supplies and replacements, delivered by the Royal Navy at night. Rommel 's forces did not have the strength or training to take the fortress. This created a supply problem for his forward units. His front - line positions at Sollum were at the end of an extended supply chain that stretched back to Tripoli and had to bypass the coast road at Tobruk. Further, he was constantly threatened by a breakout of the British forces at Tobruk. Without Tobruk in Axis hands, further advances into Egypt were impractical.
The Allies soon launched a small - scale counter-attack called Operation Brevity. This was an attempt to push the Axis forces off the key passes at the border, which gained some initial success, but the advanced position could not be held. Brevity was then followed up by a much larger - scale offensive, Operation Battleaxe. Intended to relieve the siege at Tobruk, this operation also failed.
Following the failure of Operation Battleaxe, Archibald Wavell was relieved of command and replaced by Claude Auchinleck. The Western Desert Force was reinforced with a second corps, XXX Corps, with the two corps forming the Eighth Army. Eighth Army was made up of army forces from the Commonwealth nations, including the British Army, the Australian Army, the British Indian Army, the New Zealand Army, the South African Army, and the Sudan Defence Force. There was also a brigade of Free French under Marie - Pierre Koenig. The new formation launched a new offensive, Operation Crusader, in November 1941. After a see - saw battle, the 70th Division garrisoning Tobruk was relieved and the Axis forces were forced to fall back. By January 1942, the front line was again at El Agheila.
After receiving supplies and reinforcements from Tripoli, the Axis attacked again, defeating the Allies at Gazala in June and capturing Tobruk. The Axis forces drove the Eighth Army back over the Egyptian border, but their advance was stopped in July only 90 mi (140 km) from Alexandria in the First Battle of El Alamein.
Of great significance, on 29 June US reports from Egypt of British military operations stopped using the compromised "Black Code '' which the Axis were reading, so learning of British "strengths, positions, losses, reinforcements, supply, situation, plans, morale etc ''.
General Auchinleck, although he had checked Rommel 's advance at the First Battle of El Alamein, was replaced by General Harold Alexander. Lieutenant - General William Gott was promoted from XIII Corps commander to take command of the entire Eighth Army, but he was killed when his aircraft was intercepted and shot down over Egypt. He was replaced by Lieutenant - General Bernard Montgomery.
At the end of June, the Axis forces made a second attempt to break through the Allied defences at El Alamein at Alam Halfa, but were unsuccessful. After a lengthy period of build - up and training, the Eighth Army launched a major offensive, decisively defeating the Italian - German army during the Second Battle of El Alamein in late October 1942, driving the Axis forces westward and capturing Tripoli in mid-January 1943. By February, the Eighth Army was facing the Italian - German Panzer Army near the Mareth Line and came under command of General Harold Alexander 's 18th Army Group for the concluding phase of the war in North Africa, the Tunisia Campaign.
Operation Torch started on 8 November 1942, and finished on 11 November. In an attempt to pincer German and Italian forces, Allied forces (American and British Commonwealth), landed in Vichy - held French North Africa under the assumption that there would be little to no resistance. Nevertheless, Vichy French forces put up a strong and bloody resistance to the Allies in Oran and Morocco, but not in Algiers, where a coup d'état by the French resistance on 8 November succeeded in neutralizing the French XIX Corps before the landing and arresting the Vichy commanders. Consequently, the landings met no practical opposition in Algiers, and the city was captured on the first day along with the entire Vichy African command. After three days of talks and threats, Generals Mark Clark and Dwight Eisenhower compelled the Vichy Admiral François Darlan (and General Alphonse Juin) to order the cessation of armed resistance in Oran and Morocco by French forces on 10 -- 11 November with the provision that Darlan would be head of a Free French administration. During Operation Torch, American, Vichy French and German navy vessels fought the Naval Battle of Casablanca, ending in an American victory.
The Allied landings prompted the Axis occupation of Vichy France (Case Anton). In addition, the French fleet was captured at Toulon by the Italians, something which did them little good as the main portion of the fleet had been scuttled to prevent their use by the Axis. The Vichy army in North Africa joined the Allies (see Free French Forces).
Following the Operation Torch landings, (from early November 1942), the Germans and Italians initiated a buildup of troops in Tunisia to fill the vacuum left by Vichy troops which had withdrawn. During this period of weakness, the Allies decided against a rapid advance into Tunisia while they wrestled with the Vichy authorities. Many of the Allied soldiers were tied up in garrison duties because of the uncertain status and intentions of the Vichy forces.
By mid-November, the Allies were able to advance into Tunisia but only in single division strength. By early December, the Eastern Task Force -- which had been redesignated as the British First Army under Lieutenant - General Kenneth Anderson -- was composed of the British 78th Infantry Division, British 6th Armoured Division, 1st Parachute Brigade, No. 6 Commando and elements of US 1st Armored Division. But by this time, one German and five Italian divisions had been shipped from Europe and the remoteness of Allied airfields from the front line gave the Axis clear air superiority over the battlefield. The Allies were halted and pushed back having advanced eastwards to within 30 kilometres (19 mi) of Tunis.
During the winter, there followed a period of stalemate during which time both sides continued to build up their forces. By the new year, the British First Army had one British, one US and one French Corps (a second British Corps headquarters was activated in April). In the second half of February, in eastern Tunisia, Rommel and von Arnim had some successes against the mainly inexperienced French and US troops, most notably in routing the US II Corps commanded by Major General Lloyd Fredendall at the Battle of Kasserine Pass.
By the beginning of March, the British Eighth Army -- advancing westward along the North African coast -- had reached the Tunisian border. Rommel and von Arnim found themselves in an Allied "two army '' pincer. They were outflanked, outmanned and outgunned. The British Eighth Army bypassed the Axis defence on the Mareth Line in late March and First Army in central Tunisia launched their main offensive in mid-April to squeeze the Axis forces until their resistance in Africa collapsed. The Axis forces surrendered on 13 May 1943 yielding over 275,000 prisoners of war. The last Axis force to surrender in North Africa was the 1st Italian Army. This huge loss of experienced troops greatly reduced the military capacity of the Axis powers, although the largest percentage of Axis troops escaped Tunisia. This defeat in Africa led to all Italian colonies in Africa being captured.
The Axis had considerable success in intelligence gathering through radio communication intercepts and monitoring unit radio traffic. The most important success came through intercepting the reports of Colonel Bonner Fellers, the US military attaché in Egypt. He had been tasked by General George Marshall with providing detailed reports on the military situation in Africa. Fellers talked with British military and civilian headquarters personnel, read documents and visited the battlefront. Known to the Germans as "die gute Quelle '' (the good source) or more jokingly as ' the little fellow ', he transmitted his reports back to Washington using the "Black Code '' of the US State Department. However, in September 1941, the Italians had stolen a code book containing the Black Code, photographed it and returned it to the US embassy in Rome. The Italians shared parts of their intercepts with their German allies. In addition the "Chiffrierabteilung '' (German military cipher branch) were soon able to break the code. Fellers ' reports were very detailed and played a significant role in informing the Germans of allied strength and intentions between January and June 1942.
In addition, the Italian Servizio Informazioni Segrete or SIS code - breakers were able to successfully intercept much radio encrypted signals intelligence (SIGINT) from British aircraft traffic as well as first - class ciphers from British vessels and land bases, providing Supermarina (Regia Marina) with timely warnings of Allied intentions in the Mediterranean. Indeed, so successful was the Italian SIS in handling the bulk of Axis naval intelligence in the Mediterranean, that "Britain 's offensive use of SIGINT was largely negated by Italy 's defensive SIGINT. ''
The Afrika Korps had the intelligence services of the 621st Signals Battalion mobile monitoring element which arrived in North Africa in late April 1941, commanded by Hauptmann Alfred Seeböhm. The 621st Signals Battalion monitored radio communications among British units. Unfortunately for the Allies, the British not only failed to change their codes with any frequency, they were also prone to poor radio discipline in combat. Their officers made frequent open, uncoded transmissions to their commands, allowing the Germans to more easily identify British units and deployments. The situation changed after a counterattack during the Battle of Gazala resulted in the 621st Signals Battalion being overrun and destroyed, and a number of their documents captured, alerting British intelligence to the problem. The British responded by instituting an improved call signal procedure, introducing radiotelephonic codes, imposing rigid wireless silence on reserve formations, padding out real messages with dummy traffic, tightening up on their radio discipline in combat and creating an entire fake signals network in the southern sector.
Allied codebreakers read much enciphered German message traffic, especially that encrypted with the Enigma machine. The Allies ' Ultra programme was initially of limited value, as it took too long to get the information to the commanders in the field, and at times provided information that was less than helpful. In terms of anticipating the next move the Germans would make, reliance on Ultra sometimes backfired. Part of the reason the initial German attacks in March 1941 were so successful was that Ultra intercepts had informed Wavell that OKW had clearly directed Rommel not to take any offensive action, but to wait until he was further reinforced with the 15th Panzer Division in May. Rommel received this information, but placed more value on his own assessment of the situation. Trusting that the Germans had no intention of taking major action, the British command did not respond until it was too late. Furthermore, Rommel did not generally provide OKW or the Italian Comando Supremo details of his planned operations, for he thought the Italians too prone to leak the information. Thus on 21 January 1942, when Rommel struck out on his second offensive from El Agheila, Commando Supremo was just as surprised to learn of it as the British were. Ultra intercepts provided the British with such information as the name of the new German commander, his time of arrival, and the numbers and condition of the Axis forces, but they might not correctly reveal Rommel 's intentions.
The primary benefit of Ultra intercepts to the effort in North Africa was to aid in cutting the Axis supply line to Tunisia. Ultra intercepts provided valuable information about the times and routes of Axis supply shipments across the Mediterranean. This was critical in providing the British with the opportunity to intercept and destroy them. During the time when Malta was under heavy air attack, the ability to act on this information was limited, but as Allied air and naval strength improved, the information became instrumental to Allied success. It is estimated that 40 % to 60 % of Axis supply shipping was located and destroyed due to decrypted information. However, this claim is strongly disputed by the authors Vincent P. O'Hara and Enrico Cernuschi (2013) who claim that authors like F.H. Hinsley have greatly exaggerated the effects of ULTRA. For example, they claim that intelligence provided by ULTRA had little impact in stopping Italian convoys reaching North Africa. Of the 2.67 million tons of materiel, fuel, and munitions shipped to Africa -- nearly all in Italian vessels and under Italian escort -- 2.24 million tons managed to arrive despite the best efforts of ULTRA and the British Navy to prevent it. In effect, "Ultra did not deny the Axis armies the supplies they needed to reach the Nile. ''
Heavy losses of German paratroopers in Crete, made possible by Ultra warnings of the drop times and locations, meant that Hitler hesitated in attacking Malta, which aided the British in gaining control of the Mediterranean, as did the losses of the Italian Navy at the Battle of Cape Matapan. To conceal the fact that German coded messages were being read, a fact critical to the overall Allied war effort, British command required a flyover mission be carried out before a convoy could be attacked in order to give the appearance that a reconnaissance flight had discovered the target.
After victory by the Allies in the North African Campaign, the stage was set for the Italian Campaign to begin. The invasion of Sicily followed two months later. Nearly 400,000 Axis and Allied troops were either lost, injured, or died of disease by the end of the North African Campaign.
Sono circa 400.000 i prigionieri fatti dagli inglesi in Etiopia e in Africa settentrionale, 125.000 presi dagli americani in Tunisia e in Sicilia, 40.000 lasciati ai francesi in Tunisia ("There were about 400,000 prisoners made by the British in North Africa and in Ethiopia, 125,000 taken by the Americans in Tunisia and Sicily, 40,000 by the French in Tunisia '')
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who is presiding officer for impeachment trials against the president of the phil | Impeachment in the Philippines - wikipedia
Impeachment in the Philippines is an expressed power of the Congress of the Philippines to formally charge a serving government official with an impeachable offense. After being impeached by the House of Representatives, the official is then tried in the Senate. If convicted, the official is either removed from office or censured.
Impeachment followed by conviction is often the only way to forcibly remove a sitting official. While "impeachment '' is often used to refer to the entire process of removing an official from office, it only formally refers to the indictment stage in the House of Representatives, not the trial stage in the Senate. Under the current Constitution, an official can be impeached if one third of the House of Representatives votes in favor. Since it takes only a simple majority to set the agenda or to adjourn the House, it can be difficult for a minority of one third to bring a vote and impeach an official.
President Elpidio Quirino was accused in 1949 of using government fund to renovate Malacañang Palace, using government funds to purchase furniture for the Presidential Palace and linking him to alleged diamond smuggling. A Congressional committee rejected this complaint for lack of factual and legal basis.
In 1964, President Diosdado Macapagal was accused of illegally importing rice to build public support in an election, illegally dismissing officials, using the military to intimidate the political opposition, and ordering the deportation of an American businessman who was in the custody of Congress in violation of the separation of governmental powers. A Congressional committee dismissed all the charges.
President Ferdinand Marcos was accused by 56 lawmakers on 1985 of graft, economic plunder, unexplained wealth, granting monopolies to cronies, and other crimes. the following day the National Assembly committee dismissed the complaints after roughly five hours of discussions for continuing unsupported conclusions.
President Corazon Aquino was accused by lawmakers in 1988 of graft and violating the Constitution. The charges were rejected the following month due to lack of evidence.
President Joseph Estrada was accused of bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust, and culpable violation of the Constitution during the impeachment of 2000, to determine the accusations, the House of Representatives choose 11 members to act as prosecutors with the Senate as the impeachment court and the senators as judges. On November 13, 2000, House Speaker Manny Villar sent the articles of impeachment to the Senate for trial.
The impeachment trial started on December 7, 2000, which was presided by then - Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. but was aborted on January 16, 2001 after the House private prosecutors walked out from the impeachment proceedings, to protest against the perceived dictatorial tendency of the eleven senator - judges, who supported President Estrada. The walkout led to Second EDSA Revolution and the downfall of President Estrada.
President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was accused in 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 impeachment complaints for different imputations, specially attempting lying, cheating and stealing during 2004 presidential election against opposition candidate Fernando Poe, Jr... However all impeachment cases were failed due to absence of one third vote from the members of Congress.
President Benigno Aquino III was charged in 2014, of 4 impeachment complaints, in relations to the Disbursement Acceleration Program (DAP) which was declared by the Supreme Court as Unconstitutional and the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) between the Philippines and United States, but the House Justice Committee rejects the complaints due to lack of substance.
In 2017, impeachment complaints have been filed against both President Rodrigo Duterte and Vice President Leni Robredo.
Ombudsman Aniano Desierto was criticized by some for not aggressively investigating and prosecuting cases of corruption. The impeachment failed.
COMELEC commissioner Luzviminda Tancangco was accused of graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust and culpable violation of the Constitution. She allegedly showed bias for the multi-billion - peso voters registration and information system (VRIS) project, deciding to undertake it despite the lack of funds.
Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. was accused of culpable violation of the Constitution, betrayal of the public trust and other high crimes.
COMELEC Chairman Benjamin Abalos was accused of ZTE national broadband network (NBN) deal and Hello Garci controversy but resigned eventually.
Ombudsman Merceditas Gutierrez was impeached on March 22, 2011 on charges of the office 's underperformance and failure to act on several cases during then - President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo 's administration. The first impeachment complaint against Gutierrez was filed in 2009, but was dismissed later in that year in a House dominated by Arroyo 's Lakas Kampi CMD party.
In December 2011, 188 of the 285 members of the House of Representatives voted to transmit the 56 - page Articles of Impeachment against Supreme Court Chief Justice Renato Corona.
Commission on Elections Chairman Andres D. Bautista had filed a resignation on October 11, 2017 but with effectivity date on December 31, 2017. But due to not stating immediate effectivity of the resignation, on the same day, the House of Representatives still voted to impeach the poll chief with 137 votes (more than 1 / 3 votes) from the House, overturning a justice committee resolution that earlier dismissed the complaint against him. Bautista eventually made his resignation effective later in the month, before the Senate convened as an impeachment court.
Impeachment proceeding of Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno was terminated after she was removed on May 11, 2018, via quo warranto by a special en banc session of the Supreme Court which also ruled that the Chief Justice post vacant; the petition alleged Sereno 's appointment was void ab initio due to her failure in complying with the Judicial and Bar Council requirements
To date, Corona 's removal from as Chief Justice and disqualification from public office is the only completion of the impeachment process. Estrada 's impeachment trial ended prematurely, while Gutierrez and Bautista resigned before the Senate convened as an impeachment court.
Based on Article XI, Section 2 of the Constitution The following officials may be subjected to impeachment:
Other officials can be removed from offices but not by impeachment: those under the executive department may be dismissed by the president; members of Congress can be expelled by two - thirds vote of the chamber the member is a part of; local elected officials can be removed from office through recall.
In the 1935 and 1973 constitutions, the President, the Vice President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, and the Auditor General were the impeachable officials.
The Constitution limits the offenses to the following: culpable violation of the Constitution, treason, bribery, graft and corruption, other high crimes, or betrayal of public trust.
In the 1935 and 1973 constitution, betrayal of public trust was not an impeachable offense.
For purposes of impeachment, "culpable violation of the Constitution '' is defined as "the deliberate and wrongful breach of the Constitution. '' Further, "Violation of the Constitution made unintentionally, in good faith, and mere mistakes in the proper construction of the Constitution, do not constitute an impeachable offense. ''
According to the Revised Penal Code, treason is defined as "Any Filipino citizen who levies war against the Philippines or adheres to her enemies, giving them aid or comfort within the Philippines or elsewhere. ''
The Revised Penal Code defines bribery in two forms:
Any violation of the Republic Act No. 3019, or the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act is an impeachable offense.
In Francisco Jr. vs. Nagmamalasakit na mga Manananggol ng mga Manggagawang Pilipino, Inc., the Supreme Court purposely refused to define the meaning of "other high crimes or betrayal of public trust, '' saying that it is "a non-justiciable political question which is beyond the scope of its judicial power. '' However, the Court refuses to name which agency can define it; the Court impliedly gives the power to the House of Representatives, which initiates all cases of impeachment.
In the 1935 constitution, a two - thirds vote was needed to impeach an official by the House of Representatives, while a three - fourths vote in the Senate was required to convict.
The 1987 (current) constitution limits the number of impeachment complaints that can be filed against an official to one per year. There has been controversy over what counts as an impeachment complaint. While some argued that for a complaint to count against the limit it must be voted on, and others have proposed other interpretations, the House has decided that any complaint filed fulfills the quota regardless of how well - formed it is or who filed it. Therefore, supporters of a vulnerable official can file a weak, flawed, or unconstitutional complaint, thereby using up the quota and protecting that official from impeachment for that year.
There has also been debate about whether a year should be a calendar year, say 2006, or a full 12 - month period. An example of how this limit works in practice are the attempts to impeach President Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo. While the Philippine impeachment procedures parallel the United States ' impeachment procedures, the two procedures differ in two significant ways: the percentage needed to impeach and the numerical limit on impeachment procedures.
If the President of the Philippines is on trial, such as in 2001, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines shall preside but not vote.
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what is the meaning of root in android phone | Rooting (Android) - wikipedia
Rooting is the process of allowing users of smartphones, tablets and other devices running the Android mobile operating system to attain privileged control (known as root access) over various Android subsystems. As Android uses the Linux kernel, rooting an Android device gives similar access to administrative (superuser) permissions as on Linux or any other Unix - like operating system such as FreeBSD or macOS.
Rooting is often performed with the goal of overcoming limitations that carriers and hardware manufacturers put on some devices. Thus, rooting gives the ability (or permission) to alter or replace system applications and settings, run specialized applications ("apps '') that require administrator - level permissions, or perform other operations that are otherwise inaccessible to a normal Android user. On Android, rooting can also facilitate the complete removal and replacement of the device 's operating system, usually with a more recent release of its current operating system.
Root access is sometimes compared to jailbreaking devices running the Apple iOS operating system. However, these are different concepts: Jailbreaking is the bypass of several types of Apple prohibitions for the end user, including modifying the operating system (enforced by a "locked bootloader ''), installing non-officially approved applications via sideloading, and granting the user elevated administration - level privileges (rooting). Many vendors such as HTC, Sony, Asus and Google explicitly provide the ability to unlock devices, and even replace the operating system entirely. Similarly, the ability to sideload applications is typically permissible on Android devices without root permissions. Thus, it is primarily the third aspect of iOS jailbreaking (giving users administrative privileges) that most directly correlates to Android rooting.
Rooting lets all user - installed applications run privileged commands typically unavailable to the devices in the stock configuration. Rooting is required for more advanced and potentially dangerous operations including modifying or deleting system files, removing pre-installed applications, and low - level access to the hardware itself (rebooting, controlling status lights, or recalibrating touch inputs.) A typical rooting installation also installs the Superuser application, which supervises applications that are granted root or superuser rights by requesting approval from the user before granting said permissions. A secondary operation, unlocking the device 's bootloader verification, is required to remove or replace the installed operating system.
In contrast to iOS jailbreaking, rooting is not needed to run applications distributed outside of the Google Play Store, sometimes called sideloading. The Android OS supports this feature natively in two ways: through the "Unknown sources '' option in the Settings menu and through the Android Debug Bridge. However, some US carriers, including AT&T, prevented the installation of applications not on the Play Store in firmware, although several devices are not subject to this rule, including the Samsung Infuse 4G; AT&T lifted the restriction on most devices by the middle of 2011.
As of 2011, the Amazon Kindle Fire defaults to the Amazon Appstore instead of Google Play, though like most other Android devices, Kindle Fire allows sideloading of applications from unknown sources, and the "easy installer '' application on the Amazon Appstore makes this easy. Other vendors of Android devices may look to other sources in the future. Access to alternate apps may require rooting but rooting is not always necessary.
Rooting an Android phone lets the owner add, edit or delete system files, which in turn lets them perform various tweaks and use apps that require root access.
Advantages of rooting include the possibility for complete control over the look and feel of the device. As a superuser has access to the device 's system files, all aspects of the operating system can be customized with the only real limitation being the level of coding expertise. Immediately expectable advantages of rooted devices include the following:
Some rooting methods involve use of the command prompt and development interface called Android Debug Bridge (ADB), while other methods may use specialized applications and be as simple as clicking one button. Devices, or sometimes even different variants of the same device, can have different hardware configurations. Thus, if the guide, ROM, or root method used is for a device variant with a different hardware setup, there is a risk of bricking the device.
In recent years, there is a new method of rooting Android devices called "systemless root ''. Systemless root uses various techniques to gain root access without modifying the system partition of a device. One example is Magisk, which also has an ability to hide root access from other applications that refuse to work, such as Safetynet protected applications like Android Pay and Pokémon Go.
The distinction between "soft rooting '' through a third - party application which uses a security vulnerability ("root exploit '') and "hard - rooting '' by flashing a su binary executable is sometimes made. If a phone can be soft rooted, it is vulnerable to malware.
SuperOneClick is probably the most famous rooting tool because it can root all types of Android phones and versions using a USB connection to a computer and executing it.
The process of rooting varies widely by device, but usually includes exploiting one or more security bugs in the firmware of (i.e., in the version of the Android OS installed on) the device. Once an exploit is discovered, a custom recovery image that will skip the digital signature check of firmware updates can be flashed. Then a modified firmware update that typically includes the utilities needed to run apps as root can be installed. For example, the su binary (such as an open - source one paired with the Superuser or SuperSU application) can be copied to a location in the current process ' PATH (e.g., / system / xbin /) and granted executable permissions with the chmod command. A third - party supervisor application, like Superuser or SuperSU, can then regulate and log elevated permission requests from other applications. Many guides, tutorials, and automatic processes exist for popular Android devices facilitating a fast and easy rooting process.
The process of rooting a device may be simple or complex, and it even may depend upon serendipity. For example, shortly after the release of the HTC Dream (HTC G1), it was discovered that anything typed using the keyboard was being interpreted as a command in a privileged (root) shell. Although Google quickly released a patch to fix this, a signed image of the old firmware leaked, which gave users the ability to downgrade and use the original exploit to gain root access.
Some manufacturers, including LG, HTC, and Motorola, provide official support for unlocking the bootloader which allows for rooting without exploiting a vulnerability. However, the support may be limited only to certain phones - for example, LG released its bootloader unlock tool only for certain models of its phones.
The Google - branded Android Google Nexus line of devices can be boot - loader unlocked by simply connecting the device to a computer while in boot - loader mode and running the Fastboot protocol with the command fastboot oem unlock. After accepting a warning, the boot - loader is unlocked, so a new system image can be written directly to flash without the need for an exploit.
In the past, many manufacturers have tried to make non-rootable phones with more elaborate protections (like the Droid X), but they are usually still rootable in some way. There may be no root exploit available for new or recently updated phones, but one is usually available within a few months.
Until 2010, tablet and smartphone manufacturers, as well as mobile carriers, were mainly unsupportive of third - party firmware development. Manufacturers had expressed concern about improper functioning of devices running unofficial software and related support costs. Moreover, firmware such as OmniROM and CyanogenMod sometimes offer features for which carriers would otherwise charge a premium, such as tethering. Due to that, technical obstacles such as locked bootloaders and restricted access to root permissions have commonly been introduced in many devices. For example, in late December 2011, Barnes & Noble and Amazon.com, Inc. began pushing automatic, over-the - air firmware updates, 1.4. 1 to Nook Tablets and 6.2. 1 to Kindle Fires, that removed one method to gain root access to the devices. The Nook Tablet 1.4. 1 update also removed users ' ability to sideload apps from sources other than the official Barnes & Noble app store (without modding).
However, as community - developed software began to grow popular in the late 2009 to early 2010, and following a statement by the Copyright Office and Librarian of Congress (US) allowing the use of "jailbroken '' mobile devices, manufacturers and carriers have softened their position regarding CyanogenMod and other unofficial firmware distributions. Some manufacturers, including HTC, Samsung, Motorola and Sony Mobile Communications actively provide support and encourage development.
In 2011, the need to circumvent hardware restrictions to install unofficial firmware lessened as an increasing number of devices shipped with unlocked or unlockable bootloaders, similar to the Nexus series of phones. Device manufacturer HTC has announced that it would support aftermarket software developers by making the bootloaders of all new devices unlockable. However, carriers, such as Verizon Wireless and more recently AT&T, have continuously blocked OEMs, such as HTC and Motorola, from releasing retail devices with unlocked bootloaders, opting instead for "developer edition '' devices that are only sold un subsidized and off - contract. These are similar in practice to Nexus devices, but for a premium and with no contract discounts.
In 2014, Samsung released a security service called Knox, which is a tool that prevents all modifying of system and boot files, and any attempts set an eFuse to 0x1, permanently voiding the warranty.
International treaties have influenced the development of laws affecting rooting. The 1996 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty requires nations party to the treaties to enact laws against DRM circumvention. The American implementation is the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which includes a process for establishing exemptions for non-copyright - infringing purposes such as rooting. The 2001 European Copyright Directive implemented the treaty in Europe, requiring member states of the European Union to implement legal protections for technological protection measures. The Copyright Directive includes exceptions to allow breaking those measures for non-copyright - infringing purposes, such as to run alternative software, but member states vary on the implementation of the directive.
In 2010, Electronic Frontiers Australia said that it is unclear whether rooting is legal in Australia, and that anti-circumvention laws may apply. These laws were strengthened by the Copyright Amendment Act 2006.
In November 2012, Canada amended its Copyright Act with new provisions prohibiting tampering with digital locks, with exceptions including software interoperability. Rooting a device to run alternative software is a form of circumventing digital locks for the purpose of software interoperability.
There had been several efforts from 2008 to 2011 to amend the Copyright Act (Bill C - 60, Bill C - 61, and Bill C - 32) to prohibit tampering with digital locks, along with initial proposals for C - 11 that were more restrictive, but those bills were set aside. In 2011, Michael Geist, a Canadian copyright scholar, cited iPhone jailbreaking as a non-copyright - related activity that overly - broad Copyright Act amendments could prohibit.
The Free Software Foundation Europe argues that it is legal to root or flash any device. According to the European Directive 1999 / 44 / EC, replacing the original operating system with another does not void the statutory warranty that covers the hardware of the device for two years unless the seller can prove that the modification caused the defect.
The law Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 makes circumventing DRM protection measures legal for the purpose of interoperability but not copyright infringement. Rooting may be a form of circumvention covered by that law, but this has not been tested in court. Competition laws may also be relevant. See also "European Union '' section above.
India 's copyright law permits circumventing DRM for non-copyright - infringing purposes. Indian Parliament introduced a bill including this DRM provision in 2010 and passed it in 2012 as Copyright (Amendment) Bill 2012. India is not a signatory to the WIPO Copyright Treaty that requires laws against DRM circumvention, but being listed on the US Special 301 Report "Priority Watch List '' applied pressure to develop stricter copyright laws in line with the WIPO treaty.
New Zealand 's copyright law allows the circumvention of technological protection measure (TPM) as long as the use is for legal, non-copyright - infringing purposes. This law was added to the Copyright Act 1994 as part of the Copyright (New Technologies) Amendment Act 2008.
Rooting might be legal in Singapore if done to provide interoperability and not circumvent copyright, but that has not been tested in court.
The Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act guarantees that consumers can unlock or let others unlock their phones. Under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) rooting was illegal in the United States except by exemption. The U.S. Copyright Office granted an exemption to this law "at least through 2015 ''.
In 2010, in response to a request by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, the U.S. Copyright Office explicitly recognized an exemption to the DMCA to permit rooting. In their ruling, the Library of Congress affirmed on July 26, 2010 that rooting is exempt from DMCA rules with respect to circumventing digital locks. DMCA exemptions must be reviewed and renewed every three years or else they expire.
On October 28, 2012, the US Copyright Office updated their exemption policies. The rooting of smartphones continues to be legal "where circumvention is accomplished for the sole purpose of enabling interoperability of (lawfully obtained software) applications with computer programs on the telephone handset ''. However, the U.S. Copyright office refused to extend this exemption to tablets, arguing that the term "tablets '' is broad and ill - defined, and an exemption to this class of devices could have unintended side effects. The Copyright Office also renewed the 2010 exemption for unofficially unlocking phones to use them on unapproved carriers, but restricted this exemption to phones purchased before January 26, 2013.
Tim Wu, a professor at Columbia Law School, argued in 2007 that jailbreaking is "legal, ethical, and just plain fun ''. Wu cited an explicit exemption issued by the Library of Congress in 2006 for personal unlocking, which notes that locks "are used by wireless carriers to limit the ability of subscribers to switch to other carriers, a business decision that has nothing whatsoever to do with the interests protected by copyright '' and thus do not implicate the DMCA. Wu did not claim that this exemption applies to those who help others unlock a device or "traffic '' in software to do so. In 2010 and 2012, the U.S. Copyright Office approved exemptions to the DMCA that allow users to root their devices legally. It is still possible to employ technical countermeasures to prevent rooting or prevent rooted phones from functioning. It is also unclear whether it is legal to traffic in the tools used to make rooting easy.
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which is the largest city in india in area | List of cities in India by area - wikipedia
The below list is about the area of largest cities in India. The cities are ranked by the area governed by local political bodies such as Municipality or Municipal Corporation.
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what are the information written in the general journal | General journal - wikipedia
General journal is a daybook or journal which is used to record transactions relating to adjustment entries, opening stock, accounting errors etc. The source documents of this prime entry book are journal voucher, copy of management reports and invoices.
The journal is where double entry bookkeeping entries are recorded by debiting one or more accounts and crediting another one or more accounts with the same total amount. The total amount debited and the total amount credited should always be equal, thereby ensuring the accounting equation is maintained. In accounting and bookkeeping, a journal is a record of financial transactions in order by date.
A journal is also named the book of original entry, from when transactions were written in a journal prior to manually posting them to the accounts in the general ledger or subsidiary ledger. Manual systems usually had a variety of journals such as a sales journal, purchases journal, cash receipts journal, cash disbursements journal, and a general journal. Depending on the business 's accounting information system, specialized journals may be used in conjunction with the general journal for record - keeping. In such case, use of the general journal may be limited to non-routine and adjusting entries.
A general journal entry includes the date of the transaction, the titles of the accounts debited and credited, the amount of each debit and credit, and an explanation of the transaction also known as a Narration.
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which of the following artists was part of the second british invasion on mtv | List of Second British Invasion artists - wikipedia
The following is a list of groups and artists associated with the Second British Invasion music phenomenon, that occurred during the early and middle 1980s and was associated with MTV, including new wave music.
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how far is it from here to redding california | Interstate 5 in California - wikipedia
Interstate 5 (I - 5) is a major north -- south route of the Interstate Highway System in the U.S. state of California. It begins at the Mexico -- United States border at the San Ysidro crossing, goes north across the length of California and crosses into Oregon south of the Medford - Ashland metropolitan area. It is the more important and most used of the two major north - south routes on the Pacific Coast, the other being U.S. Route 101, which is primarily coastal.
This highway links the major California cities of San Diego, Santa Ana, Los Angeles, Stockton, Sacramento, and Redding. Among the major cities not directly linked by Interstate 5 but which are connected by local highways to it are San Francisco, Oakland and San Jose, all of which are about 80 miles (130 km) west of the highway.
Interstate 5 has several named portions: the Montgomery Freeway, San Diego Freeway, Santa Ana Freeway, Golden State Freeway, and West Side Freeway.
I - 5 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, and is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country 's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. SR 76 is eligible to be included in the State Scenic Highway System; however, it is a scenic highway as designated by Caltrans only from State Route 152 (SR 152) to I ‐ 580.
Interstate 5 begins at the San Ysidro Port of Entry from Mexico in the San Ysidro neighborhood of San Diego. Immediately after the border, I - 805 splits off to the northeast and serves as a bypass of I - 5 that avoids the downtown San Diego area. I - 5 itself continues northwest and intersects with the western end of the SR 905 freeway, a route that connects with the Otay Mesa border crossing. I - 5 then continues northward and joins the southern end of SR 75, a highway connecting to Coronado via the Silver Strand. I - 5 then enters Chula Vista, briefly leaving the San Diego city limits. It continues along the east side of San Diego Bay where it intersects with SR 54 and enters National City. From there, I - 5 veers around the San Diego Naval Base and reenters the city limits of San Diego. I - 5 subsequently interchanges with four state routes -- SR 15 (the southern end of the extension of I - 15), SR 75 and the Coronado Bay Bridge, the western end of SR 94, and the southern end of SR 163. In addition to serving downtown San Diego, I - 5 also provides access to Balboa Park from the Pershing Drive exit. The portion of I - 5 from the border to downtown San Diego is named the "Montgomery Freeway '' in honor of John J. Montgomery, a pioneer aviator who flew a glider from a location near Chula Vista in 1884.
I - 5 continues northwest from downtown as the San Diego Freeway until it reaches its junction with I - 8, then turns slightly to the north while passing near SeaWorld and Mission Bay. Thereafter, I - 5 interchanges with the western end of SR 52 before passing through the UC San Diego campus in University City near La Jolla. At Nobel Drive (exit 28A), the San Diego LDS Temple towers over I - 5. Shortly afterward, I - 5 interchanges with the northern terminus of I - 805 before continuing north and interchanging with the western end of SR 56. At this interchange, there is a recently completed local bypass that provides the only access to Carmel Mountain Road from both directions and provides the only access to SR 56 going northbound.
North of the San Diego city limits, I - 5 enters into the city limits of Solana Beach, and then three incorporated cities to the north -- Encinitas, Carlsbad and Oceanside. In Oceanside, I - 5 intersects with the SR 78 freeway and the SR 76 expressway and continues through Camp Pendleton. Toward the northern end of its routing through Camp Pendleton, I - 5 passes through San Onofre State Beach and near the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, as well as the proposed interchange with SR 241 near Trestles as a result from the possible Foothill Toll Road extension. It then follows the Pacific Ocean coastline for the next 20 miles (32 km). I - 5 enters Orange County at the Christianitos Road exit.
Upon entering Orange County, I - 5 goes through San Clemente. Then at Dana Point, I - 5 turns inland while SR 1, the Pacific Coast Highway, continues along the coast. I - 5 then heads due north through San Juan Capistrano and Mission Viejo, interchanging with the SR 73 toll road heading northwest. I - 5 continues to the El Toro Y interchange in southeastern Irvine, splitting into lanes for regular traffic as well as for truck traffic (though autos can use these lanes as well). From that point, I - 405 takes over the San Diego Freeway designation, while I - 5 becomes the Santa Ana Freeway as it runs southeast to northwest.
After the El Toro Y junction, I - 5 intersects SR 133, a toll road that eventually connects to SR 241. Just before the Tustin city limits, I - 5 passes over SR 261, the final toll road of the Eastern Transportation Corridor, but traffic must use Jamboree Road to access the latter. I - 5 then intersects with SR 55 and enters Santa Ana, the county seat of Orange County. Towards the northern side of Santa Ana, I - 5 intersects both SR 57 and SR 22 in what is known as the Orange Crush interchange. Following this, I - 5 briefly enters the city of Orange traverses Anaheim and passes right next to Disneyland. I - 5 then interchanges with SR 91, passes through Buena Park and crosses into Los Angeles County.
After crossing the county line, I - 5 goes through several cities east of Los Angeles, including La Mirada, Santa Fe Springs and Norwalk. In Downey, I - 5 intersects with I - 605, which serves as a north to south connector route in the cities east of Los Angeles. I - 5 then passes through Commerce and intersects I - 710 before entering the unincorporated area of East Los Angeles, and later the city proper of Los Angeles. When the freeway reaches the East Los Angeles Interchange one mile (1.6 km) east of downtown Los Angeles, I - 5 becomes the Golden State Freeway as US 101 takes over the Santa Ana Freeway designation. At this interchange, I - 10, SR 60, and US 101 intersect; I - 10 continues for a few miles north on I - 5 before continuing east towards San Bernardino and points further east.
On the north side of downtown, I - 5 follows the Los Angeles River, intersects with SR 110 and SR 2 and passes along the eastern side of Griffith Park. The route continues through the San Fernando Valley, interchanging with SR 134. It briefly enters the city of Glendale and then Burbank. I - 5 passes near Burbank Airport before reentering the city limits of Los Angeles and intersecting the northern end of SR 170. Near the city of San Fernando, I - 5 intersects SR 118. Following this, I - 5 intersects three routes in succession: the northern end of I - 405, the western end of I - 210 and the southern end of SR 14 at the Newhall Pass interchange. It then crosses the Newhall Pass through the Santa Susana Mountains into the Santa Clarita Valley. I - 5 's HOV lanes also have direct connectors with the HOV lanes on SR 170 and SR 14. This allows a continuous HOV lane to run from Palmdale to North Hollywood via SR - 14 to I - 5 to SR - 170.
I - 5 continues along the western city limits and suburban areas of Santa Clarita and passes near Six Flags Magic Mountain, intersecting SR 126 just north of there. The Golden State Freeway then sharply rises to the north, passing by Lake Castaic and Pyramid Lake (Los Angeles County, California) and intersecting SR 138 to eventually cross the Tejon Pass through the Tehachapi Mountains with Path 26 power lines generally paralleling the freeway. After entering Kern County, the freeway then sharply descends for 12 miles (19 km) from over 4,100 feet (1,250 m) at the Tejon Pass to around 1,500 feet (457 m) at Grapevine near the southernmost point of the San Joaquin Valley, approximately 30 miles (50 km) south of Bakersfield and 5 miles (8 km) south of its interchange with State Route 99 in Wheeler Ridge.
From SR 99 to south of Tracy, I - 5 is known as the Westside Freeway. It parallels SR 33, skirting along the far more remote western edge of the great Central Valley, and thus here is removed from the major population centers such as Bakersfield, Fresno and Modesto, with other state highways providing connections. I - 5 still runs within the vicinity of Avenal, Coalinga, Los Banos, and the handful of other smaller cities on the western edge of the Central Valley. For most of this section, the Path 15 electrical transmission corridor follows the highway, forming an infrastructure corridor along with the California Aqueduct.
North of the Grapevine, I - 5 intersects SR 166, SR 119 and SR 43 before meeting SR 58, a highway that continues east to Bakersfield, near the town of Buttonwillow. I - 5 then interchanges with SR 46 before entering Kings County. In Kings County, I - 5 intersects SR 41 before briefly entering the city limits of Avenal, where it intersects SR 269. In Fresno County, I - 5 intersects SR 198 and SR 145 before running concurrently with SR 33 for several miles. I - 5 then crosses into Merced County, intersecting SR 165, SR 152 near the San Luis Reservoir (providing a major connection to the Monterey Peninsula and the Silicon Valley), SR 33, and SR 140 at the Stanislaus county line.
In San Joaquin County, Interstate 580 splits off from I - 5 at a point south of Tracy, providing a spur - route connection to the San Francisco Bay Area. From here, I - 5 intersects SR 132, a major route east to the mountains, as well as the northern end of SR 33. After passing Tracy, I - 5 intersects I - 205, a connector route to I - 580, before intersecting the SR 120 freeway in the Manteca city limits. After passing through Lathrop, I - 5 heads due north through Stockton, interchanging with the SR 4 freeway that provides access to downtown Stockton. I - 5 passes through the western portion of the Lodi city limits before intersecting SR 12 and entering Sacramento County.
I - 5 enters the city of Elk Grove while passing along the eastern edge of the Stone Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. It then crosses into the Sacramento city limits, soon paralleling the Sacramento River before intersecting the Capital City Freeway, which carries US 50 and Interstate 80 Business. SR 99 merges with I - 5 at this point, and the two routes pass through the western half of downtown Sacramento. Following the bridge over the American River, I - 5 and SR 99 intersect the major transcontinental route of I - 80. Just as I - 5 leaves Sacramento, SR 99 splits off and continues north while I - 5 turns due west past Sacramento International Airport and crosses the Sacramento River into Yolo County. In Woodland, the SR 113 freeway merges with I - 5 before exiting to the north. The interstate heads northwest again toward Dunnigan, where it converges with Interstate 505.
I - 5 skirts north along the western edge of the Sacramento Valley, bypassing the larger cities of the region, including Yuba City, Oroville and Chico, before reaching Red Bluff. From Dunnigan, I - 5 enters Colusa County, passing through the city of Williams and intersecting SR 20. In Glenn County, I - 5 intersects SR 162 in Willows and SR 32 in Orland. I - 5 then crosses into Tehama County, passing through Corning before entering Red Bluff and intersecting SR 36, which connects to the northern end of SR 99. I - 5 crosses the Sacramento River twice before entering Shasta County.
I - 5 then enters the Shasta Cascade region, intersecting SR 273 in Anderson before passing through Redding and intersecting SR 44 and SR 299. The freeway then continues through the city of Shasta Lake, intersecting SR 151, before crossing over Shasta Lake on a causeway and climbing up to near the foot of Mount Shasta. In Siskiyou County, I - 5 passes through Dunsmuir before intersecting SR 89 near Lake Siskiyou and entering the city of Mount Shasta. North of here, US 97 intersects with I - 5 in Weed, providing access to Klamath Falls, Oregon. The interstate then continues to Yreka, intersecting SR 3 and SR 96 before crossing the Klamath River and reaching the Oregon border and the Siskiyou Summit.
The portion of this highway from Los Angeles to San Diego was also co-signed as U.S. Route 101 until late 1964. The portion of this highway from Woodland to Red Bluff roughly follows old US 99W.
In California, the former western branch of Interstate 5 (the northern end of the spur into the Bay Area) connecting Interstate 80 out of Vacaville to near Dunnigan, previously known as Interstate 5W, was renamed Interstate 505. Interstate 580 running between I - 5 and I - 80 was also once designated 5W; what is now I - 5 (the stretch that runs through Sacramento) had been originally designated Interstate 5E.
The Golden State Freeway was proposed by the California Highway Commission in 1953. The proposal drew strong criticism from East Los Angeles residents as it would dissect and eliminate large residential and commercial areas of Boyle Heights and Hollenbeck Heights. The proposal also seemed to indicate a disregard for the ethnic Mexican American population of metropolitan Los Angeles. The "Boyle - Hollenbeck Anti-Golden State Freeway Committee '' was formed for the purpose in blocking or rerouting the freeway. Then - Los Angeles City Council member Edward R. Roybal chaired that committee. Despite this opposition, the construction of the freeway went ahead.
When this section was completed in 1956, the newspaper The Eastside Sun wrote the freeway led to the "eradication, obliteration, razing, moving, ripping asunder, demolishing of Eastside homes. ''
The freeway between Orange County and Los Angeles was originally designed to have three lanes on each side. Due to high demand of cars, the freeway started undergoing major extensions and widening in the early 1990s in Orange County. Work from SR 91 north through the Los Angeles - Orange County line was completed in 2010. The improvements between the county line and the East Los Angeles Interchange are scheduled to be completed between 2016 and 2025.
The original route went through the towns of Saugus and Newhall, and then crossed Newhall Pass (current route of SR 14, Antelope Valley Freeway). In 1862, Beale Cut was made in the construction of a toll wagon road. The 15 ' wide, 60 ' deep "slot '' was dug with picks and shovels. That road would become part of the Midway Route. At the turn of the century, it was the most direct automobile route between Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley via the Mojave Desert and Tehachapi Pass.
In 1910 Beale Cut was bypassed by the Newhall tunnel. Constructed by Los Angeles County, it was too narrow for two trucks to pass each other inside. As a result, in 1939, the tunnel was completely removed (or "daylighted '') when the road was widened to four lanes. By 1930 a bypass road was constructed to avoid Newhall Pass via Weldon and Gavin canyons, which is the current route of I - 5.
Interestingly, both routes were eventually built as freeways. The Gavin Canyon route became I - 5, and the main north - south route via the Ridge Route. The Newhall Pass route became SR 14 (Antelope Valley Freeway), which is the main route between Los Angeles and the growing high desert communities. It is also still a part of the important Midway Route, which is the primary alternate route when I - 5 is closed (via SR 58 and SR 14).
In the evening of October 12, 2007, two trucks collided in the southbound tunnel that takes the truck bypass roadway under the main lanes near the Newhall Pass interchange. Fifteen trucks caught fire, killing three people and injuring ten.
The Ridge Route refers to the section of highway between Castaic and Grapevine, through the Tejon Pass. The highway had its origins in the early 1910s, when a route was needed to connect Los Angeles to the Central Valley. Some believed that the only option was the route through Mojave and the Tehachapi Mountains, but a new route was discovered through the Tejon Pass. This route became known as the Ridge Route and saw almost constant planning and construction from 1914 to 1970.
The first road was completed in 1915. It was a slow, winding, two - lane road through the mountains with a speed limit of 15 mph in some places. However, the need for improvements was realized soon after it was completed. The road was paved after World War I, and several blind turns were opened up ("daylighted ''). Even with these improvements in the 1920s, it became clear that a new route was needed to keep up with increasing demand.
In 1927 plans were drawn up for a "Ridge Route Alternate '', named as it was planned as an addition to the existing Ridge Route and not as a replacement. It opened in 1933 as a three - lane highway through the mountains. The middle or "suicide lane '' was used as an overtaking lane for cars in both directions. This route was a great improvement, faster and 9.7 miles (15.6 km) shorter than the old Ridge Route, but was not enough to satisfy demand, and a conversion to a four - lane expressway was needed. The outbreak of World War II delayed this until 1948 and the fourth lane was completed in 1952. However, just three years later, plans were begun for converting the four - lane expressway to a six - lane freeway.
The last major alteration to the Ridge Route began in the early 1960s. By then, the plan for a six - lane freeway had expanded to eight lanes. This construction project made the most changes to the route. Many of the curves that followed the mountainside were cut through. To climb the mountain on the south side of Castaic more easily, traffic lanes were reversed (southbound lanes to the east and northbound lanes to the west). To prevent head - on collisions, the two ends of the route were separated on two different mountainsides, and the section through Piru Canyon was moved to an entirely new alignment to make room for Pyramid Lake. The project was completed by 1970 and brought the Ridge Route to its current alignment.
When the Interstate Highway System was created in 1956, there was discussion about which way to route the interstate through the San Joaquin Valley (Central Valley). Two proposals were considered. One was to convert the Golden State Highway (U.S. Route 99, later CA Route 99) into a freeway. The other was to use the proposed West Side Freeway (current Interstate 5). The Golden State Highway route would serve many farming communities across the San Joaquin Valley, but the West Side Freeway proposal would bypass all the Central Valley communities and thus provide a faster and more direct north - south route through the state and so was eventually chosen.
Construction began in the early 1960s. There were just three phases for the 321 miles (517 km). The first phase, completed in 1967, ran from the San Joaquin County line to Los Banos. The second phase, completed in 1972, extended the freeway south to Wheeler Ridge and connected it to SR 99. The freeway then started to see traffic, as in Stockton there were only 4 miles (6.4 km) between the West Side Freeway and the Golden State Highway. The third phase, completed in 1979, extended the freeway to Sacramento and connected it to the northern I - 5.
When the second phase of the freeway opened in 1972, it was a long and lonely route with no businesses alongside. Services were not easily available as the nearest towns were miles away and generally out of sight. It was common for cars to run out of fuel. Over time the West Side Freeway (I - 5) saw the development of businesses serving the needs of travelers. For years, there has still been interest in designating the Golden State Highway route as its own interstate, Interstate 9.
The median on I - 5 between Wheeler Ridge and Tracy is wide enough to accommodate widening the West Side Freeway to six or eight lanes, should the need ever arise.
Interstate 5 's more direct Los Angeles - to - Sacramento route bypasses San Francisco, San Jose, Oakland, and the rest of the San Francisco Bay Area. Original plans also called for a loop Interstate with a directional suffix, I - 5W. This route now roughly corresponds to I - 580 from I - 5 south of Tracy to Oakland, I - 80 from Oakland to Vacaville, and I - 505 from Vacaville to I - 5 near Dunnigan. I - 5W and most of the other Interstates around the country with directional suffixes were eventually renumbered or eliminated, sans I - 35E and I - 35W in Texas and Minnesota. Nevertheless, San Francisco is still listed as a control city on northbound I - 5 between SR 99 and I - 580.
Interstate 5 in downtown Sacramento closely follows the Sacramento River. This has resulted in complex engineering work to keep the section dry due to it being located below the water table. Locally, Caltrans refers to this part of the freeway as the "Boat Section ''. Due to record levels of rainfall in 1980 the Boat Section was flooded with 15 ft (4.6 m) of water. Caltrans began constructing this section during the 1960s and 1970s. The freeway was engineered below grade so it would be out of the view of offices and shops in Downtown Sacramento. To achieve this, the site was excavated and the seeping water was pumped from the area. An intricate drainage system, water pump and retaining wall are used to protect the freeway from the Sacramento River. However, the system slowly clogged up over the years with sand and silt buildup Major repair work of the Boat Section began on May 30, 2008. The construction was to take 40 days to complete, requiring complete northbound and southbound closures on an alternating schedule.
Except where prefixed with a letter, postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964, based on the alignment that existed at the time, and do not necessarily reflect current mileage. R reflects a realignment in the route since then, M indicates a second realignment, L refers an overlap due to a correction or change, and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary (for a full list of prefixes, see the list of postmile definitions). Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted. The numbers reset at county lines; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column.
Route map: Google
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the meaning of the song another brick in the wall | Another Brick in the Wall - wikipedia
"Another Brick in the Wall '' is the title of three songs set to variations of the same basic theme, on Pink Floyd 's 1979 rock opera, The Wall, subtitled Part 1 (working title "Reminiscing ''), Part 2 (working title "Education ''), and Part 3 (working title "Drugs ''). All parts were written by Pink Floyd 's bassist, Roger Waters.
Part 2 is a protest song against rigid schooling in general and boarding schools in the UK in particular. It was also released as a single and provided the band 's only number - one hit in the United Kingdom, the United States, West Germany and many other countries. In addition, in the US, along with the tracks, "Run Like Hell '', and "Do n't Leave Me Now '', "Another Brick in the Wall '' reached number 57 on the disco chart.
In the UK, Part 2 was Pink Floyd 's first single since 1968 's "Point Me at the Sky ''; the song was also the final number - one single of the 1970s. For Part 2, Pink Floyd received a Grammy nomination for Best Performance by a Rock Duo or Group and lost to Bob Seger 's "Against the Wind ''. In addition, Part 2 was number 375 on Rolling Stone 's list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The single sold over 4 million copies worldwide.
That single, as well as the album The Wall, were banned in South Africa in 1980 after the song was adopted by supporters of a nationwide school boycott protesting racial inequities in education under the apartheid regime.
Each of the three parts has a similar tune, and lyrical structure (though not lyrics, aside from the "all in all '' refrain), and each is louder and more enraged than the one before, rising from the sadness of Part I to the protesting Part II to the furious Part III.
Part 1 of the song is very quiet dynamically and features a long, subdued guitar solo. The vocals are softer and gentler in tone than in Parts 2 and 3, although there is a short, sharp rise in dynamics and tone for a brief period towards the end of the lyrical portion. Sniffing, shouting, wailing, calling and children can be faintly heard in the background. The song 's beginning coincides with the final chord of "The Thin Ice '', and the echoing multi-guitar solo (after the lyrics) crossfades into the helicopter and yelling - teacher sounds of "The Happiest Days of Our Lives ''.
"The Thin Ice '' discussed during the previous song breaks when Pink becomes older and learns of the death of his father. Pink is devastated by this reality and begins to build The Wall.
Pink 's mother is seen praying in a church after the death of her husband overseas. Pink, however, is, at this point, oblivious of his death, and can be seen playing with a toy aeroplane. The song continues with Pink playing in a public park after his mother leaves him to go shopping. He sees a man who he takes a liking to in the absence of his own father. The man gives Pink a lift onto a ride, and it 's clear Pink feels as if this man is his real father. Pink follows the man 's son around, copying him, but does n't understand why the other boy 's father is n't paying attention to him. He grabs the man 's hand but is shooed away, only to grab the man 's hand again. The man pushes Pink away again, and dejectedly he sits on a swing. He looks over at the other parents swinging their kids, feeling even more alone.
In the album version of The Wall, "Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2) '' segues from "The Happiest Days of Our Lives ''. The song has strong drums, a well - known bass line and distinctive guitar parts in the background with a smooth, yet edgy guitar solo. The song also features a choir of schoolchildren singing in the second verse: as the song ends, the sounds of a school yard are heard, along with a Scottish teacher who continues to lord it over the children 's lives by shouting "Wrong! Do it again! '', and "If you do n't eat yer meat, you ca n't have any pudding! How can you have any pudding if you do n't eat yer meat?! '', and "You! Yes! You behind the bikesheds! Stand still, laddie! '', all of it dissolving into the dull drone of a phone ringing. It trails off into the next song, ending with a deep sigh.
Producer Bob Ezrin had immediately recognised the hit potential of this song, but it took some manoeuvring behind the band 's back until "Part II '' took its eventual form. Waters originally rejected the idea, saying "Go ahead and waste your time doing silly stuff. ''
It was Ezrin 's idea to use a school choir for this song, as he explained to Guitar World in 2009:
The most important thing I did for the song was to insist that it be more than just one verse and one chorus long, which it was when Roger wrote it. When we played it with the disco drumbeat I said: "Man, this is a hit! But it 's one minute 20. We need two verses and two choruses. '' And they said, "Well you 're not bloody getting them. We do n't do singles, so fuck you. '' So I said, "Okay, fine '', and they left. And because of our two (tape recorder) set up, while they were n't around we were able to copy the first verse and chorus, take one of the drum fills, put them in between and extend the chorus.
Then the question is what do you do with the second verse, which is the same? And having been the guy who made Alice Cooper 's School 's Out I 've got this thing about kids on record, and it is about kids after all. So while we were in America, we sent (recording engineer) Nick Griffiths to a school near the Floyd studios (in Islington, North London). I said, "Give me 24 tracks of kids singing this thing. I want Cockney, I want posh, fill ' em up '', and I put them on the song. I called Roger into the room, and when the kids came in on the second verse there was a total softening of his face, and you just knew that he knew it was going to be an important record.
Griffiths approached music teacher Alun Renshaw of Islington Green School, around the corner from Pink Floyd 's Britannia Row Studios, about the choir.
Though the school received a lump sum payment of £ 1000, there was no contractual arrangement for royalties from record sales. Under a 1996 UK copyright law, they became eligible for royalties from broadcasts, and after royalties agent Peter Rowan traced choir members through the website Friends Reunited and other means, they lodged a claim for royalties with the Performing Artists ' Media Rights Association in 2004.
The idea for the disco beat came likewise from Ezrin. As David Gilmour explained in 2009:
It was n't my idea to do disco music, it was Bob 's. He said to me, "Go to a couple of clubs and listen to what 's happening with disco music, '' so I forced myself out and listened to loud, four - to - the - bar bass drums and stuff and thought, Gawd, awful! Then we went back and tried to turn one of the (song 's) parts into one of those so it would be catchy.
Of the final outcome, Roger Waters has commented:
It was great -- exactly the thing I expected from a collaborator.
David Gilmour said:
And it does n't, in the end, not sound like Pink Floyd.
After being insulted by the teacher, Pink dreams that the kids in his school begin to protest against their abusive teachers. The song talks about how he had a personal wall around him from the rest of the world, and the teachers were just another brick in the wall.
Following "The Happiest Days of Our Lives '' Pink starts to daydream during his class. He imagines several students marching in unison to the beat of the song, following a path until they enter a steamy tunnel section to re-emerge as putty - faced clones void of individual distinction and proceed to fall blindly into an oversized meat - grinder. Starting with Gilmour 's guitar solo, the children destroy the school building using hammers (foreshadowing the subsequent neo-fascist Nazi - like animated sequence with its marching hammers) and crowbars, creating a bonfire, dragging their teacher out of the burning school kicking and screaming while chanting "We do n't need no education. '' The song ends with Pink rubbing his hand, which the teacher slapped with a ruler in the song previously.
During the song, the teacher 's "meat and pudding '' lines are folded into the first few lines of the school choir 's lines (with the instrumental breaks between shortened by a bar in 2 places), and are performed by the teacher in the film, played by Alex McAvoy. Once the film was completed, the actual scenes of "The Happiest Days of Our Lives '' and "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2 '' were combined into a new video, which now represents the music video for "Another Brick in the Wall ''.
Prior to the film, the first video for the track, directed by album / concert / film art designer Gerald Scarfe, depicted students running in a playground (Kings Square Gardens, Islington) and the teacher puppet from The Wall concerts was used. The video also mixed in some animated scenes later used in "The Trial '' and "Waiting for the Worms ''. The opening shot, a pan across the London skyline was filmed from the top of Turnpike House in Islington, both St Lukes Church and St Clements Church (the one overlooking the playground) are both clearly visible in the shot. After the media furore surrounding the song, the Islington Green school head teacher Margaret Maden refused permission for the children who sang on the song to appear in the video or on Top of the Pops, although at the time they were told it was because they did n't hold Equity Cards. The teacher 's lines in the song are absent from the version in the music video.
When performed as part of the various live shows of The Wall, the teacher is represented by a giant inflatable puppet, based on the figure from Scarfe 's animations. This puppet duly becomes the focus of the song 's anger and frustration.
All in all it 's just another brick in the wall All in all you 're just another brick in the wall Just another blunder Just another lousy call Just another clap of thunder And apologies ring hollow From the guilty in Whitehall And there 's no hint of sorrow Just the whitewash on the wall Just one man dead And nothing is gained Nothing at all And Jean Charles de Menezes remains Just another brick in the wall
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This song is louder than the previous two parts, expressing Pink 's rage. It is also the shortest part of "Another Brick in the Wall '', and cross-fades into "Goodbye Cruel World ''. On the live version the song gets an extended ending seguing into the instrumental "The Last Few Bricks '' which continues its keyboard staccato.
Pink decides to finish this wall as a result of his rage after his wife 's betrayal. He states that he has seen "the writing on the wall ''. He concludes that he no longer needs anything at all, dismissing the people in his life as just "bricks in the wall ''. The song also contains the line "I do n't need no drugs to calm me '', possibly foreshadowing what is going to happen in the song "Comfortably Numb '', although Waters has stated that "Comfortably Numb '' is not about drugs.
In the film, the song is accompanied by a montage of events that contributed to the construction of the wall. This version was also completely re-recorded with a faster tempo.
The song, part number unspecified, won Waters the 1983 British Academy Award for ' Best Original Song ' from the movie of The Wall.
Personnel per The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia.
Part I
Part II
with:
Part III
Citations
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why did the maginot line cause the loss of france | Battle of France - wikipedia
France
Germany: 27,074 dead 111,034 wounded, 18,384 missing, 1,129 aircrew killed (c. 27,000 dead) 1,236 aircraft lost 795 -- 822 tanks destroyed 157,621 total casualties Italy: 6,055
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The Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries during the Second World War. In six weeks from 10 May 1940, German forces defeated Allied forces by mobile operations and conquered France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, bringing land operations on the Western Front to an end until 6 June 1944. Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 and attempted an invasion of France.
The German plan for the invasion consisted of two main operations. In Fall Gelb (Case Yellow), German armoured units pushed through the Ardennes and then along the Somme valley, cutting off and surrounding the Allied units that had advanced into Belgium, to meet the expected German invasion. When British, Belgian and French forces were pushed back to the sea by the mobile and well - organised German operation, the British evacuated the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and several French divisions from Dunkirk in Operation Dynamo.
After the withdrawal of the BEF, the German forces began Fall Rot (Case Red) on 5 June. The sixty remaining French divisions made a determined resistance but were unable to overcome the German air superiority and armoured mobility. German tanks outflanked the Maginot Line and pushed deep into France. German forces occupied Paris unopposed on 14 June after a chaotic period of flight of the French government that led to a collapse of the French army. German commanders met with French officials on 18 June with the goal of forcing the new French government to accept an armistice that amounted to surrender.
On 22 June, the Second Armistice at Compiègne was signed by France and Germany, which resulted in a division of France. The neutral Vichy government led by Marshal Philippe Pétain superseded the Third Republic and Germany occupied the north and west. Italy took control of a small occupation zone in the south - east, and the Vichy regime was left in control of unoccupied territory in the south known as the zone libre. The Germans occupied the zone under Fall Anton in November 1942, until the Allied liberation in the summer of 1944.
During the 1930s, the French had built the Maginot Line, fortifications along the border with Germany. The line was intended to deter a German invasion across the Franco - German border and funnel an attack into Belgium, which could then be met by the best divisions of the French Army. A war would take place outside of French territory avoiding a repeat of the First World War. The main section of the Maginot Line ran from the Swiss border and ended at Longwy. The area immediately to the north was covered by the heavily wooded Ardennes region. General Philippe Pétain declared the Ardennes to be "impenetrable '' as long as "special provisions '' were taken. If so, he believed that any enemy force emerging from the forest would be vulnerable to a pincer attack and destroyed. The French commander - in - chief, Maurice Gamelin also believed the area to be safe from attack, noting that it "never favoured large operations ''. French war games held in 1938, with the scenario of a German armoured attack through the Ardennes, left the military with the impression that the region was still largely impenetrable and that this, along with the obstacle of the Meuse River, would allow the French time to bring up troops into the area to counter an attack.
In 1939, Britain and France offered military support to Poland in the likely case of a German invasion. In the dawn of 1 September 1939, the German Invasion of Poland began. France and the United Kingdom declared war on 3 September, after an ultimatum for German forces to immediately withdraw their forces from Poland was not answered. Following this, Australia (3 September), New Zealand (3 September), South Africa (6 September) and Canada (10 September) declared war on Germany. British and French commitments to Poland were met politically but they had adopted a long - war strategy and mobilised for defensive land operations against Germany, while a trade blockade was imposed and the pre-war re-armament was accelerated, ready for an eventual invasion of Germany.
On 7 September, in accordance with their alliance with Poland, France began the Saar Offensive with an advance from the Maginot Line 5 km (3.1 mi) into the Saar. France had mobilised 98 divisions (all but 28 of them reserve or fortress formations) and 2,500 tanks against a German force consisting of 43 divisions (32 of them reserves) and no tanks. The French advanced until they met the then thin and undermanned Siegfried Line. On 17 September, the French supreme commander, Maurice Gamelin gave the order to withdraw French troops to their starting positions; the last of them left Germany on 17 October. Following the Saar Offensive, a period of inaction called the Phoney War (the French Drôle de guerre, joke war or the German Sitzkrieg, sitting war) set in between the belligerents. Adolf Hitler had hoped that France and Britain would acquiesce in the conquest of Poland and quickly make peace. On 6 October, he made a peace offer to both Western powers.
On 9 October, Hitler issued a new "Führer - Directive Number 6 '' (Führer - Anweisung N ° 6). Hitler recognised the necessity of military campaigns to defeat the Western European nations, preliminary to the conquest of territory in Eastern Europe, to avoid a two - front war but these intentions were absent from Directive N ° 6. The plan was based on the seemingly more realistic assumption that German military strength would have to be built up for several years. For the moment only limited objectives could be envisaged and were aimed at improving Germany 's ability to survive a long war in the west. Hitler ordered a conquest of the Low Countries to be executed at the shortest possible notice to forestall the French and prevent Allied air power from threatening the vital German Ruhr Area. It would also provide the basis for a long - term air and sea campaign against Britain. There was no mention in the Führer - Directive of any immediate consecutive attack to conquer the whole of France, although the directive read that as much as possible of the border areas in northern France should be occupied.
On 10 October 1939, Britain refused Hitler 's offer of peace and on 12 October, France did the same. Colonel - General Franz Halder (Chief of the General Staff of OKH), presented the first plan for Fall Gelb (Case Yellow) on 19 October. This was the pre-war codename of plans for a campaign in the Low Countries: the Aufmarschanweisung N ° 1, Fall Gelb (Deployment Instruction No. 1, Case Yellow). Halder 's plan has been compared to the Schlieffen Plan, the name given to the German strategy of 1914 in the First World War. It was similar in that both plans entailed an advance through the middle of Belgium. Aufmarschanweisung N ° 1 envisioned a frontal attack, sacrificing a projected half million German soldiers to attain the limited goal of throwing the Allies back to the River Somme. Germany 's strength for 1940 would then be spent; only in 1942 could the main attack against France begin. When Hitler raised objections to the plan and instead advocated for a decisive armoured breakthrough as had happened in the invasion of Poland, Halder and Brauchitsch attempted to dissuade him, arguing that while the fast - moving mechanised tactics were all well and good against a "shoddy '' Eastern European army, they would not work against a first - rate military like the French.
Hitler was disappointed with Halder 's plan and initially reacted by deciding that the German army should attack early, ready or not, in the hope that Allied unreadiness might bring about an easy victory. Hitler proposed beginning the invasion on 25 October 1939 but accepted that the date was probably unrealistic. On 29 October, Halder presented another plan, Aufmarschanweisung N ° 2, Fall Gelb, featuring a secondary attack on the Netherlands. On 5 November, Hitler informed Walther von Brauchitsch that he intended the invasion to begin on 12 November. Brauchitsch replied that the military had yet to recover from the Polish campaign and offered to resign; this was refused but two days later Hitler postponed the attack, giving poor weather as the reason for the delay. More postponements followed, as commanders persuaded Hitler to delay the attack for a few days or weeks, to remedy some critical defect in the preparations or to wait for better weather. Hitler also tried to alter the plan, which he found unsatisfactory; his weak understanding of how poorly prepared Germany was for war and how it would cope with losses of armoured vehicles were not fully considered. Though Poland had been quickly defeated, many armoured vehicles had been lost and were hard to replace. This eventually resulted in a dispersion of the German effort; although the main attack would remain in central Belgium, secondary attacks would be undertaken on the flanks. Hitler made such a suggestion on 11 November, pressing for an early attack on unprepared targets.
Hitler was not alone in disliking Halder 's plan. General Gerd von Rundstedt, the commander of Army Group A, also disagreed with it. Rundstedt recognised that it did not adhere to the classic principles of the Bewegungskrieg (manoeuvre warfare) that had guided German strategy since the 19th century. A breakthrough would have to be accomplished that would result in the encirclement and destruction of the main body of Allied forces. The most practical place to achieve this would be in the region of Sedan, which lay in the sector of Rundstedt 's Army Group. On 21 October, Rundstedt agreed with his chief of staff, Generalleutnant Erich von Manstein, that an alternative operational plan had to be arranged that would reflect these basic ideas, by making Army Group A as strong as possible at the expense of Army Group B to the north.
While Manstein was formulating new plans in Koblenz, Generalleutnant Heinz Guderian, commander of the XIX Army Corps, was lodged in a nearby hotel. Manstein was initially considering a move north from Sedan, directly in the rear of the main Allied mobile forces in Belgium. When Guderian was invited to contribute to the plan during informal discussions, he proposed a radical and novel idea. Most of the Panzerwaffe should be concentrated at Sedan. This concentration of armour should advance to the west to the English Channel, without waiting for the main body of infantry divisions. This might lead to a strategic collapse of the enemy, avoiding the relatively high number of casualties normally caused by a Kesselschlacht (cauldron battle).
Such a risky independent use of armour had been widely discussed in Germany before the war but Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH, the German General Staff), doubted such an operation could work. Manstein 's general operational ideas won immediate support from Guderian, who understood the terrain, having experienced the conditions with the German Army in 1914 and 1918. Manstein wrote his first memorandum outlining the alternative plan on 31 October. In it he avoided mentioning Guderian and played down the strategic part of the armoured units, to avoid unnecessary resistance. Six more memoranda followed between 31 October 1939 and 12 January 1940, each becoming more radical. All were rejected by OKH and nothing of their content reached Hitler.
On 10 January 1940, a German aircraft carrying a staff officer with the Luftwaffe plans for an offensive through central Belgium to the North Sea, force - landed near Maasmechelen (Mechelen) in Belgium. The documents were captured but Allied intelligence doubted that they were genuine. In the full moon period in April 1940, another Allied alert was called for a possible attack on the Low Countries or Holland, an offensive through the Low Countries to outflank the Maginot Line from the north, an attack on the Maginot Line or an invasion through Switzerland. None of the contingencies anticipated the German attack through the Ardennes but after the loss of the Luftwaffe plans, the Germans assumed that the Allied appreciation of German intentions would have been reinforced. Aufmarschanweisung N ° 3, Fall Gelb an amendment to the plan on 30 January, was only a revision of details but on 24 February, the main German effort was switched south to the Ardennes. Twenty divisions (including seven panzer and three motorised divisions) were transferred from Heeresgruppe B opposite Holland and Belgium to Heeresgruppe A facing the Ardennes. French military intelligence uncovered a transfer of German divisions from the Saar to the north of the Moselle but failed to detect the redeployment from the Dutch frontier to the Eiffel -- Moselle area.
On 27 January, Manstein was sacked as Chief of Staff of Army Group A and appointed commander of an army corps in East Prussia. To silence Manstein, Halder had instigated his transfer to Stettin on 9 February. Manstein 's staff brought his case to Hitler, who had independently suggested an attack at Sedan, against the advice of OKH. On 2 February, Hitler was told of Manstein 's plan and on 17 February, Hitler summoned Manstein, generals Rudolf Schmundt (Chief of Personnel of the German army) and Alfred Jodl, the Chief of Operations at Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, German armed forces high command), to attend a conference. The next day, Hitler ordered Manstein 's thinking to be adopted, because it offered the possibility of decisive victory. Hitler recognised the breakthrough at Sedan only in tactical terms, whereas Manstein saw it as a means to an end. He envisaged an operation to the English Channel and the encirclement of the Allied armies in Belgium; if the plan succeeded, it could have a strategic effect.
Halder then went through an "astonishing change of opinion '', accepting that the Schwerpunkt should be at Sedan. He, however, had no intention of allowing an independent strategic penetration by the seven Panzer divisions of Army Group A. Much to the dismay of Guderian, this element was absent from the new plan, Aufmarschanweisung N ° 4, Fall Gelb, issued on 24 February. Halder was criticised in the same way he had attacked Manstein, when he first proposed his attack plan. The bulk of the German officer corps was appalled and called Halder the "gravedigger of the Panzer force ''. Even when adapted to more conventional methods, the new plan provoked a storm of protest from the majority of German generals. They thought it utterly irresponsible to create a concentration of forces in a position impossible adequately to supply, along routes that could be cut easily by the French. If the Allies did not react as expected, the German offensive could end in catastrophe. Their objections were ignored and Halder argued that, as Germany 's strategic position seemed hopeless anyway, even the slightest chance of decisive victory should be grasped. Shortly before the invasion, Hitler, who had spoken to forces on the Western Front and who was encouraged by the success in Norway, confidently predicted the campaign would take only six weeks. Personally, he was most excited over the planned glider attack on Fort Eben - Emael.
On 3 September 1939, French military strategy had been settled, taking in analyses of geography, resources and manpower. The French Army would defend on the right and advance into Belgium on the left, to fight forward of the French frontier. The extent of the forward move was dependent on events, which had been complicated when Belgium ended the Franco - Belgian Accord of 1920, after the German Remilitarization of the Rhineland (7 March 1936). As a neutral, the Belgian state was reluctant to co-operate openly with France but did communicate information about Belgian defences. By May 1940, there had been an exchange of the general nature of French and Belgian defence plans but little co-ordination against a German offensive to the west, through Luxembourg and eastern Belgium. The French expected Germany to breach Belgian neutrality first, providing a pretext for French intervention or that the Belgians would request support when an invasion was imminent. Most of the French mobile forces were assembled along the Belgian border, ready to forestall the Germans.
An early appeal for help might give the French time to reach the German -- Belgian frontier but if not, there were three feasible defensive lines further back. A possible line existed from Givet to Namur, across the Gembloux Gap (la trouée de Gembloux), Wavre, Louvain and along the Dyle river to Antwerp, which was 70 -- 80 km (43 -- 50 mi) shorter than the alternatives. A second possibility was a line from the French border to Condé, Tournai, along the Escaut (Scheldt) to Ghent and thence to Zeebrugge on the North Sea coast, possibly further along the Scheldt (Escaut) to Antwerp, which became the Escaut Plan / Plan E. The third possibility was along field defences of the French border from Luxembourg to Dunkirk. For the first fortnight of the war, Gamelin favoured Plan E, because of the example of the fast German advances in Poland. Gamelin and the other French commanders doubted that they could move any further forward before the Germans arrived. In late September, Gamelin issued a directive to Général d'armée Gaston Billotte, commander of the 1st Army Group,
... assuring the integrity of the national territory and defending without withdrawing the position of resistance organised along the frontier...
giving the 1st Army Group permission to enter Belgium, to deploy along the Escaut according to Plan E. On 24 October, Gamelin directed that an advance beyond the Escaut was only feasible if the French moved fast enough to forestall the Germans.
By late 1939, the Belgians had improved their defences along the Albert Canal and increased the readiness of the army; Gamelin and Grand Quartier Général (GQG) began to consider the possibility of advancing further than the Escaut. By November, GQG had decided that a defence along the Dyle Line was feasible, despite the doubts of General Alphonse Georges, commander of the North - Eastern Front about reaching the Dyle before the Germans. The British had been lukewarm about an advance into Belgium but Gamelin talked them round and on 9 November, the Dyle Plan was adopted. On 17 November, a session of the Supreme War Council deemed it essential to occupy the Dyle Line and Gamelin issued a directive that day detailing a line from Givet to Namur, the Gembloux Gap, Wavre, Louvain and Antwerp. For the next four months, the Dutch and Belgian armies laboured over their defences, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) expanded and the French army received more equipment and training. Gamelin also considered a move towards Breda in the Netherlands; if the Allies prevented a German occupation of Holland, the ten divisions of the Dutch army would join the Allied armies, control of the North Sea would be enhanced and the Germans denied bases for attacks on Britain.
By May 1940, the 1st Army Group was responsible for the defence of France from the Channel coast to the west end of the Maginot Line. The Seventh Army (Général d'armée Henri Giraud), BEF (General Lord Gort), First Army (Général d'armée Georges Maurice Jean Blanchard) and Ninth Army (Général d'armée André Corap) were ready to advance to the Dyle Line, by pivoting on the right (southern) Second Army. The Seventh Army would take over west of Antwerp, ready to move into Holland and the Belgians were expected to delay a German advance, then retire from the Albert Canal to the Dyle, from Antwerp to Louvain. On the Belgian right, the BEF was to defend about 20 km (12 mi) of the Dyle from Louvain to Wavre with nine divisions and the First Army on the right of the BEF was to hold 35 km (22 mi) with ten divisions from Wavre across the Gembloux Gap to Namur. The gap from the Dyle to Namur north of the Sambre, with Maastricht and Mons on either side, had few natural obstacles and was a traditional route of invasion, leading straight to Paris. The Ninth Army would take post south of Namur, along the Meuse to the left (northern) flank of the Second Army.
The Second Army was the right (eastern) flank army of the 1st Army Group, holding the line from Pont à Bar 6 km (3.7 mi) west of Sedan to Longuyon. GQG considered that the Second and Ninth armies had the easiest task of the army group, dug in on the west bank of the Meuse on ground that was easily defended and behind the Ardennes, a considerable obstacle, the traversing of which would give plenty of warning of a German attack in the centre of the French front. After the transfer from the strategic reserve of the Seventh Army to the 1st Army Group, seven divisions remained behind the Second and Ninth armies and more could be moved from behind the Maginot Line. All but one division were either side of the junction of the two armies, GQG being more concerned about a possible German attack past the north end of the Maginot Line and then south - east through the Stenay Gap, for which the divisions behind the Second Army were well placed.
If the Allies could control the Scheldt Estuary, supplies could be transported to Antwerp by ship and contact established with the Dutch army along the river. On 8 November, Gamelin directed that a German invasion of the Netherlands must not be allowed to progress around the west of Antwerp and gain the south bank of the Scheldt. The left flank of the 1st Army Group was reinforced by the Seventh Army, containing some of the best and most mobile French divisions, which moved from the general reserve by December. The role of the army was to occupy the south bank of the Scheldt and be ready to move into Holland and protect the estuary by holding the north bank along the Beveland Peninsula (now the Walcheren -- Zuid - Beveland -- Noord - Beveland peninsula) in the Holland Hypothesis. On 12 March 1940, Gamelin discounted dissenting opinion at GQG and decided that the Seventh Army would advance as far as Breda, to link with the Dutch. Georges was told that the role of the Seventh Army on the left flank of the Dyle manoeuvre would be linked to it and Georges notified Billotte that if it were ordered to cross into the Netherlands, the left flank of the army group was to advance to Tilburg if possible and certainly to Breda. The Seventh Army was to take post between the Belgian and Dutch armies by passing the Belgians along the Albert Canal and then turning east, a distance of 175 km (109 mi), when the German armies were only 90 km (56 mi) distant from Breda. On 16 April, Gamelin also made provision for a German invasion of the Netherlands but not Belgium, by changing the deployment area to be reached by the Seventh Army; the Escaut Plan would only be followed if the Germans forestalled the French move into Belgium.
In the winter of 1939 -- 40, the Belgian consul - general in Cologne had anticipated the angle of advance that Manstein was planning. Through intelligence reports, the Belgians deduced that German forces were concentrating along the Belgian and Luxembourg frontiers. The Belgians were convinced that the Germans would thrust through the hilly and heavily forested Ardennes to the English Channel to cut off the Allied field armies in Belgium and north - eastern France. The Belgians also anticipated that the Germans would try to land Fallschirmjäger (paratroops) and glider forces to capture Belgian fortifications but their warnings were not heeded by the French nor British. In March 1940, Swiss intelligence detected six or seven Panzer divisions on the German - Luxembourg - Belgian border and more motorised divisions were detected in the area. French intelligence were informed through aerial reconnaissance that the Germans were constructing pontoon bridges about halfway over the Our River on the Luxembourg - German border. On 30 April, the French military attaché in Bern warned that the centre of the German assault would come on the Meuse at Sedan, sometime between 8 and 10 May. These reports had little effect on Gamelin, as did similar reports from neutral sources such as the Vatican and a French sighting of a 100 km (62 mi) - long line of German armoured vehicles on the Luxembourg border trailing back inside Germany.
Germany had mobilised 4,200,000 men of the Heer, 1,000,000 of the Luftwaffe, 180,000 of the Kriegsmarine, and 100,000 of the Waffen - SS. When consideration is made for those in Poland, Denmark and Norway, the Army had 3,000,000 men available for the offensive on 10 May 1940. These manpower reserves were formed into 157 divisions. Of these, 135 were earmarked for the offensive, including 42 reserve divisions. The German forces in the west in May and June deployed some 2,439 tanks and 7,378 guns. In 1939 -- 40, 45 percent of the army was at least 40 years old, and 50 percent of all the soldiers had just a few weeks ' training. The German Army was far from fully motorised; just 10 percent of their army was motorised in 1940 and could muster only 120,000 vehicles, compared to the 300,000 of the French Army. The British had the most enviable contingent of motorised forces. Most of the German logistical transport consisted of horse - drawn vehicles. Only 50 percent of the German divisions available in 1940 were combat ready, often being more poorly equipped than their equivalents in the British and French Armies, or even as well as the German Army of 1914. In the spring of 1940, the German Army was semi-modern. A small number of the best - equipped and "elite divisions were offset by many second and third rate divisions ''.
The German Army was divided into various groups. Army Group A, commanded by Gerd von Rundstedt, was composed of 45 ⁄ divisions, including seven armoured and was to execute the decisive movement through the Allied defences in the Ardennes. The manoeuvre carried out by the Germans is sometimes referred to as a "Sichelschnitt '', the German translation of the phrase "sickle cut '' coined by Winston Churchill after the events to describe it but never the official name of the operation. It involved three armies (the 4th, 12th and 16th) and had three Panzer corps. The XV, had been allocated to the 4th Army but the XXXXI (Reinhardt) and the XIX (Guderian) were united with the XIV Army Corps of two motorised infantry divisions on a special independent operational level in Panzergruppe Kleist (officially known as XXII Corps). Army Group B (Fedor von Bock), composed of 29 ⁄ divisions including three armoured, was to advance through the Low Countries and lure the northern units of the Allied armies into a pocket. It consisted of the 6th and 18th Armies. Army Group C (Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb), composed of 18 divisions, was charged with preventing a flanking movement from the east and with launching small holding attacks against the Maginot Line and the upper Rhine. It consisted of the 1st and 7th Armies.
Wireless proved essential to German success in the battle. German tanks had radio receivers that allowed them to be directed by platoon command tanks, which had voice communication with other units. Wireless allowed tactical control and far quicker improvisation than the opponent. Some commanders regarded the ability to communicate to be the primary method of combat and radio drills were considered to be more important than gunnery. Radio allowed German commanders to co-ordinate their formations, bringing them together for a mass firepower effect in attack or defence. The French numerical advantage in heavy weapons and equipment, which was often deployed in "penny - packets '' (dispersed as individual support weapons) was offset. Most French tanks also lacked radio, orders between infantry units were typically passed by telephone or verbally.
The German communications system permitted a degree of communication between air and ground forces. Attached to Panzer divisions were the Fliegerleittruppen (tactical air control troops) in wheeled vehicles. There were too few Sd. Kfz. 251 command vehicles for all of the army but the theory allowed the army in some circumstances to call Luftwaffe units to support an attack. It is said the participants in the dash to the English Channel carried out by the XIX Panzer Corps never had to wait more than 15 -- 20 minutes for the Luftwaffe to appear over a target after they had called. Fliegerkorps VIII, equipped with Junkers Ju 87 dive - bombers (Stukas), was to support the dash to the Channel if Army Group A broke through the Ardennes and kept a Ju 87 and a fighter group on call. On average, they could arrive to support armoured units within 45 -- 75 minutes of orders being issued.
The main tactic of the German land forces was combined arms combat. German operational tactics relied on highly mobile offensive units, with balanced numbers of well - trained artillery, infantry, engineer and tank formations, all integrated into Panzer divisions. They relied on excellent communication systems, which enabled them to break into a position and exploit it before the enemy could react. Panzer divisions could carry out reconnaissance missions, advance to contact, defend and attack vital positions or weak spots. This ground would then be held by infantry and artillery as pivot points for further attacks. Although many German tanks were outgunned by their opponents, they could take ground and draw the enemy armour on to the division 's anti-tank lines. This conserved the tanks to achieve the next stage of the offensive. The units ' logistics were self - contained, allowing for three or four days of combat. The Panzer divisions would be supported by motorised and infantry divisions. German tank battalions (Panzer - Abteilungen) were, in theory, mainly equipped with the Panzerkampfwagen III and Panzerkampfwagen IV tanks. However, due to a shortage of these types, the positions were actually in majority filled with the light Panzerkampfwagen II and even lighter Panzerkampfwagen I.
The German Army lacked a formidable heavy combat tank like the French Char B1. In armament and armour, French tanks were the stronger designs and more numerous (although the German vehicles were faster and more mechanically reliable). But while the German Army was outnumbered in artillery and tanks, it possessed some critical advantages over its opponents. The newer German Panzers had a crew of five men: a commander, gunner - aimer, loader, driver and mechanic. Having a trained individual for each task allowed each man to dedicate himself to his own mission and it made for a highly efficient combat team. The French had fewer members, with the commander double - tasked with loading the main gun, distracting him from his main duties in observation and tactical deployment. It made for a far less efficient system. Even within infantry formations, the Germans enjoyed an advantage through the doctrine of Auftragstaktik (mission command tactics), by which officers were expected to use their initiative to achieve their commanders ' intentions, and were given control of the necessary supporting arms.
The Luftwaffe divided its forces into two groups. In total, 1,815 combat, 487 transport and 50 glider aircraft were deployed to support Army Group B, while a further 3,286 combat aircraft were deployed to support Army Groups A and C. The combined Allied total was 2,935 aircraft, about half the number of the German force; the Luftwaffe was (at the time) the most experienced, well - equipped and well - trained air force in the world. The Luftwaffe could provide close support with dive - bombers and medium bombers but was a broadly based force intended to support national strategy and could carry out operational, tactical and strategic bombing operations. While Allied air forces in 1940 were tied to the support of the army, the Luftwaffe deployed its resources in a more general, operational way. It switched from air superiority missions, to medium - range interdiction, to strategic bombing, to close air support duties depending on the need of the ground forces. It was not a Panzer spearhead arm, since in 1939 fewer than 15 percent of Luftwaffe aircraft were designed for close support as this was not its main role.
It is generally supposed that the Germans also had an advantage in anti-aircraft guns (Fliegerabwehrkanone (Flak)). The totals of 2,600 88 mm (3.46 in) heavy Flak guns and 6,700 37 mm (1.46 in) and 20 mm (0.79 in) light Flak seems to refer to the German armed forces total inventory, including the anti-aircraft defence of Germany and the equipment of training units. (A 9,300 - gun Flak component with the field army would have involved more troops than the British Expeditionary Force.) The armies which invaded the west had 85 heavy and 18 light batteries belonging to the Luftwaffe, 48 companies of light Flak integral to divisions of the army and 20 companies of light Flak allocated as army troops, a reserve in the hands of HQs above corps level: altogether about 700 88 mm (3.46 in) and 180 37 mm (1.46 in) guns manned by Luftwaffe ground units and 816 20 mm (0.79 in) guns manned by the army.
France had spent a higher percentage of its GNP from 1918 to 1935 on its military than other great powers and the government had added a large rearmament effort in 1936. A declining birthrate during the period of the First World War and Great Depression and the large number of men who died in World War I, led to the hollow years, when France would have a shortage of men relative to its population, which was barely half that of Germany. France mobilised about one - third of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45, bringing the strength of its armed forces to 5,000,000. Only 2,240,000 of these served in army units in the north. The British contributed a total strength of 897,000 men in 1939, rising to 1,650,000 by June 1940. In May, it numbered only 500,000 men, including reserves. Dutch and Belgian manpower reserves amounted to 400,000 and 650,000, respectively.
The French raised 117 divisions, of which 104 (including 11 in reserve) were for the defence of the north. The British contributed 13 divisions in the BEF, three of which were untrained and poorly - armed labour divisions. Twenty - two Belgian, ten Dutch and two Polish divisions were also part of the Allied order of battle. British artillery strength amounted to 1,280 guns, Belgium fielded 1,338 guns, the Dutch 656 guns and France 10,700 guns, giving an Allied total of about 14,000 guns, 45 percent more than the German total. The French army was also more motorised than its opponent, which still relied on horses. Although the Belgians, British and Dutch had few tanks, the French had 3,254 tanks, larger than the German tank fleet.
The French Army was of mixed quality. It had in its order of battle some formidable units. The light and heavy armoured divisions (DLM and DCR) were new and not thoroughly trained. B Divisions were composed of reservists, above 30 years old and ill - equipped. A serious qualitative deficiency was a lack of anti-aircraft artillery, mobile anti-tank artillery and radio communication systems, despite the efforts of Gamelin to produce mobile artillery units. Only 0.15 percent of military spending between 1923 and 1939 had been on radios and other communications equipment; to maintain signals security, Gamelin used telephones and couriers to communicate with field units.
French tactical deployment and the use of mobile units at the operational level of war was also inferior to that of the Germans. The French had 3,254 tanks on the north - eastern front on 10 May, against 2,439 German tanks. Much of the armour was distributed for infantry support, each army having been assigned a tank brigade (groupement) of about ninety light infantry tanks but with so many tanks available the French could still concentrate a considerable number of light, medium and heavy tanks in armoured divisions, which in theory were as powerful as German panzer divisions. Only heavy French tanks generally carried wireless and the ones fitted were unreliable, which hampered communication and made tactical manoeuvre more difficult compared to German units. In 1940, French military theorists still mainly considered tanks as infantry support vehicles and French tanks were slow (except for the SOMUA S35) compared to German tanks, enabling German tanks to offset their disadvantages by out - manoeuvring French tanks. At various points in the campaign, the French were not able to achieve the same tempo as German armoured units. The state of training was also unbalanced, with the majority of personnel trained only to man static fortifications. Minimal training for mobile action was carried out between September 1939 and May 1940.
The French army consisted of three Army Groups. The 2nd and 3rd Army Groups defended the Maginot Line to the east; the 1st Army Group under Gaston Billotte was situated in the west and would execute the movement forward into the Low Countries. Initially positioned on the left flank near the coast, the Seventh Army, reinforced by a Divisions Légères Méchanique (DLM), was intended to move to the Netherlands via Antwerp. Next to the south were the motorised divisions of the BEF, which would advance to the Dyle Line and position itself to the right of the Belgian army, from Leuven (Louvain) to Wavre. The First Army, reinforced by two light mechanised divisions and with a Division Cuirassée de Réserve (DCR, Reserve Armoured Division) in reserve, would defend the Gembloux Gap between Wavre and Namur. The southernmost army involved in the move forward into Belgium was the French Ninth Army, which had to cover the Meuse sector between Namur to the north of Sedan.
Lord Gort, commander of the BEF, expected that he would have two or three weeks to prepare for the Germans to advance 100 kilometres (62 mi) to the Dyle but the Germans arrived in four days. The Second Army was expected to form the "hinge '' of the movement and remain entrenched. It was to face the elite German armoured divisions in their attack at Sedan. It was given low priority for manpower, anti-aircraft and anti-tank weapons and air support, consisting of five divisions, two were over-age reservist "Serie B '' divisions and the 3rd North African Division. Considering their training and equipment, they had to cover a long front and formed a weak point of the French defence system. This stemmed from the French High Command 's belief that the Ardennes forest was impassable to tanks, even though intelligence from the Belgian army and from their own intelligence services warned them of long armour and transport columns crossing the Ardennes and being stuck in a huge traffic - jam for some time. French war games in 1937 and 1938 had shown that the Germans could penetrate the Ardennes and Corap called it "idiocy '' to think that the enemy could not get through. Gamelin ignored the evidence, as it was not in line with his strategy.
In the air, the Allies were outnumbered. The Armée de l'Air had 1,562 aircraft, and RAF Fighter Command committed 680 machines, while RAF Bomber Command could contribute some 392 aircraft to operations. Some of the Allied types were approaching obsolescence, such as the Fairey Battle. In the fighter force, only the British Hawker Hurricane and the French Dewoitine D. 520 could cope with the German Messerschmitt Bf 109, the D. 520 having better manoeuvrability although being slightly slower. On 10 May 1940, only 36 D. 520s had been dispatched, all to one squadron. In fighter aircraft, the Allies had the numerical advantage; 836 German Bf 109s against 81 Belgian, 261 British and 764 French fighters of various types. The French and British also had larger aircraft reserves.
In early June 1940, the French aviation industry had reached a considerable output, with an estimated reserve of nearly 2,000 aircraft. A chronic lack of spare parts crippled this fleet. Only 29 percent (599) of the aircraft were serviceable, of which 170 were bombers. Low serviceability meant the Germans had a clear numerical superiority in medium bomber aircraft, with six times as many as the French. Despite its disadvantages the Armée de l'Air performed far better than expected, destroying 916 enemy aircraft in air - to - air combat during the Battle of France, for a kill ratio of 2.35: 1, with almost a third of those kills accomplished by French pilots flying the US built Curtiss Hawk 75, which accounted for 12.6 percent of the French single - seat fighter force.
In addition to 580 13 mm (0.5 in) machine guns assigned to civilian defence, the French Army had 1,152 25 mm (0.98 in) anti-aircraft guns, with 200 20 mm (0.79 in) auto - cannons in the process of delivery and 688 75 mm (2.95 in) guns and 24 90 mm (3.54 in) guns, the latter having problems with barrel wear. There were also 40 First World War - vintage 105 mm (4.1 in) anti-aircraft guns available. The BEF had 10 regiments of QF 3.7 - inch heavy anti-aircraft guns, the most advanced in the world and 7 ⁄ regiments of Bofors 40 mm light anti-aircraft guns, about 300 heavy and 350 light anti-aircraft guns. The Belgians had two heavy anti-aircraft regiments and were introducing Bofors 40 mm light anti-aircraft guns for divisional anti-aircraft troops. The Dutch had 84 75 mm (2.95 in), 39 elderly 60 mm (2.36 in), seven 100 mm (3.9 in), 232 20 mm (0.79 in) 40 mm (1.57 in) anti-aircraft guns and several hundred First World War - vintage Spandau M. 25 machine guns on anti-aircraft mountings.
At 21: 00 the code word "Danzig '' was relayed to all army divisions. The secrecy of the operation was so high that many officers, due to the constant delays, were away from their units when the order to initiate was sent. Fall Gelb began on the evening of 9 May, when German forces occupied Luxembourg virtually unopposed. Army Group B launched its feint offensive during the night into the Netherlands and Belgium and on the morning of 10 May, Fallschirmjäger (paratroopers) from the 7th Flieger Division and 22nd Luftlande Division (Kurt Student) executed surprise landings at The Hague, on the road to Rotterdam and against the Belgian Fort Eben - Emael to facilitate Army Group B 's advance. The French command reacted immediately, sending the 1st Army Group north in accordance with Plan D. This move committed their best forces, diminishing their fighting power by the partial disorganisation it caused and their mobility by depleting their fuel stocks. By the time the French Seventh Army crossed the Dutch border, they found the Dutch already in full retreat and withdrew into Belgium to protect Antwerp.
The Luftwaffe was guaranteed air superiority over the Netherlands by greater numbers; 247 medium bombers, 147 fighters, 424 Junkers Ju 52 transports, and 12 Heinkel He 59 seaplanes being involved in operations over the Netherlands. The Dutch Air Force, (Militaire Luchtvaartafdeling, ML), had a strength of 144 combat aircraft, half of which were destroyed on the first day. The remainder of the ML was dispersed and accounted for only a handful of Luftwaffe aircraft shot down. In total the ML flew a mere 332 sorties, losing 110 aircraft.
The German 18th Army secured all the strategically vital bridges during the Battle of Rotterdam, which penetrated Fortress Holland and bypassed the New Water Line from the south. An operation organised separately by the Luftwaffe, the Battle for The Hague, failed. The airfields surrounding the city (Ypenburg, Ockenburg and Valkenburg) were captured in a costly victory, with many transport aircraft lost and the Dutch army re-captured the airfields by the end of the day. Ninety - six aircraft in all were lost to Dutch shell fire. The Luftwaffe 's Transportgruppen operations had cost 125 Ju 52s destroyed and 47 damaged, representing 50 percent of the fleet 's strength. The airborne operation also cost 50 percent of the German paratroopers: 4,000 men, including 20 percent of its NCOs and 42 percent of its officers; of these casualties, 1,200 were prisoners of war who were evacuated to Britain.
The French Seventh Army failed to block the German armoured reinforcements from the 9th Panzer Division, which reached Rotterdam on 13 May. That same day in the east, following the Battle of the Grebbeberg, in which a Dutch counter-offensive to contain a German breach failed, the Dutch retreated from the Grebbe line to the New Water Line. The Dutch Army, still largely intact, surrendered in the evening of 14 May after the Bombing of Rotterdam by the Luftwaffe. Heinkel He 111 medium bombers of Kampfgeschwader 54 (Bomber Wing 54) destroyed the centre of the city, an act which has remained controversial. The Dutch Army considered its strategic situation to have become hopeless and feared further destruction of Dutch cities. The capitulation document was signed on 15 May. Dutch forces continued fighting in the Battle of Zeeland (where the French army had entered) and in the colonies while Queen Wilhelmina established a government in exile in Britain. Dutch casualties amounted to 2,157 army, 75 air force and 125 Navy personnel; 2,559 civilians were also killed.
The Germans were able to establish air superiority in Belgium. Having completed thorough photographic reconnaissance, they destroyed 83 of the 179 aircraft of the Aeronautique Militaire within the first 24 hours of the invasion. The Belgians flew 77 operational missions but this contributed little to the air campaign. As a result, the Luftwaffe was assured air superiority over the Low Countries. Because Army Group B 's composition had been so weakened compared to the earlier plans, the feint offensive by the 6th Army was in danger of stalling immediately, since the Belgian defences on the Albert Canal position were very strong. The main approach route was blocked by Fort Eben - Emael, a large fortress then generally considered the most modern in Europe, which controlled the junction of the Meuse and the Albert Canal.
Delay might endanger the outcome of the entire campaign, because it was essential that the main body of Allied troops be engaged before Army Group A established bridgeheads. To overcome this difficulty, the Germans resorted to unconventional means in the Battle of Fort Eben - Emael. In the early hours of 10 May, DFS 230 gliders landed on top of the fort and unloaded assault teams that disabled the main gun cupolas with hollow charges. The bridges over the canal were seized by German paratroopers. The Belgians launched considerable counterattacks which were broken up by the Luftwaffe. Shocked by a breach in its defences just where they had seemed the strongest, the Belgian Supreme Command withdrew its divisions to the KW - line five days earlier than planned. Similar operations against the bridges in the Netherlands, at Maastricht, failed. All were blown up by the Dutch and only one railway bridge was taken. This stalled the German armour on Dutch territory for a time.
The BEF and the French First Army were not yet entrenched, and the news of the defeat on the Belgian border was unwelcome. The Allies had been convinced Belgian resistance would have given them several weeks to prepare a defensive line at the Gembloux Gap. When General Erich Hoepner 's XVI Panzerkorps, consisting of 3rd Panzer Division and 4th Panzer Division, was launched over the newly captured bridges in the direction of the Gembloux Gap, this seemed to confirm the expectations of the French Supreme Command that the German central point of attack would be at that point. Gembloux was located between Wavre and Namur, on flat, ideal tank terrain. It was also an unfortified part of the Allied line. To gain time to dig in there, René Prioux, commanding the Cavalry Corps of the French First Army, sent the 2nd DLM and 3rd DLM towards the German armour at Hannut, east of Gembloux. They would provide a screen to delay the Germans and allow sufficient time for the First Army to dig in.
The Battle of Hannut (12 -- 13 May) was the largest tank battle yet fought, with about 1,500 armoured fighting vehicles involved. The French knocked out about 160 German tanks for a loss of 91 Hotchkiss H35 and 30 Somua S35 tanks. The Germans were left in control of the battlefield after the French made a planned withdrawal and were able to repair many of their knocked - out tanks. The net German loss amounted to 20 tanks of the 3rd Panzer Division and 29 of the 4th Panzer Division. Prioux had achieved a tactical and operational success for the French by fulfilling his objective of delaying the panzer divisions until the First Army had time to arrive and dig in. The German attack had engaged the First Army to the north of Sedan, which was the most important objective that Hoepner had to achieve but had failed to forestall the French advance to the Dyle or to destroy the First Army. On 14 May, having been held up at Hannut, Hoepner attacked again, against orders, in the Battle of Gembloux. This was the only occasion when German tanks frontally attacked a fortified position during the campaign. The 1st Moroccan Infantry Division repulsed the attack and another 42 tanks of the 4th Panzer Division were knocked out, 26 being written off; this second French defensive success was nullified by events further south at Sedan.
The advance of Army Group A was to be delayed by Belgian motorised infantry and French mechanised cavalry divisions (DLC, Divisions Légères de Cavalerie) advancing into the Ardennes. The main resistance came from the Belgian 1st Chasseurs Ardennais, the 1st Cavalry Division reinforced by engineers and the French 5e Division Légère de Cavalerie (5th DLC). The Belgian troops blocked roads, held up the 1st Panzer Division at Bodange for about eight hours then retired northwards too quickly for the French who had not arrived and their barriers proved ineffective when not defended; German engineers were not disturbed as they dismantled the obstacles. They had insufficient anti-tank capacity to block the surprisingly large number of German tanks they encountered and quickly gave way, withdrawing behind the Meuse. The German advance was hampered by the number of vehicles trying to force their way along the poor road network. Panzergruppe Kleist had more than 41,140 vehicles, which had only four march routes through the Ardennes. French reconnaissance aircrews had reported German armoured convoys by the night of 10 / 11 May but this was assumed to be secondary to the main attack in Belgium. On the next night, a reconnaissance pilot reported that he had seen long vehicle columns moving without lights and another pilot sent to check reported the same and that many of the vehicles were tanks. Later that day photographic reconnaissance and pilot reports were of tanks and bridging equipment and on 13 May Panzergruppe Kleist caused a traffic jam about 250 km (160 mi) long from the Meuse to the Rhine on one route. While the German columns were sitting targets, the French bomber force attacked the Germans in northern Belgium during the Battle of Maastricht and had failed with heavy losses. In two days, the bomber force had been reduced from 135 to 72.
On 11 May, Gamelin had ordered reserve divisions to begin reinforcing the Meuse sector. Because of the danger the Luftwaffe posed, movement over the rail network was limited to night - time, slowing the reinforcement but the French felt no sense of urgency as they believed the build - up of German divisions would be correspondingly slow; the French Army did not conduct river crossings unless assured of heavy artillery support. While they were aware that the German tank and infantry formations were strong, they were confident in their strong fortifications and artillery superiority. The capabilities of the French units in the area were dubious; in particular, their artillery was designed for fighting infantry and they were short of both anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns. The German advance forces reached the Meuse line late in the afternoon of 12 May. To allow each of the three armies of Army Group A to cross, three bridgeheads were to be established, at Sedan in the south, Monthermé to the north - west and Dinant further north. The first German units to arrive hardly had local numerical superiority; the German artillery had an average of 12 rounds per gun. (The French artillery was also rationed to 30 rounds per gun per day.)
At Sedan, the Meuse Line consisted of a strong defensive belt 6 km (3.7 mi) deep, laid out according to the modern principles of zone defence, on slopes overlooking the Meuse valley and strengthened by 103 pillboxes, manned by the 147th Fortress Infantry Regiment. Deeper positions were held by the 55th Infantry Division, a grade "B '' reserve division. On the morning of 13 May, the 71st Infantry Division was inserted to the east of Sedan, allowing 55th Infantry Division to narrow its front by a third and deepen its position to over 10 km (6.2 mi). The division had a superiority in artillery to the German units present. On 13 May, Panzergruppe Kleist forced three crossings near Sedan, executed by the 1st Panzer Division, 2nd Panzer Division and 10th Panzer Division, reinforced by the elite Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland. Instead of slowly massing artillery as the French expected, the Germans concentrated most of their air power (as they lacked artillery), to smash a hole in a narrow sector of the French lines by carpet bombing and by dive bombing. Guderian had been promised extraordinarily heavy air support during a continual eight - hour air attack, from 08: 00 am until dusk.
The Luftwaffe executed the heaviest air bombardment the world had yet witnessed and the most intense by the Germans during the war. Two Sturzkampfgeschwader (dive bomber wings) attacked, flying 300 sorties against French positions. A total of 3,940 sorties were flown by nine Kampfgeschwader (Bomber Wings). Some of the forward pillboxes were undamaged and the garrisons repulsed the crossing attempts of the 2nd Panzer Division and 10th Panzer Division. The morale of the troops of the 55th Infantry Division further back was broken by the air attacks and French gunners had fled. The German infantry, at a cost of a few hundred casualties, penetrated up to 8 km (5.0 mi) into the French defensive zone by midnight. Even by then most of the infantry had not crossed, much of the success being due to the actions of just six platoons, mainly assault engineers.
The disorder that had begun at Sedan spread down the French lines. At 19: 00 on 13 May, troops of the 295th Regiment of the 55th Infantry Division, holding the last prepared defensive line at the Bulson ridge 10 km (6.2 mi) behind the river, was panicked by alarmist rumours that German tanks were already behind them and fled, creating a gap in the French defences, before any tanks had crossed the river. This "Panic of Bulson '' also involved the divisional artillery. The Germans had not attacked their position, and would not do so until 12 hours later, at 07: 20 on 14 May. Recognising the gravity of the defeat at Sedan, General Gaston - Henri Billotte, commander of the 1st Army Group, whose right flank pivoted on Sedan, urged that the bridges across the Meuse be destroyed by air attack, convinced that "over them will pass either victory or defeat! ''. That day, every available Allied light bomber was employed in an attempt to destroy the three bridges but lost about 44 percent of the Allied bomber strength for no result.
Guderian had indicated on 12 May that he wanted to enlarge the bridgehead to at least 20 km (12 mi). His superior, General Ewald von Kleist, ordered him, on behalf of Hitler, to limit his moves to a maximum of 8 km (5.0 mi) before consolidation. At 11: 45 on 14 May, Rundstedt confirmed this order, which implied that the tank units should now start to dig in. Guderian was able to get Kleist to agree on a form of words for a "reconnaissance in force '', by threatening to resign and behind - the - scenes intrigues. Guderian continued the advance, despite the halt order. In the original Manstein Plan, as Guderian had suggested, secondary attacks would be carried out to the south - east, in the rear of the Maginot Line, to confuse the French command and occupy ground where French counter-offensive forces would assemble. This element had been removed by Halder but Guderian sent the 10th Panzer Division and Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland south over the Stonne plateau.
The commander of the French Second Army, General Charles Huntziger, intended to carry out a counter-attack at the same spot by the 3e Division Cuirassée (3e DCR, 3rd Armoured Division) to eliminate the bridgehead and both sides attacked and counter-attacked from 15 -- 17 May. Huntzinger considered this at least a defensive success and limited his efforts to protecting the flank. Success in the Battle of Stonne and the recapture of Bulson would have enabled the French to defend the high ground overlooking Sedan and bombard the bridgehead with observed artillery - fire, even if they could not take it; Stonne changed hands 17 times and fell to the Germans for the last time on the evening of 17 May. Guderian turned the 1st Panzer Division and the 2nd Panzer Division westwards on 14 May, which advanced swiftly down the Somme valley towards the English Channel.
On 15 May, Guderian 's motorised infantry fought their way through the reinforcements of the new French Sixth Army in their assembly area west of Sedan, undercutting the southern flank of the French Ninth Army. The Ninth Army collapsed and surrendered en masse. The 102nd Fortress Division, its flanks unsupported, was surrounded and destroyed on 15 May at the Monthermé bridgehead by the 6th Panzer Division and 8th Panzer Division without air support. The French Second Army had also been seriously damaged and the Ninth Army was giving way because they did not have time to dig in, as Erwin Rommel had broken through French lines within 24 hours of the battle 's beginning. The 7th Panzer Division raced ahead, Rommel refusing to allow the division rest and advancing by day and night. The division advanced 30 mi (48 km) in 24 hours.
Rommel lost contact with General Hermann Hoth, having disobeyed orders by not waiting for the French to establish a new line of defence. The 7th Panzer Division continued to advance north - west to Avesnes - sur - Helpe, just ahead of the 1st and 2nd Panzer divisions. The French 5th Motorised Infantry Division had bivouacked in the path of the German division, with its vehicles neatly lined up along the roadsides and the 7th Panzer Division dashed through them. The slow speed, overloaded crews and lack of battlefield communications undid the French. The 5th Panzer Division joined in the fight. The French inflicted many losses on the division but could not cope with the speed of the German mobile units, which closed fast and destroyed the French armour at close range. The remaining elements of the 1st DCR, resting after losing all but 16 of its tanks in Belgium, were also engaged and defeated, the 1st DCR retiring with three operational tanks for a German loss of 50 out of 500 tanks.
By 17 May, Rommel claimed to have taken 10,000 prisoners and suffered only 36 losses. Guderian was delighted with the fast advance, and encouraged XIX Korps to head for the channel, continuing until fuel was exhausted. Hitler worried that the German advance was moving too fast. Halder recorded in his diary on 17 May that "Führer is terribly nervous. Frightened by his own success, he is afraid to take any chance and so would pull the reins on us... (he) keeps worrying about the south flank. He rages and screams that we are on the way to ruin the whole campaign. '' Through deception and different interpretations of orders to stop from Hitler and Kleist, the front line commanders ignored Hitler 's attempts to stop the westward advance to Abbeville.
The French High Command, already comparatively ponderous and sluggish from its firm espousal of the broad strategy of "methodological warfare '', however, was reeling from the shock of the sudden offensive and was now stung by a sense of defeatism. On the morning of 15 May, French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud telephoned the new British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill and said "We have been defeated. We are beaten; we have lost the battle. '' Churchill, attempting to offer some comfort to Reynaud, reminded the Prime Minister of all the times the Germans had broken through the Allied lines in the First World War only to be stopped. Reynaud was, however, inconsolable.
Churchill flew to Paris on 16 May. He immediately recognised the gravity of the situation when he observed that the French government was already burning its archives and was preparing for an evacuation of the capital. In a sombre meeting with the French commanders, Churchill asked General Gamelin, "Où est la masse de manoeuvre? '' ("Where is the strategic reserve? '') that had saved Paris in the First World War. "Aucune '' ("There is none '') Gamelin replied. After the war, Gamelin claimed his response was "There is no longer any. '' Churchill later described hearing this as the single most shocking moment in his life. Churchill asked Gamelin where and when the general proposed to launch a counterattack against the flanks of the German bulge. Gamelin simply replied "inferiority of numbers, inferiority of equipment, inferiority of methods ''.
Some of the best Allied units in the north had seen little fighting. Had they been kept in reserve they might have been used in a decisive counter-strike. Pre-war General Staff Studies had asserted the main reserves were to be kept on French soil to resist an invasion of the Low Countries and deliver a counterattack or "re-establish the integrity of the original front ''. Despite having a numerically superior armoured force, the French failed to use it properly, or to deliver an attack on the vulnerable German bulge. The Germans combined their fighting vehicles in divisions and used them at the point of main effort. The bulk of French armour was scattered along the front in tiny formations. Most of the French reserve divisions had by now been committed. The 1st DCr had been wiped out when it had run out of fuel and the 3rd DCr had failed to take its opportunity to destroy the German bridgeheads at Sedan. The only armoured division still in reserve, 2nd DCr, was to attack on 16 May west of Saint - Quentin, Aisne. The division commander could locate only seven of its 12 companies, which were scattered along a 49 mi × 37 mi (79 km × 60 km) front. The formation was overrun by the 8th Panzer Division while still forming up and was destroyed as a fighting unit.
The 4th DCr (de Gaulle), attempted to launch an attack from the south at Montcornet, where Guderian had his Korps headquarters and the 1st Panzer Division had its rear service areas. During the Battle of Montcornet Germans hastily improvised a defence while Guderian rushed up the 10th Panzer Division to threaten de Gaulle 's flank. This flank pressure and dive - bombing by Fliegerkorps VIII (General Wolfram von Richthofen) broke up the attack. French losses on 17 May amounted to 32 tanks and armoured vehicles but the French had "inflicted loss on the Germans ''. On 19 May, after receiving reinforcements, de Gaulle attacked again and was repulsed with the loss of 80 of 155 vehicles. Fliegerkorps VIII attacked French units massing on the German flanks and prevented most counter-attacks from starting. The defeat of the 4th DCr and the disintegration of the French Ninth Army was caused mainly by the fliegerkorps. The 4th DCr had achieved a measure of success but the attacks on 17 and 19 May had only local effect.
On 19 May, General Edmund Ironside, the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), conferred with General Lord Gort, commander of the BEF, at his headquarters near Lens. He urged Gort to save the BEF by attacking south - west toward Amiens. Gort replied that seven of his nine divisions were already engaged on the Scheldt River and he had only two divisions left to mount such an attack. Ironside then asked Gort under whose command he was acting. Gort replied that this was General Billotte, the commander of the French 1st Army Group but that Billotte had issued no orders for eight days. Ironside confronted Billotte, whose own headquarters was nearby and found him apparently incapable of taking action. He returned to Britain concerned that the BEF was doomed and ordered urgent anti-invasion measures.
The German land forces could not remain inactive any longer, since it would allow the Allies to reorganise their defence or escape. On 19 May, Guderian was permitted to start moving again and smashed through the weak 12th (Eastern) Division and the 23rd (Northumbrian) Division (Territorial divisions) on the Somme river. The German units occupied Amiens and secured the westernmost bridge over the river at Abbeville. This move isolated the British, French, Dutch and Belgian forces in the north from their supplies. On 20 May, a reconnaissance unit from the 2nd Panzer Division reached Noyelles - sur - Mer, 100 kilometres (62 mi) to the west of their positions on 17 May. From Noyelles, they were able to see the Somme estuary and the English Channel. A huge pocket, containing the Allied 1st Army Group (the Belgian, British, and French First, Seventh and Ninth armies), was created.
Fliegerkorps VIII covered the dash to the channel coast. Heralded as the finest hour of the Ju 87 (Stuka), these units responded via an extremely efficient communications system to requests for support, which blasted a path for the army. The Ju 87s were particularly effective at breaking up attacks along the flanks of the German forces, breaking fortified positions and disrupting supply routes. Radio - equipped forward liaison officers could call upon the Stukas and direct them to attack Allied positions along the axis of advance. In some cases, the Luftwaffe responded to requests within 10 to 20 minutes. Oberstleutnant Hans Seidemann the Fliegerkorps vIII Chief of Staff, said that "never again was such a smoothly functioning system for discussing and planning joint operations achieved ''. Closer examination reveals the army had to wait 45 -- 75 minutes for Ju 87 units and ten minutes for Henschel Hs 123s.
On the morning of 20 May, Gamelin ordered the armies trapped in Belgium and northern France to fight their way south and link up with French forces attacking northwards from the Somme river. On the evening of 19 May, the French Prime Minister, Paul Reynaud had sacked Gamelin and replaced him with Maxime Weygand, who claimed his first mission as Commander - in - Chief would be to get a good night 's sleep. Gamelin 's orders were cancelled and Weygand took several days during the crisis, to make courtesy visits in Paris. Weygand proposed a counter-offensive by the armies trapped in the north combined with an attack by French forces on the Somme front, the new French 3rd Army Group (General Antoine - Marie - Benoît Besson).
The corridor through which Panzergruppe von Kleist had advanced to the coast was narrow and to the north were the three DLMs and the BEF; to the south was the 4th DCR. Allied delays caused by the French change of command gave the German infantry divisions time to follow up and reinforce the panzer corridor and the tanks had pushed further along the channel coast. Weygand flew into the pocket on 21 May and met Billotte, the commander of the 1st Army Group and King Leopold III of Belgium. Leopold announced that the Belgian Army could not conduct offensive operations as it lacked tanks and aircraft and that unoccupied Belgium had enough food for only two weeks. Leopold did not expect the BEF to endanger itself to keep contact with the Belgian Army but warned that if it persisted with the southern offensive, the Belgian army would collapse. Leopold suggested the establishment of a beach - head covering Dunkirk and the Belgian channel ports.
Gort doubted that the French could prevail and on 23 May, Billotte, the only Allied commander in the north briefed on the Weygand plan, was killed in a road accident, leaving the 1st Army Group leaderless for three days. That day, the British decided to evacuate from the Channel ports. Only two local offensives, by the British and French in the north at Arras on 21 May and by the French from Cambrai in the south on 22 May, took place. Frankforce (Major - General Harold Franklyn) consisting of two divisions, had moved into the Arras area but Franklyn was not aware of a French push north toward Cambrai and the French were ignorant of a British attack towards Arras. Franklyn assumed he was to relieve the Allied garrison at Arras and to cut German communications in the vicinity and was reluctant to commit the 5th Infantry Division, 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, with the 3rd DLM from the French First Army providing flank protection, in a limited objective attack. Only two British infantry battalions and two battalions of the 1st Army Tank Brigade, with 58 Matilda I and 16 Matilda II tanks and an attached motorcycle battalion took part in the main attack.
The Battle of Arras achieved surprise and initial success against overstretched German forces but failed in its objective. Radio communication between tanks and infantry was poor and there was little combined arms co-ordination as practised by the Germans. German defences (including 88 mm (3.46 in) FlaK guns and 105 mm (4.1 in) field guns) eventually stopped the attack. The French knocked out many German tanks as they retired, but the Luftwaffe broke up the counter-attacks and 60 British tanks were lost. The southern attack at Cambrai also failed, because V Corps had been too disorganised after the fighting in Belgium to make a serious effort. OKH panicked at the thought of hundreds of Allied tanks smashing the best forces but Rommel wanted to continue the pursuit. Early on 22 May, OKH recovered and ordered the XIX Panzerkorps to press north from Abbeville to the Channel ports: the 1st Panzer Division to Calais, the 2nd Panzer Division to Boulogne and the 10th Panzer Division to Dunkirk (later, the 1st and 10th Panzer divisions roles were reversed). South of the German salient, limited French attacks on 23 March near Peronne and Amiens. French and British troops fought the Battle of Abbeville from 27 May to 4 June but failed to eliminate the German bridgehead south of the Somme.
In the early hours of 23 May, Gort ordered a retreat from Arras. By now, he had no faith in the Weygand plan, nor in Weygand 's proposal at least to try to hold a pocket on the Flemish coast, a so - called Réduit de Flandres. Gort knew that the ports needed to supply such a foothold were already being threatened. That same day, the 2nd Panzer Division had assaulted Boulogne. The British garrison there surrendered on 25 May, although 4,286 men were evacuated by Royal Navy ships. The RAF also provided air cover, denying the Luftwaffe an opportunity to attack the shipping.
The 10th Panzer Division (Ferdinand Schaal) attacked Calais on 24 May. British reinforcements (the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment, equipped with cruiser tanks, and the 30th Motor Brigade) had been hastily landed 24 hours before the Germans attacked. The defenders held on to the port as long as possible, aware that an early capitulation would free up German forces to advance on Dunkirk. The British and French held the town despite the best efforts of Schaal 's division to break through. Frustrated, Guderian ordered that, if Calais had not fallen by 14: 00 on 26 May, he would withdraw the 10th Panzer Division and ask the Luftwaffe to destroy the town. Eventually, the French and British ran out of ammunition and the Germans were able to break into the fortified city at around 13: 30 on 26 May, 30 minutes before Schaal 's deadline was up. Despite the French surrender of the main fortifications, the British held the docks until the morning of 27 May. Around 440 men were evacuated. The siege lasted for four crucial days. However, the delaying action came at a price. Some 60 percent of Allied personnel were killed or wounded.
Frieser wrote that the Franco - British counter-attack at Arras had a disproportionate effect on the Germans because the German higher commanders were apprehensive about flank security. Kleist, the commander of Panzergruppe von Kleist perceived a "serious threat '' and informed Halder that he had to wait until the crisis was resolved before continuing. Colonel - General Günther von Kluge, the 4th Army commander ordered the tanks to halt, with the support of Rundstedt. On 22 May, when the attack had been repulsed, Rundstedt ordered that the situation at Arras must be restored before Panzergruppe von Kleist moved on Boulogne and Calais. At OKW, the panic was worse and Hitler contacted Army Group A on 22 May, to order that all mobile units were to operate either side of Arras and infantry units were to operate to the east.
The crisis among the higher staffs of the German army was not apparent at the front and Halder formed the same conclusion as Guderian, that the real threat was that the Allies would retreat to the channel coast too quickly and a race for the channel ports began. Guderian ordered the 2nd Panzer Division to capture Boulogne, the 1st Panzer Division to take Calais and the 10th Panzer division to seize Dunkirk. Most of the BEF and the French First Army were still 62 miles (100 km) from the coast but despite delays, British troops were sent from England to Boulogne and Calais just in time to forestall the XIX Corps panzer divisions on 22 May. Frieser wrote that had the panzers advanced at the same speed on 21 May as they had on 20 May, before the halt order stopped their advance for 24 hours, Boulogne and Calais would have fallen. (Without a halt at Montcornet on 15 May and the second halt on 21 May after the Battle of Arras, the final halt order of 24 May would have been irrelevant, because Dunkirk would have already been captured by the 10th Panzer Division.)
The British launched Operation Dynamo, which evacuated the encircled British, French and Belgian troops from the northern pocket in Belgium and Pas - de-Calais, beginning on 26 May. About 28,000 men were evacuated on the first day. The French First Army -- the bulk of which remained in Lille -- mounted a long defence of the city owing to Weygand 's failure to pull it back along with other French forces to the coast. The 50,000 men involved finally capitulated on 31 May. While the First Army was mounting its sacrificial defence at Lille, it drew German forces away from Dunkirk, allowing 70,000 Allied soldiers to escape. Total Allied evacuation rates stood at 165,000 on 31 May. The Allied position was complicated by Belgian King Leopold III 's surrender on 27 May, which was postponed until 28 May. The gap left by the Belgian Army stretched from Ypres to Dixmude. Nevertheless, a collapse was prevented and 139,732 British and 139,097 French soldiers were evacuated. Between 31 May and 4 June, some 20,000 British and 98,000 French were saved. Still, some 30 -- 40,000 French soldiers of the rearguard remained to be captured. The overall total evacuated was 338,226, including 215,000 British.
During the Dunkirk battle, the Luftwaffe did its best to prevent the evacuation. It flew 1,882 bombing and 1,997 fighter sorties. British losses totalled 6 percent of their total losses during the French campaign, including 60 precious fighter pilots. The Luftwaffe failed in its task of preventing the evacuation, but inflicted serious losses on the Allied forces. A total of 89 merchantmen (of 126,518 grt) were lost; the navy lost 29 of its 40 destroyers sunk or seriously damaged. The Germans lost around 100 aircraft confirmed destroyed, and the RAF 106 fighters. Other sources put Luftwaffe losses in the Dunkirk area at 240.
Confusion still reigned. After the evacuation at Dunkirk, and while Paris was enduring a short - lived siege, part of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division was sent to Brittany, but was withdrawn after the French capitulation. The British 1st Armoured Division under General Evans, without its infantry, which had earlier been diverted to the defence of Calais, arrived in France in June 1940. It was joined by the former labour battalion of the 51st (Highland) Division and was forced to fight a rearguard action. At the end of the campaign, Erwin Rommel praised the staunch resistance of British forces, despite being under - equipped and without ammunition for much of the fighting.
By the end of May 1940, the best and most modern French armies had been sent north and lost in the resulting encirclement; the French had also lost much of their heavy weaponry and their best armoured formations. Overall, the Allies had lost 61 divisions in Fall Gelb. Weygand was faced with the prospect of defending a long front (stretching from Sedan to the channel), with a greatly depleted French Army now lacking significant Allied support. Weygand had only 64 French divisions and the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division available. Weygand lacked the reserves to counter a breakthrough or to replace frontline troops, should they become exhausted from a prolonged battle on a front of 965 km (600 mi). The Germans had 142 divisions to use and air supremacy except over the English Channel.
The French also had to deal with millions of civilian refugees fleeing the war in what became known as L'Exode (the Exodus); automobiles and horse - drawn carts carrying possessions clogged roads. As the government had not foreseen such a rapid military collapse, there were few plans to cope. Between six and ten million French fled, sometimes so quickly that they left uneaten meals on tables, even while officials stated that there was no need to panic and that civilians should stay. The population of Chartres declined from 23,000 to 800 and Lille from 200,000 to 20,000, while cities in the south such as Pau and Bordeaux rapidly grew in size.
While Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June, it was not prepared for war and made little impact during the last two weeks of fighting in the Italian invasion of France. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was aware of this and sought to profit from German successes. Mussolini felt the conflict would soon end and he reportedly said to the Army 's Chief - of - Staff, Marshal Badoglio, "I only need a few thousand dead so that I can sit at the peace conference as a man who has fought. '' The Army of the Alps (General René Olry) defeated the Italian invasion.
The Germans renewed their offensive on 5 June on the Somme. During the next three weeks, far from the easy advance the Wehrmacht expected, they encountered strong resistance from a rejuvenated French Army. It had fallen back on its interior lines of supply and communications, and had closer access to repair shops, supply dumps and stores. Moreover, 112,000 evacuated French soldiers were repatriated via the Normandy and Brittany ports. It was some substitute for the lost divisions in Flanders. The French were also able to make good a significant amount of their armoured losses and raised the 1st and 2nd DCR (heavy armoured divisions). De Gaulle 's division -- the 4th DCR -- also had its losses replaced. Morale rose and was very high by the end of May 1940. Most French soldiers that knew about the defeats, and were now joining the line, only knew of German success by hearsay.
Surviving French officers had increased tactical experience against German mobile units; increased confidence in their weapons after seeing their artillery, which the Wehrmacht post-battle analysis recognised as technically very good, and their tanks performed better in combat than the German armour. The French tanks were now known to have heavier armour and armament. Between 23 and 28 May, they reconstituted the French Seventh and Tenth armies. Weygand decided on hedgehog tactics, which were to implement defence in depth operations and use delaying tactics, to inflict maximum attrition on German units. He employed units in towns and small villages, as well as major towns and cities and fortified them 360 ° along their perimeter. Behind this, the new infantry, armoured and half - mechanised divisions formed up, ready to counter-attack and relieve the surrounded units, which were ordered to hold out at all costs.
Army Group B attacked either side of Paris. Of its 47 divisions it had the majority of the mobile units. In fact, after 48 hours into the offensive, the Germans had not made any major breakthroughs. The Germans had been "stopped in their tracks ''. On the Aisne, the XVI Panzerkorps employed over 1,000 AFVs, two Panzer divisions and a motorised division against the French. The assault was crude, and Hoepner soon lost 80 out of 500 AFVs in the first attack. The German 4th Army succeeded in capturing bridgeheads over the Somme river, but the Germans struggled to get over the Aisne. Weygand had organised a defence in depth and frustrated the crossing. At Amiens, the Germans were repeatedly driven back by powerful French artillery concentrations and came to recognise improved French tactics.
The German Army relied on the Luftwaffe to provide decisive assistance in silencing French guns, enabling the German infantry to inch forward. German progress was made only late on the third day of operations, finally forcing crossings; the French Air Force attempted to bomb them but failed. German sources acknowledged the battle was "hard and costly in lives, the enemy putting up severe resistance, particularly in the woods and tree lines continuing the fight when our troops had pushed passed the point of resistance ''. South of Abbeville, the French Tenth Army under General Robert Altmayer had its front broken and it was forced to retreat to Rouen and south along the Seine river. The rapid German advances were the sign of a weakening enemy. Rommel and his 7th Panzer Division headed west over the Seine river through Normandy and captured the port of Cherbourg on 18 June. On the way to Cherbourg, Rommel forced the surrender of the British 51st (Highland) Division on 12 June. In close - quarter combat, the Luftwaffe was struggling to have an impact. However, in an operational sense, they helped disperse French armour. The German spearheads were overextended and vulnerable to counter strokes, but the concentration of the Luftwaffe denied the French the ability to concentrate, and the fear of air attack negated their mass and mobile use by Weygand.
On 10 June, the French government declared Paris an open city. The German 18th Army now deployed against Paris. The French resisted the approaches to the capital strongly, but the line was broken in several places. Weygand now asserted it would not take long for the French Army to disintegrate. On 13 June, Churchill attended a meeting of the Anglo - French Supreme War Council at Tours. He suggested a Franco - British Union. It was rejected. On 14 June, Paris fell. Those Parisians who stayed in the city found that in most cases the Germans were extremely well mannered.
The situation in the air had also worsened, the Luftwaffe established air supremacy (as opposed to air superiority) as the French air arm was on the verge of collapse. The French Air Force (Armée de l'Air) had only just begun to make the majority of bomber sorties; between 5 and 9 June (during Operation Paula), over 1,815 missions, of which 518 were by bombers, were flown. The number of sorties flown declined as losses were now becoming impossible to replace. The RAF attempted to divert the attention of the Luftwaffe with 660 sorties flown against targets over the Dunkirk area, but losses were heavy; on 21 June alone, 37 Bristol Blenheims were destroyed. After 9 June, French aerial resistance virtually ceased; some surviving aircraft withdrew to French North Africa. The Luftwaffe now "ran riot ''. Its attacks were focused on the direct and indirect support of the German Army. The Luftwaffe subjected lines of resistance to ferocious assault, which then quickly collapsed under armoured attack.
Meanwhile, to the east, Army Group C was to help Army Group A encircle and capture the French forces on the Maginot line. The goal of the operation was to envelop the Metz region, with its fortifications, to prevent a French counteroffensive from the Alsace region against the German line on the Somme. Guderian 's XIX Korps was to advance to the French border with Switzerland and trap the French forces in the Vosges Mountains while the XVI Korps attacked the Maginot Line from the west, into its vulnerable rear to take the cities of Verdun, Toul and Metz. The French, meanwhile, had moved the French 2nd Army Group from the Alsace and Lorraine to the ' Weygand line ' on the Somme, leaving only small forces guarding the Maginot line. After Army Group B had begun its offensive against Paris and into Normandy, Army Group A began its advance into the rear of the Maginot line. On 15 June, Army Group C launched Operation Tiger, a frontal assault across the Rhine and into France.
German attempts to break open or into the Maginot line prior to Tiger had failed. One assault lasted for eight hours on the extreme north of the line, costing the Germans 46 dead and 251 wounded, while just two French were killed (one at Ferme - Chappy and one at Fermont fortress). On 15 June, the last well - equipped French forces, including the French Fourth Army, were preparing to leave as the Germans struck. The French now holding the line were skeletal. The Germans greatly outnumbered the French. They could call upon the I Armeekorps of seven divisions and 1,000 artillery pieces, although most were First World War vintage, and could not penetrate the thick armour of the fortresses. Only 88 mm (3.5 in) guns could do the job, and 16 were allocated to the operation. To bolster this, 150 mm (5.9 in) and eight railway batteries were also employed. The Luftwaffe deployed the Fliegerkorps V to give air support.
The battle was difficult and slow progress was made against strong French resistance. However, each fortress was overcome one by one. One fortress (Schoenenbourg) fired 15,802 75 mm (3.0 in) rounds at attacking German infantry. It was the most heavily shelled of all the French positions. Nevertheless, its armour protected it from fatal damage. The same day Tiger was launched, Operation Kleiner Bär began. Five assault divisions of the VII Armeekorps crossed the Rhine into the Colmar area with a view to advancing to the Vosges Mountains. It had 400 artillery pieces bolstered by heavy artillery and mortars. They drove the French 104th Division and 105th Division back into the Vosges Mountains on 17 June. However, on the same day, Guderian 's XIX Korps reached the Swiss border and the Maginot defences were cut off from the rest of France. Most units surrendered on 25 June, and the Germans claimed to have taken 500,000 prisoners. Some main fortresses continued the fight, despite appeals for surrender. The last only capitulated on 10 July, after a request from Georges, and only then under protest. Of the 58 major fortifications on the Maginot Line, just 10 were captured by the Wehrmacht in battle.
The evacuation of the second BEF took place during Operation Ariel between 15 and 25 June. The Luftwaffe, with complete domination of the French skies, was determined to prevent more Allied evacuations after the Dunkirk débâcle. I Fliegerkorps was assigned to the Normandy and Brittany sectors. On 9 and 10 June, the port of Cherbourg was subject to 15 tonnes of German bombs, while Le Havre received 10 bombing attacks that sank 2949 GRT of escaping Allied shipping. On 17 June, Junkers Ju 88s -- mainly from Kampfgeschwader 30 -- sank a "10,000 tonne ship '' which was the 16,243 GRT liner RMS Lancastria off St Nazaire, killing some 4,000 Allied personnel (nearly doubling the British killed in the battle of France). Nevertheless, the Luftwaffe failed to prevent the evacuation of some 190,000 -- 200,000 Allied personnel.
Discouraged by his cabinet 's hostile reaction to a British proposal to unite France and Britain to avoid defeat, and believing that his ministers no longer supported him, Reynaud resigned on 16 June. He was succeeded by Marshal of France Philippe Pétain, who delivered a radio address to the French people announcing his intention to ask for an armistice with Germany. When Hitler received word from the French government that they wished to negotiate an armistice, he selected the Forest of Compiègne as the site for the negotiations.
Compiègne had been the site of the 1918 Armistice, which ended the First World War with a humiliating defeat for Germany; Hitler viewed the choice of location as a supreme moment of revenge for Germany over France. On 21 June 1940, Hitler visited the site to start the negotiations which took place in the very same railway carriage in which the 1918 Armistice was signed (it had just been removed from a museum building and placed on the precise spot where it was located in 1918). Hitler sat in the same chair in which Marshal Ferdinand Foch had sat when he faced the defeated German representatives. After listening to the reading of the preamble, Hitler left the carriage in a calculated gesture of disdain for the French delegates, and negotiations were turned over to Wilhelm Keitel, the Chief of Staff of OKW. The armistice was signed on the next day at 18: 36 (French time), by General Keitel for Germany and Huntziger for France. The armistice and cease - fire went into effect, two days and six hours later, at 00: 35 on 25 June, once the Franco - Italian Armistice had also been signed, at 18: 35 on 24 June, near Rome.
In 2000, Ernest May wrote that Hitler had a better insight into the French and British governments than vice versa and knew that they would not go to war over Austria and Czechoslovakia, because he concentrated on politics rather than the state and national interest. From 1937 to 1940, Hitler stated his views on events, their importance and his intentions, then defended them against contrary opinion from the likes of former Chief of the General Staff Ludwig Beck and Ernst von Weizsäcker. Hitler sometimes concealed aspects of his thinking but he was unusually frank about priority and his assumptions. May referred to John Wheeler - Bennett (1964)
Except in cases where he had pledged his word, Hitler always meant what he said.
May asserted that in Paris, London and other capitals, there was an inability to believe that someone might want another world war. He wrote that, given public reluctance to contemplate another war and a need to reach consensus about Germany, the rulers of France and Britain were reticent (to resist German aggression) which limited dissent at the cost of enabling assumptions that suited their convenience. In France, Édouard Daladier withheld information until the last moment and then presented the Munich Agreement to the French cabinet as a fait accompli in September 1938, thus avoiding discussions over whether Britain would follow France into war or if the military balance was really in Germany 's favour or how significant it was. The decision for war in September 1939 and the plan devised in the winter of 1939 -- 1940 by Daladier for war with the USSR followed the same pattern.
Hitler miscalculated Franco - British reactions to the invasion of Poland in September 1939, because he had not realised that a shift in public opinion had occurred in mid-1939. May wrote that the French and British could have defeated Germany in 1938 with Czechoslovakia as an ally and also in late 1939, when German forces in the West were incapable of preventing a French occupation of the Ruhr, which would have forced a capitulation or a futile German resistance in a war of attrition. France did not invade Germany in 1939, because it wanted British lives to be at risk too and because of hopes that a blockade might force a German surrender without a bloodbath. The French and British also believed that they were militarily superior, which guaranteed victory. The run of victories enjoyed by Hitler from 1938 to 1940 could only be understood in the context of defeat being inconceivable to French and British leaders.
May wrote that, when Hitler demanded a plan to invade France in September 1939, the German officer corps thought that it was foolhardy and discussed a coup d'état, only backing down when doubtful of the loyalty of the soldiers to them. With the deadline for the attack on France being postponed so often, OKH had time to revise Fall Gelb (Case Yellow) for an invasion over the Belgian Plain several times. In January 1940, Hitler came close to ordering the invasion but was prevented by bad weather. Until the Mechelen Incident in January forced a fundamental revision of Fall Gelb, the main effort (schwerpunkt) of the German army in Belgium would have been confronted by first - rate French and British forces, equipped with more and better tanks and with a great advantage in artillery. After the Mechelen Incident, OKH devised an alternative and hugely risky plan to make the invasion of Belgium a decoy, switch the main effort to the Ardennes, cross the Meuse and reach the Channel coast. May wrote that although the alternative plan was called the Manstein Plan, Guderian, Manstein, Rundstedt, Halder and Hitler had been equally important in its creation.
War games held by Generalmajor (Major - General) Kurt von Tippelskirch, the chief of army intelligence and Oberst Ulrich Liss of Fremde Heere West (FHW, Foreign Armies West), tested the concept of an offensive through the Ardennes. Liss thought that swift reactions could not be expected from the "systematic French or the ponderous English '' and used French and British methods, which made no provision for surprise and reacted slowly when one was sprung. The results of the war games persuaded Halder that the Ardennes scheme could work, even though he and many other commanders still expected it to fail. May wrote that without the reassurance of intelligence analysis and the results of the war games, the possibility of Germany adopting the last version of Fall Gelb would have been remote. The French Dyle - Breda variant of the Allied deployment plan was based on an accurate prediction of German intentions, until the delays caused by the winter weather and shock of the Mechelen Incident, led to the radical revision of Fall Gelb. The French sought to assure the British that they would act to prevent the Luftwaffe using bases in the Netherlands and the Meuse valley and to encourage the Belgian and Dutch governments. The politico - strategic aspects of the plan ossified French thinking, the Phoney War led to demands for Allied offensives in Scandinavia or the Balkans and the plan to start a war with the USSR. French generals thought that changes to the Dyle - Breda variant might lead to forces being taken from the Western Front.
French and British intelligence sources were better than the German equivalents, which suffered from too many competing agencies but intelligence analysis was not as well integrated into Allied planning or decision - making. Information was delivered to operations officers but there was no mechanism like the German practice of allowing intelligence officers to comment on planning assumptions about opponents and allies. The insularity of the French and British intelligence agencies meant that had they been asked if Germany would continue with a plan to attack across the Belgian plain after the Mechelen Incident, they would not have been able to point out how risky the Dyle - Breda variant was. May wrote that the wartime performance of the Allied intelligence services was abysmal. Daily and weekly evaluations had no analysis of fanciful predictions about German intentions and a May 1940 report from Switzerland, that the Germans would attack through the Ardennes, was marked as a German spoof. More items were obtained about invasions of Switzerland or the Balkans, while German behaviour consistent with an Ardennes attack, such as the dumping of supplies and communications equipment on the Luxembourg border or the concentration of Luftwaffe air reconnaissance around Sedan and Charleville - Mézières, was overlooked.
According to May, French and British rulers were at fault for tolerating poor performance by the intelligence agencies and that the Germans could achieve surprise in May 1940, showed that even with Hitler, the process of executive judgement in Germany had worked better than in France and Britain. May referred to Marc Bloch in Strange Defeat (1940), that the German victory was a "triumph of intellect '', which depended on Hitler 's "methodical opportunism ''. May further asserted that, despite Allied mistakes, the Germans could not have succeeded but for outrageous good luck. German commanders wrote during the campaign and after, that often only a small difference had separated success from failure. Prioux thought that a counter-offensive could still have worked up to 19 May but by then, roads were crowded with Belgian refugees when they were needed for redeployment and the French transport units, which performed well in the advance into Belgium, failed for lack of plans to move them back. Gamelin had said "It is all a question of hours. '' but the decision to sack Gamelin and appoint Weygand, caused a two - day delay.
France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north and west and a "free zone '' (zone libre) in the south. Both zones were nominally under the sovereignty of the French rump state headed by Pétain that replaced the French Third Republic; this rump state is often referred to as Vichy France. In response to the formation of a new political structure in France mandated by the Nazi government of Germany, De Gaulle, who had been made an Undersecretary of National Defence by Reynaud in London at the time of the armistice, delivered his Appeal of 18 June. With this speech, De Gaulle refused to recognise Pétain 's Vichy government as legitimate and began the task of organising the Free French Forces.
The British doubted Admiral François Darlan 's promise not to allow the French fleet at Toulon to fall into German hands by the wording of the armistice conditions. They feared the Germans would seize the French Navy 's fleet, docked at ports in Vichy France and North Africa and use them in an invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion). Within a month, the Royal Navy attacked the French naval forces stationed in North Africa in the Attack on Mers - el - Kébir. The British Chiefs of Staff Committee had concluded in May 1940 that if France collapsed, "we do not think we could continue the war with any chance of success '' without "full economic and financial support '' from the United States. Churchill 's desire for American aid led in September to the Destroyers for Bases agreement that began the wartime Anglo - American partnership.
The occupation of the various French zones continued until November 1942, when the Allies began Operation Torch, the invasion of Western North Africa. To safeguard southern France, the Germans enacted Case Anton and occupied Vichy France. In June 1944, the Western Allies launched Operation Overlord, followed by the Operation Dragoon on the French Mediterranean coast on 15 August. This threatened to cut off German troops in western and central France, and most began to retire toward Germany. (The fortified French Atlantic U-boat bases remained as pockets until the German capitulation.) On 24 August 1944, Paris was liberated, and by September 1944 most of the country was in Allied hands.
The Free French provisional government declared the re-establishment of a provisional French Republic to ensure continuity with the defunct Third Republic. It set about raising new troops to participate in the advance to the Rhine and the Western Allied invasion of Germany by using the French Forces of the Interior as military cadres and manpower pools of experienced fighters to allow a very large and rapid expansion of the French Liberation Army (Armée française de la Libération). It was well equipped and well supplied despite the economic disruption brought by the occupation thanks to Lend - Lease and grew from 500,000 men in the summer of 1944 to over 1,300,000 by V-E day, making it the fourth largest Allied army in Europe.
The 2e Division Blindée (2nd Armoured Division), part of the Free French forces that had participated in the Normandy Campaign and had liberated Paris, went on to liberate Strasbourg on 23 November 1944, fulfilling the Oath of Kufra made by General Leclerc almost four years earlier. The unit under his command, barely above company size when it had captured the Italian fort, had grown into an armoured division. The I Corps was the spearhead of the Free French First Army that had landed in Provence as a part of Operation Dragoon. Its leading unit, the 1re Division Blindée, was the first Western Allied unit to reach the Rhône (25 August), the Rhine (19 November) and the Danube (21 April 1945). On 22 April, it captured the Sigmaringen enclave in Baden - Württemberg, where the last Vichy regime exiles were hosted by the Germans in one of the ancestral castles of the Hohenzollern dynasty.
By the end of the war, some 580,000 French citizens had died (40,000 of these by the western Allied forces during the bombardments of the first 48 hours of Operation Overlord). Military deaths were 92,000 in 1939 -- 40. Some 58,000 were killed in action from 1940 to 1945 fighting in the Free French forces. Some 40,000 malgré - nous ("against our will '', citizens of the re-annexed Alsace - Lorraine province drafted into the Wehrmacht) became casualties. Civilian casualties amounted to around 150,000 (60,000 by aerial bombing, 60,000 in the resistance and 30,000 murdered by German occupation forces). Prisoners of war and deportee totals were around 1,900,000. Of these, around 240,000 died in captivity. An estimated 40,000 were prisoners of war, 100,000 racial deportees, 60,000 political prisoners and 40,000 died as slave labourers.
German casualties are hard to determine but commonly accepted figures are: 27,074 killed, 111,034 wounded and 18,384 missing. German dead may have been as high as 45,000 men, due to additional non-combat causes, wounded who died and missing who were confirmed dead. The battle for France had cost the Luftwaffe 28 percent of its front line strength, some 1,236 -- 1,428 aircraft were destroyed (1,129 to enemy action, 299 in accidents). A further 323 -- 488 were damaged (225 to enemy action, 263 in accidents), making 36 percent of the Luftwaffe strength lost or damaged. Luftwaffe casualties amounted to 6,653 men, including 4,417 aircrew; of these 1,129 were killed and 1,930 were reported missing or captured, many of whom were liberated from French prison camps upon the French capitulation. Italian casualties amounted to 631 or 642 men killed, 2,631 wounded and 616 reported missing. A further 2,151 men suffered from frostbite during the campaign. The official Italian numbers were compiled for a report on 18 July 1940, when many of the fallen still lay under snow and it is probable that most of the Italian missing were dead. Units operating in more difficult terrain had higher ratios of missing to killed but probably most of the missing had died.
According to the French Defence Historical Service, 85,310 French military personnel were killed (including 5,400 Maghrebis), 12,000 missing, 120,000 wounded and 1,540,000 prisoners (including 67,400 Maghrebis). Some recent French research indicates that the number of killed was between 55,000 and 85,000, a statement of the French Defence Historical Service tending to the lower end. In August 1940, 1,540,000 prisoners were taken into Germany, where roughly 940,000 remained until 1945, when they were liberated by advancing Allied forces. At least 3,000 Senegalese Tirailleurs were murdered after being taken prisoner. While in German captivity, 24,600 French prisoners died; 71,000 escaped; 220,000 were released by various agreements between the Vichy government and Germany; several hundred thousand were paroled because of disability and / or sickness. Air losses are estimated at 1,274 aircraft destroyed during the campaign. French tank losses amount to 1,749 tanks (43 per cent of tanks engaged), of which 1,669 were lost to gunfire, 45 to mines and 35 to aircraft. However, the tank losses are amplified by the large numbers that were abandoned or scuttled and subsequently captured. Britain had fewer than 10,000 killed in action (including the Lancastria disaster), for a total casualty figure of 68,111 men; about 64,000 vehicles destroyed or abandoned and 2,472 guns destroyed or abandoned. RAF losses in the campaign from 10 May -- 22 June, amounted to 931 aircraft and 1,526 casualties. The British also lost 243 ships to Luftwaffe bombing in Dynamo, including 8 destroyers and 8 troopships. Belgian losses were 6,093 killed and wounded; some 2,000 prisoners of war died in captivity and more than 500 were missing. Those captured amounted to 200,000 men. Belgian wounded amounted to 15,850. They also lost 112 aircraft. Polish losses were around 5,500 killed and wounded; nearly 13,000 troops of the 2nd Infantry Division were interned in Switzerland for the duration of the war, and 16,000 were taken prisoner.
Hitler had expected a million Germans to die in conquering France; instead, his goal was accomplished in just six weeks with only 27,000 Germans killed, 18,400 missing and 111,000 wounded, little more than a third of the German casualties in the Battle of Verdun during World War I. The unexpectedly swift victory resulted in a wave of euphoria among the German population and a strong upsurge in war - fever. Hitler 's popularity reached its peak with the celebration of the French capitulation on 6 July 1940.
If an increase in feeling for Adolf Hitler was still possible, it has become reality with the day of the return to Berlin ", commented one report from the provinces. "In the face of such greatness, '' ran another, "all pettiness and grumbling are silenced. '' Even opponents to the regime found it hard to resist the victory mood. Workers in the armaments factories pressed to be allowed to join the army. People thought final victory was around the corner. Only Britain stood in the way. For perhaps the only time during the Third Reich there was genuine war - fever among the population.
On 19 July, during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony at the Kroll Opera House in Berlin, Hitler promoted 12 generals to the rank of field marshal.
This number of promotions to what had previously been the highest rank in the Wehrmacht (Hermann Göring, Commander in chief of the Luftwaffe and already a Field Marshal, was elevated to the new rank of Reichsmarschall) was unprecedented. In the First World War, Kaiser Wilhelm II had promoted only five generals to Field Marshal.
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where is the mississippi river located on the united states map | Mississippi River - wikipedia
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the second - largest drainage system on the North American continent, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. The stream is entirely within the United States (although its drainage basin reaches into Canada), its source is in northern Minnesota and it flows generally south for 2,320 miles (3,730 km) to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi 's watershed drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth - longest and fifteenth - largest river in the world by discharge. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Most were hunter - gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States.
Formed from thick layers of the river 's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country, which resulted in the river 's storied steamboat era. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi 's capture by Union forces marked a turning point towards victory due to the river 's importance as a route of trade and travel, not least to the Confederacy. Because of substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that supplanted riverboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination.
Since modern development of the basin began, the Mississippi has also seen its share of pollution and environmental problems -- most notably large volumes of agricultural runoff, which has led to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone off the Delta. In recent years, the river has shown a steady shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta; a course change would be an economic disaster for the port city of New Orleans.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River).
In the 18th century, the river was the primary western boundary of the young United States, and since the country 's expansion westward, the Mississippi River has been widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, and the Western United States. This is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase "Trans - Mississippi '' as used in the name of the Trans - Mississippi Exposition.
It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi '' or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi ''. The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast callsigns, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, mixing together in media markets along the river.
The geographical setting of the Mississippi River includes considerations of the course of the river itself, its watershed, its outflow, its prehistoric and historic course changes, and possibilities of future course changes. The New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway and its adjacent lands.
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name "Itasca '' was chosen to designate the "true head '' of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.
From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway 's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river 's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota. Before it was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river 's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river 's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49 - foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.
After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river 's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.
The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly, and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.
The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River 's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
The Middle Mississippi is relatively free - flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm / km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long - term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic metres per second), while the long - term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft / s (5,900 m / s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.
In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi. The widest point of the Mississippi River is in the Lower Mississippi portion where it exceeds 1 mile (1.6 km) in width in several places.
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30 % of the Mississippi flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi 's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River is commonly thought to be a tributary, it is actually not, because its water flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.
The Mississippi River has the world 's fourth - largest drainage basin ("watershed '' or "catchment ''). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km), including all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40 % of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).
In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.
The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey 's number is 2,320 miles (3,730 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days.
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (7,000 -- 20,000 m / s). Although it is the fifth - largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a small fraction of the output of the Amazon, which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m / s) during wet seasons. On average, the Mississippi has only 8 % the flow of the Amazon River.
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA 's MODIS (to the right) show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter - blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 400 million metric tons of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 145 million metric tons per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river - training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.
Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river 's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present - day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary '' rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "oversized '' for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.
Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.
Timeline of outflow course changes
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel. The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acre island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.
The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and was used to define portions of these states ' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.
In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee, but isolated from the rest of its state.
Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river. They are sequenced from the source of the river to its end.
The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek '') flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road '' to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.
The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis, Minnesota where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges which have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi 's source to the Lower Mississippi 's mouth.
A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.
Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period 1830 -- 1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachian coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans - shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio River; down the Missouri and Tennessee, to the main channel of the Mississippi. Only with the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons -- the Delta Queen and the River Queen for instance.
A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free - flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams.
On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150 - foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.
In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.
The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5 - foot - deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5 - foot - deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams which direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.
To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run - off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.
In 1907, Congress authorized a 6 - foot - deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro - electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.
Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps 's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river 's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9 - foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple - barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty - three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low - water dam and an 8.4 - mile - long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.
Because the large scale of high - energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi 's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point - New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.
Some of the pre-1927 strategy is still in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BCE. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BCE during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices. A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 CE, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 CE there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers. The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 CE and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.
Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho - Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo - zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo - ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag - ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa - miskwaawaakokaag - ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish - ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi - ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi - ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi - ziibi was named "Mississippi River ''. The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi - ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi - ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe - éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.
The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint - Louis.
On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit ''), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.
French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river '' in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.
When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league '' (less than 2 miles (3.2 km), 3 km) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.
In 1682, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean - Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.
In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.
Following Britain 's victory in the Seven Years War the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.
Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States ''. With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. In 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France. When France then sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803, a dispute arose again between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida exactly had Spain ceded to France, which would in turn decide which parts of West Florida were now U.S. property versus Spanish property. These aspirations ended when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney 's Treaty in 1795.
France reacquired ' Louisiana ' from Spain in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of War of 1812 when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans -- the attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.
So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guide book called The Navigator, detailing the features and dangers and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over a period of 25 years.
The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.
Mark Twain 's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in Harper 's Weekly in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885.
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811 -- 12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats which suggests it was not very profitable.
Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami, wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steam boat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as the nature of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourists trade.
Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War. In 1862 Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. The remaining major Confederate stronghold was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi, and the Union 's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862 to July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ending the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, was pivotal to the Union 's final victory of the Civil War.
The "Big Freeze '' of 1918 -- 19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.
In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000,000 L) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.
On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy - eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.
In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden - hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (18,000 m) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two - month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.
The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri. The Nature Conservancy 's project called "America 's Rivershed Initiative '' announced a ' report card ' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.
In 2002, Slovenian long - distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society 's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes -- through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain -- might become the Mississippi 's main channel if flood - control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.
Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana 's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30 % of the Mississippi 's flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi 's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi 's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.
Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the flood waters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1 / 4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 ft / sec of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.
Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty - year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere -- when the structures ca n't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river 's going to jump its banks and try to break through. ''
Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 4 -- 6 meters (12 to 20 feet) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi 's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.
The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km / h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.
There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna '' of North American fresh water.
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basin exclusively within temperate / subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, large mouth bass, small mouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum and shovelnose sturgeon.
In addition to fish, several species of turtles (such as snapping, musk, mud, map, cooter, painted and softshell turtles), American alligator, aquatic amphibians (such as hellbender, mudpuppy, three - toed amphiuma and lesser siren), and cambarid crayfish (such as the red swamp crayfish) are native to the Mississippi basin.
Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for outcompeting native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.
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where did paper compass silk and porcelain come from | Four Great inventions - wikipedia
The Four Great Inventions (simplified Chinese: 四 大 发明; traditional Chinese: 四 大 發明) are inventions from ancient China that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance and as symbols of ancient China 's advanced science and technology.
The Four Great Inventions are:
These four discoveries had a large impact on the development of civilization throughout the world. However, some modern Chinese scholars have opined that other Chinese inventions were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact on Chinese civilization -- the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological interaction between East and West.
Although Chinese culture is replete with lists of significant works or achievements (e.g. Four Great Beauties, Four Great Books of Song, Four Great Classical Novels, Four Books and Five Classics, Five Elders, Three Hundred Tang Poems, etc.), the concept of the Four Great Inventions originated from the West, and is adapted from the European intellectual and rhetorical commonplace of the Three Great (or, more properly, Greatest) Inventions. This commonplace spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 16th century and was appropriated only in recent times by Chinese scholars. The origin of the Three Great Inventions -- these being the printing press, firearms, and the nautical compass -- was originally ascribed to Europe, and specifically to Germany in the case of the printing press and firearms. These inventions were a badge of honor to modern Europeans, who proclaimed that there was nothing to equal them among the ancient Greeks and Romans. After reports by Portuguese sailors and Spanish missionaries began to filter back to Europe beginning in the 1530s, the notion that these inventions had existed for centuries in China took hold. By 1620, when Francis Bacon wrote in his Instauratio magna that "printing, gunpowder, and the nautical compass... have altered the face and state of the world: first, in literary matters; second, in warfare; third, in navigation, '' this was hardly an original idea to most learned Europeans.
In the 19th century, Karl Marx commented on the importance of gunpowder, the compass and printing, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press were the three great inventions which ushered in bourgeois society. Gunpowder blew up the knightly class, the compass discovered the world market and found the colonies, and the printing press was the instrument of Protestantism and the regeneration of science in general; the most powerful lever for creating the intellectual prerequisites. ''
Western writers and scholars from the 19th century onwards commonly attributed these inventions to China. The missionary and sinologist Joseph Edkins (1823 -- 1905), comparing China with Japan, noted that for all of Japan 's virtues, it did not make inventions as significant as paper - making, printing, the compass and gunpowder. Edkins ' notes on these inventions were mentioned in an 1859 review in the journal Athenaeum, comparing the contemporary science and technology in China and Japan. in 1880 Johnson 's New Universal Cyclopædia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge. The Chautauquan in 1887, and the distinguished sinologist, Berthold Laufer in 1915. None of these, however, referred to four inventions or called them "great. ''
In the 20th century, this list was popularized and augmented by the noted British biochemist, historian, and sinologist Joseph Needham, who devoted the later part of his life to studying the science and civilization of ancient China.
A lodestone compass was used in China during the Han Dynasty between the 2nd century BCE and 1st century CE, where it was called the "south - governor '' (sīnán 司南). It was not used for navigation, but rather for geomancy and fortune - telling. The earliest reference to a magnetic device used for navigation is in a Song Dynasty book dated to 1040 - 1044, where there is a description of an iron "south - pointing fish '' floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night. '' The first suspended magnetic needle compass was written of by Shen Kuo in his book of 1088.
For most of Chinese history, the compass that remained in use was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water. According to Needham, the Chinese in the Song Dynasty and continuing Yuan Dynasty did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass.
The dry compass used in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction. Although the 14th - century European compass - card in box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by Japanese pirates in the 16th century (who had in turn learned of it from Europeans), the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century.
Gunpowder was discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality. By the time the Song Dynasty treatise, Wujing Zongyao (武 经 总 要), was written by Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide in 1044, the various Chinese formulas for gunpowder held levels of nitrate in the range of 27 % to 50 %. By the end of the 12th century, Chinese formulas of gunpowder had a level of nitrate capable of bursting through cast iron metal containers, in the form of the earliest hollow, gunpowder - filled grenade bombs.
In 1280, the bomb store of the large gunpowder arsenal at Weiyang accidentally caught fire, which produced such a large explosion that a team of inspectors at the site a week later deduced that 100 guards had been killed instantly, with wooden beams and pillars blown sky high and landing at a distance of over 10 li (~ 2 mi. or ~ 3.2 km) away from the explosion.
By the time of Hanzo Yu and his Huolongjing (which describes military applications of gunpowder in great detail) in the mid-14th century, the explosive potential of gunpowder was perfected, as the level of nitrate in gunpowder formulas had risen to a range of 12 % to 91 %, with at least 6 different formulas in use that are considered to have maximum explosive potential for gunpowder. By that time, the Chinese had discovered how to create explosive round shot by packing their hollow shells with this nitrate - enhanced gunpowder. An excavated trove of early Ming land mines showed that corned gunpowder was present in China by 1370. There is evidence suggesting that corned powder may have been used in East Asia from as far back as the thirteenth century.
Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC - AD 220), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste. However, a recent archaeological discovery has been reported from Gansu of paper with Chinese characters on it dating to 8 BC.
While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC, paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century. By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well. During the Tang Dynasty (618 -- 907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. The Song Dynasty (960 -- 1279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency.
The Chinese invention of woodblock printing, at some point before the first dated book in 868 (the Diamond Sutra), produced the world 's first print culture. According to A. Hyatt Mayor, curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "it was the Chinese who really discovered the means of communication that was to dominate until our age. '' Woodblock printing was better suited to Chinese characters than movable type, which the Chinese also invented, but which did not replace woodblock printing. Western printing presses, although introduced in the 16th century, were not widely used in China until the 19th century. China, along with Korea, was one of the last countries to adopt them.
Woodblock printing for textiles, on the other hand, preceded text printing by centuries in all cultures, and is first found in China at around 220. It reached Europe by the 14th century or before, via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards.
Printing in Northern China was further advanced by the 11th century, as it was written by the Song Dynasty scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095) that the common artisan Bi Sheng (990 - 1051) invented ceramic movable type printing. Then there were those such as Wang Zhen (fl. 1290 - 1333) who invented respectively wooden type setting, which later influenced developing metal moveable type printing in Korea (1372 - 1377). Movable type printing was a tedious process if one were to assemble thousands of individual characters for the printing of simply one or a few books, but if used for printing thousands of books, the process was efficient and rapid enough to be successful and highly employed. Indeed, there were many cities in China where movable type printing, in wooden and metal form, was adopted by the enterprises of wealthy local families or large private industries. The Qing Dynasty court sponsored enormous printing projects using woodblock movable type printing during the 18th century. Although superseded by western printing techniques, woodblock movable type printing remains in use in isolated communities in China.
In 2005, the Hong Kong postal service created a special stamp issue that featured the Four Great Inventions. The stamp series was first issued on August 18, 2005 during a ceremony where an enlarged first day cover was stamped. Allan Chiang (Postmaster General) and Prof. Chu Ching - wu (President of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) marked the issue of the special stamps by personally stamping the first day cover.
The Four Great Inventions was featured as one of the main themes of the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. Paper making was represented with a dance and an ink drawing on a huge piece of paper, printing by a set of dancing printing blocks, a replica of an ancient compass was showcased, and gunpowder by the extensive firework displays during the ceremony. A survey by the Beijing Social Facts & Public Opinion Survey Center found that Beijing residents found the program on the Four Great Inventions the most moving part of the opening ceremony.
Recently, scholars have questioned the importance placed on the inventions of paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. Chinese scholars in particular question if too much emphasis is given to these inventions, over other significant Chinese inventions. They have pointed out that other inventions in China were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact within China.
In the chapter "Are the Four Major Inventions the Most Important? '' of his book Ancient Chinese Inventions, Chinese historian Deng Yinke writes:
The four inventions do not necessarily summarize the achievements of science and technology in ancient China. The four inventions were regarded as the most important Chinese achievements in science and technology, simply because they had a prominent position in the exchanges between the East and the West and acted as a powerful dynamic in the development of capitalism in Europe. As a matter of fact, ancient Chinese scored much more than the four major inventions: in farming, iron and copper metallurgy, exploitation of coal and petroleum, machinery, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, porcelain, silk, and wine making. The numerous inventions and discoveries greatly advanced China 's productive forces and social life. Many are at least as important as the four inventions, and some are even greater than the four.
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who said it takes a village to raise a child quote | It takes a village - wikipedia
It takes a village to raise a child is a proverb which means that it takes an entire community of different people interacting with children in order for children to experience and grow in a safe environment. The villages would look out for the children. This does not mean an entire village is responsible for raising your children.
The proverb has been attributed to African cultures. In 2016, NPR decided to research the origins of the proverb, and concluded it was unable to pinpoint its origins, though academics said the proverb nevertheless holds the true spirits of some African cultures.
Examples of African societies with proverbs which translate to ' It takes a village... ' include the following:
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who sang the song cecilia you're breaking my heart | Oh Cecilia (Breaking My Heart) - wikipedia
"Oh Cecilia (Breaking My Heart) '' is a 2014 single by British pop band The Vamps, adapted from Simon & Garfunkel 's 1970 hit "Cecilia ''. The original appeared on their debut studio album Meet the Vamps (2014), but a later version featuring vocals from Canadian singer Shawn Mendes was released on 12 October 2014 as the album 's fifth single.
The song has charted in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, and the United Kingdom (where it peaked at number 9, becoming the group 's fifth successive top 10 single).
"Oh Cecilia (Breaking My Heart) '' is an adaptation of Simon & Garfunkel 's 1970 hit song "Cecilia '', largely sampling on the music of the song. The lyrics are substantially original, though still relying on the main chorus lyrics of the original song (Cecilia, you 're breaking my heart / You 're shaking my confidence daily / Oh Cecilia I 'm down on my knees / I 'm begging you please to come home).
Two music videos exist for the song. One of them features the Vamps and Mendes shipwrecked in an area they do n't initially realise is already inhabited, sending out an SOS and then bolting upon sight of a plane, and the other is in support of charity and features famous faces.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who plays phoebe's brother on girlfriends guide to divorce | Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce - wikipedia
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce (also known as Girlfriends ' Guide to Freedom in season 3, Girlfriends ' Guide to Bossing Up in season 4, and Girlfriends ' Guide to Ever After in season 5) is an American comedy - drama television series developed by Marti Noxon for the American cable network Bravo. Based on the Girlfriends ' Guides book series by Vicki Iovine, the series revolves around Abby McCarthy, a self - help author who finds solace in new friends and adventures as she faces an impending divorce. Lisa Edelstein portrays the main character Abby. Beau Garrett and Necar Zadegan co-star. Janeane Garofalo was part of the main cast for the first seven episodes of season 1 before departing the cast. She was replaced in episode 8 with Alanna Ubach. Paul Adelstein co-starred as a main cast member for the first two seasons, before being reduced to a recurring character for the third and fifth seasons. Retta recurred during the show 's second season before being promoted to the main cast at the start of season 3.
Produced by Universal Cable Productions, it is the first original scripted series for Bravo. A 13 - episode first season was ordered by the network, which premiered on December 2, 2014. The show debuted to 1.04 million viewers. Critical reception for the series has initially been generally positive, with particular praise towards Edelstein 's performance and the series ' quality over the reality series on Bravo. The show was eventually renewed for a second season, which premiered on December 1, 2015. On April 13, 2016, it was announced that Bravo had renewed the show for a third, fourth and fifth season. On August 5, 2016, it was announced that the fifth season would be the show 's last.
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce was met with generally positive reviews from television critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from critics, the series received an average score of 69, based on 21 reviews. Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun - Times gave the episode a 4 star rating (out of 4 stars), calling it "a sometimes hilarious, sometimes heartbreaking story about an L.A. - based self - help author '' and added that the first two episodes "reveal a much more nuanced, poignant tale, punctuated by some genuinely funny scenes. '' LaToya Ferguson of The A.V. Club gave the series a grade of "A - '', calling it "a very solid drama '' that should be on HBO or Showtime. Ferguson also praised the characters and the series 's messiness, writing "Visually, it 's almost flawless (there 's one obvious green - screen moment in the pilot, but it 's not Ringer level), but every character here is deeply flawed. '' Los Angeles Times 's Mary McNamara lauded the series ' cast 's portrayal of the characters and deemed the series "smartly acted, crisply written and willing to address all manner of issues -- marriage, betrayal, family economics, friendship, even the pitfalls of public domesticity -- in gratifyingly complex ways. '' Brian Lowry, writing for Variety, applauded the series ' cast and material, noting how it sticks to the network 's demographic while maintaining a level of quality.
Gail Pennington of St. Louis Post-Dispatch called the series "a smart, solid examination of just how messy relationships are and how hard it is to make them work. '' Slate 's Willa Paskin highlighted Edelstein 's portrayal of the lead character, describing her as "very well cast, both commanding and nurturing enough to seem like the ideal advice - giver '' and noted that the series has "a satisfying and complex take on social dynamics in friendship and romance. '' Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times praised Edelstein and Garofalo as "one reason '' the show is entertaining and found the comic side of the series "a lot more fun. '' Time 's writer James Poniewozik praised the writing and Edelstein 's "sympathetic '' performance, noting that the latter "grounds a show that often otherwise plays like young - adult fiction for actual adults. '' However, Poniewozik opined that "there 's one lesson Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce has (over) learned from its Bravo peers: that there 's no reality so compelling that it ca n't be sweetened with a little Photoshop. '' David Hinckley, writing for the New York Daily News, highlighted the series ' best moments as those showing the messy side of marital discourse while heralding Edelstein 's performance as "memorably moving. '' Margaret Lyons of Vulture was critical of the several aspects of the series, including the characters Abby and Lyla 's attitude on giving their spouses child support, but found the series to be its best "at its nastiest. ''
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce premiered in the United States on Bravo on December 2, 2014, in Canada on Slice on January 9, 2015, and in the United Kingdom on Lifetime UK on September 15, 2015.
The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on October 13, 2015. On November 1, 2015 season 1 of Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce became available to stream in the US for Netflix subscribers. The show is also available from electronic sell - through platforms such as iTunes, Amazon Instant Video, and Vudu.
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first class inducted in mlb hall of fame | Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1936 - wikipedia
The first elections to select inductees to the Baseball Hall of Fame were held in 1936. Members of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America (BBWAA) were given authority to select individuals from the 20th century; while a special Veterans Committee, made up of individuals with greater familiarity with the 19th century game, was polled to select deserving individuals from that era. The intent was for 15 honorees to be selected before the 1939 ceremonies -- 10 from the 20th century and 5 from the 19th; additional players from both eras would be selected in later years. Voters were given free rein to decide for themselves in which group a candidate belonged, with neither group knowing the outcome of the other election; some candidates had their vote split between the elections as a result -- Cy Young, the pitcher with most wins in Major League history, finished 8th in the BBWAA vote and 4th in the Veterans vote. In addition, there was no prohibition on voting for active players, a number of whom received votes. Individuals who had been banned from baseball -- such as Shoeless Joe Jackson and Hal Chase -- were also not formally excluded, though few voters chose to include them on ballots.
In the BBWAA election, voters were instructed to cast votes for 10 candidates, the same number of desired selections; in the Veterans ' election, voters were also instructed to vote for 10, although the desire for only 5 initial selections led to revisions in the way the votes were counted. Any candidate receiving votes on at least 75 % of the ballots in either election would be honored with induction to the Hall upon its opening in the sport 's supposed centennial year of 1939.
A total of 226 ballots were cast, with 2,231 individual votes for 47 specific candidates, an average of 9.87 per ballot; 170 votes were required for election. Initial ballots included 33 players listed as suggestions, although revised ballots were later sent with an additional 7 names; when questions arose about players who had been omitted, voters needed to be reminded that these names were simply intended as suggestions rather than the entire field of possibilities, and that write - in votes were fully allowed. Candidates who were listed on the ballot as suggestions are indicated here with a †. The five candidates who received at least 75 % of the vote and were elected are indicated in bold italics; candidates who have since been selected in subsequent elections are indicated in italics:
A total of 78 ballots were cast by players, writers, managers and officials who had first - hand familiarity with 19th - century baseball, resulting in 371 individual votes for 57 specific candidates; 59 votes were required for election. No candidates were elected, possibly because of a great deal of confusion regarding the voting procedure. The ballots which were issued in this vote also featured a list of suggested candidates, which was amended after complaints that Ed Delahanty, Willie Keeler and Cy Young should be on this ballot as well as that for the 20th century; but when some voters expressed doubts regarding the possibility of write - in votes, a letter including clearer instructions specifically allowing for write - ins had to be mailed. Many voters were also under the impression that they were to select an "All - Star team '' of 10 players, with one at each position; 58 ballots cast in this manner were sent back to the voters to be re-cast, although 10 voters returned the ballots unaltered, stating that was the way they wished to vote regardless of the instructions. The results were delayed for several days until early February while these reminders and revisions took place.
It was further decided, during the tabulations and after the voting, that voters would each be restricted to 5 total votes in order to limit the initial 19th century selections to 5 players; but since most voters had cast votes for 10, it was ruled that each vote would only count as / in the total for that candidate -- making a 75 % tally nearly mathematically impossible. When the votes were tabulated with this method, only two candidates had totals reaching even 50 % of the required number. Plans for a runoff election featuring only the top 12 finishers, to be held prior to the 1939 opening of the Hall, never materialized; even with all the problems, the 1936 vote would remain the Hall 's most successful attempt to seek a wide vote from experts on the era regarding candidates from that period.
Candidates who were listed as suggestions on the ballot are indicated here with a †. Candidates who have since been selected in subsequent elections are indicated in italics, as is Honus Wagner, who was elected in the BBWAA vote:
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why are there so many mansions in newport | Newport, Rhode Island - wikipedia
Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. It is located approximately 37 miles (60 km) southeast of Providence, 21 miles (34 km) south of Fall River, and 74 miles (119 km) south of Boston. It is known as a New England summer resort and is famous for its historic mansions and its rich sailing history. It is also the home of Salve Regina University and Naval Station Newport, which houses the United States Naval War College, the Naval Undersea Warfare Center, and an important United States Navy training center. It was a major 18th - century port city and also contains a high number of surviving buildings from the Colonial era of the United States.
The city is the county seat of Newport County, which has no governmental functions other than court administrative and sheriff corrections boundaries. It was known for being the location of the "Summer White Houses '' during the administrations of Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The population was 24,027 as of 2013.
Newport was founded in 1639 on Aquidneck Island, which was called Rhode Island at the time. Its eight founders and first officers were Nicholas Easton, William Coddington, John Clarke, John Coggeshall, William Brenton, Jeremy Clark, Thomas Hazard, and Henry Bull. Many of these people had been part of the settlement at Portsmouth, along with Anne Hutchinson and her followers. They separated within a year of that settlement, however, and Coddington and others began the settlement of Newport on the southern side of the island.
Newport grew to be the largest of the four original settlements which became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which also included Providence Plantations and Shawomett. Many of the first colonists in Newport became Baptists, and the second Baptist congregation in Rhode Island was formed in 1640 under the leadership of John Clarke. In 1658, a group of Jews were welcomed to settle in Newport; they were fleeing the Inquisition in Spain and Portugal but had not been permitted to settle elsewhere. The Newport congregation is now referred to as Congregation Jeshuat Israel and is the second - oldest Jewish congregation in the United States. It meets in Touro Synagogue, the oldest synagogue in the United States.
The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations received its royal charter in 1663, and Benedict Arnold was elected as its first governor at Newport. The Old Colony House served as a seat of Rhode Island 's government upon its completion in 1741 at the head of Washington Square, until the current Rhode Island State House in Providence was completed in 1904 and Providence became the state 's sole capital city. Newport became the most important port in colonial Rhode Island, and a public school was established in 1640.
The commercial activity which raised Newport to its fame as a rich port was begun by a second wave of Portuguese Jews who settled there around the middle of the 18th century. They had been practicing Judaism in secret for 300 years in Portugal, and they were attracted to Rhode Island because of the freedom of worship there. They brought with them commercial experience and connections, capital, and a spirit of enterprise. Most prominent among those were Jacob Rodrigues Rivera, who arrived in 1745 (died 1789) and Aaron Lopez, who came in 1752 (died May 28, 1782). Rivera introduced the manufacture of sperm oil which became one of Newport 's leading industries and made the town rich. Newport developed 17 manufactories of oil and candles and enjoyed a practical monopoly of this trade until the American Revolution.
Aaron Lopez is credited with making Newport an important center of trade. He encouraged 40 Portuguese Jewish families to settle there, and Newport had 150 vessels engaged in trade within 14 years of his activity. He was involved in the slave trade and manufactured spermaceti candles, ships, barrels, rum, chocolate, textiles, clothes, shoes, hats, and bottles. He became the wealthiest man in Newport but was denied citizenship on religious grounds, even though British law protected the rights of Jews to become citizens. He appealed to the Rhode Island legislature for redress and was refused with this ruling: "Inasmuch as the said Aaron Lopez hath declared himself by religion a Jew, this Assembly doth not admit himself nor any other of that religion to the full freedom of this Colony. So that the said Aaron Lopez nor any other of said religion is not liable to be chosen into any office in this colony nor allowed to give vote as a free man in choosing others. '' Lopez persisted by applying for citizenship in Massachusetts, where it was granted.
From the mid 17th century, the religious tolerance in Newport attracted numbers of Quakers, known also as the Society of Friends. The Great Friends Meeting House in Newport (1699) is the oldest existing structure of worship in Rhode Island.
In 1727, James Franklin (brother of Benjamin) printed the Rhode - Island Almanack in Newport. In 1732, he published the first newspaper, the Rhode Island Gazette. In 1758, his son James founded the weekly newspaper Mercury. The famous 18th century Goddard and Townsend furniture was also made in Newport.
Throughout the 18th century, Newport suffered from an imbalance of trade with the largest colonial ports. As a result, Newport merchants were forced to develop alternatives to conventional exports. In the 1720s, Colonial leaders arrested many pirates, acting under pressure from the British government. Many were hanged in Newport and were buried on Goat Island.
Newport was a major center of the slave trade in colonial and early America, active in the "triangle trade '' in which slave - produced sugar and molasses from the Caribbean were carried to Rhode Island and distilled into rum, which was then carried to West Africa and exchanged for captives. In 1764, Rhode Island had about 30 rum distilleries, 22 in Newport alone. The Common Burial Ground on Farewell Street was where most of the slaves were buried.
Sixty percent of slave - trading voyages launched from North America issued from tiny Rhode Island, in some years more than 90 %, and many from Newport. Almost half were trafficked illegally, breaking a 1787 state law prohibiting residents of the state from trading in slaves. Slave traders were also breaking federal statutes of 1794 and 1800 barring Americans from carrying slaves to ports outside the United States, as well as the 1807 Congressional act abolishing the transatlantic slave trade. A few Rhode Island families made substantial fortunes in the trade. William and Samuel Vernon were Newport merchants who later played an important role in financing the creation of the United States Navy; they sponsored 30 African slaving ventures. However, it was the DeWolfs of Bristol, Rhode Island, and most notably James De Wolf, who were the largest slave - trading family in all of North America, mounting more than 80 transatlantic voyages, most of them illegal. The Rhode Island slave trade was broadly based. Seven hundred Rhode Islanders owned or captained slave ships, including most substantial merchants, and many ordinary shopkeepers and tradesmen who purchased shares in slaving voyages.
In addition to being one of America 's most active slave ports, Newport was also home to a small community of abolitionists and free blacks. Reverend Samuel Hopkins, minister at Newport 's First Congregational Church, has been called "America 's first abolitionist. '' Among subscribers to Hopkins ' writings were 17 free black subscribers, most of whom lived in Newport. This community of free blacks, including Newport Gardner, founded the Free African Union Society in 1780, the first African mutual aid society in America.
Touro Synagogue, America 's oldest existing synagogue
Some of the historic buildings in Newport, near the coast
Oliver Perry Monument in Eisenhower Park
Newport was the scene of much activity during the American Revolution. William Ellery came from Newport, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He later served on the Naval Committee.
In the winter of 1775 and 1776, the Rhode Island Legislature put militia General William West in charge of rooting out loyalists in Newport, and several notable individuals were exiled to the northern part of the state, such as Joseph Wanton and Thomas Vernon. In the fall of 1776, the British saw that Newport could be used as a naval base to attack New York (which they had recently occupied), so they took over the city. The population of Newport had divided loyalties; many pro -- independence Patriots left town, while loyalist Tories remained. Newport was a British stronghold for the next three years.
In the summer of 1778, the Americans began the campaign known as the Battle of Rhode Island. This was the first joint operation between the Americans and the French after the signing of the Treaty of Alliance. The Americans based in Tiverton planned a formal siege of the town. However, the French refused to take part in it, wanting a frontal assault. This weakened the American position, and the British were able to expel the Americans from the island. The following year, the British abandoned Newport, wanting to concentrate their forces in New York.
On July 10, 1780, a French expedition arrived in Narragansett Bay off Newport with an army of 450 officers and 5,300 men, sent by King Louis XVI and commanded by Rochambeau. For the rest of the war, Newport was the base of the French forces in the United States. In July 1781, Rochambeau was finally able to leave Newport for Providence to begin the decisive march to Yorktown, Virginia, along with General George Washington. The first Catholic mass in Rhode Island was said in Newport during this time. The Rochambeau Monument in Kings Park on Wellington Avenue along Newport Harbor commemorates Rochambeau 's contributions to the Revolutionary War and to Newport 's history.
Newport 's population had fallen from over 9,000 (according to the census of 1774) to fewer than 4,000 by the time that the war ended (1783). Over 200 abandoned buildings were torn down in the 1780s. Also, the war destroyed Newport 's economic wealth, as years of military occupation closed the city to any form of trade. The Newport merchants moved away, some to Providence, others to Boston and New York.
It was in Newport that the Rhode Island General Assembly voted to ratify the Constitution in 1791 and become the 13th state, acting under pressure from the merchant community of Providence.
The city was the last residence of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry and the birthplace of Commodore Matthew C. Perry and the Reverend William Ellery Channing.
Rochambeau statue in Kings park
Newport 's City Hall
Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, wealthy southern planters seeking to escape the heat began to build summer cottages on Bellevue Avenue, such as Kingscote (1839). Around the middle of the century, wealthy Yankees, such as the Wetmore family, also began constructing larger mansions, such as Chateau - sur - Mer (1852) nearby. Most of these early families made a substantial part of their fortunes in the Old China Trade.
By the turn of the 20th century, many of the nation 's wealthiest families were summering in Newport, including the Vanderbilts, Astors, and the Widener family, who constructed the largest "cottages '', such as The Breakers (1895) and Miramar. They resided for a brief summer social season in grand, gilded mansions with elaborate receiving rooms, dining rooms, music rooms, and ballrooms -- but with few bedrooms, since the guests were expected to have "cottages '' of their own. Many of the homes were designed by New York architect Richard Morris Hunt, who kept a house in Newport himself.
The social scene at Newport is described in Edith Wharton 's novel The Age of Innocence. Wharton 's own Newport "cottage '' was called Land 's End. Today, many mansions continue in private use. Hammersmith Farm is the mansion where John F. Kennedy and Jackie Kennedy held their wedding reception; it was open to tourists as a "house museum '', but has since been purchased and reconverted into a private residence. Many other mansions are open to tourists; still others were converted into academic buildings for Salve Regina College in the 1930s, when the owners could no longer afford their tax bills.
In the mid-19th century, a large number of Irish immigrants settled in Newport. The Fifth Ward of Newport in the southern part of the city became a staunch Irish neighborhood for many generations. To this day, St. Patrick 's Day is an important day of pride and celebration in Newport, with a large parade going down Thames Street.
The oldest Catholic parish in Rhode Island is St. Mary 's, located on Spring Street -- though the current building is not the original one.
The Breakers, 2009
"Hypotenuse '', Newport home of architect Richard Morris Hunt
Rhode Island did not have a fixed capital during and after the colonial era but rotated its legislative sessions among Providence, Newport, Bristol, East Greenwich, and South Kingstown. In 1854, the sessions were eliminated in the cities other than Providence and Newport, and Newport was finally dropped in 1900. A constitutional amendment that year restricted the meetings of the legislature to Providence.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy and Jacqueline Bouvier were married in St. Mary 's Church in Newport on September 12, 1953. Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower both made Newport the sites of their "Summer White Houses '' during their years in office. Eisenhower stayed at Quarters A at the Naval War College and at what became known as the Eisenhower House, while Kennedy used Hammersmith Farm next door.
The city has long been entwined with the United States Navy. It held the campus of the U.S. Naval Academy during the American Civil War (1861 -- 65) when the undergraduate officer training school was temporarily moved north from Annapolis, Maryland. From 1952 to 1973, it hosted the Cruiser - Destroyer Force of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet, and subsequently it has hosted smaller numbers of warships from time to time. Today it hosts the Naval Station Newport (NAVSTA Newport) and remains home to the U.S. Naval War College and the Naval Education and Training Command (NETC), the center for Surface Warfare Officer training, numerous other schools, and the headquarters of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center. The decommissioned aircraft carrier USS Saratoga (CV - 60) was moored in an inactive status at the docks previously used by the Cruiser - Destroyer Force, until it was towed to Brownsville, Texas in August -- September 2014 to be dismantled. The USS Forrestal (CV - 59) shared the pier until June 2010.
The departure of the Cruiser - Destroyer fleet from Newport and the closure of nearby Naval Air Station Quonset Point in 1973 were devastating to the local economy. The population of Newport decreased, businesses closed, and property values plummeted. However, in the late 1960s, the city began revitalizing the downtown area with the construction of America 's Cup Avenue, malls of stores and condominiums, and upscale hotels. Construction was completed on the Newport Bridge. The Preservation Society of Newport County began opening Newport 's historic mansions to the public, and the tourist industry became Newport 's primary commercial enterprise over the subsequent years.
Newport is located at 41 ° 29 ′ 17 '' N 71 ° 18 ′ 45 '' W / 41.48806 ° N 71.31250 ° W / 41.48806; - 71.31250. It is the most populous municipality on Aquidneck Island in Narragansett Bay. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.4 square miles (29.5 km), of which 7.7 square miles (19.9 km) is land and 3.7 square miles (9.6 km), or 32.64 %, is water. The Newport Bridge, the longest suspension bridge in New England, connects Newport to neighboring Conanicut Island across the East Passage of the Narragansett.
As of 2013, there were 24,027 people, 10,616 households, and 4,933 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,204.2 people per square mile (1,239.8 / km2). There were 13,069 housing units at an average density of 1,697.3 per square mile (656.7 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 82.5 % White, 6.9 % African American, 0.8 % Native American, 1.4 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 3.1 % some other race, and 5.2 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.4 % of the population (3.3 % Puerto Rican, 1.2 % Guatemalan, 1.1 % Mexican).
There were 10,616 households, out of which 21.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.9 % were headed by married couples living together, 12.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.5 % were non-families. 41.4 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.7 % were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.05, and the average family size was 2.82.
The age distribution was 16.5 % under the age of 18, 16.3 % from 18 to 24, 28.1 % from 25 to 44, 24.9 % from 45 to 64, and 14.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.3 males.
For the period 2009 - 11, the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $59,388, and the median income for a family was $83,880. Male full - time workers had a median income of $52,221 versus $41,679 for females. The per capita income for the city was $35,644. About 10.7 % of the population were below the poverty line.
Newport has one of the highest concentrations of colonial homes in the nation in the downtown Newport Historic District, one of three National Historic Landmark Districts in the city, and Newport 's colonial heritage is well preserved and documented at the Newport Historical Society. In addition to the colonial architecture, the city is known for its Gilded Age mansions, summer "cottages '' built in varying styles copied from the royal palaces of Europe.
The White Horse Tavern was built prior to 1673 and is one of the oldest taverns in the US. Newport is also home to the Touro Synagogue, one of the oldest Jewish houses of worship in the Western hemisphere, and to the Newport Public Library and Redwood Library and Athenaeum, one of the nation 's oldest lending libraries.
Bellevue Avenue 's Belcourt is owned by Carolyn Rafaelian.
Redwood Library and Athenaeum
Marble House, owned and operated by the Preservation Society
Aquidneck Island is home to many beaches, public and private. In Newport, the largest public beach, Easton 's beach, or First Beach, has a view of the famed Cliff Walk. Sachuest Beach, or Second Beach, in Middletown is the second largest beach in the area. Gooseberry Beach is a private beach but is open to the public on certain days throughout the year, and is located on Ocean Drive, along with Newport 's two other private beaches, Bailey 's Beach (Spouting Rock Beach Association), and Hazard 's Beach.
The Newport Cliff Walk is considered one of the most popular attractions in the city. It is a 3.5 - mile (5.6 km) public access walkway bordering the shoreline, and has been designated a National Recreation Trail.
Brenton Point State Park is home to the annual Brenton Point Kite Festival. Newport is also home to the Newport Country Club. The historical club has played host to the 2007 Women 's US Open and the 1995 Men 's US Amateurs. Fort Adams, an historical fort dating back to the War of 1812, houses the Museum of Yachting and hosts both the Newport Folk Festival and the Newport Jazz Festival annually.
For many years Newport was home to the series of yacht races for the America 's Cup.
As of Fall 2013, Newport has been designated a nationally recognized Bronze Bicycle Friendly Community by the League of American Bicyclists. It is the first official Bicycle Friendly Community in the state of Rhode Island.
The International Tennis Hall of Fame is also located in Newport. The Campbell 's Hall of Fame Tennis Championships, a men 's ATP Tour event, is held every year in early July, the week following Wimbledon. The week also includes annual enshrinements into the Hall of Fame.
The annual Citizens Bank Pell Bridge Run is held every fall helping raise hundreds of thousands of dollars for local charities.
Newport Public Schools operates Claiborne Pell Elementary School, Thompson Middle School, Rogers High School, Newport Area Career and Technical Center, and Aquidneck Island Adult Learning Center. St. Michael 's Country Day School is a private elementary school.
Post-secondary schools include the Naval Academy Preparatory School, Salve Regina University, Naval War College, International Yacht Restoration School, and the Community College of Rhode Island Newport Campus.
According to Newport 's 2016 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the principal employers in the city are:
Newport was a filming location for The Great Gatsby (1974), Mr. North (1988), High Society (1956) and Moonrise Kingdom (2012).
Coordinates: 41 ° 29 ′ 17 '' N 71 ° 18 ′ 45 '' W / 41.488002 ° N 71.312622 ° W / 41.488002; - 71.312622
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where does the movie glass castle take place | No Reservations (film) - wikipedia
No Reservations is a 2007 American romantic comedy - drama film directed by Scott Hicks. Starring Catherine Zeta - Jones, Aaron Eckhart and Abigail Breslin, the screenplay by Carol Fuchs is an adaptation of an original script by Sandra Nettelbeck, which served as the basis for the 2001 German film Mostly Martha, and revolves around a hard - edged chef whose life is turned upside down when she decides to take in her young niece following a tragic accident that killed her sister. Patricia Clarkson, Bob Balaban and Jenny Wade co-star, with Brían F. O'Byrne, Lily Rabe, and Zoe Kravitz -- appearing in her first feature film -- playing supporting roles.
The film received a mixed reception by critics, who found it "predictable and too melancholy for the genre '', resulting in a 41 % overall approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes. Upon its opening release on July 27, 2007 in the United States and Canada, No Reservations became a moderate commercial success: The film grossed $12 million in its opening weekend, eventually grossing over $43 million at the domestic box - office and over $92 million worldwide. Breslin was nominated for a Young Artist Award for her performance.
Kate Armstrong (Catherine Zeta - Jones) is the head chef at the trendy 22 Bleecker Street Restaurant in West Village of Manhattan, New York. She runs her kitchen at a rapid pace as she coordinates the making and preparation of all the fantastic meals, and personally displays the food to perfection on every dish. She intimidates everyone around her, including her boss Paula (Patricia Clarkson), who sends her to therapy. Kate hates to leave the kitchen when a customer wants to compliment her on one of her special dishes; however, she is ready to leave the kitchen in an instant when a customer insults her cooking.
When Kate 's sister Christine is killed in a car accident, her nine - year - old niece, Zoe (Abigail Breslin), must move in with her. Kate is devastated by her sister 's death and with all of her problems, Paula decides to hire a new sous chef to join the staff, Nick Palmer (Aaron Eckhart), who is a rising star in his own right and could be the head chef of any restaurant he pleased. Nick, however, wants to work under Kate. The atmosphere in the kitchen is somewhat chaotic as Kate feels increasingly threatened by Nick as time goes on due to his style of running her kitchen. Nick loves to listen to opera while he cooks and he loves to make the staff laugh. And Kate finds herself strangely attracted to Nick, whose uplifting personality has not only affected her staff but Zoe as well, who has been coming to work with Kate.
With all that is happening in Kate 's life, the last thing she would want is to fall in love with this man, as she has pushed away all others prior. Nevertheless, there is some kind of chemistry between the two of them that only flourishes with their passion for cooking. Yet life hits her hard when Paula decides to offer Nick the job of head chef and Kate 's relationship with Nick turns a sour note due to Kate 's pride. Nick also develops a special bond with Zoe.
In the end, Kate allows herself to become vulnerable and tear down the walls she has built throughout her life so that she and Nick could start fresh. The movie concludes with Zoe, Nick, and Kate having opened their own bistro.
The film soundtrack makes extensive use of operatic music, and includes (uncredited) Liz Phair 's song "Count On My Love ''. Filming took place in New York in 2006 - 7
No Reservations was released in 2,425 theaters in the US on July 27, 2007 and earned $11,704,357 and ranked fifth on its opening weekend. The film eventually grossed $43,107,979 in the US and $49,493,071 in foreign markets for a total worldwide box office of $92,601,050.
Abigail Breslin was nominated for the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film by a Leading Young Actress for her performance as Zoe.
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which one of the following is not a conservation practice | Niven 's laws - wikipedia
Niven 's laws were named after science fiction author Larry Niven, who has periodically published them as "how the Universe works '' as far as he can tell. These were most recently rewritten on January 29, 2002 (and published in Analog Magazine in the November 2002 issue). Among the rules are:
A different law is given this name in Niven 's essay "The Theory and Practice of Time Travel '':
Hans Moravec glosses this version of Niven 's Law as follows:
There is a spookier possibility. Suppose it is easy to send messages to the past, but that forward causality also holds (i.e. past events determine the future). In one way of reasoning about it, a message sent to the past will "alter '' the entire history following its receipt, including the event that sent it, and thus the message itself. Thus altered, the message will change the past in a different way, and so on, until some "equilibrium '' is reached -- the simplest being the situation where no message at all is sent. Time travel may thus act to erase itself (an idea Larry Niven fans will recognize as "Niven 's Law '').
Ryan North examines this law in Dinosaur Comics # 1818.
This proposition is also extensively examined in James P. Hogan 's Thrice Upon a Time.
Niven 's Law is also a term given to the converse of Clarke 's third law, so Niven 's Law reads: "Any sufficiently advanced magic is indistinguishable from technology. '' However, it has also been credited as being from Terry Pratchett. Keystone Folklore identifies it as a "fan - composed corollary slogan '' of Arthur C. Clarke fans. Gregory Benford in his January 30, 2013 "Variations on Clarke 's Third Law '' identifies it as a corollary to Clarke 's third law,
Both Clarke 's Third Law and Niven 's Law are referenced in part 2 of the serial Battlefield from season 26 of Doctor Who, first aired September 13, 1989. In this episode, the Doctor and his companion Ace have entered a trans - dimensional spaceship. While discussing the ship itself, the Doctor asks his companion if she knows Clarke 's Law, which she then recites: "Any advanced form of technology is indistinguishable from magic. '' The Doctor replies that the reverse is true and Ace voices this, working through the inverse, "any advanced form of magic is indistinguishable from technology. ''
Niven 's Laws is also the title of a 1984 collection of Niven 's short stories.
Included in the 1989 collection N - Space are six laws titled Niven 's Laws for Writers. They are:
In the acknowledgments of his 2003 novel Conquistador, S.M. Stirling wrote:
Drawn from Known Space: The Future Worlds of Larry Niven
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who translated bangladesh national anthem into english first | Amar Sonar Bangla - wikipedia
Amar Sonar Bangla (Bengali: আমার সোনার বাংলা, pronounced (amar ʃonar baŋla) "My Golden Bengal '') is the national anthem of Bangladesh. An Ode to Mother Bengal, it was written by Bengali polymath Rabindranath Tagore in 1905. The melody of the hymn derived from the Baul singer Gagan Harkara 's song "Ami Kothay Pabo Tare '' (আমি কোথায় পাবো তারে) set to Dadra Tala. The word sonar literally means ' made of gold ' or ' beloved ', but in the song sonar Bangla may be interpreted to either express the preciousness of Bengal or refer to the colour of paddy fields before harvest.
The song was written in 1905 during the first partition of Bengal, when the ruling British Empire had an undivided province of Bengal Presidency split into two parts; the decision was announced on 19 July by the then - Viceroy of India Lord Curzon, taking effect on 16 October. This divide of Bengal, being along communal lines -- East Bengal and Assam having a majority of Muslims and West Bengal having a majority of Hindus -- is claimed to have undermined India 's national movement against British imperialism and to have been politically motivated. Along with a host of others, songs such as this were meant to rekindle the unified spirit of Bengal, to raise public consciousness against the communal political divide. The lyrics first appeared in the September issues of "Bongodorshon '' and "Baul '' simultaneously, in 1905. The song along with the musical notation (referred to as swaralipi in Bengali), first appeared in the periodical musical journal Shongeet Biggnan Probeshika in the same month and year. Indira Devi, Tagore 's niece, Satyendranath Tagore 's daughter, jotted down the musical notation hearing it from Tagore himself (this was the common norm, Tagore singing the song, and someone formally jotting down the musical notations).
The following provides the lyrics of the "Amar Sonar Bangla '' as written by Rabindranath Tagore. Only the first ten (10) lines of this song currently constitute the People 's Republic of Bangladesh 's national anthem are in bold.
আমার সোনার বাংলা, আমি তোমায় ভালোবাসি । চিরদিন তোমার আকাশ, তোমার বাতাস, আমার প্রাণে বাজায় বাঁশি ॥ ও মা, ফাগুনে তোর আমের বনে ঘ্রাণে পাগল করে, মরি হায়, হায় রে -- ও মা, অঘ্রানে তোর ভরা ক্ষেতে আমি কী দেখেছি মধুর হাসি ॥ কী শোভা, কী ছায়া গো, কী স্নেহ, কী মায়া গো -- কী আঁচল বিছায়েছ বটের মূলে, নদীর কূলে কূলে । মা, তোর মুখের বাণী আমার কানে লাগে সুধার মতো, মরি হায়, হায় রে -- মা, তোর বদনখানি মলিন হলে, ও মা, আমি নয়নজলে ভাসি ॥ তোমার এই খেলাঘরে শিশুকাল কাটিলে রে, তোমারি ধুলামাটি অঙ্গে মাখি ধন্য জীবন মানি । তুই দিন ফুরালে সন্ধ্যাকালে কী দীপ জ্বালিস ঘরে, মরি হায়, হায় রে -- তখন খেলাধুলা সকল ফেলে, ও মা, তোমার কোলে ছুটে আসি ॥ ধেনু - চরা তোমার মাঠে, পারে যাবার খেয়াঘাটে, সারা দিন পাখি - ডাকা ছায়ায় - ঢাকা তোমার পল্লীবাটে, তোমার ধানে - ভরা আঙিনাতে জীবনের দিন কাটে, মরি হায়, হায় রে -- ও মা, আমার যে ভাই তারা সবাই, ও মা, তোমার রাখাল তোমার চাষি ॥ ও মা, তোর চরণেতে দিলেম এই মাথা পেতে -- দে গো তোর পায়ের ধুলা, সে যে আমার মাথার মানিক হবে । ও মা, গরিবের ধন যা আছে তাই দিব চরণতলে, মরি হায়, হায় রে -- আমি পরের ঘরে কিনব না আর, মা, তোর ভূষণ ব'লে গলার ফাঁসি
Aamar sonaar baangla, aami tomay bhalobasi. Chirodin tomar aakash, tomar baatas, ogo aamar praane baajay bashi. O ma, Phaagune tor aamer bone ghraane paagol kore, Mori haay, haay re -- O ma, Oghrane tor bhora khete aami ki dekhechi modhur haasi. Ki shobha, ki chhaaya go, ki sneho, ki maaya go - Ki aanchol bichhayechho boter mule, nodir kule kule. Maa, tor mukher baani aamar kaane laage sudhar moto, Mori haay, haay re -- Ma, tor bodonkhani molin hole, o ma, aami noyonjole bhasi. Tomar ei khelaghore shishukaal kaatilo re, Tomari dhulamaati onge maakhi dhonyyo jibon maani. Tui din phurale sondhakaale ki deep jaalis ghore, Mori haay, haay re -- Tokhon khyaladhula shokol phele, o maa, tomaar kole chute aasi. Dhenu - chora tomaar maathe, paare jaabar kheyaghaate, Sara din paakhi - daaka chhaayay - dhaaka tomar polibaate, Tomaar dhaane - bhora aanginate jiboner din kaate, Mori haay, haay re -- O ma, aamar je bhaai taara sobai, o maa, tomar raakhal tomar chaashi. O maa, tor choronete dilem ei maatha pete - De go tor payer dhula, se je aamar maathar manik hobe. O maa, goriber dhon ja aache tai dibo choronotole, Mori haay, haay re -- Aami porer ghore kinbo na, maa, tor bhushon bole golar phaansi.
My golden Bengal, I love you. Forever your skies, your air set my heart in tune as if it were a flute O mother! the aroma of the mango orchard in the spring time drives me crazy, Ah, what a thrill! O mother! in Late Autumn time sees smiles all through mature fields of paddy. What beauty, what shades, what affection, what tenderness! What a quilt have you spread at the feet of banyan trees and along the bank of every river Oh mother mine, words from your lips are like nectar to my ears. Ah, what a thrill! If sadness, O mother! casts a gloom on your face, my eyes are filled with tears! Spending my childhood in your playhouse Your dirt and soil smeared all - over my body, I consider myself privileged. Wonderful lamp you light up at dusk, Ah, what a thrill! I quit play and sprint back to your lap at once, O mother! In the cattle grazing field, on the pier for crossing stream, Shaded village walkways, serene with calling birds, Open porch with heaped ripe paddy my life goes on. Ah, what a thrill! All your shepherds and farmers are my brothers. This time I offer my head beneath your feet, Bless me with your dust, I shall be obliged to flaunt overhead. I shall offer you meagrely whatever I have at home, Ah, what a thrill! Never bother to buy you, from others, a hanging rope disguised as crown.
The first ten (10) lines of this song constitute Bangladesh 's national anthem, adopted in 1971 during its liberation war. Only those lines are given in the following section. The instrumental orchestra rendition was composed by Samar Das.
The Ministry of Cultural Affairs planned to stage an event on Bangladesh 's 44th independence day, in a bid to have the world record of the most people singing a national anthem simultaneously. Consequently, on 2 March, the ministry launched a program titled "Lakho Konthe Sonar Bangla '' whose main objective was to hold an event with the cooperation of Bangladesh Armed Forces where approximately 300,000 people would sing the national anthem. Several popular Bangladeshi musicians and cultural groups later joined the program.
The record was broken at 11: 20 on 26 March 2014 by 254,537 participants at Dhaka 's National Parade Ground. The event was attended by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, and all the members of the cabinet. After receiving the required evidence, the Guinness Book of World Records approved the record on 9 April. The record was broken by India on 21 January 2017.
((((Type og Banglaeshi Media
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do de la rue make passports for other countries | De La Rue - wikipedia
De La Rue plc (UK: / ˈdɛləruː /, US: / ˌdɛləˈruː /) is a British banknote manufacturing, security printing of passports and tax stamps, brand authentication and paper - making company with headquarters in Basingstoke, Hampshire, England. It also has a factory on the Team Valley Trading Estate, Gateshead, and other facilities at Loughton, Essex, and Bathford, Somerset. There are overseas offices in Kenya, Sri Lanka and Malta. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange.
The company was founded by Thomas de la Rue (1793 -- 1866), who moved from Guernsey to London in 1821 and set up in business as a ' Leghorn ' straw hat maker, then as a stationer and printer. In 1831 he secured his business a Royal Warrant to produce playing cards. In 1855 it started printing postage stamps and in 1860 banknotes. In 1896, the family partnership was converted into a private company.
In 1921, the de la Rue family sold their interests. The company was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1947. Then called Thomas De La Rue & Company, Limited, it changed its name in 1958 to The De La Rue Company Limited. A takeover bid for De La Rue was made by the Rank Organisation plc in 1968, but this was rejected by the Monopolies commission as being against the public interest. In 1991 the company 's name was changed again -- this time to De La Rue plc.
In 1965 De La Rue established a joint venture with the Italian printer and inventor Gualtiero Giori called De La Rue Giori. Based in Switzerland, the company specialized in building banknote printing equipment.
In 1995, the company acquired Portals Limited from the Portal family. For almost 300 years Portals had been regarded as the leading banknote paper manufacturer in the world, having manufactured banknote paper for the Bank of England since 1724.
In 1997, De La Rue acquired Harrison and Sons, the stamp and banknote printers based in High Wycombe. The factory closed permanently in 2003.
In 2003, the company acquired the Debden - based banknote printing operations of the Bank of England.
In 2003 and 2004 the company supplied banknotes to Iraq.
The company was recognised by Hermann Simon as a role model for other small - to medium - sized businesses in his book Hidden Champions.
The Highest Perfection, a history of De La Rue was published in 2011. Written by Peter Pugh for De La Rue, it covered the years 1712 -- 2003.
In August 2014, the company announced the appointment of Martin Sutherland (formerly of BAE Systems Applied Intelligence) as chief executive officer.
In 2016, the Cash Handling division (Cash Processing Systems) was sold to Privet Capital.
In September 2016 The Bank of England issued the new UK five pound note, the first UK note to be printed on polymer.
In December 2016 the company announced it will acquire the DuPont Authentication division.
In March 2018, the company sold the paper business which will now trade independently. De La Rue retains a 10 % share in the new business, Portals.
In April 2018, the company decided to appeal against the decision of the British government to manufacture their Post-Brexit passports in France.
De La Rue sells high - security paper and printing technology for over 150 national currencies.
De La Rue also produces a wide range of other secure documents, including:
In 1843 De La Rue established its first overseas trade, as de la Rue 's brother Paul travelled to Russia to advise on the making of playing cards. Thomas de la Rue 's designs for playing cards are the basis for the modern standard design. The playing card business was sold to John Waddington in 1969.
The company has also printed postage stamps for the United Kingdom and some of its colonies, for Italy and for the Confederate States of America. Some famous stamps such as the Cape of Good Hope triangulars were printed by De La Rue & Co. after Perkins Bacon fell out of favour with the postal authorities of the time. The first 50 years of postage stamp production were chronicled in John Easton 's The De La Rue History of British and Foreign Postage Stamps 1855 -- 1901 (Faber & Faber, London, 1958).
De La Rue claims to have developed the first practical fountain pen in 1881 and was a leading manufacturer of fountain pens in Britain. Products were marketed under the "Onoto '' brand. Production of fountain pens by De La Rue ceased in Britain in 1958 but continued for a few more years in Australia.
During the 1930s De La Rue created a number of board games. These included a cricket game, Stumpz, which was produced in a number of different editions, and Round The Horn, a game which re-created the then annual race of grain - laden, square - rigged sailing cargo ships from Australia to London. The games consisted of high quality components and used playing cards as part of the component set.
The King of Diamonds from a De La Rue pack c. 1860.
Cape of Good Hope triangular postage stamp of 1853.
A sheet of Stamps for St. Christopher, 1884.
Confederate States of America postage stamp, 1862
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which of the following is not part of a glycerophospholipid | Glycerophospholipid - wikipedia
Glycerophospholipids or phosphoglycerides are glycerol - based phospholipids. They are the main component of biological membranes.
The term glycerophospholipid signifies any derivative of glycerophosphoric acid that contains at least one O - acyl, or O - alkyl, or O - alk - 1 ' - enyl residue attached to the glycerol moiety.
The alcohol here is glycerol, to which two fatty acids and a phosphoric acid are attached as esters. The two fatty acid chains attached to the molecule of glycerol are nonpolar hence hydrophobic while the polar heads which mainly consists of the phosphate group attached to the third carbon of the glycerol molecule is hydrophillic. This dual characteristic leads to the amphipathic nature of glycerophospholipids. They are usually organized into a bilayer in memberanes with the polar hydrophillic heads sticking outwards to the aqueous environment and the non polar hydrophobic tails pointing inwards. Glycerophospholipids consists of various diverse species which usually differ slightly in structure. The most basic structure is a phosphatidate. This species is an important intermediate in the synthesis of many phosphoglycerides. The presence of an additional group attached to the phosphate allows for many different phosphoglycerides.
By convention, structures of these compounds show the 3 glycerol carbon atoms vertically with the phosphate attached to carbon atom number three (at the bottom). Plasmalogens and phosphatidates are examples.
In general, glycerophospholipids use a "sn '' notation, which stands for stereospecific numbering. When the letters "sn '' appear in the nomenclature, by convention the hydroxyl group of the second carbon of glycerol (sn - 2) is on the left on a Fischer projection. The numbering follows the one of Fischer 's projections, being sn - 1 the carbon at the top and sn - 3 the one at the bottom.
The advantage of this particular notation is that the spatial conformation (R or L) of the glycero - molecule is determined intuitively by the residues on the positions sn - 1 and sn - 3.
For example sn - glycero - 3 - phosphoric acid and sn - glycero - 1 - phosphoric acid are enantiomers.
Plasmalogens are a type of phosphoglyceride. The first carbon of glycerol has a hydrocarbon chain attached via an ether, not ester, linkage. The linkages are more resistant to chemical attack than ester linkages are. The second (central) carbon atom has a fatty acid linked by an ester. The third carbon links to an ethanolamine or choline by means of a phosphate ester. These compounds are key components of the membranes of muscles and nerves.
Phosphatidates are lipids in which the first two carbon atoms of the glycerol are fatty acid esters, and the 3 is a phosphate ester. The phosphate serves as a link to another alcohol - usually ethanolamine, choline, serine, or a carbohydrate. The identity of the alcohol determines the subcategory of the phosphatidate. There is a negative charge on the phosphate and, in the case of choline or serine, a positive quaternary ammonium ion. (Serine also has a negative carboxylate group.) The presence of charges give a "head '' with an overall charge. The phosphate ester portion ("head '') is hydrophilic, whereas the remainder of the molecule, the fatty acid "tail '', is hydrophobic. These are important components for the formation of lipid bilayers.
Phosphatidylethanoamines, phosphatidylcholines, and other phospholipids are examples of phosphatidates.
Phosphatidylcholines are lecithins. Choline is the alcohol, with a positively charged quaternary ammonium, bound to the phosphate, with a negative charge. Lecithins are present in all living organisms. An egg yolk has a high concentration of lecthins - which are commercially important as an emulsifying agent in products such as mayonnaise. Lecithins are also present in brain and nerve tissue.
There are many other phospholipids, some of which are glycolipids. The glycolipids include phosphatidyl sugars where the alcohol functional group is part of a carbohydrate. Phosphatidyl sugars are present in plants and certain microorganisms. A carbohydrate is very hydrophilic due to the large number of hydroxyl groups present.
One of the main functions of glycerophospholipid is to serve as a structural component of biological membranes. Their amphipathic nature drives the formation of the lipid bilayer structure of membranes. The cell membrane seen under the electron microscope consists of two identifiable layers, or "leaflets '', each of which is made up of an ordered row of glycerophospholipid molecules. The composition of each layer can vary widely depending on the type of cell.
Each glycerophospholipid molecule consists of a small polar head group and two long hydrophobic chains. In the cell membrane, the two layers of phospholipids are arranged as follows:
This is a stable structure because the ionic hydrophilic head groups interact with the aqueous media inside and outside the cell, whereas the hydrophobic tails maximize hydrophobic interactions with each other and are kept away from the aqueous environments. The overall result of this structure is to construct a fatty barrier between the cell 's interior and its surroundings.
Apart from their function in cell memberanes, they function in other cellular processes such as signal induction and transport. In regards to signaling, they provide the precursors for prostanglandins and other leukotrienes. It is their specific distribution and catabolism that enables them carry out the biological response processes listed above. Their roles as storage centers for secondary messengers in the membrane is also a contributing factor to their ability to act as transporters. They also influence protein function. For example, they are important constituents of lipoproteins (soluble proteins that transport fat in the blood) hence affect their metabolism and function.
Glycerophospholipids can also act as an emulsifying agent to promote dispersal of one substance into another. This is sometimes used in candy making and ice - cream making.
Neural membranes contain several classes of glycerophospholipids which turnover at different rates with respect to their structure and localization in different cells and membranes. There are three major classes namely; 1 - alkyl - 2 - acyl glycerophospholipid, 1, 2 - diacyl glycerophospholipid and plasmalogen. The main function of these classes of glycerophospholipids in the neural membranes is to provide stability, permeability and fluidity through specific alterations in their compositions. The glycerophospholipid composition of neural membranes greatly alters their functional efficacy. The length of glycerophospholipid acyl chain and the degree of saturation are important determinants of many membrane characteristics including the formation of lateral domains that are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Receptor - mediated degradation of glycerophospholipids by phospholipases A (l), A (2), C, and D results in generation of second messengers, such as prostaglandins, eicosanoids, platelet activating factor and diacylglycerol. Thus, neural membrane phospholipids are a reservoir for second messengers. They are also involved in apoptosis, modulation of activities of transporters, and membrane - bound enzymes. Marked alterations in neural membrane glycerophospholipid composition have been reported to occur in neurological disorders. These alterations result in changes in membrane fluidity and permeability. These processes along with the accumulation of lipid peroxides and compromised energy metabolism may be responsible for the neurodegeneration observed in neurological disorders.
The metabolism of glycerophospholipids is different in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Synthesis in prokaryotes involves the synthesis of glycerophospholipids phosphatidic acid and polar head groups. Phosphatidic acid synthesis in eukaryotes is different, there are two routes, one to the other toward phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. Glycerophospholipids are generally metabolized in several steps with different intermediates. The very first step in this metabolism involves the addition or transfer of the fatty acid chains to the glycerol backbone to form the first intermediate, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA then becomes acylated to form the next intermediate phosphatidic acid (PA). PA can be dephosphorylated leading to the formation of diacylglycerol which is essential in the synthesis of phosphatidylchline (PC). PC is one of the many species of glycerophospholipids. In a pathway called the Kennedy pathway, the polar heads are added to complete the formation of the entire structure consisting of the polar head regions, the two fatty acid chains and the phosphate group attached to the glycerol backbone. In this Kennedy pathway, Choline is converted to CDP - Choline which drives the transfer of the polar head groups to complete the formation of PC. PC can then be further converted to other species of glcerophospholipids such as phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE).
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who hosted the fifa world cup in 2002 | 2002 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2002 FIFA World Cup was the 17th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men 's national football teams organized by FIFA. It was held from 31 May to 30 June 2002 at sites in South Korea and Japan, with its final match hosted by Japan at International Stadium in Yokohama.
A field of 32 teams qualified for this World Cup, which was the first to be held in Asia, the first to be held outside of the Americas or Europe, as well as the first to be jointly - hosted by more than one nation. China, Ecuador, Senegal and Slovenia made their World Cup debuts.
The tournament had several upsets and surprise results, which included the defending champions France being eliminated in the group stage after earning a single point and second favourites Argentina also being eliminated in the group stage. South Korea managed to reach the semi-finals, beating Spain, Italy and Portugal en route. However, the most potent team at the tournament, Brazil, prevailed, winning the final against Germany 2 -- 0, making them the first and only country to have won the World Cup five times. The victory qualified Brazil for the 2003 and subsequently 2005 FIFA Confederations Cups, its fourth and fifth Confederations Cup appearance in a row. In the third place play - off match against South Korea, Turkey won 3 -- 2, taking third place in only their second ever FIFA World Cup.
South Korea and Japan were selected as hosts by FIFA on 31 May 1996. Initially, South Korea, Japan, and Mexico presented three rival bids. FIFA officials brokered a united bid between the two Asian countries shortly before the decision was made, and they were chosen unanimously in preference to Mexico. This was the first World Cup to be hosted by more than one country, the second being the 2026 World Cup to be hosted by the U.S., Mexico, and Canada. The general secretary of South Korea 's bidding committee, Song Young - shik, stated that FIFA was interested in staging some matches in North Korea in order to aid Korean reunification, but it was ruled out.
At the time the decision was made, Japan had never qualified for a World Cup finals (although the Japanese did subsequently qualify for the 1998 competition). The only other countries to have been awarded a World Cup without previously having competed in a final tournament are Italy in 1934 and Qatar in 2022. (Uruguay hosted the first World Cup in 1930 so there was no prior tournament. They were defending Olympic champions from 1928).
The unusual choice of host proved an issue for football fans in Europe, used to watching international matches on or close to their time zone. With games taking place in the European morning, some schools and businesses chose to open late on match days or set up communal watching events before the start of work.
199 teams attempted to qualify for the 2002 World Cup. The qualification process began with the preliminary draw held in Tokyo on 7 December 1999. Defending champions France and co-hosts South Korea and Japan qualified automatically and did not have to play any qualification matches. This was the final World Cup in which the defending champions qualified automatically.
14 places were contested by UEFA teams (Europe), five by CAF teams (Africa), four by CONMEBOL teams (South America), four by AFC teams (Asia), and three by CONCACAF teams (North and Central America and Caribbean). The remaining two places were decided by playoffs between AFC and UEFA and between CONMEBOL and OFC (Oceania). Four nations qualified for the finals for the first time: China, Ecuador, Senegal, and Slovenia. As of 2018, this was the last time Republic of Ireland, Turkey and China qualified for a FIFA World Cup finals, as well as the last time Australia and Switzerland failed to qualify.
Turkey qualified for the first time since 1954, Poland and Portugal both qualified for the first time since 1986 and Costa Rica and Uruguay qualified for the first time since 1990. Sweden, Russia and Republic of Ireland also returned after missing the 1998 World Cup. 1998 semi-finalists the Netherlands, three times 1990s participants Romania and Colombia and Norway, Bulgaria and Morocco, which had participated in the previous 2 finals, failed to qualify, while South Korea set a record by appearing in a fifth successive finals tournament, the first nation from outside Europe or the Americas to achieve this feat.
All seven previous World Cup - winning nations (Argentina, Brazil, England, France, Germany, Italy and Uruguay) qualified, the first time so many previous champions had been present at a finals tournament (all these nations had also appeared at the 1986 tournament, but France had not yet won the competition).
The following 32 teams, shown with final pre-tournament rankings, qualified for the final tournament:
South Korea and Japan each provided 10 venues, the vast majority of them newly built for the tournament. Groups A-D played all their matches in South Korea, and Groups E-H played all their matches in Japan. The stadiums in Daegu, Suwon, Yokohama and Saitama all hosted 4 matches each, while the other 16 stadiums hosted 3 matches each. Notably, no matches were played in Tokyo, making it the first capital of a host country not to have a World Cup venue.
South Korea
Japan
There was much controversy over the refereeing in the tournament. Questionable decisions in the Italy - South Korea match resulted in 400,000 complaints, and featured in ESPN 's 10 most fabled World Cup controversies. The Spain - South Korea match featured two controversially disallowed Spanish goals, which Iván Helguera referred to as "a robbery '' and led to Spanish press brandishing the officials "thieves of dreams, '' though FIFA dismissed the incident as human error.
This was the first World Cup that featured squads of 23 players, an increase from 22 previously. Of the 23 players, 3 must be goalkeepers.
The eight seeded teams for the 2002 tournament were announced on 28 November 2001. The seeds comprised Pot A in the draw. Pot B contained the remaining 11 European sides; Pot C contained five unseeded qualifiers from CONMEBOL and AFC. Pot D contained unseeded sides from the CONCACAF region and Africa. This was the last FIFA World Cup with the defending champion in Group A. Since 2006, the Host nation has been in Group A.
Before the draw, it was arranged that the last three teams in Pot B would be drawn into four groups which did not already contain two European teams and one would be left without a second European team. This was ultimately Group C. No group could contain more than two European teams, no unseeded South American team could be drawn with Brazil or Argentina and no unseeded Asian team could be drawn with South Korea or Japan.
France, as holders were automatically placed in Group A, South Korea were placed in Group D and Japan were placed in Group H. One of the two South American seeds (Brazil and Argentina) had to play in a group played in South Korea and the other had to play in a group played in Japan. In Pot C, China had to play in South Korea (either group A, B or C) which meant that the other Asian team in Pot C (Saudi Arabia) had to play in Japan (either group E, F or G). In Pot D, two or three African teams, and one or two CONCACAF teams had to play in either South Korea or Japan.
On 1 December 2001, the draw was held and the group assignments and order of fixtures were determined. Group F was considered the group of death, as it brought together Argentina, England, Nigeria and Sweden.
All times are Korea Standard Time and Japan Standard Time (UTC + 9)
Groups A, B, C, D based in South Korea. Groups E, F, G, H based in Japan.
In the following tables:
The teams in the group play were ranked upon
In the original version of the rules for the final tournament, the ranking criteria were in a different order, with head - to - head results taking precedence over total goal difference. The rules were changed to the above in advance of the tournament, but older versions were still available on the FIFA and UEFA websites, causing some confusion among those trying to identify the correct criteria.
Group A involved the defending champions France, Senegal, Uruguay, and Denmark. The World Cup started with a 1 -- 0 defeat of France, playing without the injured Zinedine Zidane, by tournament newcomers Senegal in the tournament 's opening match held in Seoul, South Korea. On the next day, two goals by Jon Dahl Tomasson gave the Danes a 2 -- 1 victory over Uruguay in Ulsan.
In the second set of Group A matches, France were held to a 0 -- 0 draw in Busan by Uruguay after star striker Thierry Henry was sent off, while in Daegu, Denmark and Senegal drew 1 -- 1.
A 2 -- 0 defeat by Denmark in their last group game in Incheon sealed France 's elimination from the World Cup.
France went out of the Cup without even managing to score a goal and earned the unwanted record of the worst World Cup performance by World Cup holders (in 1934 Uruguay refused to defend the title).
Senegal drew with Uruguay to clinch their place in the second round, despite Uruguay coming back from 3 -- 0 down to draw 3 -- 3, in their last group game in Suwon. The South Americans could n't find the fourth goal that would have kept them in the Cup and thus were out of the tournament. At the end, Denmark won Group A with 7 points, followed by Senegal with 5 points. Uruguay were eliminated with 2 points and holders France with 1 point.
Spain in Group B became one of only two teams to pick up maximum points, seeing off both Slovenia and Paraguay (In Gwangju and Jeonju respectively) 3 -- 1 before defeating South Africa 3 -- 2 in Daejeon.
Paraguay advanced over a late goal, winning 3 -- 1 over newcomer Slovenia in Seogwipo to tie with South Africa on goal difference (they were already tied with four points, having drawn 2 -- 2 in their opening game against each other in Busan). As a result, Paraguay advanced to the second round on the goals scored tiebreaker, scoring six goals compared to South Africa 's five.
Group C saw Brazil become the other team to win all three of their Group matches, defeating Turkey 2 -- 1 in Ulsan, China 4 -- 0 in Seogwipo, and Costa Rica 5 -- 2 in Suwon. Turkey also advanced to the next round, defeating Costa Rica on goal difference after both teams drew with 4 points each (both tied 1 -- 1 in Incheon against each other). China, coached by Bora Milutinović (the fifth national team he coached in five consecutive World Cups), failed to get a point or even score a goal.
Group D saw co-host South Korea, Poland, United States and Portugal square off against each other. South Korea and Poland started group play in Busan, where South Korea earned their first ever World Cup victory, defeating Poland 2 -- 0. United States shocked group favorites Portugal the next day, defeating them 3 -- 2 in Suwon. South Korea and United States then faced off in Daegu, where excellent goalkeeping by Brad Friedel and Lee Woon - jae resulted in a 1 -- 1 draw, while a hat - trick by Pauleta gave the Portuguese a comfortable 4 -- 0 win against Poland in Jeonju. In the final group games held in Incheon (Portugal - South Korea) and Daejeon (Poland - United States), South Korea eliminated Portugal thanks to a 70th - minute goal by Park Ji - sung, finishing the game 1 -- 0, while Poland defeated United States 3 -- 1. As a result, South Korea won their first ever group stage and advanced for the first time with seven points, while United States followed with four points. Portugal and Poland were eliminated with three points each in third and fourth places respectively.
Group E had Germany play against Saudi Arabia, Ireland, and Cameroon. Ireland and Cameroon started group play in Niigata in a 1 -- 1 draw, while Germany thrashed Saudi Arabia 8 -- 0 in Sapporo. In Ibaraki, Germany held a 1 -- 0 lead over the Republic of Ireland thanks to a 19th - minute goal by Miroslav Klose, only to draw 1 -- 1 due to a sensational 92nd - minute equaliser by Robbie Keane. Saudi Arabia bowed out of the tournament with a 1 -- 0 defeat against Cameroon in Saitama, thanks to a second - half goal by Samuel Eto'o. In the final matches of Group E, Germany sent Cameroon out of the tournament, winning 0 -- 2 in Shizuoka with goals by Marco Bode and Miroslav Klose, while Ireland defeated Saudi Arabia 3 -- 0 in Yokohama with goals by Robbie Keane, Gary Breen, and Damien Duff. Germany advanced with seven points, and Ireland followed along with five points, while Cameroon was eliminated with four points. Saudi Arabia was eliminated without a single point or goal, having conceded 12 goals, finishing dead last in the tournament.
Group F was nicknamed the "Group of death '', having Argentina, Nigeria, England, and Sweden. Argentina won their opening game in Ibaraki 1 -- 0 against Nigeria thanks to a second - half goal by Gabriel Batistuta, while in Saitama England and Sweden drew 1 -- 1 thanks to goals by Sol Campbell and Niclas Alexandersson. Sweden and Nigeria faced off in Kobe, where two goals by Henrik Larsson eliminated Nigeria 2 -- 1. Meanwhile, in Sapporo, England won 1 -- 0 over Argentina, thanks to a David Beckham penalty kick. In the final matches of Group F, England and Nigeria drew 0 -- 0 in Osaka, while Sweden and Argentina drew 1 -- 1 in Miyagi. Sweden and England advanced from Group F, first and second respectively with five points each, at the expense of Argentina 's four points, while Nigeria finished last with one point.
Group G saw Italy, Ecuador, Croatia, and Mexico play against each other. Niigata saw the start of the group games, with Mexico winning 1 -- 0 over Croatia, thanks to a penalty converted by Cuauhtémoc Blanco. Later that night in Sapporo, Italy defeated newcomers Ecuador 2 -- 0 with ease, having both goals scored by Christian Vieri. Italy and Croatia faced off a few days later in Ibaraki, where Croatia pulled a 2 -- 1 upset victory over Italy. The next day in Miyagi saw Mexico earn a vital victory over Ecuador 2 -- 1. In the final matches of Group G, Mexico and Italy drew 1 -- 1 in Ōita, while Ecuador achieved their first ever World Cup victory 1 -- 0 over Croatia in Yokohama. Mexico won Group G with seven points, while Italy survived with four points. Croatia and Ecuador were eliminated with three points in third and fourth places respectively, with the former failing to repeat its surprise performance from 1998 despite their victory against Italy.
Group H involved co-hosts Japan square off against Belgium, Russia, and Tunisia. Japan earned their first World Cup points in a spectacular 2 -- 2 draw against Belgium in Saitama, while Russia defeated Tunisia in Kobe, 2 -- 0. Japan would get their first ever World Cup victory a few days later in Yokohama, defeating Russia 1 -- 0, thanks to a second - half goal by Junichi Inamoto, while Belgium and Tunisia drew 1 -- 1 in Ōita. In the final matches of Group H, Japan defeated Tunisia with ease, winning 0 -- 2 in Osaka, while Belgium survived against Russia in Shizuoka, winning 3 -- 2. Japan won Group H with seven points, while Belgium advanced with five points. Russia was eliminated with three points, and Tunisia was eliminated with one point.
For the second round, quarter - finals, and semi-finals, the qualifiers from Groups A, C, F, and H played their games in Japan while the qualifiers from Groups B, D, E, and G played their games in South Korea. Daegu, South Korea, hosted the third - place match while Yokohama, Japan, hosted the final.
In the second round, Germany beat Paraguay 1 -- 0 with a late goal by Oliver Neuville in Seogwipo. England defeated Denmark in Niigata 3 -- 0, with all goals occurring in the first half of the game. Sweden and Senegal faced off in Ōita and finished 1 -- 1 in regular time and it took a golden goal from Henri Camara in extra time to settle the game for Senegal 1 -- 2. Spain and Ireland played in Suwon, where Spain led most of the match 1 -- 0 until a late penalty kick scored by Robbie Keane made the match go 1 -- 1 sending it to extra time, where Spain outlasted Ireland 3 -- 2 in a Penalty shootout. The United States beat CONCACAF rivals Mexico 2 -- 0 in Jeonju, thanks to the goals of Brian McBride and Landon Donovan. Brazil defeated Belgium 2 -- 0 in Kobe, with an amazing volley by Rivaldo and a splendid counter-attack goal by Ronaldo. Turkey ended co-hosts Japan 's run with a 1 -- 0 win in Miyagi, thanks to a Ümit Davala goal in the 12th minute. The other co-hosts, South Korea, defeated Italy 2 -- 1 in extra time in Daejeon with a goal by Ahn Jung - hwan in the 117th minute, after a match filled with many controversial referring decisions. South Korea 's win ensured that, for the very first time in the Cup 's history, teams from each of Europe, North America, South America, Africa, and Asia reached the quarter - finals of the same tournament.
In the quarter - finals, England and Brazil squared off in Shizuoka, where Ronaldinho scored a free - kick goal over England 's David Seaman early in the second half as Brazil won 2 -- 1. The United States lost to Germany 1 -- 0 in Ulsan by a Michael Ballack goal in the 39th minute, but controversy surrounded the game when United States demanded the referee give a penalty for a goal - line handball by Torsten Frings in the 49th minute, but the referee did not award the penalty. South Korea got another win in Gwangju in a controversial manner, beating Spain 5 -- 3 on penalties after a 0 -- 0 draw in which the Spaniards twice thought they had scored while onside; however, the efforts were disallowed by the referee with controversial decisions. The hosts became the first team in the Asian Football Confederation to reach the semi-finals of the World Cup, eclipsing the record of their North Korean counterparts who reached the quarter - finals in 1966. They also became the first World Cup semi-final team not from UEFA or CONMEBOL since the United States did it in 1930. Turkey defeated Senegal 1 -- 0 in Osaka, with a golden goal scored by İlhan Mansız in the 93rd minute.
The semi-finals saw two 1 -- 0 games; The first semi-final, held in Seoul saw a Michael Ballack goal good enough for Germany to defeat South Korea. However, Ballack received a yellow card during the match, which forced him to miss the final based on accumulated yellow cards. The next day in Saitama saw Ronaldo score a goal early in the second half, scoring his sixth of the competition for Brazil, who beat Turkey in a replay of their Group C encounter.
In the third - place match in Daegu, Turkey beat the South Koreans 3 -- 2, their first goal coming from Hakan Şükür straight from the opening kick - off (even though South Korea kicked off) in 10.8 seconds, the fastest ever goal in World Cup history.
In the final match held in Yokohama, Japan, two goals from Ronaldo secured the World Cup for Brazil as they claimed victory over Germany. Ronaldo scored twice in the second half and, after the game, won the Golden Shoe award for the tournament 's leading scorer with eight goals. This was the fifth time Brazil had won the World Cup, cementing their status as the most successful national team in the history of the competition. Brazil became the only team since Argentina in 1986 to win the trophy without needing to win a penalty shootout at some stage during the knockout phase, and the total number of penalty shootouts (2) was the lowest since the four - round knockout format was introduced in 1986. Brazil also became the first team to win every match at a World Cup Finals since 1970, and set a new record for highest aggregate goal difference (+ 14) for a World Cup winner. Brazil 's captain Cafu, who became the first player to appear in three successive World Cup finals, accepted the trophy on behalf of the team.
Ronaldo won the Golden Shoe after scoring eight goals. In total, 161 goals were scored by 109 players, with three of them credited as own goals. Two of those own goals were in the same match, marking the first time in FIFA World Cup history that own goals had been scored by both teams in the same match.
Source: FIFA
Oliver Kahn is the only goalkeeper to have won the Golden Ball in FIFA World Cup history.
Oliver Kahn Rüştü Reçber
Sol Campbell Fernando Hierro Hong Myung - bo Alpay Özalan Roberto Carlos
Michael Ballack Claudio Reyna Rivaldo Ronaldinho Yoo Sang - chul
El Hadji Diouf Miroslav Klose Ronaldo Hasan Şaş
After the tournament, FIFA published a ranking of all teams that competed in the 2002 World Cup finals based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition.
The sponsors of the 2002 FIFA World Cup are divided into two categories: FIFA World Cup Sponsors and Japan and South Korea Supporters.
The original domestic ticket allocation had fully sold out and the organising committee completed sales of tickets returned from the international allocation by the end of April. However, it was obvious at the opening matches that there were a significant number of empty seats. It was gradually revealed that the World Cup Ticketing Bureau (WCTB) still had unsold tickets in its possession. After FIFA agreed to sell this inventory, JAWOC undertook sales over telephone and WCTB handled the internet sales. For the second round Japan vs. Turkey match in Miyagi in particular, although it was reported by both parties that all tickets had been sold, some 700 seats remained empty.
The tournament was criticized for many poor and questionable refereeing decisions. South Korea in particular faced scrutiny and allegations of corruption due to the favorable decisions they received in their controversial victories over Italy in the Round of 16 and over Spain in the Quarterfinals.
The official FIFA cultural event of the 2002 World Cup was a flag festival called Poetry of the Winds. Held in Nanjicheon Park, an area of the World Cup Park close to the stadium, Poetry of the Winds was exhibited from 29 May to 25 June in order to wish success upon the World Cup and promote a festive atmosphere. During the flag art festival, hand - painted flags from global artists were displayed as a greeting to international guests in a manner that was designed to promote harmony (2002 Flag Art Festival Executive Committee).
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the segment of the uterine tube where fertilization occurs is | Fallopian tube - wikipedia
The Fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or salpinges (singular salpinx), are two very fine tubes lined with ciliated epithelia, leading from the ovaries of female mammals into the uterus, via the uterotubal junction. They enable the passage of egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the equivalent structures are called oviducts.
In a woman 's body the tube allows passage of the egg from the ovary to the uterus. Its different segments are (lateral to medial): the infundibulum with its associated fimbriae near the ovary, the ampullary region that represents the major portion of the lateral tube, the isthmus which is the narrower part of the tube that links to the uterus, and the interstitial (also known as intramural) part that transverses the uterine musculature. The ostium is the point where the tubal canal meets the peritoneal cavity, while the uterine opening of the Fallopian tube is the entrance into the uterine cavity, the uterotubal junction.
A cross section of Fallopian tube shows four distinct layers: serosa, subserosa, lamina propria and innermost mucosal layer. The serosa is derived from visceral peritoneum. Subserosa is composed of loose adventitious tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics, an outer longitudinal and inner circular smooth muscle coats. This layer is responsible for the peristaltic action of the Fallopian tubes. Lamina propria is a vascular connective tissue. There are two types of cells within the simple columnar epithelium of the Fallopian tube (oviduct). Ciliated cells predominate throughout the tube, but are most numerous in the infundibulum and ampulla. Estrogen increases the production of cilia on these cells. Interspersed between the ciliated cells are peg cells, which contain apical granules and produce the tubular fluid. This fluid contains nutrients for spermatozoa, oocytes, and zygotes. The secretions also promote capacitation of the sperm by removing glycoproteins and other molecules from the plasma membrane of the sperm. Progesterone increases the number of peg cells, while estrogen increases their height and secretory activity. Tubal fluid flows against the action of the ciliae, that is toward the fimbrial end.
In view of longitudinal variation in histological features of tube, the isthmus has thick muscular coat and simple mucosal folds; whereas ampulla has complex mucosal folds.
When an oocyte is developing in an ovary, it is encapsulated in a spherical collection of cells known as an ovarian follicle. Just prior to ovulation the primary oocyte completes meiosis I to form the first polar body and a secondary oocyte which is arrested in metaphase of meiosis II. This secondary oocyte is then ovulated. The follicle and the ovary 's wall rupture, allowing the secondary oocyte to escape. The secondary oocyte is caught by the fimbriated end and travels to the ampulla of the uterine tube where typically the sperm are met and fertilization occurs; meiosis II is promptly completed. The fertilized ovum, now a zygote, travels towards the uterus aided by activity of tubal cilia and activity of the tubal muscle. The early embryo requires critical development in the Fallopian tube. After about five days the new embryo enters the uterine cavity and on about the sixth day implants on the wall of the uterus.
The release of an oocyte does not alternate between the two ovaries and seems to be random. After removal of an ovary, the remaining one produces an egg every month.
Occasionally the embryo implants into the Fallopian tube instead of the uterus, creating an ectopic pregnancy, commonly known as a "tubal pregnancy ''.
While a full testing of tubal functions in patients with infertility is not possible, testing of tubal patency is important as tubal obstruction is a major cause of infertility. A hysterosalpingogram, laparoscopy and dye, or HyCoSy will demonstrate that tubes are open. Tubal insufflation is a standard procedure for testing patency. During surgery the condition of the tubes may be inspected and a dye such as methylene blue can be injected into the uterus and shown to pass through the tubes when the cervix is occluded. As tubal disease is often related to Chlamydia infection, testing for Chlamydia antibodies has become a cost - effective screening device for tubal pathology.
Salpingitis is inflammation of the Fallopian tubes and may be found alone, or be a component of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Saccular dilation of the Fallopian tube at its narrow portion, due to inflammation, is known as salpingitis isthmica nodosa. Like PID and endometriosis, it may lead to Fallopian tube obstruction. Fallopian tube obstruction is associated with infertility and ectopic pregnancy.
Fallopian tube cancer, which typically arises from the epithelial lining of the Fallopian tube, has historically been considered to be a very rare malignancy. Recent evidence suggests it probably represents a significant portion of what has been classified as ovarian cancer in the past. While tubal cancers may be misdiagnosed as ovarian cancer, it is of little consequence as the treatment of both ovarian and Fallopian tube cancer is similar.
The surgical removal of a Fallopian tube is called a salpingectomy. To remove both sides is a bilateral salpingectomy. An operation that combines the removal of a Fallopian tube with removal of at least one ovary is a salpingo - oophorectomy. An operation to remove a Fallopian tube obstruction is called a tuboplasty.
They are named after their discoverer, the 16th century Italian anatomist Gabriele Falloppio, who thought they resembled tubas, the plural of tuba in Italian being tube.
Though the name Fallopian tube is eponymous, some texts spell it with a lower case f from the assumption that the adjective fallopian has been absorbed into modern English as the de facto name for the structure.
Uterus and uterine tubes.
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who plays in the movie only the brave | Only the Brave (2017 film) - wikipedia
Only the Brave is a 2017 American biographical drama film directed by Joseph Kosinski and written by Ken Nolan and Eric Warren Singer, based on the GQ article "No Exit '' by Sean Flynn. The film tells the true story of the Granite Mountain Hotshots, an elite crew of firefighters who fought the Yarnell Hill Fire in June 2013, and is dedicated in their memory. It features an ensemble cast, including Josh Brolin, Miles Teller, Jeff Bridges, Taylor Kitsch, James Badge Dale, Jennifer Connelly, Alex Russell, Ben Hardy, Thad Luckinbill, Geoff Stults and Scott Haze.
Principal photography began in New Mexico in June 2016. Only the Brave was released in the United States by Columbia Pictures on October 20, 2017. It received positive reviews from critics, with praise aimed at the cast and the film 's touching tribute to its subjects.
A drama based on the elite crew of firefighters battling the Yarnell Hill Fire, a wildfire in Yarnell, Arizona in June 2013.
On March 1, 2016, Josh Brolin and Miles Teller joined the cast of the film. Jeff Bridges and Taylor Kitsch later also joined the cast. The film was produced under the working title Granite Mountain.
Principal photography on the film began in New Mexico on June 13, 2016. Filming took place at different locations in and around Santa Fe and Los Alamos.
Joseph Trapanese composed the film 's score. Dierks Bentley released a single called "Hold The Light '', featuring S. Carey. The single and the music video was released on October 6, 2017.
Only the Brave, originally titled Granite Mountain, was released on October 20, 2017, by Sony Pictures Releasing under its Columbia Pictures label. Before that the film was set a release date for September 22, 2017, but a disagreement between Lionsgate and production company Black Label Media saw the U.S. distribution rights change to Columbia Pictures. Summit Entertainment will retain international rights in select countries for the film. The trailer came out on July 19, and the film was retitled Only the Brave.
Only The Brave was released digitally on January 23, 2018, and on DVD and Blu - ray on February 6, 2018.
Only the Brave grossed $18.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $4.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $23.1 million, against a production budget of $38 million.
In the United States and Canada, Only the Brave was released alongside Boo 2! A Madea Halloween, The Snowman and Geostorm, and was expected to gross around $7 million from 2,575 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $305,000 from Thursday night previews and $2.1 million on its first day. It ended up debuting to $6 million, finishing 5th at the box office. In its second week the film dropped 42.5 % to $3.4 million, finishing 7th.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87 % based on 140 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Only the Brave 's impressive veteran cast and affecting fact - based story add up to a no - frills drama that 's just as stolidly powerful as the real - life heroes it honors. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Bilge Ebiri of Village Voice wrote, "Only the Brave is a visually splendid, spellbinding, and surreal movie that also happens to be an emotionally shattering, over-the - top ugly - cry for the ages. '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called the film "an engaging account of a tragic real - life story. ''
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, saying: "The blending of practical effects and CGI is impressive, and we come to understand the risks these men are taking, but some of the techniques and approaches they take remain a mystery, up to and through the climactic fire. Not that we need a manual to understand these men were working - class, everyday heroes. '' Scott Menzel of We Live Entertainment, also praised the film, saying, "Only the Brave is without question the best firefighter film since Backdraft and one that pays tribute to the brave men that sacrificed their own lives to protect thousands of others. ''
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