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panic at the disco the most fun a girl can have lyrics | Lying is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off - wikipedia
"Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off '', often shortened to "Lying Is the Most Fun... '', is a single by American rock band Panic! at the Disco, from the album A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out. Released on August 7, 2006, it is the third commercially released single from that album and fourth overall ("The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage '' was only released promotionally). The song impacted radio on October 17, 2006.
The song 's title was taken from a line of dialog in the 2004 film Closer (based on a 1997 play of the same name). The line, spoken by Natalie Portman 's character, Alice, is, "Lying is the most fun a girl can have without taking her clothes off, but it 's better if you do. '' "But It 's Better If You Do '', another song by Panic! at the Disco, was released as a single prior to "Lying is the Most Fun... ''.
In the United States, the song peaked at number 28 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart, number 96 on the Pop 100, and number 4 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart.
The song also reached number 39 on the UK Singles Chart, in the process becoming the longest un-bracketed title of a song to enter the UK Top 40. While it also reached number 26 on the ARIA Charts and number 33 in New Zealand.
The song was also featured on the Saints Row 2 soundtrack.
The music video was directed by Travis Kopach and filmed on June 19, 2006 in Los Angeles, California. The video was premiered on MTV2 on July 14, 2006. It features people with fish tanks on their heads. The video only shows the band in one scene (the paramedics are the band members), because the band felt that their looks were distracting from their music.
Panic! at the Disco has stated that the music video is simply a ' 50s period short film and the man (Daniel Gomez) and woman (Molly D'Amour) are a couple, but not necessarily married.
The music video includes a 15 - second intro instead of starting the vocals right at the beginning.
The band explained on Steven 's Untitled Rock Show that they chose Kopach for the video because they felt his treatment was the most unconventional of the ones they had been offered.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where is ruthenium found on the periodic table | Ruthenium - wikipedia
Ruthenium is a chemical element with symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. Like the other metals of the platinum group, ruthenium is inert to most other chemicals. The Russian - born scientist of Baltic - German ancestry and a member of the Russian Academy of Science Karl Ernst Claus discovered the element in 1844 at Kazan State University in Russia and named it after the Latin name of his homeland, Rus. Ruthenium is usually found as a minor component of platinum ores; the annual production is about 20 tonnes. Most ruthenium produced is used in wear - resistant electrical contacts and thick - film resistors. A minor application for ruthenium is in platinum alloys and as a chemistry catalyst.
A polyvalent hard white metal, ruthenium is a member of the platinum group and is in group 8 of the periodic table:
Whereas all other group 8 elements have 2 electrons in the outermost shell, in ruthenium, the outermost shell has only one electron (the final electron is in a lower shell). This anomaly is observed in the neighboring metals niobium (41), molybdenum (42), and rhodium (45).
Ruthenium has four crystal modifications and does not tarnish unless subject to high temperatures. Ruthenium dissolves in fused alkalis to give ruthenates (RuO), is not attacked by acids (even aqua regia) but is attacked by halogens at high temperatures. Indeed, ruthenium is most readily attacked by oxidizing agents. Small amounts of ruthenium can increase the hardness of platinum and palladium. The corrosion resistance of titanium is increased markedly by the addition of a small amount of ruthenium. The metal can be plated by electroplating and by thermal decomposition. A ruthenium - molybdenum alloy is known to be superconductive at temperatures below 10.6 K. Ruthenium is the last of the 4d transition metals that can assume the group oxidation state + 8, and even then it is less stable there than the heavier congener osmium: this is the first group from the left of the table where the second and third - row transition metals display notable differences in chemical behavior. Like iron but unlike osmium, ruthenium can form aqueous cations in its lower oxidation states of + 2 and + 3.
Ruthenium is the first in a downward trend in the melting and boiling points and atomization enthalpy in the 4d transition metals after the maximum seen at molybdenum, because the 4d subshell is more than half full and the electrons are contributing less to metallic bonding. (Technetium, the previous element, has an exceptionally low value that is off the trend due to its half - filled (Kr) 4d 5s configuration, though the small amount of energy needed to excite it to a (Kr) 4d 5s configuration indicates that it is not as far off the trend in the 4d series as manganese in the 3d transition series.) Unlike the lighter congener iron, ruthenium is paramagnetic at room temperature, as iron also is above its Curie point.
The reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common ruthenium ions are shown below:
Naturally occurring ruthenium is composed of seven stable isotopes. Additionally, 34 radioactive isotopes have been discovered. Of these radioisotopes, the most stable are Ru with a half - life of 373.59 days, Ru with a half - life of 39.26 days and Ru with a half - life of 2.9 days.
Fifteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 89.93 u (Ru) to 114.928 u (Ru). Most of these have half - lives that are less than five minutes except Ru (half - life: 1.643 hours) and Ru (half - life: 4.44 hours).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant isotope, Ru, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay product before Ru is technetium and the primary decay product after is rhodium.
As the 74th most abundant element in Earth 's crust, ruthenium is relatively rare, found in about 100 parts per trillion. This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa. The native form of ruthenium is a very rare mineral (Ir replaces part of Ru in its structure).
Roughly 12 tonnes of ruthenium are mined each year with world reserves estimated at 5,000 tonnes. The composition of the mined platinum group metal (PGM) mixtures varies widely, depending on the geochemical formation. For example, the PGMs mined in South Africa contain on average 11 % ruthenium while the PGMs mined in the former USSR contain only 2 % (1992). Ruthenium, osmium, and iridium are considered the minor platinum group metals.
Ruthenium, like the other platinum group metals, is obtained commercially as a by - product from nickel, and copper, and platinum metals ore processing. During electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold, and the platinum group metals precipitate as anode mud, the feedstock for the extraction. The metals are converted to ionized solutes by any of several methods, depending on the composition of the feedstock. One representative method is fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia, and solution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid. Osmium, ruthenium, rhodium, and iridium are insoluble in aqua regia and readily precipitate, leaving the other metals in solution. Rhodium is separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate. The insoluble residue, containing Ru, Os, and Ir is treated with sodium oxide, in which Ir is insoluble, producing dissolved Ru and Os salts. After oxidation to the volatile oxides, RuO is separated from OsO by precipitation of (NH) RuCl with ammonium chloride or by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide. Hydrogen is used to reduce ammonium ruthenium chloride yielding a powder. The product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge metal that can be treated with powder metallurgy techniques or argon - arc welding.
The oxidation states of ruthenium range from 0 to + 8, and − 2. The properties of ruthenium and osmium compounds are often similar. The + 2, + 3, and + 4 states are the most common. The most prevalent precursor is ruthenium trichloride, a red solid that is poorly defined chemically but versatile synthetically.
Ruthenium can be oxidized to ruthenium (IV) oxide (RuO, oxidation state + 4) which can in turn be oxidized by sodium metaperiodate to the volatile yellow tetrahedral ruthenium tetroxide, RuO, an aggressive, strong oxidizing agent with structure and properties analogous to osmium tetroxide. Like osmium tetroxide, ruthenium tetroxide is a potent fixative and stain for electron microscopy of organic materials, and is mostly used to reveal the structure of polymer samples. Dipotassium ruthenate (K RuO, + 6), and potassium perruthenate (KRuO, + 7) are also known. Unlike osmium tetroxide, ruthenium tetroxide is less stable and is strong enough as an oxidising agent to oxidise dilute hydrochloric acid and organic solvents like ethanol at room temperature, and is easily reduced to ruthenate (RuO) in aqueous alkaline solutions; it decomposes to form the dioxide above 100 ° C. Unlike iron but like osmium, ruthenium does not form oxides in its lower + 2 and + 3 oxidation states. Ruthenium forms dichalcogenides only when reacted directly with the chalcogens, which are diamagnetic semiconductors crystallizing in the pyrite structure and thus must contain ruthenium (II).
Like iron, ruthenium does not readily form oxoanions, and prefers to achieve high coordination numbers with hydroxide ions instead. Ruthenium tetroxide is reduced by cold dilute potassium hydroxide to form black potassium perruthenate, KRuO, with ruthenium in the + 7 oxidation state. Potassium perruthenate can also be produced by oxidising potassium ruthenate, K RuO, with chlorine gas. The perruthenate ion is unstable and is reduced by water to form the orange ruthenate. Potassium ruthenate may be synthesized by reacting ruthenium metal with potassium hydroxide and potassium nitrate.
Some mixed oxides are also known, such as M Ru O, Na Ru O, Na Ru O, and M Ln Ru O.
The highest known ruthenium halide is the hexafluoride, a dark brown solid that melts at 54 ° C. It hydrolyzes violently upon contact with water and easily disproportionates to form a mixture of lower ruthenium fluorides, releasing fluorine gas. Ruthenium pentafluoride is a tetrameric dark green solid that is also readily hydrolyzed, melting at 86.5 ° C. The yellow ruthenium tetrafluoride is probably also polymeric and can be formed by reducing the pentafluoride with iodine. Among the binary compounds of ruthenium, these high oxidation states are known only in the oxides and fluorides.
Ruthenium trichloride is a well - known compound, existing in a black α - form and a dark brown β - form: the trihydrate is red. Of the known trihalides, trifluoride is dark brown and decomposes above 650 ° C, tetrabromide is dark - brown and decomposes above 400 ° C, and triiodide is black. Of the dihalides, difluoride is not known, dichloride is brown, dibromide is black, and diiodide is blue. The only known oxyhalide is the pale green ruthenium (VI) oxyfluoride, RuOF.
Ruthenium forms a variety of coordination complexes. Examples are the many pentammine derivatives (Ru (NH) L) that often exist for both Ru (II) and Ru (III). Derivatives of bipyridine and terpyridine are numerous, best known being the luminescent tris (bipyridine) ruthenium (II) chloride.
Ruthenium forms a wide range compounds with carbon - ruthenium bonds. Grubbs ' catalyst is used for alkene metathesis. Ruthenocene is analogous to ferrocene structurally, but exhibits distinctive redox properties. The colorless liquid ruthenium pentacarbonyl converts in the absence of CO pressure to the dark red solid triruthenium dodecacarbonyl. Ruthenium trichloride reacts with carbon monoxide to give many derivatives including RuHCl (CO) (PPh) and Ru (CO) (PPh) (Roper 's complex). Heating solutions of ruthenium trichloride in alcohols with triphenylphosphine gives tris (triphenylphosphine) ruthenium dichloride (RuCl (PPh)), which converts to the hydride complex chlorohydridotris (triphenylphosphine) ruthenium (II) (RuHCl (PPh)).
Though naturally occurring platinum alloys containing all six platinum - group metals were used for a long time by pre-Columbian Americans and known as a material to European chemists from the mid-16th century, not until the mid-18th century was platinum identified as a pure element. That natural platinum contained palladium, rhodium, osmium and iridium was discovered in the first decade of the 19th century. Platinum in alluvial sands of Russian rivers gave access to raw material for use in plates and medals and for the minting of ruble coins, starting in 1828. Residues from platinum production for coinage were available in the Russian Empire, and therefore most of the research on them was done in Eastern Europe.
It is possible that the Polish chemist Jędrzej Śniadecki isolated element 44 (which he called "vestium '' after the asteroid Vesta discovered shortly before) from South American platinum ores in 1807. He published an announcement of his discovery in 1808. His work was never confirmed, however, and he later withdrew his claim of discovery.
Jöns Berzelius and Gottfried Osann nearly discovered ruthenium in 1827. They examined residues that were left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural Mountains in aqua regia. Berzelius did not find any unusual metals, but Osann thought he found three new metals, which he called pluranium, ruthenium, and polinium. This discrepancy led to a long - standing controversy between Berzelius and Osann about the composition of the residues. As Osann was not able to repeat his isolation of ruthenium, he eventually relinquished his claims. The name "ruthenium '' was chosen by Osann because the analysed samples stemmed from the Ural Mountains in Russia. The name itself derives from Ruthenia, the Latin word for Rus ', a historical area that included present - day western Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of Slovakia and Poland.
In 1844, Karl Ernst Claus, a Russian scientist of Baltic German descent, showed that the compounds prepared by Gottfried Osann contained small amounts of ruthenium, which Claus had discovered the same year. Claus isolated ruthenium from the platinum residues of rouble production while he was working in Kazan University, Kazan, the same way its heavier congener osmium had been discovered four decades earlier. Claus showed that ruthenium oxide contained a new metal and obtained 6 grams of ruthenium from the part of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia. Choosing the name for the new element, Claus stated: "I named the new body, in honour of my Motherland, ruthenium. I had every right to call it by this name because Mr. Osann relinquished his ruthenium and the word does not yet exist in chemistry. ''
Because it hardens platinum and palladium alloys, ruthenium is used in electrical contacts, where a thin film is sufficient to achieve the desired durability. With similar properties and lower cost than rhodium, electric contacts are a major use of ruthenium. The plate is applied to the base by electroplating or sputtering.
Ruthenium dioxide with lead and bismuth ruthenates are used in thick - film chip resistors. These two electronic applications account for 50 % of the ruthenium consumption.
Ruthenium is seldom alloyed with metals outside the platinum group, where small quantities improve some properties. The added corrosion resistance in titanium alloys led to the development of a special alloy with 0.1 % ruthenium. Ruthenium is also used in some advanced high - temperature single - crystal superalloys, with applications that include the turbines in jet engines. Several nickel based superalloy compositions are described, such as EPM - 102 (with 3 % Ru), TMS - 162 (with 6 % Ru), TMS - 138, and TMS - 174, the latter two containing 6 % rhenium. Fountain pen nibs are frequently tipped with ruthenium alloy. From 1944 onward, the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with the "RU '' nib, a 14K gold nib tipped with 96.2 % ruthenium and 3.8 % iridium.
Ruthenium is a component of mixed - metal oxide (MMO) anodes used for cathodic protection of underground and submerged structures, and for electrolytic cells for such processes as generating chlorine from salt water. The fluorescence of some ruthenium complexes is quenched by oxygen, finding use in optode sensors for oxygen. Ruthenium red, ((NH) Ru - O - Ru (NH) - O - Ru (NH)), is a biological stain used to stain polyanionic molecules such as pectin and nucleic acids for light microscopy and electron microscopy. The beta - decaying isotope 106 of ruthenium is used in radiotherapy of eye tumors, mainly malignant melanomas of the uvea. Ruthenium - centered complexes are being researched for possible anticancer properties. Compared with platinum complexes, those of ruthenium show greater resistance to hydrolysis and more selective action on tumors.
Ruthenium tetroxide exposes latent fingerprints by reacting on contact with fatty oils or fats with sebaceous contaminants and producing brown / black ruthenium dioxide pigment.
Many ruthenium - containing compounds exhibit useful catalytic properties. The catalysts are conveniently divided into those that are soluble in the reaction medium, homogeneous catalysts, and those that are not, which are called heterogeneous catalysts.
Solutions containing ruthenium trichloride are highly active for olefin metathesis. Such catalysts are used commercially for the production of polynorbornene for example. Well defined ruthenium carbene and alkylidene complexes show comparable reactivity and provide mechanistic insights into the industrial processes. The Grubbs ' catalysts for example have been employed in the preparation of drugs and advanced materials.
Ruthenium complexes are highly active catalyst for transfer hydrogenations (sometimes referred to as "borrowing hydrogen '' reactions). This process is employed for the enantioselective hydrogenation of ketones, aldehydes, and imines. This reaction exploits using chiral ruthenium complexes introduced by Ryoji Noyori. For example, (cymene) Ru (S, S - Ts DPEN) catalyzes the hydrogenation of benzil into (R, R) - hydro benzoin. In this reaction, formate and water / alcohol serve as the source of H:
A Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 2001 to Ryōji Noyori for contributions to the field of asymmetric hydrogenation.
Ruthenium - promoted cobalt catalysts are used in Fischer - Tropsch synthesis.
Some ruthenium complexes absorb light throughout the visible spectrum and are being actively researched for solar energy technologies. For example, Ruthenium - based compounds have been used for light absorption in dye - sensitized solar cells, a promising new low - cost solar cell system.
Many ruthenium - based oxides show very unusual properties, such as a quantum critical point behavior, exotic superconductivity, and high - temperature ferromagnetism.
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width and height of a 17 inch screen | Display size - wikipedia
On 2D displays, such as computer monitors and TVs, the display size (or viewable image size or VIS) is the physical size of the area where pictures and videos are displayed. The size of a screen is usually described by the length of its diagonal, which is the distance between opposite corners, usually in inches. It is also sometimes called the logical image size to distinguish it from the "logical image size, '' which describes a screen 's display resolution and is measured in pixels.
The TV image is composed of many lines of pixels. Ideally, the TV watcher sits far enough away from the screen that the individual lines merge into one solid image. The watcher may sit even farther away and still see a good picture, but it will be a smaller portion of their visual field. However, note that viewing behavior is dependent on screen size. With increasing screen sizes visual exploration is enhanced with an increased number of fixations of shorter duration and a tendency to view only the center of the display.
The resolution of the human eye (with 20 / 20 vision) is about one minute of arc. For full HDTV resolution, this one minute of arc implies that the TV watcher should sit 4 times the height of the screen away. At this distance the individual pixels can not be resolved while simultaneously maximising the viewing area. So the ideal set size can be determined from the chart below by measuring the distance from where the watcher would sit to the screen in centimeters (or inches), dividing that by 4, and comparing with the screen heights below. Do not be surprised if the observer can see the pixels at this viewing distance as most normal people see far better than 6 / 6 ((20 / 20 vision)). If the user is replacing a standard definition TV with an HDTV this implies that the best visual experience will be with a set that is twice as tall as the standard definition set. As the average size LCD TV being sold is now 38 ", which is only about 15 % taller than a 27 '' standard definition TV, this means that most consumers buy HDTV sets that are smaller than what they could utilize. Cost and budget also limit screen size.
Knowing the actual height and width of a screen is useful when deciding which one to purchase. Common dimensions are listed in the table below. If the display is not listed, then the following equations can be used. Note that D is the diagonal (in centimeters or inches), W is the width (in pixels), and H is the height (in pixels).
h e i g h t = H × D W 2 + H 2 (\ displaystyle height = H \ times (\ frac (D) (\ sqrt (W ^ (2) + H ^ (2)))))
w i d t h = W × h e i g h t H (\ displaystyle width = W \ times (\ frac (height) (H)))
The method of measuring screen size by its diagonal was inherited from the method used for the first generation of CRT television, when picture tubes with circular faces were in common use. Being circular, the external diameter of the bulb was used to describe their size. Since these circular tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement of the visible rectangle was smaller than the diameter of the tube due to the thickness of the glass surrounding the phosphor screen (which was hidden from the viewer by the casing and bezel). This method continued even when cathode ray tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles; it had the advantage of being a single number specifying the size, and was not confusing when the aspect ratio was universally 4: 3. In the US, when virtually all TV tubes were 4: 3, the size of the screen was given as the true screen diagonal with a V following it (this was a requirement in the US market but not elsewhere). In virtually all other markets, the size of the outer diameter of the tube was given. What was a 27V in the US could be a 28 '' elsewhere. However the V terminology was frequently dropped in US advertising referring to a 27V as a 27 ". This was not misleading for the consumer as the seller had to give the actual screen size by law. Flat panel displays by contrast use the actual diagonal of their visible display size, thus the size is the actual size presented to the viewer in all markets. This means that a similarly specified size of display will be larger as a flat panel display compared with a cathode ray tube display.
When the common aspect ratio went from 4: 3 to 16: 9, the new widescreens were labeled with a W in the US. A screen that is approximately the same height as a 27V would be a 32W. Vizio and other US TV manufacturers have introduced even wider screens with a 21: 9 aspect ratio in order to match aspect ratios used in cinemas. In order to gauge the relative sizes of these new screens, the screen aspect must be considered. In a commercial market where multiple aspect ratios are being sold, it will always take two numbers to describe the screen size, some combination of diagonal, aspect ratio, height or width.
Set sizes are frequently given as a "class '' as screens from different manufacturers will have slight differences in size. However the "class '' should be within 1 / 2 '' of the actual size. The reasons for the different sizes within a class stem from differences in the manufacturers ' equipment. As manufacturers move from one size to another, newer larger sizes must fit on the same size glass, though with fewer displays being cut from it. Some sizes fit well and maximize glass utilization, other sizes fit more poorly and waste glass. As an example, in some cases, increasing the screen size by even 0.1 '' can cause an LCD manufacturer to go from 12 screens fitting on their glass sheet to 9. This would make them uncompetitive with other screen makers.
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what movie was the song take me home tonight by eddie money in | Take Me Home Tonight (song) - wikipedia
"Take Me Home Tonight '' is a song by American rock singer Eddie Money. It was released in August 1986 as the lead single from his album Ca n't Hold Back. The song 's chorus interpolates the Ronettes ' 1963 hit "Be My Baby '', with original vocalist Ronnie Spector reprising her role.
The song reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 on November 15, 1986, and number one on the Album Rock Tracks chart; outside the U.S., it was a top 15 hit in Canada. It received a Grammy nomination for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance. Alongside its album, "Take Me Home Tonight '' helped revive Money 's career after a period of declining sales. It also allowed Spector to resume her touring / recording career after several years of retirement.
By the mid-1980s, Eddie Money had reached a low - point in his recording career after several years of drug abuse. Columbia Records still wanted to keep Money on its roster, but restricted his creative control regarding his output. Record producer Richie Zito brought Money the song "Take Me Home Tonight '', and Money would recall: "I did n't care for the demo (but) it did have a good catch line. When I heard (a snippet of) ' Be My Baby ' in it I said: ' Why ca n't we get Ronnie Spector to sing it? ' (and was told) ' That 's impossible. ' '' Money invited his friend Martha Davis, lead vocalist of the Motels, to sing the lines from "Be My Baby '' on "Take Me Home Tonight '': Davis encouraged him to try to recruit Spector herself and Money was eventually able to speak on the phone to Spector at her home in northern California: Money - "I could hear clinking and clanking in the background... She said: ' I 'm doing the dishes, and I got ta change the kids ' bedding. I 'm not really in the business anymore, Eddie. Phil Spector and all that, it was a nightmare '... I said ' Ronnie, I got this song that 's truly amazing and it 's a tribute to you. It would be so great if you... did it with me. ' '' The success of "Take Me Home Tonight '' encouraged Spector to resume her singing career. In 1987 Money would say of "Take Me Home Tonight '': "I did n't like the song, but... it helped Ronnie out and it helped me get some of my other material on the album across, so now I 'm happy I did it. ''
The song starts with a synth playing and is then joined by a guitar playing the same notes. This song was recorded in a duet with Ronnie Spector. The song has Spector singing the chorus from the Ronettes ' hit, "Be My Baby '' (on which Spector sang lead vocals) after Money sings "just like Ronnie sang. ''
The song is performed in the key of D ♭ major with a tempo of 133 beats per minute.
The video, shot entirely in black and white, opens with Money alone with a metal ladder and a folding chair on an otherwise empty stage (at Lawlor Events Center in Reno, Nevada). He performs to an absent audience, and Ronnie Spector is seen in a make - up room during cutaways. Spector 's face is n't completely revealed until about three - quarters of the way through the video, when she joins Money on the stage.
The Los Angeles Times 's Steve Hochman, in a review of Ca n't Hold Back, felt that Money did Spector a disservice, particularly with the song 's "characterless production, '' commenting, "where Phil Spector built his wall with style and grace, Money has erected a monolithic barrier. ''
The song was nominated for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance at the 29th Annual Grammy Awards on February 24, 1987, but lost to Robert Palmer 's "Addicted to Love ''.
The song has been covered by several artists. Rock band Hinder recorded a cover of the song; it is available exclusively as a bonus track on the Wal - Mart re-release of their album Extreme Behavior. There is a cover by Jamestown Story featuring Breanne Duren on his album Love vs. Life. Every Avenue and Juliet Simms covered the song for the compilation Punk Goes Classic Rock in 2010. Additionally, Adam Goren of Atom And His Package used the chorus of the song during the bridge of his song, "Punk Rock Academy ''. In 2014, the Glee Cast offered a new cover of the song in the episode "Old Dog New Tricks ''.
In Canada, it first debuted on RPM 's Top Singles chart at number 95 in the issue dated October 4, 1986, and peaked at number 15 during the week of November 29, 1986.
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how many gold medals won by india in olympics till now | India at the Olympics - wikipedia
India first participated at the Olympic Games in 1900, with a lone athlete (Norman Pritchard) winning two medals - both silver - in athletics. The nation first sent a team to the Summer Olympic Games in 1920, and has participated in every Summer Games since then. India has also competed at several Winter Olympic Games beginning in 1964. Indian athletes have won a total of 28 medals so far, all at the Summer Games. For a period of time, India national field hockey team was dominant in Olympic competition, winning eleven medals in twelve Olympics between 1920 and 1980. The run included 8 gold medals total and six successive gold medals from 1928 -- 1956.
India sent its first athlete to the Summer Olympics for the 1900 Games, but an Indian national team did not compete at the Summer Olympics until 1920. Ahead of the 1920 Games, Sir Dorabji Tata and Governor of Bombay George Lloyd helped India secure representation at the International Olympic Council, enabling it to participate in the Games (see India at the 1920 Olympic Games). India then sent a team to the 1920 Olympics, comprising four athletes, two wrestlers, and managers Sohrab Bhoot and A.H.A. Fyzee. The Indian Olympic movement was then established during the 1920s: some founders of this movement were Dorabji Tata, A.G. Noehren (Madras College of Physical Education), H.C. Buck (Madras College of Physical Education), Moinul Haq (Bihar sports associations), S. Bhoot (Bombay Olympic Association), A.S. Bhagwat (Deccan Gymkhana), and Guru Dutt Sondhi (Punjab Olympic Association); Lt. Col H.L.O. Garrett (from the Government College Lahore and Punjab Olympic Association) and Sagnik Poddar (of St. Stephen 's School) helped organise some early national games; and prominent patrons included Maharajas and royal princes Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, Ranjitsinhji of Nawanagar, the Maharaja of Kapurthala, and the Maharaja of Burdwan.
In 1923, a provisional All India Olympic Committee was formed, and in February 1924, the All India Olympic Games (that later became the National Games of India) were held to select a team for the Paris Summer Olympics. The Indian delegation at the Paris Olympics comprised seven athletes, seven tennis players and team manager Harry Buck.
In 1927, the provisional Indian Olympic Committee formally became the Indian Olympic Association (IOA); its main tasks were to promote the development of sports in India, choose host cities for the national games, and send teams selected from the national games to the Summer Olympics. Thus, at the 1928 national games, it selected seven athletes to represent India at the next Summer Olympics, with Sondhi as manager. By this time, the Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) had also been established and it sent a hockey team to the Summer Olympics. The national hockey team and additional sportspersons were similarly sent to the 1932 Games (four athletes and one swimmer) and 1936 (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight - lifter), along with three officials headed by team manager Sondhi.
From 1948 onward, because of the IOA 's wider outreach, India began sending delegations of over 50 sportspersons representing several sport, each selected by its sports federation, to the Summer Olympics. The delegation was headed by a chef - de-mission.
Thus, India 's Summer Olympic delegation in the early Olympic Games was as follows:
At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Abhinav Bindra won gold in the Men 's 10 metre air rifle event becoming the first Indian to win an individual gold medal at the Olympic Games. Vijender Singh got the country 's first medal in boxing with his bronze medal in Middleweight category.
The 2012 Summer Olympics saw an 83 - member Indian contingent participating in the games and setting a new best for the country with a total of six medals. Wrestler Sushil Kumar became the first Indian with multiple individual Olympic medals (bronze at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and silver at the 2012 Summer Olympics) since Norman Pritchard in 1900. Saina Nehwal won bronze medal in badminton in Women 's singles getting the country 's first Olympic medal in badminton. Pugilist Mary Kom became the first Indian woman to win a medal in boxing with her bronze medal finish in Women 's flyweight.
At the 2016 Summer Olympics, a record number of 118 athletes competed. Sakshi Malik became the first Indian woman wrestler to win an Olympic medal with her bronze medal finish in Women 's freestyle 58 kg category. Shuttler P.V. Sindhu became the first Indian woman to win a silver medal in Olympics and also the youngest Indian Olympic medallist.
This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants / competitors of India in the summer Olympic games.
This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants / competitors of India in the winter Olympic games.
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what was the first national park in the us | List of National parks of the United States - wikipedia
The United States has 60 protected areas known as national parks that are operated by the National Park Service, an agency of the Department of the Interior. National parks must be established by an act of the United States Congress. A bill creating the first national park, Yellowstone, was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872, followed by Mackinac National Park in 1875 (decommissioned in 1895), and then Rock Creek Park (later merged into National Capital Parks), Sequoia and Yosemite in 1890. The Organic Act of 1916 created the National Park Service "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein, and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations. '' Many current national parks had been previously protected as national monuments by the president under the Antiquities Act before being upgraded by Congress. Seven national parks (including six in Alaska) are paired with a national preserve, areas with different levels of protection that are administered together but considered separate units and whose areas are not included in the figures below. Criteria for the selection of national parks include natural beauty, unique geological features, unusual ecosystems, and recreational opportunities (though these criteria are not always considered together). National monuments, on the other hand, are frequently chosen for their historical or archaeological significance. Fourteen national parks are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS), while 21 national parks are designated UNESCO Biosphere Reserves (BR). Eight national parks are designated in both UNESCO programs.
Twenty - eight states have national parks, as do the territories of American Samoa and the United States Virgin Islands. California has the most (nine), followed by Alaska (eight), Utah (five), and Colorado (four). The largest national park is Wrangell -- St. Elias in Alaska: at over 8 million acres (32,375 km), it is larger than each of the nine smallest states. The next three largest parks are also in Alaska. The smallest park is Gateway Arch National Park, Missouri, at approximately 192.83 acres (0.7804 km). The total area protected by national parks is approximately 52.2 million acres (211,000 km), for an average of 870 thousand acres (3,500 km) but a median of only 229 thousand acres (930 km).
The national parks set a visitation record in 2017, with more than 84 million visitors. The most - visited national park is Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North Carolina and Tennessee, with over 11.3 million visitors in 2017, followed by Arizona 's Grand Canyon National Park, with over 6.2 million. In contrast, only 11,177 people visited the remote Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve in Alaska in the same year.
A few former national parks are no longer designated as such, or have been disbanded. Other units of the National Park Service (417 altogether) are broadly referred to as national parks within the National Park System.
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what episode of kim possible is shego's family | List of Kim Possible episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the Disney Channel series Kim Possible, which aired from June 7, 2002 to September 7, 2007, with four seasons, 87 episodes and two TV movies produced.
All episodes in Season 1 were directed by Chris Bailey and the production code numbers generally follow the continuity of the plot.
Kim has to fit both missions and detention into her life after Ron inadvertently causes her to fail substitute teacher Mr. Barkin 's "three strikes '' tardy policy.
Robots that are suspiciously similar to ones designed by Drew Lipsky (Drakken) -- one of Dr. Possible 's old college buddies -- kidnap his friends one by one. Meanwhile, Ron joins the cheerleading squad as the mascot, much to Kim 's chagrin.
While in the process of fighting Drakken, Shego, and Killigan, Kim accidentally has a strange bracelet attached to her wrist. She discovers that the bracelet grows every time she lies, leading to embarrassment when she tries to get out of a series of engagements to attend a party with Josh Mankey and Kim is grounded for a whole month.
Global Justice conducts an intensive study of Ron to determine whether he is the secret to Kim 's success. Unfortunately, a rival organization known as W.E.E. has plans of their own.
On a trip for his hospital volunteer work Ron is roped into the life of an old hermit (voiced by Adam West) and assumes the costume and tools as the next Fearless Ferret crime - fighter. However White Stripe, one of the Fearless Ferret 's old enemies wishes to settle his vendetta. Discovering Ron 's secret life, Kim finds there is more to his new mentor than meets the eye.
Kim takes the battle to Shego in a dystopian Middleton of the future. As they work with a band of rebels to overthrow the one time sidekick, they must defeat Shego with help by adult versions of their once young friends.
Just in time to complicate her growing romantic crush with Josh Mankey, Drakken sprays Kim with a rare pollen that will slowly cause her to disappear every time she gets embarrassed. Ron and Wade 's attempts to find another dose of pollen are complicated when Kim is asked out on a date by Josh, and now Kim must fight Dr. Drakken and Shego, without Josh finding out about them, and Dr. Drakken 's "Embarrassment Ninjas ''.
Kim, hoping not to be landed with Ron as her science project partner, instead gets a brainiac who wo n't let her do anything at all. Monique gets Ron and quickly becomes exasperated by his trademark laziness. Meanwhile Drakken charms DNAmy into creating a vicious Komodo dragon.
Naco royalties make Ron a tremendously rich and wealthy multimillionaire with ninety - nine million dollars, which he then proceeds to squander on a posse of fake friends and spending binges. Out of greed, Dr. Drakken attempts to steal Ron 's newly acquired fortune and wealth to complete his latest doomsday scheme.
When Kim and her family visit her paternal uncle in Montana she finds herself dealing with Joss, her cousin and biggest fan wanting to be just like her. Together the two of them set off to foil Drakken 's latest scheme to put the brightest minds out of commission.
Drakken 's latest stolen invention causes him, Shego, Kim, Ron, and Rufus to be sucked into the world of cable TV.
On the eve of Kim 's Junior Prom, Drakken begins his first truly serious attempt to conquer the world while trying to find Kim 's weakness. Meanwhile, when handsome new guy Eric comes between Kim and Ron 's close friendship, they are forced at long last, to examine their true feelings for each other and the nature of their platonic relationship.
Note # 1: Kim dons a high - tech enhanced battle suit for the first time. It further increases her natural abilities to superhuman levels as well as grants several special abilities and new gadgets.
Team Impossible, the world 's premier action / rescue team confront Kim and demand that she end her world saving career which is cutting into their profit margin. When Kim refuses to do so she suddenly finds that the network of connections which allow her to travel the world is missing, leading to a confrontation with her competitive rivals.
Ron is enlisted by Yori, his lady friend and classmate from the Yamanuchi Ninja School (from Exchange) to help find their missing Sensei, who has supposedly been kidnapped by Monkey Fist. A suspicious, and jealous, Kim pursues them.
When Stitch is kidnapped by Dr. Drakken, Pleakley calls on the help of Kim Possible to rescue him. Although they initially both want the other to step aside, Lilo and Kim must work together to accomplish this goal. Also, Jumba mistakes Rufus for the dangerous Experiment 607. Gantu and Reuben do not appear; they are replaced by Dr. Drakken and Shego in this episode.
After Kim becomes tired of coupon funded dates, she and Ron decide to get jobs. Señor Senior Jr. and Shego commit a series of crimes to honor Señor Senior Sr. 's birthday.
Kim finally manages to get her own car: a literal fixer - upper that her dad once owned. However, chaos ensues when the Tweebs volunteer to trick it out. Meanwhile, Shego gets out of prison by way of Motor Ed and assists in his latest caper.
When Kim 's usual mission attire is no longer available for purchase at Club Banana, she tries to look for a new one, all while worrying about college admissions and Drakken 's latest scheme to reform the continents into the next Pangaea.
A trio of fashion - obsessed criminals, the Fashionistas, seek to make off with Club Banana 's newest fashion designs. Having allied with them to assist with their plan, Camille Léon also takes the opportunity to get revenge on Kim by framing her for the theft. With Ron currently putting up with Mr. Barkin, who also works at Smarty Mart, her last hope lies in Monique.
Kim 's mission: Keep her goofy Cousin Larry away until his surprise party is ready, as well as keep Professor Dementor from trying to steal her super-enhanced battle - suit for himself again.
While Ron worries that graduation means the end of his romantic relationship with Kim, Warmonga returns with her equally vengeful battle - mate, Warhawk the Conqueror. And on Graduation Day, too! Kim 's going to have her hands full with this one, especially when she and Drakken get abducted by said invaders. Aided by Drakken and Shego, Kim and Ron prepare to fight off the Lorwardian assault, leading up to a final showdown with their deadly leader, Warhawk.
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what's the name of the pittsburgh steelers coach | Mike Tomlin - wikipedia
As head coach
As assistant coach
Michael Pettaway Tomlin (born March 15, 1972) is an American football coach who is the head coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League (NFL). He is the tenth coach in Steelers history. With the victory in Super Bowl XLIII on February 1, 2009 against the Arizona Cardinals, Tomlin became the youngest head coach in NFL history to lead his team to a Super Bowl championship.
Tomlin was born in Hampton, Virginia, the younger of two sons; his brother, Eddie, is three and a half years older. Their father, Ed Tomlin, played football at Hampton Institute in the 1960s, was drafted by the Baltimore Colts, and later played for the Montreal Alouettes in the Canadian Football League. The elder Tomlin died in January 2012 from an apparent heart attack in Ocala, Florida, at the age of 63. However, Tomlin hardly knew his birth father and was raised by his mother and stepfather, Julia and Leslie Copeland, who married when Tomlin was six years old. Leslie Copeland worked 37 years for the U.S. Postal Service, where he was a sorter.
Tomlin graduated in 1990 from Denbigh High School in Newport News, Virginia. He attended the College of William and Mary, becoming a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. As a wide receiver, he was a second - team All - Yankee Conference selection in 1994.
Tomlin never played professional football. His coaching career began in 1995 as the wide receiver coach at Virginia Military Institute under head coach Bill Stewart. Tomlin spent the 1996 season as a graduate assistant at the University of Memphis, where he worked with the defensive backs and special teams. Following a brief stint on the University of Tennessee at Martin 's coaching staff, Tomlin was hired by Arkansas State University in 1997 to coach its defensive backs. Tomlin stayed there for two seasons, before being hired as defensive backs coach by the University of Cincinnati.
Tomlin was hired as the defensive backs coach for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2001, where he first learned the Tampa 2 defense that he would use in later coaching jobs.
In 2002 and 2005, the Buccaneers led the NFL in total defense (fewest yards allowed per game). During Tomlin 's tenure, the defense never ranked worse than sixth overall. When the Buccaneers won Super Bowl XXXVII in January 2003, the team recorded a Super Bowl - record five interceptions, three of which were returned for touchdowns.
Tomlin was selected by Vikings ' head coach Brad Childress to be his defensive coordinator in 2006.
Two of the players on the Vikings roster were actually older than Tomlin, and Tomlin had been a teammate of Vikings ' safety Darren Sharper while at William and Mary. The 2006 Vikings finished with the NFL 's eighth - best overall defense, but had the unusual distinction of finishing as the top - ranked defense against the run and the worst - ranked defense against the pass.
After spending 2006 as the Vikings defensive coordinator, Tomlin was selected to interview for the vacant head coaching position with the 2005 Super Bowl Champion Pittsburgh Steelers. With only a year of experience as a defensive coordinator, Tomlin was hired on January 27, 2007 to become the sixteenth Steelers head coach. Tomlin replaced Bill Cowher as the head coach, who retired after spending 15 years with the team. He had also interviewed for the head coaching vacancy with the Miami Dolphins, which eventually was given to Cam Cameron.
With Tomlin, the Steelers continued a trend of hiring head coaches in their 30s. The others were Cowher (age 34 in 1992), Chuck Noll (38 in 1969), Bill Austin (38 in 1966), John Michelosen (32 in 1948), Jim Leonard (35 in 1945), Aldo Donelli (33 in 1941), Walt Kiesling (35 in 1939), Johnny "Blood '' McNally (33 in 1937), and Joe Bach (34 in 1935).
Tomlin is the 10th African - American head coach in NFL history and the first for the Steelers franchise. The Steelers owner, Dan Rooney, has served as the head of the NFL 's diversity committee and proposed the Rooney Rule, requiring that teams interview at least one minority candidate when hiring a new head coach. Although Tomlin 's ascension to an NFL head coaching job has been cited as evidence of the rule working as intended, Rooney himself disputes this, as he had already interviewed a minority candidate prior to interviewing Tomlin.
Terms of Tomlin 's contract were not officially released. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette reported a four - year deal paying $2.5 million per year, with an option for a fifth year. He is the team 's third consecutive head coach to win his first game, and the first in team history to win his first game against the rival Cleveland Browns.
In contrast to Bill Cowher, who only retained longtime running backs coach Dick Hoak from Chuck Noll 's staff (Hoak himself retired just before Cowher 's resignation), Tomlin did retain many of Cowher 's assistants, most notably defensive coordinator Dick LeBeau, despite his contrasting defensive philosophy with Tomlin. This was done in order to keep team chemistry with the players, since the team was only one year removed from a Super Bowl win at the time of Tomlin 's hiring. The Steelers finished Tomlin 's first season as head coach with the top - ranked defense in the NFL. Tomlin led the Steelers to the 2007 AFC North Division championship and a 10 -- 6 record in his first year as head coach. The Steelers lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Jacksonville Jaguars, 31 -- 29. Tomlin began his career with a 15 -- 7 record in regular season play -- as did his predecessor Cowher and all - time win - leader Don Shula. Tomlin set a Steelers record for most wins, after winning 22 games in his first two seasons as head coach; in addition he became the first Steelers coach to win division titles in his first two seasons.
When the Steelers defeated the Baltimore Ravens in the 2008 AFC Championship Game, Mike Tomlin became the youngest NFL head coach to lead his team to a Super Bowl. He also became the third African - American to coach a team to the Super Bowl, following Chicago 's Lovie Smith and Indianapolis 's Tony Dungy, the two opposing coaches in Super Bowl XLI. After two seasons, with a record of 22 - 10, he was the winningest head coach in Steelers history based on a win percentage (68.8 %).
On January 29, 2009, Tomlin was named the 2008 Motorola NFL Coach of the Year. On February 1, 2009, at age 36, Tomlin became the youngest head coach to win the Super Bowl when the Steelers defeated the Arizona Cardinals in Super Bowl XLIII. The previous record was held by Jon Gruden, who was 39 when he won Super Bowl XXXVII with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Coincidentally, Tomlin was the defensive backs coach under Gruden when the Buccaneers won the Super Bowl and was a key component for the success they received that year.
On July 13, 2010, Tomlin signed a three - year contract extension with the Steelers. In the 2010, he coached the Steelers to a 12 - 4 record. Tomlin would lead them to the Super Bowl for the second time in three years. In Super Bowl XLV the Steelers lost to the Green Bay Packers 31 - 25.
On November 13, 2011, Tomlin won his 50th game as the Steelers head coach with a 24 -- 17 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals. Of the Steelers ' 16 head coaches in franchise history, Tomlin was the fourth to reach this milestone. On July 24, 2012, Tomlin received a three - year contract extension through the 2016 season. The financial terms were not disclosed.
In the 2012 -- 2013 season, the Steelers finished 8 -- 8 after struggling with injuries to quarterback Ben Roethlisberger and the offensive line and adjusting to the system of new offensive coordinator Todd Haley. It was the second time that the Steelers failed to make the playoffs under Tomlin 's tenure as head coach.
Facing the Baltimore Ravens on November 28, 2013 in a primetime Thanksgiving Day game with major playoff implications, Tomlin became the subject of controversy when video replay showed him possibly interfering with a kick return. With the Steelers trailing, 13 -- 7, in the third quarter, Tomlin stood just off the field along the visiting team 's sideline as Baltimore 's Jacoby Jones broke free on a kickoff return for a potential game breaking touchdown. Tomlin, with his back to the approaching play, appeared to glance over his shoulder then place his foot briefly onto the field as he jumped out of the way, causing Jones to veer inside where he was tackled. Several Ravens players claimed Tomlin had intentionally interfered with Jones; if officials had agreed, a touchdown could have been awarded to the Ravens based on the palpably unfair act. However, no penalty was called for interference or for standing in the white border area reserved for the officiating crew. Whether it was deemed intentional or not, Tomlin was widely criticized in the media. Following the game, Tomlin defended himself, stating he had simply wandered too close to the field while watching the play on the stadium 's Jumbotron, a mistake he said coaches often make. The league subsequently announced it was investigating the matter, with the potential of a heavy fine and forfeited draft pick. On December 4, 2013, the NFL announced that they had fined Tomlin $100,000, and hinted it was considering stripping the Steelers of one or more draft picks because his actions affected the play on the field. The $100,000 fine is tied for the second - highest for a coach in NFL history, and is also tied for the highest for a coach who does not also have the powers of general manager. Then - Minnesota Vikings head coach Mike Tice was fined $100,000 in 2005 for scalping Super Bowl tickets.
During a game on October 29, 2017, it was broadcast that Tomlin became the 3rd coach in NFL history to finish with a. 500 or better record in his first ten seasons with one team (Steelers). He is only behind John Madden (Raiders) and Curly Lambeau (Packers).
Tomlin met his wife, Kiya Winston, while they were students at The College of William & Mary, where Tomlin majored in biology. He graduated in 1995. They have three children: sons Michael Dean, born in 2000, and Mason, born in 2002; and a daughter, Harlyn Quinn, born in 2006. Tomlin resides with his family in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh and attends the Christian and Missionary Alliance Church.
Tomlin is a spring 1991 initiate of the Eta Omega chapter of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity at Old Dominion University and charter member of the Xi Theta Chapter of the fraternity, The College of William & Mary.
Tomlin is popularly known for a resemblance to actor Omar Epps. This resemblance was referenced on an episode of the TV series House in November 2009, in Episode 8 of Season 6, "Ignorance Is Bliss '', when House mentions feeling like Mike Tomlin because of having his team back, but probably not as much as Foreman (Epps 's character).
The Rooney Rule dictates that for all head - coaching openings, each team must interview at least one minority candidate. But here 's what 's interesting: The coach who might be the Rooney Rule 's greatest advertisement did n't benefit from it. "Let me say this: Mike Tomlin was not part of the Rooney Rule, '' Rooney said. "We had already interviewed Ron Rivera (then the Bears ' defensive coordinator), and so that fulfilled the obligation, '' Rooney said. "We went on, had heard about Mike, called him in and talked to him. He was very impressive. ''
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how many times have psg won the champions league | List of Paris Saint - Germain FC. Records and statistics - wikipedia
Paris Saint - Germain Football Club is a French professional association football club founded in 1970, and based in the city of Paris in France. The club 's first team play in the highest tier of French football, the Ligue 1. PSG holds many records, most notably being the only club to have never been relegated from Ligue 1, the club with most consecutive seasons in top - flight (they have played 45 seasons in Ligue 1 since 1974), and one of only two French clubs to have won a major European title.
The Parisians are also the only club to have won the Coupe de la Ligue five times in a row (2014 -- 2018), the only club to have won the Coupe de France four times in a row (2015 -- 2018), one of only two clubs to win the Trophée des Champions six times in a row (2013 -- 2018), the only European club to have won all four national titles (Ligue 1, Coupe de France, Coupe de la Ligue and Trophée des Champions) in a single season (2014 -- 15, 2015 -- 16 and 2017 -- 18), the only club to have won the Coupe de France without conceding a single goal (1992 -- 93 and 2016 -- 17), and the youngest European club to have won a European trophy.
Additionally, Paris SG is the most successful French club in history in terms of trophies won, with 38. Domestically, the Red and Blues have won seven Ligue 1 titles, a record twelve Coupe de France, a record eight Coupe de la Ligue, a joint record eight Trophée des Champions and one Ligue 2 title. In international club football, they have won one UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup and one UEFA Intertoto Cup.
In July 2017, the club announced its "Hall of Fame '' of notable players. The inaugural induction saw 20 former players named, including record appearance maker Jean - Marc Pilorget, all - time assist leader Safet Sušić, longest - serving captain Dominique Bathenay, and Ballon d'Or winner George Weah. Finally, notable club officials such as current president Nasser Al - Khelaifi and former manager Laurent Blanc are also included.
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who told child is the father of man | Child is father of the man - wikipedia
"Child Is Father of the Man '' is a song written by Brian Wilson and Van Dyke Parks. Originally recorded by the American rock band the Beach Boys, it was to be included on their projected album Smile. Due to the project 's abandonment, the intended nature of the piece is mostly unknown. The result left is a nearly instrumental piece with the words "child '' and "father of the man '' sung over the chorus. Biographer Jon Stebbins describes the track: "a brooding and expansive aura, with a plaintive harmonica line not dissimilar to those heard on Ennio Morricone spaghetti western soundtracks. ''
In 2004, Wilson completed the track for his album Brian Wilson Presents Smile. This rerecorded version incorporated an additional set of lyrics penned by Parks. In 2011, the Beach Boys ' version was released for the first time as part of The Smile Sessions box set.
"Child is father of the man '' is an idiom originating from the poem "My Heart Leaps Up '' by William Wordsworth. In a 1966 interview, Wilson mistakenly attributed it to Karl Menninger, and added that the saying had fascinated him. There exist many different interpretations of the phrase, the most popular of which is man being the product of habits and behavior developed in youth. According to collaborator Van Dyke Parks, he brought up the idiom to Wilson.
Brian had a fervent desire to re-invent himself as an individual, not as a boy, and that 's what happened, I think. By the time I met him, he had already done "When I Grow Up (To Be A Man) ''; he 'd already raised the questions about being a man, and when I met him, that crisis was acute. I knew it was psychologically complex and over my head. The only way I could help with any of this, whatever it was he was going through, was refer him to that poem by Hawthorne (sic) from which the phrase "the child is father to the man '' comes. He used it as part of his inquiry of Smile, as a lyric.
Several sections of the song were recorded, but aside from a group piano demo, only one variation of the chorus 's backing track was overdubbed with vocals sung in elaborate musical rounds. According to The Smile Sessions compiler Mark Linett, "When he 's not singing, you can hear faint background vocal parts that no longer exist on the multitrack. They must have been in his headphones, and were picked up by the vocal mic. It could be that Brian decided he did n't need them, or that he was going to re-record them, but never did. You hear this sort of stuff throughout the tapes. '' The song was worked on between October and December 1966. After one more revisit in April 1967, the track was abandoned forever by the group.
Decades later in both The Smile Sessions and Brian Wilson Presents Smile, the song was included as the third track of the second movement. "Child Is Father of the Man '' precedes "Surf 's Up '' and follows "Look (Song for Children) ''. When rerecorded by Wilson in 2004, he sang newly written lyrics by Parks (Easy, my child / It 's just enough to believe / Out of the wild / into what you can conceive / You 'll achieve).
The song 's chorus was later rewritten and rerecorded as the chorus for "Little Bird '', a song on the band 's 1968 Friends album released as a single. It was then quoted within the closing section of "Surf 's Up '', which ended up appearing on their 1971 album of the same name.
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who plays grace's father on alias grace | Alias Grace - wikipedia
Alias Grace is a novel of historical fiction by Canadian writer Margaret Atwood. First published in 1996 by McClelland & Stewart, it won the Canadian Giller Prize and was shortlisted for the Booker Prize.
The story fictionalizes the notorious 1843 murders of Thomas Kinnear and his housekeeper Nancy Montgomery in Upper Canada. Two servants of the Kinnear household, Grace Marks and James McDermott, were convicted of the crime. McDermott was hanged and Marks was sentenced to life imprisonment.
Although the novel is based on factual events, Atwood constructs a narrative with a fictional doctor, Simon Jordan, who researches the case. Although ostensibly conducting research into criminal behaviour, he slowly becomes personally involved in the story of Grace Marks and seeks to reconcile his perception of the mild - mannered woman he sees with the murder of which she has been convicted.
Atwood first encountered the story of Grace Marks in Life in the Clearings by Susanna Moodie. In 1970, she published The Journals of Susanna Moodie, a cycle of poems informed by the published works of Moodie. It became a classic of Canadian literature, as it lyrically evokes the experience of life in the wilderness, immigrant life, and colonial times. Subsequently, Atwood wrote the 1974 CBC Television film The Servant Girl about Grace Marks, also based on Susanna Moodie 's account. However, in Alias Grace, Atwood says that she has changed her opinion of Marks, having read more widely and discovered that Moodie had fabricated parts of her third - hand account of the famous murders.
Grace Marks, the convicted murderess, has been hired out from prison to serve as a domestic servant in the home of the Governor of the penitentiary. A Committee of gentlemen and ladies from the Methodist church, led by the minister, hopes to have her pardoned and released. Grace can not remember what happened on the day of the murders, and she exhibits symptoms of hysteria, so the minister hires Dr. Simon Jordan, an alienist, to interview her, hoping he will find her to be a hysteric, and not a criminal. An arrangement is made so that Dr. Jordan will interview Grace during afternoons in the sewing room in the governor 's mansion.
Dr. Jordan tries to lead Grace into talking about her dreams and her memories, but she evades his suggestions, so he asks her to start at the beginning, and she proceeds to tell him the story of her life. Grace tells of early childhood in Ireland where her father was often drunk and her mother often pregnant and Grace had to take care of the younger children. She tells the doctor details of the filthy crowded conditions in the hold of the ship where her mother sickened and died. In Canada, because her father continued to spend his earnings on alcohol, she and the children nearly starved and with her mother gone, Grace 's father began abusing her and even at one point attempted to rape her. Dr. Jordan does listen but he feels impatience, viewing her early privations and abuse as irrelevant to the case.
As a serving girl, Grace tells the doctor, she met Mary Whitney, then her roommate and her only friend. Mary taught Grace how to act the role of a servant, and joked with her about the family 's upper class airs, when nobody else was listening. Giving motherly advice on how to stay out of trouble with young men, Mary told her "if there is a ring, there had better be a parson '' (p. 165). Ironically, Mary herself became pregnant by a son of the family and died from a botched abortion. Grace helped Mary get home and into bed, but awoke the next morning to find Mary dead. Grace was troubled afterwards by the idea that she should have opened the window during the night when Mary died, to let her soul out (p. 178).
Grace continues to tell her story in vivid detail, making an effort to keep the doctor interested. He is aroused by Grace 's descriptions of James McDermott 's advances and Thomas Kinnear 's affair with Nancy Montgomery. Ironically, the doctor 's landlady, whose drunken husband had by then left her, throws herself at him. She is not attractive to him and he turns her away. He gives her money so she can keep the house, thinking she will stop bothering him, but that only provokes her to try harder until she succeeds in seducing him.
A Spiritualist on the Committee has long since proposed that a Dr. DuPont, "Neuro - Hypnotist '', should put Grace in a trance and arouse her unconscious memory. Dr. Jordan, now mostly concerned with escaping the designs of his landlady, can no longer dissuade the Committee. It appears to all present, that after DuPont puts Grace to sleep, the voice of Mary Whitney takes over, gleefully telling everyone she haunted Grace because her soul was not freed when she died. She said she possessed Grace 's body on the day of the murders, and drove James McDermott to help her kill Montgomery and Kinnear. She says Grace does not remember because she did not know what happened. Dr. Jordan allows that there have been some scientific reports of a "double personality '' phenomenon, but he evades the Committee 's request for his report and skips town, claiming his mother is ill. He promises to send them the report, but returning home, he promptly joins the Union Army. After he is wounded in the war, he forgets the entire case (and marries the rich young lady his mother has been pushing at him all along). Grace Marks eventually does get pardoned (as did the historical Grace), and the novel tells how she changes her name and begins a new life in the United States.
Grace Marks, born in 1826, lived in or near Toronto from age 12 until 16, when the famous murders took place. She had resided in The Kingston Penitentiary in Kingston, Ontario for 15 years in 1859, when the novel begins. Among Toronto and Kingston society, Atwood portrays the highly moralistic, straitlaced language and behavior of the Victorian era. By contrast, it is evident that Mary Whitney 's crude comments would have been shocking even among servants of that time.
The study of mental health, called "alienism '', was a new development at the time. It was first taught in European universities, and advocated that inmates be treated as patients rather than prisoners. Although the Victorian era was a time of some scientific progress, many Victorians were very much interested in the paranormal, supernatural and occult, hence the use of mesmerism, hypnotism, or spiritualism were viewed as legitimate methods of inquiry.
Atwood chose Richmond Hill, Ontario as the location of the Kinnear farm within Upper Canada. In September 2009, 13 years after the release of the book, Richmond Hill introduced "Alias Grace Park '' named after the book.
The Rebellion of 1837 had taken place six years before the Kinnear and Montgomery murders in 1843, but it still affected public sentiment. The Rebellion terrorized the upper classes even though the rebels were quickly defeated. Government reforms made soon after the Rebellion reduced corruption and restricted the power of the ruling oligarchies, which also worried the upper classes. The idea that the lower classes could rise above their station by hard work or cleverness (rather than by ancestry and inheritance) was finding acceptance in the United States, so the Canadian aristocracy, basing their identity on their English heritage, felt threatened.
"The Irish Question '': To understand conflicts surrounding identity in the novel, one must realize that the antagonisms between the British and the Irish were not merely about the "haves '' and the "have nots '' but were felt as racial differences at the time. Being the period of the Great Famine in Ireland, the growing numbers of impoverished Irish immigrants in Toronto, as elsewhere, were so much despised and blamed for all ills that Grace did not identify herself as Irish. Neither her name nor her voice gave her away until she was identified at the trial as an Irish immigrant. As she points out, "But of course, our family were Protestants, and that is different. '' (p. 103) However, her association with the fiery James McDermott made religion seem irrelevant. "Passing '' for English was viewed as subversive, like crossing class boundaries -- refusing to stay in your place.
"The Woman Question '': The "Woman Question '' is still among us when it comes to societies ' efforts to regulate the sex lives of unmarried young women, but in Victorian times every aspect of girls ' and women 's lives was dictated throughout their lives -- which required constant supervision. Victorian women of every class or condition were to be controlled by men, whether their fathers, husbands, masters or doctors. "They were sometimes institutionalized due to their opinions, their unruliness, and their inability to be controlled properly by a primarily male - dominated culture. ''
The novel is written in the Southern Ontario Gothic style, highlighting the social ills of the time, while exhibiting the corruption and moral hypocrisy of the upper class. Supernatural phenomena, like the ghost of Mary Whitney, fit the Gothic style, as well as the Victorian spiritualist sensibility, justifying the ghost of Mary Whitney 's gleefully evil confession. Returning from the dead is a recurring theme in Atwood 's novels.
The main narrator is Grace, whose thoughts and speech are in the first person, and sometimes blend into one another without quotation marks to indicate what is said out loud and what is not. This creates uncertainty at times, echoing the doctor 's uncertainty about Grace 's truthfulness, and the reader 's uncertainty about her guilt. Dr. Jordan 's thoughts and actions are told by an omniscient third - person narrator, allowing the reader to see the contradictions between his words, sometimes even his thoughts, and his actions, as does the inclusion of his correspondence in the book. Similarly, other people 's letters and quotations from newspapers, letters, poems, and other textual sources echo the patchwork quilting metaphor in that the author used many sources from various perspectives to piece together the whole story.
The portrayal of Grace Marks through a postmodern narrative has been viewed as a deliberate contrast with her faithful reproduction of the details of Victorian domestic life, or as a deliberate defense against Grace 's objectification. The idea that a gentleman in Victorian Canada would sit in a sewing room day after day listening to the life story of a female servant (no matter how pretty or well - mannered or notorious she might be) is of course, incongruous. However, as Margaret Atwood herself pointed out, "In a Victorian novel, Grace would say, "Now it all comes back to me ''; but as Alias Grace is not a Victorian novel, she does not say that, and, if she did, would we -- any longer -- believe her? ''
Atwood has often used images of sewing and other domestic arts in her novels, illustrating women 's creativity, constrained as it was, historically, to domestic objects. Names of quilt patterns are used as titles of the 15 book sections in Alias Grace, making parallels between Grace 's interest in quilts and the meanings of their patterns and Grace 's storytelling, her creation of a domestic history, in which Dr. Jordan hopes to discern patterns. Grace tells her life story to the doctor as a chronology, but, as she does, she reflects on what she tells him like it was a patchwork of experiences. Each patch is destined to fill a particular place in the quilt, and they must all be created before the quilt can be assembled, much as historical research, and especially research on women in history, requires examination of many disparate sources in order to construct a chronological account.
Grace and the "ruined '' Mary Whitney represent the only two identities ordinary women could have throughout much of western history -- and that one self does not recognize the other is just as true. The only achievement to be attained by a female servant was the difficult accomplishment of preserving her maidenly virtue while under the control of her employers. Hence we have the classic divide: the maiden and the whore. Mary, who believed she could determine her own future, died a painful death. Grace, who did not expect any measure of independence, only managed to protect herself for a while by getting a somewhat better paid position as a somewhat more skilled servant.
Social class was what determined how much one 's identity was "authentic '', i.e., dependent on inheritance, and how much performative, subject to circumstances. Unlike women, men did have some potential for self - determination, witness: Reverend Verringer, former Anglican, turned Methodist minister; and Dr. Jerome DuPont, alias Jeremiah the Peddler. On the other hand, Dr. Jordan gives up on his career and finally returns home to marry the woman his mother selected for him.
Modern readers may not be satisfied with the idea that Mary, alias Grace, was the murderer. Others might view the use of the term "alias '' in the title as suggesting that in their search for the truth about Grace Marks, both readers and characters may be frustrated by duplicity. Grace resists being completely comprehended by these men of power, scientific or religious. She belongs instead to the marginal communities of immigrants, servants, and mad people, who are always vulnerable, and often lost -- as Grace lost her mother, and her only friend. The only simple truths for Grace are about things -- quilts, sheets, carpets, petticoats, the laundry of her life; she gains confidence from a needle and thread. As Margaret Atwood says, "The true character of the historical Grace Marks remains an enigma. ''
In 2012, Sarah Polley announced that she would be adapting Alias Grace into a feature film. This has since evolved into a television miniseries which aired on CBC Television in Canada in October and November 2017, and streams globally on Netflix.
In 2016, Ball State University premiered a stage version written by Jennifer Blackmer. The same adaptation was then produced by Rivendell Theatre Ensemble in Chicago, IL, directed by Karen Kessler.
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who is known as the ironman of india | Vallabhbhai Patel - Wikipedia
Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel (31 October 1875 -- 15 December 1950), popularly known as Sardar Patel, was the first Deputy Prime Minister of India. He was an Indian barrister and statesman, a senior leader of the Indian National Congress and a founding father of the Republic of India who played a leading role in the country 's struggle for independence and guided its integration into a united, independent nation. In India and elsewhere, he was often called Sardar, Chief in Hindi, Urdu, and Persian. He acted as de facto Supreme Commander - in - chief of Indian army during the political integration of India and the Indo - Pakistani War of 1947.
Patel was born and raised in the countryside of Gujarat. He was a successful lawyer. He subsequently organised peasants from Kheda, Borsad, and Bardoli in Gujarat in non-violent civil disobedience against the British Raj, becoming one of the most influential leaders in Gujarat. He rose to the leadership of the Indian National Congress, organising the party for elections in 1934 and 1937 while promoting the Quit India Movement.
As the first Home Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of India, Patel organised relief efforts for refugees fleeing from Punjab and Delhi and worked to restore peace. He led the task of forging a united India, successfully integrating into the newly independent nation those British colonial provinces that had been "allocated '' to India. Besides those provinces that had been under direct British rule, approximately 565 self - governing princely states had been released from British suzerainty by the Indian Independence Act of 1947. Threatening military force, Patel persuaded almost every princely state to accede to India. His commitment to national integration in the newly independent country was total and uncompromising, earning him the sobriquet "Iron Man of India ''. He is also remembered as the "patron saint of India 's civil servants '' for having established the modern all - India services system. He is also called the "Unifier of India ''.
In 2014, the Government of India introduced a commemoration of Patel, held annually on his birthday, 31 October, and known as Rashtriya Ekta Diwas (National Unity Day).
Patel 's date of birth was never officially recorded; Patel entered it as 31 October on his matriculation examination papers. He belonged to the Leuva Patel Patidar community of Central Gujarat, although the Leuva Patels and Kadava Patels have also claimed him as one of their own.
Patel travelled to attend schools in Nadiad, Petlad, and Borsad, living self - sufficiently with other boys. He reputedly cultivated a stoic character. A popular anecdote recounts that he lanced his own painful boil without hesitation, even as the barber charged with doing it trembled. When Patel passed his matriculation at the relatively late age of 22, he was generally regarded by his elders as an unambitious man destined for a commonplace job. Patel himself, though, harboured a plan to study to become a lawyer, work and save funds, travel to England, and become a barrister. Patel spent years away from his family, studying on his own with books borrowed from other lawyers, passing his examinations within two years. Fetching his wife Jhaverba from his parents ' home, Patel set up his household in Godhra and was called to the bar. During the many years it took him to save money, Patel -- now an advocate -- earned a reputation as a fierce and skilled lawyer. The couple had a daughter, Maniben, in 1904 and a son, Dahyabhai, in 1906. Patel also cared for a friend suffering from the Bubonic plague when it swept across Gujarat. When Patel himself came down with the disease, he immediately sent his family to safety, left his home, and moved into an isolated house in Nadiad (by other accounts, Patel spent this time in a dilapidated temple); there, he recovered slowly.
Patel practised law in Godhra, Borsad, and Anand while taking on the financial burdens of his homestead in Karamsad. Patel was the first chairman and founder of "Edward Memorial High School '' Borsad, today known as Jhaverbhai Dajibhai Patel High School. When he had saved enough for his trip to England and applied for a pass and a ticket, they were addressed to "V. J. Patel, '' at the home of his elder brother Vithalbhai, who had the same initials as Vallabhai. Having once nurtured a similar hope to study in England, Vithalbhai remonstrated his younger brother, saying that it would be disreputable for an older brother to follow his younger brother. In keeping with concerns for his family 's honour, Patel allowed Vithalbhai to go in his place.
In 1909 Patel 's wife Jhaverba was hospitalised in Bombay (now Mumbai) to undergo major surgery for cancer. Her health suddenly worsened and, despite successful emergency surgery, she died in the hospital. Patel was given a note informing him of his wife 's demise as he was cross-examining a witness in court. According to witnesses, Patel read the note, pocketed it, and continued his cross-examination and won the case. He broke the news to others only after the proceedings had ended. Patel decided against marrying again. He raised his children with the help of his family and sent them to English - language schools in Mumbai. At the age of 36 he journeyed to England and enrolled at the Middle Temple Inn in London. Completing a 36 - month course in 30 months, Patel finished at the top of his class despite having had no previous college background.
Returning to India, Patel settled in Ahmedabad and became one of the city 's most successful barristers. Wearing European - style clothes and sporting urbane mannerisms, he became a skilled bridge player. Patel nurtured ambitions to expand his practice and accumulate great wealth and to provide his children with a modern education. He had made a pact with his brother Vithalbhai to support his entry into politics in the Bombay Presidency, while Patel remained in Ahmedabad to provide for the family.
At the urging of his friends, Patel ran in the election for the post of sanitation commissioner of Ahmedabad in 1917 and won. While often clashing with British officials on civic issues, he did not show any interest in politics. Upon hearing of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, he joked to the lawyer and political activist, Ganesh Vasudev Mavlankar, that "Gandhi would ask you if you know how to shift pebbles from wheat. And that is supposed to bring independence. '' A subsequent meeting with Gandhi, in October 1917 fundamentally changed Patel and led him to join the Indian independence struggle.
In September 1917, Patel had already a speech in Borsad, encouraging Indians nationwide to sign Gandhi 's petition demanding Swaraj -- self - rule -- from Britain. A month later, he met Gandhi for the first time at the Gujarat Political Conference in Godhra. On Gandhi 's encouragement, Patel became the secretary of the Gujarat Sabha, a public body that would become the Gujarati arm of the Indian National Congress. Patel now energetically fought against veth -- the forced servitude of Indians to Europeans -- and organised relief efforts in the wake of plague and famine in Kheda. The Kheda peasants ' plea for exemption from taxation had been turned down by British authorities. Gandhi endorsed waging a struggle there, but could not lead it himself due to his activities in Champaran. When Gandhi asked for a Gujarati activist to devote himself completely to the assignment, Patel volunteered, much to Gandhi 's delight. Though his decision was made on the spot, Patel later said that his desire and commitment came after intense personal contemplation, as he realised he would have to abandon his career and material ambitions.
Supported by Congress volunteers Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya, and Abbas Tyabji, Vallabhbhai Patel began a village - by - village tour in the Kheda district, documenting grievances and asking villagers for their support for a statewide revolt by refusing to pay taxes. Patel emphasised the potential hardships and the need for complete unity and non-violence in the face of provocation. He received an enthusiastic response from virtually every village. When the revolt was launched and tax revenue withheld, the government sent police and intimidation squads to seize property, including confiscating barn animals and whole farms. Patel organised a network of volunteers to work with individual villages, helping them hide valuables and protect themselves against raids. Thousands of activists and farmers were arrested, but Patel was not. The revolt evoked sympathy and admiration across India, including among pro-British Indian politicians. The government agreed to negotiate with Patel and decided to suspend the payment of taxes for a year, even scaling back the rate. Patel emerged as a hero to Gujaratis. In 1920 he was elected president of the newly formed Gujarat Pradesh Congress Committee; he would serve as its president until 1945.
Patel supported Gandhi 's non-cooperation Movement and toured the state to recruit more than 300,000 members and raise over Rs. 1.5 million in funds. Helping organise bonfires in Ahmedabad in which British goods were burned, Patel threw in all his English - style clothes. Along with his daughter Mani and son Dahya, he switched completely to wearing khadi, the locally produced cotton clothing. Patel also supported Gandhi 's controversial suspension of resistance in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident. In Gujarat he worked extensively in the following years against alcoholism, untouchability, and caste discrimination, as well as for the empowerment of women. In the Congress, he was a resolute supporter of Gandhi against his Swarajist critics. Patel was elected Ahmedabad 's municipal president in 1922, 1924, and 1927; during his terms, he oversaw improvements in infrastructure: the supply of electricity was increased, and drainage and sanitation systems were extended throughout the city. The school system underwent major reforms. He fought for the recognition and payment of teachers employed in schools established by nationalists (independent of British control) and even took on sensitive Hindu -- Muslim issues. Patel personally led relief efforts in the aftermath of the torrential rainfall of 1927 that caused major floods in the city and in the Kheda district, and great destruction of life and property. He established refugee centres across the district, mobilized volunteers, and arranged for supplies of food, medicines, and clothing, as well as emergency funds from the government and the public.
When Gandhi was in prison, Patel was asked by Members of Congress to lead the satyagraha in Nagpur in 1923 against a law banning the raising of the Indian flag. He organised thousands of volunteers from all over the country to take part in processions of people violating the law. Patel negotiated a settlement obtaining the release of all prisoners and allowing nationalists to hoist the flag in public. Later that year, Patel and his allies uncovered evidence suggesting that the police were in league with local dacoits (Devar Baba) in the Borsad taluka even as the government prepared to levy a major tax for fighting dacoits in the area. More than 6,000 villagers assembled to hear Patel speak in support of proposed agitation against the tax, which was deemed immoral and unnecessary. He organised hundreds of Congressmen, sent instructions, and received information from across the district. Every village in the taluka resisted payment of the tax and prevented the seizure of property and land. After a protracted struggle, the government withdrew the tax. Historians believe that one of Patel 's key achievements was the building of cohesion and trust amongst the different castes and communities, which had been divided along socio - economic lines.
In April 1928 Patel returned to the independence struggle from his municipal duties in Ahmedabad when Bardoli suffered from a serious double predicament of a famine and a steep tax hike. The revenue hike was steeper than it had been in Kheda even though the famine covered a large portion of Gujarat. After cross-examining and talking to village representatives, emphasising the potential hardship and need for non-violence and cohesion, Patel initiated the struggle with a complete denial of taxes. Patel organised volunteers, camps, and an information network across affected areas. The revenue refusal was stronger than in Kheda, and many sympathy satyagrahas were undertaken across Gujarat. Despite arrests and seizures of property and land, the struggle intensified. The situation came to a head in August, when, through sympathetic intermediaries, he negotiated a settlement that included repealing the tax hike, reinstating village officials who had resigned in protest, and returning seized property and land. It was during the struggle and after the victory in Bardoli that Patel was increasingly addressed by his colleagues and followers as Sardar.
As Gandhi embarked on the Dandi Salt March, Patel was arrested in the village of Ras and was put on trial without witnesses, with no lawyer or journalists allowed to attend. Patel 's arrest and Gandhi 's subsequent arrest caused the Salt Satyagraha to greatly intensify in Gujarat -- districts across Gujarat launched an anti-tax rebellion until and unless Patel and Gandhi were released. Once released, Patel served as interim Congress president, but was re-arrested while leading a procession in Mumbai. After the signing of the Gandhi -- Irwin Pact, Patel was elected president of Congress for its 1931 session in Karachi -- here the Congress ratified the pact and committed itself to the defence of fundamental rights and civil liberties. It advocated the establishment of a secular nation with a minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom. Patel used his position as Congress president to organise the return of confiscated land to farmers in Gujarat. Upon the failure of the Round Table Conference in London, Gandhi and Patel were arrested in January 1932 when the struggle re-opened, and imprisoned in the Yeravda Central Jail. During this term of imprisonment, Patel and Gandhi grew close to each other, and the two developed a close bond of affection, trust, and frankness. Their mutual relationship could be described as that of an elder brother (Gandhi) and his younger brother (Patel). Despite having arguments with Gandhi, Patel respected his instincts and leadership. In prison, the two discussed national and social issues, read Hindu epics, and cracked jokes. Gandhi taught Patel Sanskrit. Gandhi 's secretary, Mahadev Desai, kept detailed records of conversations between Gandhi and Patel. When Gandhi embarked on a fast - unto - death protesting the separate electorates allocated for untouchables, Patel looked after Gandhi closely and himself refrained from partaking of food. Patel was later moved to a jail in Nasik, and refused a British offer for a brief release to attend the cremation of his brother Vithalbhai, who had died in 1934. He was finally released in July of the same year.
Patel 's position at the highest level in the Congress was largely connected with his role from 1934 onwards (when the Congress abandoned its boycott of elections) in the party organisation. Based at an apartment in Mumbai, he became the Congress 's main fundraiser and chairman of its Central Parliamentary Board, playing the leading role in selecting and financing candidates for the 1934 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in New Delhi and for the provincial elections of 1936. In addition to collecting funds and selecting candidates, he also determined the Congress 's stance on issues and opponents. Not contesting a seat for himself, Patel nevertheless guided Congressmen elected in the provinces and at the national level. In 1935 Patel underwent surgery for haemorrhoids, yet continued to direct efforts against the plague in Bardoli and again when a drought struck Gujarat in 1939. Patel guided the Congress ministries that had won power across India with the aim of preserving party discipline -- Patel feared that the British would take advantage of opportunities to create conflict among elected Congressmen, and he did not want the party to be distracted from the goal of complete independence. Patel clashed with Nehru, opposing declarations of the adoption of socialism at the 1936 Congress session, which he believed was a diversion from the main goal of achieving independence. In 1938 Patel organised rank and file opposition to the attempts of then - Congress president Subhas Chandra Bose to move away from Gandhi 's principles of non-violent resistance. Patel saw Bose as wanting more power over the party. He led senior Congress leaders in a protest that resulted in Bose 's resignation. But criticism arose from Bose 's supporters, socialists, and other Congressmen that Patel himself was acting in an authoritarian manner in his defence of Gandhi 's authority.
On the outbreak of World War II, Patel supported Nehru 's decision to withdraw the Congress from central and provincial legislatures, contrary to Gandhi 's advice, as well as an initiative by senior leader Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari to offer Congress 's full support to Britain if it promised Indian independence at the end of the war and installed a democratic government right away. Gandhi had refused to support Britain on the grounds of his moral opposition to war, while Subhash Chandra Bose was in militant opposition to the British. The British rejected Rajagopalachari 's initiative, and Patel embraced Gandhi 's leadership again. He participated in Gandhi 's call for individual disobedience, and was arrested in 1940 and imprisoned for nine months. He also opposed the proposals of the Cripps ' mission in 1942. Patel lost more than twenty pounds during his period in jail.
While Nehru, Rajagopalachari, and Maulana Azad initially criticised Gandhi 's proposal for an all - out campaign of civil disobedience to force the British to quit India, Patel was its most fervent supporter. Arguing that the British would retreat from India as they had from Singapore and Burma, Patel urged that the campaign start without any delay. Though feeling that the British would not leave immediately, Patel favoured an all - out rebellion that would galvanise the Indian people, who had been divided in their response to the war, In Patel 's view, such a rebellion would force the British to concede that continuation of colonial rule had no support in India, and thus speed the transfer of power to Indians. Believing strongly in the need for revolt, Patel stated his intention to resign from the Congress if the revolt were not approved. Gandhi strongly pressured the All India Congress Committee to approve an all - out campaign of civil disobedience, and the AICC approved the campaign on 7 August 1942. Though Patel 's health had suffered during his stint in jail, he gave emotional speeches to large crowds across India, asking them to refuse to pay taxes and to participate in civil disobedience, mass protests, and a shutdown of all civil services. He raised funds and prepared a second tier of command as a precaution against the arrest of national leaders. Patel made a climactic speech to more than 100,000 people gathered at Gowalia Tank in Bombay (Mumbai) on 7 August:
The Governor of Burma boasts in London that they left Burma only after reducing everything to dust. So you promise the same thing to India?... You refer in your radio broadcasts and newspapers to the government established in Burma by Japan as a puppet government? What sort of government do you have in Delhi now?... When France fell before the Nazi onslaught, in the midst of total war, Mr. Churchill offered union with England to the French. That was indeed a stroke of inspired statesmanship. But when it comes to India? Oh no! Constitutional changes in the midst of a war? Absolutely unthinkable... The objective this time is to free India before the Japanese can come and be ready to fight them if they come. They will round up the leaders, round up all. Then it will be the duty of every Indian to put forth his utmost effort -- within non-violence. No source is to be left untapped; no weapon untried. This is going to be the opportunity of a lifetime.
Historians believe that Patel 's speech was instrumental in electrifying nationalists, who up to then had been skeptical of the proposed rebellion. Patel 's organising work in this period is credited by historians with ensuring the success of the rebellion across India. Patel was arrested on 9 August and was imprisoned with the entire Congress Working Committee from 1942 to 1945 at the fort in Ahmednagar. Here he spun cloth, played bridge, read a large number of books, took long walks, and practised gardening. He also provided emotional support to his colleagues while awaiting news and developments from the outside. Patel was deeply pained at the news of the deaths of Mahadev Desai and Kasturba Gandhi later that year. But Patel wrote in a letter to his daughter that he and his colleagues were experiencing "fullest peace '' for having done "their duty ''. Even though other political parties had opposed the struggle and the British had employed ruthless means of suppression, the Quit India movement was "by far the most serious rebellion since that of 1857 '', as the viceroy cabled to Winston Churchill. More than 100,000 people were arrested and many were killed in violent struggles with the police. Strikes, protests, and other revolutionary activities had broken out across India. When Patel was released on 15 June 1945, he realised that the British were preparing proposals to transfer power to India.
In the 1946 election for the Congress presidency, Patel stepped down in favour of Nehru at the request of Gandhi. The election 's importance stemmed from the fact that the elected president would lead independent India 's first government. As the first Home Minister, Patel played a key role in the integration of the princely states into the Indian federation.
In the elections, the Congress won a large majority of the elected seats, dominating the Hindu electorate. But the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah won a large majority of Muslim electorate seats. The League had resolved in 1940 to demand Pakistan -- an independent state for Muslims -- and was a fierce critic of the Congress. The Congress formed governments in all provinces save Sindh, Punjab, and Bengal, where it entered into coalitions with other parties.
When the British mission proposed two plans for transfer of power, there was considerable opposition within the Congress to both. The plan of 16 May 1946 proposed a loose federation with extensive provincial autonomy, and the "grouping '' of provinces based on religious - majority. The plan of 16 May 1946 proposed the partition of India on religious lines, with over 565 princely states free to choose between independence or accession to either dominion. The League approved both plans while the Congress flatly rejected the proposal of 16 May. Gandhi criticised the 16 May proposal as being inherently divisive, but Patel, realising that rejecting the proposal would mean that only the League would be invited to form a government, lobbied the Congress Working Committee hard to give its assent to the 16 May proposal. Patel engaged the British envoys Sir Stafford Cripps and Lord Pethick - Lawrence and obtained an assurance that the "grouping '' clause would not be given practical force, Patel converted Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, and Rajagopalachari to accept the plan. When the League retracted its approval of the 16 May plan, the viceroy Lord Wavell invited the Congress to form the government. Under Nehru, who was styled the "Vice President of the Viceroy 's Executive Council '', Patel took charge of the departments of home affairs and information and broadcasting. He moved into a government house on Aurangzeb Road in Delhi, which would be his home until his death in 1950.
Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the first Congress leaders to accept the partition of India as a solution to the rising Muslim separatist movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He had been outraged by Jinnah 's Direct Action campaign, which had provoked communal violence across India, and by the viceroy 's vetoes of his home department 's plans to stop the violence on the grounds of constitutionality. Patel severely criticised the viceroy 's induction of League ministers into the government, and the revalidation of the grouping scheme by the British without Congress 's approval. Although further outraged at the League 's boycott of the assembly and non-acceptance of the plan of 16 May despite entering government, he was also aware that Jinnah did enjoy popular support amongst Muslims, and that an open conflict between him and the nationalists could degenerate into a Hindu - Muslim civil war of disastrous consequences. The continuation of a divided and weak central government would, in Patel 's mind, result in the wider fragmentation of India by encouraging more than 600 princely states towards independence. In December 1946 and January 1947, Patel worked with civil servant V.P. Menon on the latter 's suggestion for a separate dominion of Pakistan created out of Muslim - majority provinces. Communal violence in Bengal and Punjab in January and March 1947 further convinced Patel of the soundness of partition. Patel, a fierce critic of Jinnah 's demand that the Hindu - majority areas of Punjab and Bengal be included in a Muslim state, obtained the partition of those provinces, thus blocking any possibility of their inclusion in Pakistan. Patel 's decisiveness on the partition of Punjab and Bengal had won him many supporters and admirers amongst the Indian public, which had tired of the League 's tactics, but he was criticised by Gandhi, Nehru, secular Muslims, and socialists for a perceived eagerness to do so. When Lord Louis Mountbatten formally proposed the plan on 3 June 1947, Patel gave his approval and lobbied Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the proposal. Knowing Gandhi 's deep anguish regarding proposals of partition, Patel engaged him in frank discussion in private meetings over what he saw as the practical unworkability of any Congress -- League coalition, the rising violence, and the threat of civil war. At the All India Congress Committee meeting called to vote on the proposal, Patel said:
I fully appreciate the fears of our brothers from (the Muslim - majority areas). Nobody likes the division of India and my heart is heavy. But the choice is between one division and many divisions. We must face facts. We can not give way to emotionalism and sentimentality. The Working Committee has not acted out of fear. But I am afraid of one thing, that all our toil and hard work of these many years might go waste or prove unfruitful. My nine months in office has completely disillusioned me regarding the supposed merits of the Cabinet Mission Plan. Except for a few honourable exceptions, Muslim officials from the top down to the chaprasis (peons or servants) are working for the League. The communal veto given to the League in the Mission Plan would have blocked India 's progress at every stage. Whether we like it or not, de facto Pakistan already exists in the Punjab and Bengal. Under the circumstances I would prefer a de jure Pakistan, which may make the League more responsible. Freedom is coming. We have 75 to 80 percent of India, which we can make strong with our own genius. The League can develop the rest of the country.
After Gandhi rejected and Congress approved -- the plan, Patel represented India on the Partition Council, where he oversaw the division of public assets, and selected the Indian council of ministers with Nehru. However, neither Patel nor any other Indian leader had foreseen the intense violence and population transfer that would take place with partition. Patel took the lead in organising relief and emergency supplies, establishing refugee camps, and visiting the border areas with Pakistani leaders to encourage peace. Despite these efforts, the death toll is estimated at between 500,000 and 1 million people. The estimated number of refugees in both countries exceeds 15 million. Understanding that Delhi and Punjab policemen, accused of organising attacks on Muslims, were personally affected by the tragedies of partition, Patel called out the Indian Army with South Indian regiments to restore order, imposing strict curfews and shoot - at - sight orders. Visiting the Nizamuddin Auliya Dargah area in Delhi, where thousands of Delhi Muslims feared attacks, he prayed at the shrine, visited the people, and reinforced the presence of police. He suppressed from the press reports of atrocities in Pakistan against Hindus and Sikhs to prevent retaliatory violence. Establishing the Delhi Emergency Committee to restore order and organising relief efforts for refugees in the capital, Patel publicly warned officials against partiality and neglect. When reports reached Patel that large groups of Sikhs were preparing to attack Muslim convoys heading for Pakistan, Patel hurried to Amritsar and met Sikh and Hindu leaders. Arguing that attacking helpless people was cowardly and dishonourable, Patel emphasised that Sikh actions would result in further attacks against Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistan. He assured the community leaders that if they worked to establish peace and order and guarantee the safety of Muslims, the Indian government would react forcefully to any failures of Pakistan to do the same. Additionally, Patel addressed a massive crowd of approximately 200,000 refugees who had surrounded his car after the meetings:
Here, in this same city, the blood of Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims mingled in the bloodbath of Jallianwala Bagh. I am grieved to think that things have come to such a pass that no Muslim can go about in Amritsar and no Hindu or Sikh can even think of living in Lahore. The butchery of innocent and defenceless men, women and children does not behove brave men... I am quite certain that India 's interest lies in getting all her men and women across the border and sending out all Muslims from East Punjab. I have come to you with a specific appeal. Pledge the safety of Muslim refugees crossing the city. Any obstacles or hindrances will only worsen the plight of our refugees who are already performing prodigious feats of endurance. If we have to fight, we must fight clean. Such a fight must await an appropriate time and conditions and you must be watchful in choosing your ground. To fight against the refugees is no fight at all. No laws of humanity or war among honourable men permit the murder of people who have sought shelter and protection. Let there be truce for three months in which both sides can exchange their refugees. This sort of truce is permitted even by laws of war. Let us take the initiative in breaking this vicious circle of attacks and counter-attacks. Hold your hands for a week and see what happens. Make way for the refugees with your own force of volunteers and let them deliver the refugees safely at our frontier.
Following his dialogue with community leaders and his speech, no further attacks occurred against Muslim refugees, and a wider peace and order was soon re-established over the entire area. However, Patel was criticised by Nehru, secular Muslims, and Gandhi over his alleged wish to see Muslims from other parts of India depart. While Patel vehemently denied such allegations, the acrimony with Maulana Azad and other secular Muslim leaders increased when Patel refused to dismiss Delhi 's Sikh police commissioner, who was accused of discrimination. Hindu and Sikh leaders also accused Patel and other leaders of not taking Pakistan sufficiently to task over the attacks on their communities there, and Muslim leaders further criticised him for allegedly neglecting the needs of Muslims leaving for Pakistan, and concentrating resources for incoming Hindu and Sikh refugees. Patel clashed with Nehru and Azad over the allocation of houses in Delhi vacated by Muslims leaving for Pakistan; Nehru and Azad desired to allocate them for displaced Muslims, while Patel argued that no government professing secularism must make such exclusions. However, Patel was publicly defended by Gandhi and received widespread admiration and support for speaking frankly on communal issues and acting decisively and resourcefully to quell disorder and violence.
This event formed the cornerstone of Patel 's popularity in the post-independence era. Even today he is remembered as the man who united India. He is, in this regard, compared to Otto von Bismarck of Germany, who did the same thing in the 1860s. Under the plan of 3 June, more than 562 princely states were given the option of joining either India or Pakistan, or choosing independence. Indian nationalists and large segments of the public feared that if these states did not accede, most of the people and territory would be fragmented. The Congress as well as senior British officials considered Patel the best man for the task of achieving unification of the princely states with the Indian dominion. Gandhi had said to Patel, "(T) he problem of the States is so difficult that you alone can solve it ''. Patel was considered a statesman of integrity with the practical acumen and resolve to accomplish a monumental task. He asked V. P. Menon, a senior civil servant with whom he had worked on the partition of India, to become his right - hand man as chief secretary of the States Ministry. On 6 May 1947, Patel began lobbying the princes, attempting to make them receptive towards dialogue with the future government and forestall potential conflicts. Patel used social meetings and unofficial surroundings to engage most of the monarchs, inviting them to lunch and tea at his home in Delhi. At these meetings, Patel explained that there was no inherent conflict between the Congress and the princely order. Patel invoked the patriotism of India 's monarchs, asking them to join in the independence of their nation and act as responsible rulers who cared about the future of their people. He persuaded the princes of 565 states of the impossibility of independence from the Indian republic, especially in the presence of growing opposition from their subjects. He proposed favourable terms for the merger, including the creation of privy purses for the rulers ' descendants. While encouraging the rulers to act out of patriotism, Patel did not rule out force. Stressing that the princes would need to accede to India in good faith, he set a deadline of 15 August 1947 for them to sign the instrument of accession document. All but three of the states willingly merged into the Indian union; only Jammu and Kashmir, Junagadh, and Hyderabad did not fall into his basket.
Junagadh was especially important to Patel, since it was in his home state of Gujarat. It was also important because in this Kathiawar district was the ultra-rich Somnath temple (which in the 11th century had been plundered by Mahmud of Ghazni, who damaged the temple and its idols to rob it of its riches, including emeralds, diamonds, and gold). Under pressure from Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the Nawab had acceded to Pakistan. It was, however, quite far from Pakistan, and 80 % of its population was Hindu. Patel combined diplomacy with force, demanding that Pakistan annul the accession, and that the Nawab accede to India. He sent the Army to occupy three principalities of Junagadh to show his resolve. Following widespread protests and the formation of a civil government, or Aarzi Hukumat, both Bhutto and the Nawab fled to Karachi, and under Patel 's orders the Indian Army and police units marched into the state. A plebiscite organised later produced a 99.5 % vote for merger with India. In a speech at the Bahauddin College in Junagadh following the latter 's take - over, Patel emphasised his feeling of urgency on Hyderabad, which he felt was more vital to India than Kashmir:
If Hyderabad does not see the writing on the wall, it goes the way Junagadh has gone. Pakistan attempted to set off Kashmir against Junagadh. When we raised the question of settlement in a democratic way, they (Pakistan) at once told us that they would consider it if we applied that policy to Kashmir. Our reply was that we would agree to Kashmir if they agreed to Hyderabad.
Hyderabad was the largest of the princely states, and it included parts of present - day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra states. Its ruler, the Nizam Osman Ali Khan, was a Muslim, although over 80 % of its people were Hindu. The Nizam sought independence or accession with Pakistan. Muslim forces loyal to Nizam, called the Razakars, under Qasim Razvi, pressed the Nizam to hold out against India, while organising attacks on people on Indian soil. Even though a Standstill Agreement was signed due to the desperate efforts of Lord Mountbatten to avoid a war, the Nizam rejected deals and changed his positions. In September 1948 Patel emphasised in Cabinet meetings that India should talk no more, and reconciled Nehru and the Governor - General, Chakravarti Rajgopalachari, to military action. Following preparations, Patel ordered the Indian Army to invade Hyderabad (in his capacity as Acting Prime Minister) when Nehru was touring Europe. The action was termed Operation Polo, and thousands of Razakar forces were killed, but Hyderabad was forcefully secured and integrated into the Indian Union. The main aim of Mountbatten and Nehru in avoiding a forced annexation was to prevent an outbreak of Hindu -- Muslim violence. Patel insisted that if Hyderabad were allowed to continue as an independent nation enclave surrounded by India, the prestige of the government would fall, and then neither Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in its realm. After defeating Nizam, Patel retained him as the ceremonial chief of state, and held talks with him. There were 562 princely states in India which Sardar Patel unified.
The Governor - General of India, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, along with Nehru and Patel, formed the "triumvirate '' that ruled India from 1948 to 1950. Prime Minister Nehru was intensely popular with the masses, but Patel enjoyed the loyalty and the faith of rank and file Congressmen, state leaders, and India 's civil servants. Patel was a senior leader in the Constituent Assembly of India and was responsible in large measure for shaping India 's constitution. He is also known as the "Bismarck of India ''. Patel was a key force behind the appointment of Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar as the chairman of the drafting committee, and the inclusion of leaders from a diverse political spectrum in the process of writing the constitution.
Patel was the chairman of the committees responsible for minorities, tribal and excluded areas, fundamental rights, and provincial constitutions. Patel piloted a model constitution for the provinces in the Assembly, which contained limited powers for the state governor, who would defer to the president -- he clarified it was not the intention to let the governor exercise power that could impede an elected government. He worked closely with Muslim leaders to end separate electorates and the more potent demand for reservation of seats for minorities. Patel held personal dialogues with leaders of other minorities on the question, and was responsible for the measure that allows the president to appoint Anglo - Indians to Parliament. His intervention was key to the passage of two articles that protected civil servants from political involvement and guaranteed their terms and privileges. He was also instrumental in the founding the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian Police Service, and for his defence of Indian civil servants from political attack; he is known as the "patron saint '' of India 's services. When a delegation of Gujarati farmers came to him citing their inability to send their milk production to the markets without being fleeced by intermediaries, Patel exhorted them to organise the processing and sale of milk by themselves, and guided them to create the Kaira District Co-operative Milk Producers ' Union Limited, which preceded the Amul milk products brand. Patel also pledged the reconstruction of the ancient but dilapidated Somnath Temple in Saurashtra. He oversaw the restoration work and the creation of a public trust, and pledged to dedicate the temple upon the completion of work (the work was completed after his death and the temple was inaugurated by the first President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad).
When the Pakistani invasion of Kashmir began in September 1947, Patel immediately wanted to send troops into Kashmir. But, agreeing with Nehru and Mountbatten, he waited until Kashmir 's monarch had acceded to India. Patel then oversaw India 's military operations to secure Srinagar and the Baramulla Pass, and the forces retrieved much territory from the invaders. Patel, along with Defence Minister Baldev Singh, administered the entire military effort, arranging for troops from different parts of India to be rushed to Kashmir and for a major military road connecting Srinagar to Pathankot to be built in six months. Patel strongly advised Nehru against going for arbitration to the United Nations, insisting that Pakistan had been wrong to support the invasion and the accession to India was valid. He did not want foreign interference in a bilateral affair. Patel opposed the release of Rs. 550 million to the Government of Pakistan, convinced that the money would go to finance the war against India in Kashmir. The Cabinet had approved his point but it was reversed when Gandhi, who feared an intensifying rivalry and further communal violence, went on a fast - unto - death to obtain the release. Patel, though not estranged from Gandhi, was deeply hurt at the rejection of his counsel and a Cabinet decision.
In 1949 a crisis arose when the number of Hindu refugees entering West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura from East Pakistan climbed to over 800,000. The refugees in many cases were being forcibly evicted by Pakistani authorities, and were victims of intimidation and violence. Nehru invited Liaquat Ali Khan, Prime Minister of Pakistan, to find a peaceful solution. Despite his aversion, Patel reluctantly met Khan and discussed the matter. Patel strongly criticised Nehru 's plan to sign a pact that would create minority commissions in both countries and pledge both India and Pakistan to a commitment to protect each other 's minorities. Syama Prasad Mookerjee and K. C. Neogy, two Bengali ministers, resigned, and Nehru was intensely criticised in West Bengal for allegedly appeasing Pakistan. The pact was immediately in jeopardy. Patel, however, publicly came to Nehru 's aid. He gave emotional speeches to members of Parliament, and the people of West Bengal, and spoke with scores of delegations of Congressmen, Hindus, Muslims, and other public interest groups, persuading them to give peace a final effort.
In April 2015 the Government of India declassified surveillance reports suggesting that Patel, while Home Minister, and Nehru were among officials involved in alleged government - authorised spying on the family of Subhas Chandra Bose.
He was also instrumental in the creation of the All India Services which he described as the country 's "Steel Frame ''. In his address to the probationers of these services, he asked them to be guided by the spirit of service in day - to - day administration. He reminded them that the ICS was no longer neither Imperial, nor civil, nor imbued with any spirit of service after Independence. His exhortation to the probationers to maintain utmost impartiality and incorruptibility of administration is as relevant today as it was then. "A civil servant can not afford to, and must not, take part in politics. Nor must he involve himself in communal wrangles. To depart from the path of rectitude in either of these respects is to debase public service and to lower its dignity, '' he had cautioned them on 21 April 1947.
He, more than anyone else in post-independence India, realized the crucial role that civil services play in administering a country, in not merely maintaining law and order, but running the institutions that provide the binding cement to a society. He, more than any other contemporary of his, was aware of the needs of a sound, stable administrative structure as the lynchpin of a functioning polity. The present - day all - India administrative services owe their origin to the man 's sagacity and thus he is regarded as Father of modern All India Services.
Patel was intensely loyal to Gandhi, and both he and Nehru looked to him to arbitrate disputes. However, Nehru and Patel sparred over national issues. When Nehru asserted control over Kashmir policy, Patel objected to Nehru 's sidelining his home ministry 's officials. Nehru was offended by Patel 's decision - making regarding the states ' integration, having consulted neither him nor the Cabinet. Patel asked Gandhi to relieve him of his obligation to serve, believing that an open political battle would hurt India. After much personal deliberation and contrary to Patel 's prediction, Gandhi on 30 January 1948 told Patel not to leave the government. A free India, according to Gandhi, needed both Patel and Nehru. Patel was the last man to privately talk with Gandhi, who was assassinated just minutes after Patel 's departure. At Gandhi 's wake, Nehru and Patel embraced each other and addressed the nation together. Patel gave solace to many associates and friends and immediately moved to forestall any possible violence. Within two months of Gandhi 's death, Patel suffered a major heart attack; the timely action of his daughter, his secretary, and a nurse saved Patel 's life. Speaking later, Patel attributed the attack to the "grief bottled up '' due to Gandhi 's death.
Criticism arose from the media and other politicians that Patel 's home ministry had failed to protect Gandhi. Emotionally exhausted, Patel tendered a letter of resignation, offering to leave the government. Patel 's secretary persuaded him to withhold the letter, seeing it as fodder for Patel 's political enemies and political conflict in India. However, Nehru sent Patel a letter dismissing any question of personal differences or desire for Patel 's ouster. He reminded Patel of their 30 - year partnership in the independence struggle and asserted that after Gandhi 's death, it was especially wrong for them to quarrel. Nehru, Rajagopalachari, and other Congressmen publicly defended Patel. Moved, Patel publicly endorsed Nehru 's leadership and refuted any suggestion of discord, and dispelled any notion that he sought to be prime minister. Though the two committed themselves to joint leadership and non-interference in Congress party affairs, they would criticise each other in matters of policy, clashing on the issues of Hyderabad 's integration and UN mediation in Kashmir. Nehru declined Patel 's counsel on sending assistance to Tibet after its 1950 invasion by the People 's Republic of China and on ejecting the Portuguese from Goa by military force. Nehru also tried to scuttle Patel 's plan with regards to Hyderabad. During a meeting, according to the then civil servant MKK Nair in his book "With No Ill Feeling to Anybody '', Nehru shouted and accused Patel of being a communalist. Patel also one on occasion called Nehru, a Maulana, for appeasing Muslims.
When Nehru pressured Dr. Rajendra Prasad to decline a nomination to become the first President of India in 1950 in favour of Rajagopalachari, he angered the party, which felt Nehru was attempting to impose his will. Nehru sought Patel 's help in winning the party over, but Patel declined, and Prasad was duly elected. Nehru opposed the 1950 Congress presidential candidate Purushottam Das Tandon, a conservative Hindu leader, endorsing Jivatram Kripalani instead and threatening to resign if Tandon was elected. Patel rejected Nehru 's views and endorsed Tandon in Gujarat, where Kripalani received not one vote despite hailing from that state himself. Patel believed Nehru had to understand that his will was not law with the Congress, but he personally discouraged Nehru from resigning after the latter felt that the party had no confidence in him. However, Nehru supposedly showed ingratitude towards Patel as he asked Prasad not to attend Patel 's funeral. He also issued directives to government officials that Patel 's funerals were to be attended privately and not on government expense and also that the government vehicle, a Cadillac, was to be sent to the foreign ministry 's use immediately.
On 29 March 1949 authorities lost radio contact with a plane carrying Patel, his daughter Maniben, and the Maharaja of Patiala. Engine failure caused the pilot to make an emergency landing in a desert area in Rajasthan. With all passengers safe, Patel and others tracked down a nearby village and local officials. When Patel returned to Delhi, thousands of Congressmen gave him a resounding welcome. In Parliament, MPs gave a long standing ovation to Patel, stopping proceedings for half an hour.
In his twilight years, Patel was honoured by members of Parliament. He was awarded honorary doctorates of law by Nagpur University, the University of Allahabad and Banaras Hindu University in November 1948, subsequently receiving honorary doctorates from Osmania University in February 1949 and from Punjab University in March 1949. Previously, Patel had been featured on the cover page of the January 1947 issue of Time magazine.
Patel 's health declined rapidly through the summer of 1950. He later began coughing blood, whereupon Maniben began limiting her meetings and working hours and arranged for a personalised medical staff to begin attending to Patel. The Chief Minister of West Bengal and doctor Bidhan Roy heard Patel make jokes about his impending end, and in a private meeting Patel frankly admitted to his ministerial colleague N.V. Gadgil that he was not going to live much longer. Patel 's health worsened after 2 November, when he began losing consciousness frequently and was confined to his bed. He was flown to Bombay (now Mumbai) on 12 December on advice from Dr Roy, to recuperate as his condition was deemed critical. Nehru, Rajagopalchari, Rajendra Prasad, and Menon all came to see him off at the airport in Delhi. Patel was extremely weak and had to be carried onto the aircraft in a chair. In Bombay, large crowds gathered at Santacruz Airport to greet him. To spare him from this stress, the aircraft landed at Juhu Aerodrome, where Chief Minister B.G. Kher and Morarji Desai were present to receive him with a car belonging to the Governor of Bombay that took Vallabhbhai to Birla House.
After suffering a massive heart attack (his second), Patel died at 9: 37 a.m. on 15 December 1950 at Birla House in Bombay. In an unprecedented and unrepeated gesture, on the day after his death more than 1,500 officers of India 's civil and police services congregated to mourn at Patel 's residence in Delhi and pledged "complete loyalty and unremitting zeal '' in India 's service. Numerous governments and world leaders sent messages of condolence upon Patel 's death, including Trygve Lie, the Secretary - General of the United Nations, President Sukarno of Indonesia, Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan of Pakistan and Prime Minister Clement Attlee of the United Kingdom.
In homage to Patel, the Indian government declared a week of national mourning. Patel 's cremation was planned at Girgaum Chowpatty, but this was changed to Sonapur (now Marine Lines) when his daughter conveyed that it was his wish to be cremated like a common man in the same place as his wife and brother were earlier cremated. His cremation in Sonapur in Bombay was attended by a crowd of one million including Prime Minister Nehru, Rajagopalachari, and President Rajendra Prasad.
During his lifetime, Vallabhbhai Patel received criticism for an alleged bias against Muslims during the time of Partition. He was criticised by Maulana Azad and others for readily plumping for partition. Guha says that, during the Partition, Nehru wanted the government to make the Muslims stay back and feel secure in India while Patel was inclined to place that responsibility on the individuals themselves. Patel also told Nehru that the minority also had to remove the doubts that were entertained about their loyalty based on their past association with the demand of Pakistan. However, Patel successfully prevented attacks upon a train of Muslim refugees leaving India. In September 1947 he was said to have had ten thousand Muslims sheltered safely in the Red Fort and had free kitchens opened for them during the communal violence. Patel was also said to be more forgiving of Indian nationalism and harsher on Pakistan. He exposed a riot plot, confiscated a large haul of weapons from the Delhi Jumma Masjid, and had a few plotters killed by the police, but his approach was said to have been harsh.
Patel was also criticised by supporters of Subhas Chandra Bose for acting coercively to put down politicians not supportive of Gandhi. Socialist politicians such as Jaya Prakash Narayan and Asoka Mehta criticised him for his personal proximity to Indian industrialists such as the Birla and Sarabhai families. It is said that Patel was friendly towards capitalists while Nehru believed in the state controlling the economy. Also, Patel was more inclined to support the West in the emerging Cold War.
Some historians and admirers of Patel such as Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India and industrialist J.R.D. Tata have expressed the opinion that Patel would have made a better Prime Minister for India than Nehru. These admirers and Nehru 's critics cite Nehru 's belated embrace of Patel 's advice regarding the UN and Kashmir and the integration of Goa by military action and Nehru 's rejection of Patel 's advice on China. Proponents of free enterprise cite the failings of Nehru 's socialist policies as opposed to Patel 's defence of property rights and his mentorship of what was to be later known as the Amul co-operative project. However, A.G. Noorani, in comparing Nehru and Patel, writes that Nehru had a broader understanding of the world than Patel.
In his eulogy, delivered the day after Patel 's death, Sir Girija Shankar Bajpai, the Secretary - General of the Ministry of External Affairs, paid tribute to "a great patriot, a great administrator and a great man. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was all three, a rare combination in any historic epoch and in any country. '' Bajpai lauded Patel for his achievements as a patriot and as an administrator, notably his vital role in securing India 's stability in the aftermath of Independence and Partition:
... History holds many examples of the fruits of freedom squandered by lack of attention to stability and order, the twin foundations of society. Though a revolutionary in his fight against foreign rule, Sardar Patel was no believer in abrupt or violent change; progress by evolution was really his motto. And so, although in August 1947 power changed hands, and with it the spirit of the administration, the machinery of Government was preserved. As Home Minister and Minister for States, the Sardar had a double task, conservative in the good sense of the word, in what had been Provinces in the old India, creative in the Indian States. Neither was easy. To the ordinary stresses of a transition caused by the withdrawal of trained personnel which had wielded all power for a hundred years was added the strain of partition, and the immense human upheavals and suffering that followed it. The fate of our new State hung in the balance during those perilous months when millions moved across the new frontiers under conditions which are still vivid - indeed, too vivid - in our memories, and therefore, need not be described. That despite some oscillation the scales stayed steady was due not only to the faith of the people in its leaders, but to the firm will and strong hand of the new Home Minister.
Among Patel 's surviving family, Maniben Patel lived in a flat in Mumbai for the rest of her life following her father 's death; she often led the work of the Sardar Patel Memorial Trust, which organises the prestigious annual Sardar Patel Memorial Lectures, and other charitable organisations. Dahyabhai Patel was a businessman who was elected to serve in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Indian Parliament) as an MP in the 1960s.
For many decades after his death, there was a perceived lack of effort from the Government of India, the national media, and the Congress party regarding commemoration of Patel 's life and work. Patel was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India 's highest civilian honour, in 1991. It was announced in 2014 that his birthday, 31 October, would become an annual national celebration known as Rashtriya Ekta Diwas (National Unity Day). Patel 's legacy has been surprisingly adored by the RSS and BJP, against whom Patel had acted coercively, forcing them to stay away from communal politics after Gandhi 's assassination.
Patel 's family home in Karamsad is preserved in his memory. The Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Memorial in Ahmedabad was established in 1980 at the Moti Shahi Mahal. It comprises a museum, a gallery of portraits and historical pictures, and a library containing important documents and books associated with Patel and his life. Amongst the exhibits are many of Patel 's personal effects and relics from various periods of his personal and political life.
Patel is the namesake of many public institutions in India. A major initiative to build dams, canals, and hydroelectric power plants in the Narmada river valley to provide a tri-state area with drinking water and electricity and to increase agricultural production was named the Sardar Sarovar. Patel is also the namesake of the Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology in Surat, Sardar Patel University, Sardar Patel High School, and the Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, which are among the nation 's premier institutions. India 's national police training academy is also named after him.
The international airport of Ahmedabad is named after him. Also the international cricket stadium of Ahmedabad (also known as the Motera Stadium) is named after him. A national cricket stadium in Navrangpura, Ahmedabad, used for national matches and events, is also named after him. The chief outer ring road encircling Ahmedabad is named S P Ring Road. The Gujarat government 's institution for training government functionaries is named Sardar Patel Institute of Public Administration.
Rashtriya Ekta Diwas (National Unity Day) was introduced by the Government of India and inaugurated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2014. The intent is to pay tribute to Patel, who was instrumental in keeping India united. It is to be celebrated on 31 October every year as annual commemoration of the birthday of the Iron Man of India Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, one of the founding leaders of Republic of India. The official statement for Rashtriya Ekta Diwas by the Home Ministry of India cites that the National Unity Day "will provide an opportunity to re-affirm the inherent strength and resilience of our nation to withstand the actual and potential threats to the unity, integrity and security of our country. ''
National Unity Day celebrates the birthday of Patel because, during his term as Home Minister of India, he is credited for the integration of over 550 independent princely states into India from 1947 - 49 by Independence Act (1947). He is known as the "Bismarck of India ''. The celebration is complemented with the speech of Prime Minister of India followed by the "Run for Unity ''. The theme for 2016 celebrations was "Integration of India ''.
The Statue of Unity is an under construction monument dedicated to Indian independence movement leader Vallabhbhai Patel located in the Indian state of Gujarat. 182 metres (597 feet) in height, it is to be located facing the Narmada Dam, 3.2 km away on the river island called Sadhu Bet near Vadodara in Gujarat. This statue is planned to be spread over 20,000 square meters of project area and will be surrounded by an artificial lake spread across 12 km of area. It would be the world 's tallest statue when completed.
In 1993, an Indian biopic named Sardar, directed by Ketan Mehta and written by noted playwright Vijay Tendulkar, was released. The film was screened retrospectively on 12 August 2016 at the Independence Day Film Festival jointly presented by the Indian Directorate of Film Festivals and Ministry of Defense, commemorating the 70th Indian Independence Day.
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how many plagues did god put on egypt | Plagues of Egypt - wikipedia
The Plagues of Egypt (Hebrew: מכות מצרים, Makot Mitzrayim), also called the ten biblical plagues, were ten calamities that, according to the biblical Book of Exodus, God inflicted upon Egypt as a demonstration of power, after which the Pharaoh conceded to Moses ' demands to let the enslaved Israelites go into the wilderness to make sacrifices. God repeatedly hardened the Pharaoh 's heart to prevent him from consenting until after the tenth plague. The Israelites ' eventual departure began the Exodus of the Hebrew people.
The plagues served to contrast the power of the God of Israel with the Egyptian gods, invalidating them. Some commentators have associated several of the plagues with judgment on specific gods associated with the Nile, fertility and natural phenomena. According to Exodus 12: 12, all the gods of Egypt would be judged through the tenth and final plague: "On that same night I will pass through Egypt and strike down every firstborn of both people and animals, and I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt. I am the LORD. ''
The reason for the plagues appears to be twofold: to answer Pharaoh 's taunt, "Who (is) the LORD, that I should obey his voice to let Israel go? '', and to indelibly impress the Israelites with God 's power as an object lesson for all time, which was also meant to become known "throughout the world ''.
According to the Book of Exodus, God hardened Pharaoh 's heart so he would be strong enough to persist in his unwillingness to release the people, so that God could manifest his great power and cause his power to be declared among the nations, so that other people would discuss it for generations afterward. In this view, the plagues were punishment for the Egyptians ' long abuse of the Israelites, as well as proof that the gods of Egypt were false and powerless. If God triumphed over the gods of Egypt, a world power at that time, then the people of God would be strengthened in their faith, although they were a small people, and would not be tempted to follow the deities that God proved false. Exodus 9: 15 -- 16 (JPS Tanakh) portrays Yahweh explaining why he did not accomplish the freedom of the Israelites immediately: "I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you (Pharaoh) and your people with pestilence, and you would have been effaced from the earth. Nevertheless I have spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My power and in order that My fame may resound throughout the world. ''
The plagues seemed to affect "all the land of Egypt '', but the children of Israel were unaffected. For the last plague, the Torah indicates that they were only spared from the final plague by sacrificing the Paschal lamb, marking their place directly above their doors with the lamb 's blood, and hastily eating the roasted sacrifice together with unleavened bread (now known as Matzoh) which they took from their ovens in haste, as they made ready for the Exodus. The Torah describes God as actually passing through Egypt to kill all firstborn children and cattle, but passing over (hence "Passover '') houses which have the sign of lambs ' blood on the doorpost. It is debated whether it was actually God who came through the streets or one of his angels. Some also think it may be the Holy Spirit. It is most commonly known as the "Angel of Death ''. The night of this plague, Pharaoh finally relents and sends the Israelites away under their terms.
After the Israelites leave en masse, a departure known as The Exodus, God introduces himself by name and makes an exclusive covenant with the Israelites on the basis of this miraculous deliverance. The Ten Commandments encapsulate the terms of this covenant. Joshua, the successor to Moses, reminds the people of their deliverance through the plagues. According to 1 Samuel, the Philistines also knew of the plagues and feared their author. Later, the psalmist sang of these events.
The Torah also relates God 's instructions to Moses that the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt must be celebrated yearly on the holiday of Passover (Pesaḥ פסח); the rituals observed on Passover recall the events surrounding the exodus from Egypt. The month of Nisan has become important to the Jews. The Torah additionally cites God 's sparing of the Israelite firstborn as a rationale for the commandment of the redemption of the firstborn. This event is also commemorated by the Fast of the Firstborn on the day preceding Passover but which is traditionally not observed because a siyum celebration is held which obviates the need for a fast.
It seems that the celebration of Passover waned from time to time, since other biblical books provide references to revival of the holiday. For example, it was reinstated by Joshua at Gilgal, by Josiah, by Hezekiah and, after the return from the captivity, by Ezra. By the time of the Second Temple it was firmly established in Israel.
The plagues as they appear in the 1984 New International Version of the Book of Exodus are:
This is what the LORD says: By this you will know that I am the LORD: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.
This is what the great LORD says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.
"And the LORD said (...) Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt. '' (...) When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.
The Hebrew noun כִּנִּים (kinim) could be translated as lice, gnats, or fleas.
The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the ' arob (עָרוֹב, meaning "mixture '' or "swarm '') only came against the Egyptians, and that it did not affect the Land of Goshen (where the Israelites lived). Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow the Israelites ' freedom. However, after the plague was gone, the LORD "hardened Pharaoh 's heart '', and he refused to keep his promise.
The word ' arob has caused a difference of opinion among traditional interpreters. The root meaning is (ע. ר. ב), meaning a mixture - implying a diversity, array, or assortment of harmful animals. While Jewish interpreters understand the plague as "wild animals '' (most likely scorpions, venomous snakes, and other venomous arthropods and reptiles), Gesenius along with many Christian interpreters understand the plague as a swarm of flies.
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the LORD will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field -- on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.
Then the LORD said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land. ''
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. (...) The LORD sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the LORD rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.
This is what the LORD, the God of the Jews, says: ' How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it can not be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians -- something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.
Then the LORD said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt -- darkness that can be felt. '' So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.
This is what the LORD says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt -- worse than there has ever been or ever will be again. ''
Before this final plague, God commanded Moses to inform all the Israelites to mark lamb 's blood above their doors on every door in which case the LORD will pass over them and not "suffer the destroyer to come into your houses and smite you '' (chapter 12, v. 23).
After this, Pharaoh, furious, saddened, and afraid that he would be killed next, ordered the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they wanted, and asking Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The Israelites did not hesitate, believing that soon Pharaoh would once again change his mind, which he did; and at the end of that night Moses led them out of Egypt with "arms upraised ''. However, as the Israelites left Egypt, the Pharaoh changed his mind again and sent his army after Moses ' people. The Israelites were trapped by the Red Sea. God split the sea, and they were able to pass safely. As the Egyptian army descended on them, the sea closed before they could reach the Israelites.
In the view of Islam, the plagues were almost identical. It is mentioned in the Quran, specifically in Surah Al - A'raf verse 133 "So We sent on them: the Tuwfan (a calamity causing wholesale death, a flood or a typhoon - Ali, Note 1090 to S. VII. 133), the locusts, the Qummal, the frogs, and the blood (as a succession of) manifest signs, yet they remained arrogant, and they were of those people who were criminals ''. The Quran further relates that the plagues included a mighty blast, showers of stones and earthquakes (Ali, Notes 3462 - 3464 to S. XXIX. 40).
The Book of Deuteronomy, in reviewing previous events, mentions the "diseases of Egypt '' (Deuteronomy 7: 15 and 28: 60), but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians; Deuteronomy 7: 19 mentions the plagues of the book of Exodus. The Exodus plagues are divine judgments, a series of curses like those in Deuteronomy 28: 15 -- 68, verses which mention many of the same afflictions; they are even closer to the curses in the Holiness code (Leviticus 26), since like the Holiness Code they leave room for repentance. The theme that divine punishment should lead to repentance is echoed:
The 6th century prophets refer to the theme of Pharaoh 's obstinacy -- Isaiah 6: 9 -- 13, Jeremiah 5: 3, and Ezekiel 3: 7 -- 9.
While proponents of biblical archaeology argue that the plague stories are true, a large consensus of historians believe them to be allegorical or inspired by passed - down accounts of disconnected disasters. Some scientists claim the plagues can be attributed to a chain of natural phenomena triggered by changes in the climate and environmental disasters hundreds of miles away. The Ipuwer Papyrus, written probably in the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1991 - 1803 BCE) has often put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the Biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood '' and its frequent references to servants running away, but these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as the fact that its Asiatics are arriving in Egypt rather than leaving, and the likelihood that the "river is blood '' phrase may refer to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or may simply be a poetic image of turmoil.
Some archaeologists believe the plagues occurred at the ancient city of Pi - Rameses in the Nile Delta, which was the capital of Egypt during the reign of Ramesses II. There is some archaeological material which such archaeologists, for example William F. Albright, have considered to be historical evidence of the ten plagues; for example, an ancient water trough found in El Arish bears hieroglyphic markings detailing a period of darkness. Albright and other Christian archaeologists have claimed that such evidence, as well as careful study of the areas ostensibly travelled by the Israelites after the Exodus, make discounting the biblical account untenable.
Some historians have suggested that the plagues are passed - down accounts of several natural disasters, some disconnected, others playing part of a chain reaction. Natural explanations have been suggested for most of the phenomena:
A volcanic eruption did occur in antiquity and could have caused some of the plagues if it occurred at the right time. The eruption of the Thera volcano was 1,050 kilometres (650 mi) away from the northwest part of Egypt. Controversially dated to about 1628 BC, this eruption is one of the largest on record, rivaling that of Tambora, which resulted in 1816 's Year Without a Summer. The enormous global impact of this eruption has been recorded in an ash layer deposit found in the Nile delta, tree ring frost scars in the bristlecone pines of the western United States, and a layer of ash in the Greenland ice caps, all dated to the same time and with the same chemical fingerprint as the ash from Thera.
However, all estimates of the date of this eruption are hundreds of years before the Exodus is believed to have taken place; thus the eruption can only have caused some of the plagues if one or other of the dates is wrong, or if the plagues did not actually immediately precede the Exodus.
Following the assumption that at least some of the details are accurately reported, many modern Jews believe that some of the plagues were indeed natural disasters, but argue for the fact that, since they followed one another with such uncommon rapidity, "God 's hand was behind them ''. Indeed, several biblical commentators (Nachmanides and, more recently, Rabbi Yaakov Kamenetzky) have pointed out that, for the plagues to be a real test of faith, they had to contain an element leading to religious doubt.
In his book The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, Siro Igino Trevisanato explores the theory that the plagues were initially caused by the Santorini eruption in Greece. His hypothesis considers a two - stage eruption over a time of a bit less than two years. His studies place the first eruption in 1602 BC, when volcanic ash taints the Nile, causing the first plague and forming a catalyst for many of the subsequent plagues. In 1600 BC, the plume of a Santorini eruption caused the ninth plague, the days of darkness. Trevisanato hypothesizes that the Egyptians (at that time under the occupation of Hyksos), resorted to human sacrifice in an attempt to appease the gods, for they had viewed the ninth plague as a precursor to more. This human sacrifice became known as the tenth plague.
In an article published in 1996, physician - epidemiologist John S. Marr and co-author Curt Malloy integrated biblical, historical and Egyptological sources with modern scientific conjectures in a comprehensive review of natural explanations for the ten plagues, postulating their own specific explanations for the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and tenth plagues. Their explanation also accounted for the apparent selectiveness of the plagues, as implied in the Bible. The paper served as the basis for a website and documentary aired on the Learning Channel from 1998 to 2005.
In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with John Martin and Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Orientalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch 's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill - suited for decoration in palaces and churches.
Taking direct inspiration from the ten plagues, Iced Earth 's eleventh studio album Plagues of Babylon contains many references and allusions to the plagues. Metallica 's song "Creeping Death '' makes references to a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story of the Exodus. Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is Handel 's oratorio Israel in Egypt, which, like his perennial favorite, "Messiah '', takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.
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what is the average temperature of the black sea | Black Sea - wikipedia
The Black Sea is a body of water and marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean between Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is supplied by a number of major rivers, such as the Danube, Dnieper, Rioni, Southern Bug, and Dniester. The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km (168,500 sq mi) (not including the Sea of Azov), a maximum depth of 2,212 m (7,257 ft), and a volume of 547,000 km (131,000 cu mi). It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south and by the Caucasus Mountains to the east, and features a wide shelf to the northwest. The longest east - west extent is about 1,175 km (730 mi).
Important cities along the coast include Batumi, Burgas, Constanța, Giresun, Istanbul, Kerch, Novorossiysk, Odessa, Ordu, Poti, Rize, Samsun, Sevastopol, Sochi, Sukhumi, Trabzon, Varna, Yalta, and Zonguldak.
The Black Sea has a positive water balance; that is, a net outflow of water 300 km (72 cu mi) per year through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea. Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a two - way hydrological exchange. The Black Sea outflow is cooler and less saline, and floats over the warm, more saline Mediterranean inflow -- as a result of differences in density caused by differences in salinity -- leading to a significant anoxic layer well below the surface waters. The Black Sea drains into the Mediterranean Sea and then the Atlantic Ocean, via the Aegean Sea and various straits. The Bosphorus Strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the Strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean. These waters separate Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The Black Sea is also connected to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch.
The water level has varied significantly. Due to these variations in the water level in the basin, the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been land. At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the world ocean. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is an endorheic basin, operating independently of the global ocean system, like the Caspian Sea for example. Currently the Black Sea water level is relatively high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea, and comprise the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows:
Istanbul Odessa
Samsun Varna
Current names of the sea are usually equivalents of the English name "Black Sea '', including these given in the countries bordering the sea:
Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate the 13th century, but there are indications that they may be considerably older.
In Greece, the historical name "Euxine Sea '', which holds a different meaning (see below), is still widely used:
The Black Sea is one of four seas named in English after common colour terms -- the others being the Red Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea.
The principal Greek name "Póntos Áxeinos '' itself is generally accepted to be a rendering of Iranian * axšaina - ("dark colored ''), cf. Avestan axšaēna - ("dark colored ''), Old Persian axšaina - (color of turquoise), Middle Persian axšēn / xašēn ("blue ''), and New Persian xašīn ("blue ''), as well as Ossetic œxsīn ("dark gray ''). The ancient Greeks subsequently adopted the name, reportedly in all likelihood those who lived to the north of the Black Sea, and altered it into á - xe (i) nos. Thereafter, Greek tradition refers to the Black Sea as the "Inhospitable Sea '', Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos, first attested in Pindar (c. 475 BC). The name, considered to be "ominous '', was then later changed into the euphemism "Hospitable sea '', Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos, which was also for the first time attested in Pindar. This became the commonly used designation in Greek for the sea. In contexts related to mythology, the older form "Póntos Áxeinos '' remained favored.
Previously, it was erroneously suggested that the name had to be derived from the color of the water, or at least were to be related to climatic particulars. Black (or dark), in this context however, referred to a system in which colors represented the various "cardinal points '' of the known world. Black, or dark represented the north, red the south, white for the west, and green or light blue for the east. This symbolism based on cardinal points was used in a plethora of different occasions, and is therefore widely attested. For example, the "Red Sea '', a body of water reported since the time of Herodotus (c. 484 -- c. 425 BC) in fact designated the Indian Ocean, together with bodies of water known as the Persian Gulf and the "actual '' Red Sea. According to the same explanation and reasoning, it is therefore considered to be impossible for the Scythians (who principally roamed in what is present - day Ukraine and Russia) to have given the designation as they lived to the north of the sea, and it would be therefore a southern antipodal body of water for them. As the name could have only been given by a people that were well aware of both the northern "black / dark '' and southern "red '' seas, it is therefore considered probable that it was given its name by the Achaemenids (550 -- 330 BC).
Strabo 's Geographica (1.2. 10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called "the Sea '' (ὁ πόντος ho pontos). He also thought that the Black Sea was called "inhospitable '' before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes. (7.3. 6) The name was changed to "hospitable '' after the Milesians had colonized the southern shoreline, the Pontus, making it part of Greek civilization.
In Greater Bundahishn, a sacred Zoroastrian text written in Middle Persian the Black Sea is called Siyābun.
A map of Asia dating to 1570, entitled "Asiae Nova Descriptio '', from Abraham Ortelius 's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, labels the sea Mar Maggior ("Great Sea '', cf. Latin mare major).
English - language writers of the 18th century often used the name "Euxine Sea '' (/ ˈjuːksɪn / or / ˈjuːkˌsaɪn /) to refer to the Black Sea. Edward Gibbon, for instance, calls the sea by this name throughout The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. During the Ottoman Empire period, the Black Sea was called either Bahr - e Siyah or Karadeniz, both meaning "the Black Sea '' in the Ottoman Turkish.
It is worthy to note, that in the tenth - century geography book Hudud al - ' Alam, written in the Persian language by an unknown author, the Black Sea is called "Georgian Sea '', "Sea of Georgians '' ("daryä - yi Gurziyan '').
Old Georgian sources of 9th -- 14th centuries ("The Georgian Chronicles '') were using the name "Speris Zğua '' (სპერის ზღუა), which means "The Sea of Speri '', after the name of Kartvelian tribe Speris or Saspers, now in Turkey.
The modern names of the Black Sea (Chyornoye more, Karadeniz, etc.), stretch only back to the 13th century.
The geological origins of the basin can be traced back to two distinct relict back - arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo - and Neo-Tethys Oceans, but the timings of these events remain controversial. Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in the basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large - scale volcanism and numerous orogenies, causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus, Pontides, Southern Crimean Peninsula and Balkanides mountain ranges.
The ongoing collision between the Eurasian and African plates and westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian Fault and East Anatolian Faults dictates the current tectonic regime, which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region. It is these geological mechanisms which, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system.
The modern basin is divided into two sub-basins by a convexity extending south from the Crimean Peninsula. The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km (120 mi) wide, and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1: 40 and 1: 1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the eastern edge around Georgia, however, are typified by a narrow shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km (12 mi) in width and a steep apron that is typically 1: 40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 metres (7,257.22 feet) just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula.
The littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral or Pontic zone.
The area surrounding the Black Sea is commonly referred to as the Black Sea Region. Its northern part lies within the Chernozem belt (black soil belt) which goes from eastern Croatia (Slavonia), along the Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria (Danubian Plain) and southern Romania (Wallachian Plain)) to northeast Ukraine and further across the Central Black Earth Region and southern Russia into Siberia.
The Black Sea is a marginal sea and is the world 's largest body of water with a meromictic basin. The deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90 % of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The Black Sea 's circulation patterns are primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure. Because of the extreme stratification, it is classified as a salt wedge estuary.
The Black Sea only experiences water transfer with the Mediterranean Sea, so all inflow and outflow occurs in the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Inflow from the Mediterranean has a higher salinity and density than the outflow, creating the classical estuarine circulation. This means that inflow of dense water from Mediterranean occurs at the bottom of the basin while outflow of fresher Black Sea surface - water into the Marmara Sea occurs near the surface. Fresher surface water is the product of the fluvial inputs, and this makes the Black Sea a positive sea. The net input of freshwater creates an outflow volume about twice that of the inflow. Evaporation and precipitation are roughly equal at about 300 cubic kilometres per year (72 cu mi / a).
Because of the narrowness and shallowness of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles (their respective depths are only 33 and 70 meters), inflow and outflow current speeds are high and there is significant vertical shear. This allows for turbulent mixing of the two layers. Surface water leaves the Black Sea with a salinity of 17 psu and reaches the Mediterranean with a salinity of 34 psu. Likewise, inflow of the Mediterranean with salinity 38.5 psu experiences a decrease to about 34 psu.
Mean surface circulation is cyclonic and waters around the perimeter of the Black Sea circulate in a basin - wide shelfbreak gyre known as the Rim Current. The Rim Current has a maximum velocity of about 50 -- 100 cm / s. Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. The Eastern and Western Gyres are well - organized systems in the winter but dissipate into a series of interconnected eddies in the summer and autumn. Mesoscale activity in the peripheral flow becomes more pronounced during these warmer seasons and is subject to interannual variability.
Outside of the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed as a result of upwelling around the coastal apron and "wind curl '' mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. During the spring, the Batumi eddy forms in the southeastern corner of the sea.
Beneath the surface waters -- from about 50 -- 100 meters -- there exists a halocline that stops at the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL). This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localized atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. It is the remnant of the winter surface mixed layer. The base of the CIL is marked by a major pycnocline at about 100 -- 200 metres (330 -- 660 ft) and this density disparity is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water.
Below the pycnocline is the Deep Water mass, where salinity increases to 22.3 psu and temperatures rise to around 8.9 ° C. The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilizes all of the free oxygen. Weak geothermal heating and long residence time create a very thick convective bottom layer.
Because of the anoxic water at depth, organic matter, including anthropogenic artifacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short - lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels. Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region. As a result of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology as ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered, such as the Byzantine wreck Sinop D, located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey.
Modelling shows the release of the hydrogen sulfide clouds in the event of an asteroid impact into the Black Sea would pose a threat to health -- or even life -- for people living on the Black Sea coast.
There have been isolated reports of flares on the Black Sea occurring during thunderstorms, possibly caused by lightning igniting combustible gas seeping up from the sea depths.
The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited to the brackish, nutrient - rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs, the Black Sea features a range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae, including diatoms and dinoflagellates, acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by seasonal physiographic development.
During winter, strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high summer temperatures result in a marked vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer. Day length and insolation intensity also controls the extent of the photic zone. Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate, in the form of ammonia. The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to the photic zone, enhancing productivity.
In total, Black Sea 's biodiversity contains around one - third of Mediterranean 's, and is experiencing natural and artificial invasions or Mediterranizations.
The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea are dinoflagellates, diatoms, coccolithophores and cyanobacteria. Generally, the annual cycle of phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate - dominated spring production, followed by a weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the seasonal thermocline during summer months and a surface - intensified autumn production. This pattern of productivity is also augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and summer months.
Since the 1960s, rapid industrial expansion along the Black Sea coast line and the construction of a major dam has significantly increased annual variability in the N: P: Si ratio in the basin. In coastal areas, the biological effect of these changes has been an increase in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton blooms, with diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 2.5 and non-diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6. The non-diatoms, such as the prymnesiophytes Emiliania huxleyi (coccolithophore), Chromulina sp., and the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii are able to out - compete diatom species because of the limited availability of Si, a necessary constituent of diatom frustules. As a consequence of these blooms, benthic macrophyte populations were deprived of light, while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine animals.
The decline in macrophytes was further compounded by overfishing during the 1970s, while the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass of copepods and other zooplankton in the late 1980s. Additionally, an alien species -- the warty comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi) -- was able to establish itself in the basin, exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons. The change in species composition in Black Sea waters also has consequences for hydrochemistry, as Ca - producing coccolithophores influence salinity and pH, although these ramifications have yet to be fully quantified. In central Black Sea waters, Si levels were also significantly reduced, due to a decrease in the flux of Si associated with advection across isopycnal surfaces. This phenomenon demonstrates the potential for localised alterations in Black Sea nutrient input to have basin - wide effects.
Pollution reduction and regulation efforts have led to a partial recovery of the Black Sea ecosystem during the 1990s, and an EU monitoring exercise, ' EROS21 ', revealed decreased N and P values, relative to the 1989 peak. Recently, scientists have noted signs of ecological recovery, in part due to the construction of new sewage treatment plants in Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria in connection with membership in the European Union. Mnemiopsis leidyi populations have been checked with the arrival of another alien species which feeds on them.
Jellyfish
Actinia
Actinia
Goby
Stingray
Goat fish
Hermit crab, Diogenes pugilator
Blue sponge
Spiny dogfish
Seahorse
Black Sea Common Dolphins with a kite - surfer off Sochi
Common dolphins porpoising with a ferry at Batumi port
In the past, the range of the Asiatic lion extended from South Asia to the Balkans, possibly up to the Danube. Places like Turkey and the Trans - Caucasus were in this range. The Caspian tiger occurred in eastern Turkey and the Caucasus, at least. The lyuti zver (Old Russian for "fierce animal '') that was encountered by Vladimir II Monomakh, Velikiy Kniaz of Kievan Rus ' (which ranged to the Black Sea in the south), may have been a tiger or leopard, rather than a wolf or lynx, due to the way it behaved towards him and his horse.
Short - term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the North Atlantic oscillation, the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses. While the exact mechanisms causing the North Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear, it is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of winter cyclones, which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs and influence Mediterranean Sea Surface Temperatures (SST 's).
The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter. Other influencing factors include the regional topography, as depressions and storms systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosphorus, Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as wave guides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region.
The Black Sea is connected to the World Ocean by a chain of two shallow straits, the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. The Dardanelles is 55 m (180 ft) deep and the Bosphorus is as shallow as 36 m (118 ft). By comparison, at the height of the last ice age, sea levels were more than 100 m (330 ft) lower than they are now.
There is also evidence that water levels in the Black Sea were considerably lower at some point during the post-glacial period. Some researchers theorize that the Black Sea had been a landlocked freshwater lake (at least in upper layers) during the last glaciation and for some time after.
In the aftermath of the last glacial period, water levels in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea rose independently until they were high enough to exchange water. The exact timeline of this development is still subject to debate. One possibility is that the Black Sea filled first, with excess fresh water flowing over the Bosphorus sill and eventually into the Mediterranean Sea. There are also catastrophic scenarios, such as the "Black Sea deluge theory '' put forward by William Ryan, Walter Pitman and Petko Dimitrov.
The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC due to waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosporus Strait. The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996, shortly before it was published in an academic journal. While it is agreed that the sequence of events described did occur, there is debate over the suddenness, dating and magnitude of the events. Relevant to the hypothesis is that its description has led some to connect this catastrophe with prehistoric flood myths.
The Black Sea was a busy waterway on the crossroads of the ancient world: the Balkans to the west, the Eurasian steppes to the north, Caucasus and Central Asia to the east, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south, and Greece to the south - west.
The oldest processed gold in the world was found in Varna, and the Black Sea was supposedly sailed by the Argonauts. The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, Colchis, (now Georgia), marked for the Greeks the edge of the known world.
The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland (Urheimat) of the speakers of the Proto - Indo - European language, (PIE) the progenitor of the Indo - European language family, by some scholars such as Marija Gimbutas; others move the heartland further east towards the Caspian Sea, yet others to Anatolia.
The Black Sea became an Ottoman Navy lake within five years of Genoa losing the Crimea in 1479, after which the only Western merchant vessels to sail its waters were those of Venice 's old rival Ragusa. This restriction was gradually changed by the Russian Navy from 1783 until the relaxation of export controls in 1789 because of the French Revolution.
The Black Sea was a significant naval theatre of World War I and saw both naval and land battles during World War II.
Ancient trade routes in the region are currently being extensively studied by scientists, as the Black Sea was sailed by Hittites, Carians, Colchians, Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Cimmerians, Scythians, Romans, Byzantines, Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Slavs, Varangians, Crusaders, Venetians, Genoese, Lithuanians, Georgians, Poles, Tatars, Ottomans, and Russians.
Perhaps the most promising areas in deepwater archaeology are the quest for submerged prehistoric settlements in the continental shelf and for ancient shipwrecks in the anoxic zone, which are expected to be exceptionally well preserved due to the absence of oxygen. This concentration of historical powers, combined with the preservative qualities of the deep anoxic waters of the Black Sea, has attracted increased interest from marine archaeologists who have begun to discover a large number of ancient ships and organic remains in a high state of preservation.
According to NATO, the Black sea is a strategic corridor that provides smuggling channels for moving legal and illegal goods including drugs, radioactive materials, and counterfeit goods that can be used to finance terrorism.
According to the International Transport Workers ' Federation 2013 study, there were at least 30 operating merchant seaports in the Black Sea (including at least 12 in Ukraine).
According to the International Transport Workers ' Federation 2013 study, there were around 2,400 commercial vessels operating in the Black Sea.
Anchovy: the Turkish commercial fishing fleet catches around 300,000 tons per year on average, and fishery carried out mainly in winter and the highest portion of the stock is caught between November and December.
Since the 1980s, the Soviet Union started offshore drilling for petroleum in the sea 's western portion (adjoining Ukraine 's coast). The independent Ukraine continued and intensified that effort within its exclusive economic zone, inviting major international oil companies for exploration. Discovery of the new, massive oilfields in the area stimulated an influx of foreign investments. It also provoked a short - term peaceful territorial dispute with Romania which was resolved in 2011 by an international court redefining the exclusive economic zones between the two countries.
In the years following the end of the Cold War, the popularity of the Black Sea as a tourist destination steadily increased. Tourism at Black Sea resorts became one of the region 's growth industries. The following is a list of notable Black Sea resort towns:
The 1936 Montreux Convention provides for a free passage of civilian ships between the international waters of the Black and the Mediterranean Seas. However, a single country (Turkey) has a complete control over the straits connecting the two seas. The 1982 amendments to the Montreux Convention allow Turkey to close the Straits at its discretion in both wartime and peacetime.
The 1936 Montreux Convention governs the passage of vessels between the Black and the Mediterranean Seas and the presence of military vessels belonging to non-littoral states in the Black Sea waters.
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the popular toy manufacturing company funskool is a subsidiary of __ | The Lego Group - wikipedia
Coordinates: 55 ° 44 ′ 04 '' N 9 ° 07 ′ 28 '' E / 55.7345323 ° N 9.1244228 ° E / 55.7345323; 9.1244228
Lego System A / S, doing business as The Lego Group (stylised as The LEGO Group), is a Danish family - owned company based in Billund, Denmark. It is best known for the manufacture of Lego - brand toys, consisting mostly of interlocking plastic bricks. The Lego Group has also built several amusement parks around the world, each known as Legoland, and operates numerous retail stores.
The company was founded on 10 August 1932 by Ole Kirk Christiansen. The word "lego '' is derived from the Danish words "leg godt '', meaning "play well ''. In the first half of 2015, The Lego Group became the world 's largest toy company by revenue, with sales amounting to US $2.1 billion, surpassing Mattel, which had US $1.9 billion in sales. On 11 August 2017, Lego announced that Niels B. Christiansen would become the new CEO, effective 1 October of the same year.
The history of Lego spans nearly 100 years, beginning with the creation of small wooden playthings during the early 20th century. Manufacturing of plastic Lego bricks began in Denmark in 1947, but since has grown to include factories throughout the world.
Below are historical images of the Lego logo throughout the company 's existence.
1934 -- 1936
1936 -- 1946
1946 -- 1948
1948 -- 1950
1950 -- 1953
1953 -- 1954
1954 -- 1959
1959 -- 1964
1964 -- 1972
1972 -- 1998
1998 -- present
Since the expiration of the last standing Lego patent in 1989, a number of companies have produced interlocking bricks that are similar to Lego bricks. The toy company Tyco Toys produced such bricks for a time; other competitors include Mega Bloks and Best - Lock. These competitor products are typically compatible with Lego bricks, and are often marketed at a lower cost than Lego sets.
One such competitor is Coko, manufactured by Chinese company Tianjin Coko Toy Co., Ltd. In 2002, Lego Group 's Swiss subsidiary Interlego AG sued the company for copyright infringement. A trial court found many Coko bricks to be infringing; Coko was ordered to cease manufacture of the infringing bricks, publish a formal apology in the Beijing Daily, and pay a small fee in damages to Interlego. On appeal, the Beijing High People 's Court upheld the trial court 's ruling.
In 2003, The Lego Group won a lawsuit in Norway against the marketing group Biltema for its sale of Coko products, on the grounds that the company used product confusion for marketing purposes.
Also in 2003, a large shipment of Lego - like products marketed under the name "Enlighten '' was seized by Finland customs authorities. The packaging of the Enlighten products was similar to official Lego packaging. Their Chinese manufacturer failed to appear in court, and thus Lego won a default action ordering the destruction of the shipment. Lego Group footed the bill for the disposal of the 54,000 sets, citing a desire to avoid brand confusion and protect consumers from potentially inferior products.
In 2004, Best - Lock Construction Toys defeated a patent challenge from Lego in the Oberlandesgericht, Hamburg.
The Lego Group has attempted to trademark the "Lego Indicia '', the studded appearance of the Lego brick, hoping to stop production of Mega Bloks. On 24 May 2002, the Federal Court of Canada dismissed the case, asserting the design is functional and therefore ineligible for trademark protection. The Lego Group 's appeal was dismissed by the Federal Court of Appeal on 14 July 2003. In October 2005, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that "Trademark law should not be used to perpetuate monopoly rights enjoyed under now - expired patents '' and held that Mega Bloks can continue to manufacture their bricks.
Because of fierce competition from copycat products, the company has always responded by being proactive in their patenting and has over 600 United States -- granted design patents to their name.
Lego acknowledges the impact of its operations on the environment, in particular in areas such as climate change, resource and energy use and waste. All manufacturing sites are certified according to the environmental standard ISO 14001. The first Borkum Riffgrund 1 wind turbines off the coast of Germany began producing electricity in February 2015, which will help The Lego Group reach its goal of being based 100 % on renewable energy by 2020. The company claims to recycle 90 % of its waste and that it had made its operations nearly one - third more energy efficient over the five - year period ending 31 December 2013. It is seeking alternatives to crude oil as the raw material for its bricks. This results in the establishment in June 2015 the Lego Sustainable Materials Centre, which is expected to recruit more than 100 employees, as a significant step towards the 2030 ambition of finding and implementing sustainable alternatives to current materials.
In 2011, Lego bowed to pressure from the environmental campaigning organisation Greenpeace, reportedly agreeing to drop supplier Asia Pulp and Paper, and pledging to only use packaging material certified by the Forest Stewardship Council in future. The environmental group had accused Lego, Hasbro, Mattel and Disney of using packaging material sourced from trees cleared out of the Indonesian rainforest.
Lego partnered with the oil company Royal Dutch Shell in the 1960s, using the company 's logo in some of its construction sets. This partnership continued until the 1990s, and was renewed again in 2011. In July 2014, Greenpeace launched a global campaign to persuade Lego to cease producing toys carrying the oil company Shell 's logo in response to Shell 's plans to drill for oil in the Arctic. Shell 's PR company valued the most recent two - year deal with Lego at $116 million, and reported that Shell achieved a 7.5 % worldwide sales uplift during the promotion video from Iris International. Lego announced that when the latest contract between the two companies comes to an end it will not be renewing it.
As of August 2014, more than 750,000 people worldwide had signed a Greenpeace petition asking Lego to end its partnership with Shell. Lego responded saying they "expect that Shell lives up to their responsibilities wherever they operate '' and that they "intend to live up to the long term contract with Shell, which we entered into in 2011. '' Meanwhile, Greenpeace produced a video campaigning against the Shell partnership; it received extensive press coverage and was viewed more than six million times on YouTube. In October 2014, Lego announced that it would not be renewing its promotional contract with Royal Dutch Shell but did not say when the existing deal with Shell expires. Greenpeace claimed the decision was in response to its campaigning.
In January 2014, a handwritten letter to Lego from a seven - year - old American girl, Charlotte Benjamin, received widespread attention in the media. In it the young author complained that there were "more Lego boy people and barely any Lego girls '' and observed that "all the girls did was sit at home, go to the beach, and shop, and they had no jobs, but the boys went on adventures, worked, saved people... even swam with sharks ''.
In June 2014, it was announced that Lego would be launching a new "Research Institute '' collection featuring female scientists including a female chemist, palaeontologist, and astronomer. The science - themed project was selected as the latest Lego Ideas winner, and was submitted by Ellen Kooijman, a geochemist in Stockholm. Lego denied claims that the set was introduced to placate criticism of the company by activists, pointing to its Lego Ideas origins. The Research Institute range sold out within a week of its online release in August 2014. The BBC 's Tom de Castella reported that Kooijman was pleased with the set 's final design, despite the addition of face make - up to her original proposal, and that Becky Francis, professor of education and social justice at King 's College London, who had been "very, very disappointed '' by Lego Friends, is a fan.
The Lego Group has built eight amusement parks around the world, known as Legoland. Each park features large - scale Lego models of famous landmarks and miniature Lego models of famous cities, along with Lego themed rides. The first Legoland park was built in Lego 's home town of Billund in Denmark. This was followed by Legoland Windsor in England, Legoland California in Carlsbad, US and Legoland Deutschland in Günzburg, Germany. In addition, Legoland Sierksdorf was opened in 1973, but soon closed in 1976.
In July 2005, the Lego Group announced that it had reached a deal with private investment company the Blackstone Group to sell all four parks for € 375m to the Blackstone subsidiary Merlin Entertainments. Under the terms of the deal, The Lego Group would take a 30 % share in Merlin Entertainments and positions on their board. The sale of the theme parks was part of a wider strategy to restructure the company to focus on the core business of toy products.
In 2010, Merlin Entertainments opened the first Legoland water park at the Legoland California site. On 15 October 2011, Merlin Entertainments opened their first new Legoland park, Legoland Florida, in Winter Haven, Florida. It is the largest Legoland opened to date at 145 acres, and also only the second Legoland opened in the United States. The second Legoland water park was opened near the same location on 26 May 2012 after only 4 months of construction.
Merlin Entertainments opened their second new Legoland park in Nusajaya, Malaysia under the name Legoland Malaysia on 22 September 2012. It is the first Legoland in Asia and was quickly followed by another Lego - themed water park in the same area. The first Lego hotel has also opened near the site. People who stay in the hotel will also get tickets to the theme park and water park.
Merlin Entertainments has also planned several new Legoland parks: Legoland Dubai, Legoland Nagoya (scheduled to open in 2015), and Legoland Korea (also scheduled to open in 2015). In addition, they have opened four new Legoland Discovery Centres, which take the Legoland concept and scale it down to suit a retail park environment.
The Lego Group operates 134 retail stores (83 in the United States, 14 in the United Kingdom, 11 in Germany, 10 in Canada, 7 in France, 2 in Spain, 2 in Austria, 2 in Italy, 2 in Denmark, 1 in Belgium, 2 in China, and 1 in Sweden).
October 2002 saw a significant change in The Lego Group 's direct retail policy with the opening of the first so - called Lego Brand Store in Cologne, Germany. The second, in Milton Keynes, UK, followed quickly -- several dozen more opened worldwide over the next few years, and most of the existing stores have been remodelled on the new Brand Store template. One of the distinctive features of these new stores is the inclusion of a "Pick - A-Brick '' system that allows customers to buy individual bricks in bulk quantities. How a customer buys Lego pieces at a Pick - A-Brick is quite simple: customers fill a large or small cup or bag with their choice of Lego bricks from a large and varied selection and purchase it. The opening of most of these stores, including the 2003 opening of one in the Birmingham Bull Ring shopping centre in England, have been marked by the production of a new, special, limited edition, commemorative Lego DUPLO piece. Lego opened the first brand store in its home country Denmark in Copenhagen on 13 December 2010. There are 2 stores in Austria, 1 store in Belgium, 12 stores in Germany, 13 stores in the United Kingdom, 6 stores in France, 2 stores in Spain, 1 store in Sweden, and 1 store in Denmark for a total of 38 stores in Europe. In 2016, 2 stores have been opened in Milan (Italy) and another in Verona (Italy)
In 1992, when the Mall of America opened in Bloomington, Minnesota, one of its premier attractions was the Lego Imagination Center (LIC). An imagination centre is a large Lego store with displays of Lego sculptures and a play area with bins of bricks to build with. The store inventory includes a large selection of Lego sets for sale, including sets which are advertised in Lego catalogues as "Not Available In Any Store. '' A second imagination centre opened at the Disney Springs (formerly Downtown Disney) at Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida. Between 1999 and 2005, Lego opened 24 further stores in North America in 23 states. As of 2016, there are 90 Lego stores operating or soon - to - be operating in North America in 32 US states and five Canadian provinces. These stores sell various Lego merchandise, including minifigures, Pick - a-Brick, and custom packaged minifigures.
The first Lego store in India was opened in Chennai, Tamil Nadu in March 2014 by Funskool, under licence from the Lego Group.
In 2003, The Lego Group faced a budget deficit of 1.4 billion DKK (220 million USD at then current exchange rates; equal to EUR 175 million), causing Poul Plougmann to be replaced by Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen as president. In the following year, almost one thousand employees were laid off, due to budget cuts. However, in October 2004, on reporting an even larger deficit, Kristiansen also stepped down as president, while placing DKK800 million of his private funds into the company.
In 2005, The Lego Group reported a 2004 net loss of DKK1, 931 million on a total turnover, including Legoland amusement parks, of DKK7, 934 million.
For 2005, the company returned a profit of DKK702 million, having increased its revenue by 12 % to DKK7, 050 million in 2005 against DKK6, 315 million in 2004. It also cut expenditures and disposed of amusement parks and a factory in Switzerland.
In 2011, sales for the company grew 11 %, rising from $2.847 billion in 2010 to $3.495 billion in 2011. Profit for 2011 fiscal year increased from $661 million to $776 million. The increased profit was due to the enormous popularity of the new brand Ninjago, which became the company 's biggest product introduction ever.
In 2012, it was reported that The Lego Group had become the world 's most valuable toy company ahead of Mattel with a value at over $14.6 billion.
The Lego Group delivered a turnover of DKK14, 142m in the first half of 2015 with an increase of 18 % compared with the same period in 2014 measured in local currency (i.e. excluding the impact of foreign exchange rate changes). Net profit for the first half of 2015 was DKK3, 553m compared with DKK2, 715m for the first half of 2014. First half year sales were driven by double - digit growth across all geographical regions and strong product innovation on themes such as Lego Ninjago, Lego Elves and Lego Creator.
The Lego Group announced on 4 September 2017 its intention to cut 1,400 jobs following reduced revenue and profit in the first half of the year, the first reported decrease in 13 years. The revenue losses are due to a more competitive environment, where the company has to compete not only against its traditional competitors Mattel and Hasbro, but also against technology companies such as Sony or Microsoft as more children use mobile devices for entertainment. The job cuts account for 8 percent of the company 's total work force.
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who plays clay's wife on one tree hill | Amanda Schull - wikipedia
Amanda Schull (born August 26, 1978) is an American actress and former professional ballet dancer. She is best known for her lead role in the 2000 film Center Stage and for her recurring roles on One Tree Hill, Pretty Little Liars, and Suits. She currently stars in the Syfy television series 12 Monkeys, the third series of which premiered in May 2017. A fourth and final season has also been commissioned.
Schull was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. She attended Punahou School and trained at Hawaii State Ballet under the instruction of John Landovsky.
Schull was offered a full scholarship to Indiana University for ballet. While at Indiana University, she joined Delta Delta Delta. During her sophomore year (as a ballet and journalism major), she attended the San Francisco Ballet School Summer Intensive. SFBS subsequently offered Schull a scholarship to continue her studies for an additional year.
When Schull 's year - long scholarship ended in 1999, San Francisco Ballet 's artistic director offered her an apprenticeship which she accepted. After filming Center Stage, she subsequently joined SFB as a full - time member of its corps de ballet.
Schull was cast in the starring role of Jody Sawyer in the 2000 movie Center Stage while still an apprentice with the San Francisco Ballet. Later that same year, she was cast as Davina Mayhan, the title character 's older sister on the hit YTV sitcom My Family and Me. She portrayed the character from the show 's third season to the last.
In April 2006, Schull retired from San Francisco Ballet. In May 2008 she went to Australia to film the movie adaptation of Li Cunxin 's Mao 's Last Dancer. In Mao 's Last Dancer, released in North America in 2010, Schull has a major role as Elizabeth "Liz '' Mackey, the girlfriend (and later, first wife) of Li Cunxin.
In 2009, Schull had a guest star role on the Fox TV show, Lie to Me (season 1, episode 4). The same year, she was seen in the Lifetime Movie Sorority Wars starring Lucy Hale and Courtney Thorne - Smith. She also guest starred on The CW 's One Tree Hill as Sara, the spirit and memory of the deceased wife of Clay (played by Robert Buckley), and also as Clay 's wannabe lover who bears a striking resemblance to Sara -- Katie Ryan. She guest starred in an episode of Ghost Whisperer (Greek Tragedy) in 2009, and episode 14 of Bones, in 2010. Schull recurringly appeared as Meredith, who is Aria 's (Lucy Hale 's character) dad 's former lover, in the ABC Family series Pretty Little Liars. She also appeared in an episode of Hawaii Five - 0. In March 2012, she appeared in a McDonald 's commercial for the Shamrock Shake and in April she guest starred in an episode of Psych. Also in 2012 she appeared in an episode of "Grimm '' as Lucinda, a character who resembles Cinderella, but with a twist. Since 2013, she has appeared in the recurring role of Katrina Bennett in USA 's Suits.
In November 2013, Schull was cast as Cassandra Railly on the television series 12 Monkeys, based on the 1995 film of the same name. The show premiered January 16, 2015.
Schull 's mother is Susan Schull, the President of Ballet Hawaii.
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where does h20 just add water take place | H2O: Just Add water - Wikipedia
H O: Just Add Water, also known as H O, is an Australian dramatic fantasy television programme for children and teenagers created by Jonathan M. Shiff. It first screened on Australia 's Network Ten and runs in syndication on channels in over 120 countries and has a worldwide audience of more than 250 million. It was filmed on location at Sea World and other locations on the Gold Coast. The show revolves around three teenage girls facing everyday teen problems with an added twist: they 're mermaids with powers over water.
Only two series with a total of 52 episodes were originally planned, but due to popular demand, a third series was filmed. Series one premiered in July 2006, followed by series two in September 2007. Series three first aired in the United Kingdom in October 2009, with the Australian premiere occurring in May 2010.
Rikki Chadwick, Emma Gilbert, and Cleo Sertori are three teenage Australian girls who find themselves stranded on the mysterious Mako Island, where they end up in a pool under a dormant volcano just as a full moon passes overhead, bathing the pool in light. The girls are rescued and brought back to shore, where they return to their normal lives, until discovering their lives have become anything but normal. The girls find out that ten seconds after coming into contact with water they transform into mermaids. After further experimentation, the girls also discover they have supernatural powers over water. The trio enlist the help of Cleo 's friend Lewis McCartney to help them keep their secret.
Everyday situations, such as bathing and dealing with rainy weather, become tricky as the girls struggle with their newfound abilities, which come with many advantages and disadvantages, while also trying to keep them a secret from everyone else, including their families. They soon adapt to their new abilities and lifestyles.
Series two introduces Charlotte Watsford, a rival to Cleo, for dating Lewis shortly after Cleo had broken up with him. She gains mermaid powers and becomes the main antagonist of series two. She has all three of the mermaids ' powers. In the end, Charlotte loses both her powers and Lewis.
Series three sees the departure of Emma, who has left to travel the world with her parents. A new character, Bella Hartley, is introduced and it is discovered that she has been a mermaid since the age of nine. Rikki and Cleo become friends with Bella, but are soon beset by a mysterious tentacle of water with a connection to Mako Island. A new boy, Will Benjamin, also arrives and become friends with the trio when he discovers that they are mermaids. The girls learn that Earth is in the path of a comet that could destroy the planet. Using their powers, they manage to stop the comet from colliding with Earth.
There are three different types of mermaid tails used on the show: custom - fitted tails that the girls swim in, a "floppy tail '' used for stationary shots, and a "hard tail '' for stunts. The custom costumes took six months to build, with the tails and tops made from body casts and comprising individually hand - crafted scales. The finished product weighs between 12 and 15 kilograms (26 and 33 lb). Inside the tail are leg straps where the girls are strapped up and then zipped up. Once in costume, the girls have to be lifted into the water. Attempts were made to minimise the on - screen visibility of the zips on the tails, such as adding extra scales and crafting a ridge of material around the length of the zip. The tail fin itself was designed with a foot pedal to assist the actresses with swimming. This, along with the fin, adds some 60 centimetres (2 ft) to the length of the costume.
All series have been released on DVD in Region 4 PAL format. Series one comprises six individual DVD sets released between September 2007 and November 2008, and a complete series set released in June 2009. Series two comprises three individual sets released between February and September 2009, and a complete series set released in November 2009. Series three comprises two individual sets released in July and September 2012, with a complete series released in December 2012.
A three - disc set, H O: Season 1, Volume 1, containing the first 13 episodes of series 1 for Region 1 NTSC format was released on 16 June 2009 by Nickelodeon as a manufacture - on - demand (MOD) DVD - R release via Amazon.com through their CreateSpace service. No follow - up DVD volume releases were made from this initial set, which was later discontinued. A complete series DVD boxed set was released in Region 1 NTSC format on 6 November 2012 from New Video, and all three series were made available for purchase individually beginning on 5 March 2013.
An official soundtrack for series two of the show, titled H2O: Just Add Water and recorded by singer Kate Alexa, was first released on 10 September 2007 in Australia on Liberation Records and has since been made available worldwide. Its lead track, "No Ordinary Girl '', is the theme song for the show. "No Ordinary Girl '' is performed by Ellie Henderson in series one, by Kate Alexa in series two and by Indiana Evans in series three.
A second soundtrack, featuring music from series three, was first released on iTunes on 17 February 2011 and later worldwide in March 2011. It is also titled H2O: Just Add Water and was recorded by actress Indiana Evans.
Several children 's books have been released by Nickelodeon UK:
In July 2011, the production of a 26 - episode spin - off was announced. The new series, Mako: Island of Secrets, follows the adventures of 15 - year - old Zac and mermaids Sirena, Nixie, and Lyla. In the final series of the show, Cariba Heine makes a guest appearance as Rikki.
In May 2015, an animated spin - off targeted to children premiered on Netflix, titled H O: Mermaid Adventures.
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the first indian 'talkie' film - a film with dialogues - released in 1931 was _ | Sound film - Wikipedia
A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before sound motion pictures were made commercially practical. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound - on - disc systems, and amplification and recording quality were also inadequate. Innovations in sound - on - film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923.
The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid - to late 1920s. At first, the sound films which included synchronized dialogue, known as "talking pictures '', or "talkies '', were exclusively shorts. The earliest feature - length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects. The first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the leading brand of sound - on - disc technology. Sound - on - film, however, would soon become the standard for talking pictures.
By the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon. In the United States, they helped secure Hollywood 's position as one of the world 's most powerful cultural / commercial centers of influence (see Cinema of the United States). In Europe (and, to a lesser degree, elsewhere), the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, who worried that a focus on dialogue would subvert the unique aesthetic virtues of soundless cinema. In Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. Conversely, in India, sound was the transformative element that led to the rapid expansion of the nation 's film industry.
The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27, 1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion, six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition, he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image - casting zoopraxiscope with Edison 's recorded - sound technology. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a "peep - show '' system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection. In 1899, a projected sound - film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama, based primarily on the work of Swiss - born inventor François Dussaud, was exhibited in Paris; similar to the Kinetophone, the system required individual use of earphones. An improved cylinder - based system, Phono - Cinéma - Théâtre, was developed by Clément - Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France, allowing short films of theater, opera, and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900. These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound - film system -- Théâtroscope -- were also presented at the Exposition.
Three major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization: pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, which were difficult to start and maintain in tandem. Sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences, audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project satisfactorily to fill large spaces. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity. The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices (acoustical horns, for the most part), imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live - recorded sound.
Cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. An increasing number of motion picture systems relied on gramophone records -- known as sound - on - disc technology; the records themselves were often referred to as "Berliner discs '', after one of the primary inventors in the field, German - American Emile Berliner. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound - on - disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, to the French Photographic Society. Four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed - air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons. Despite high expectations, Gaumont 's sound innovations had only limited commercial success -- though improvements, they still did not satisfactorily address the three basic issues with sound film and were expensive as well. For some years, American inventor E.E. Norton 's Cameraphone was the primary competitor to the Gaumont system (sources differ on whether the Cameraphone was disc - or cylinder - based); it ultimately failed for many of the same reasons that held back the Chronophone.
In 1913, Edison introduced a new cylinder - based synch - sound apparatus known, just like his 1895 system, as the Kinetophone; instead of films being shown to individual viewers in the Kinetoscope cabinet, they were now projected onto a screen. The phonograph was connected by an intricate arrangement of pulleys to the film projector, allowing -- under ideal conditions -- for synchronization. However, conditions were rarely ideal, and the new, improved Kinetophone was retired after little more than a year. By the mid-1910s, the groundswell in commercial sound motion picture exhibition had subsided. Beginning in 1914, The Photo - Drama of Creation, promoting Jehovah 's Witnesses ' conception of mankind 's genesis, was screened around the United States: eight hours worth of projected visuals involving both slides and live action were synchronized with separately recorded lectures and musical performances played back on phonograph.
Meanwhile, innovations continued on another significant front. In 1900, as part of the research he was conducting on the photophone, the German physicist Ernst Ruhmer recorded the fluctuations of the transmitting arc - light as varying shades of light and dark bands onto a continuous roll of photographic film. He then determined that he could reverse the process and reproduce the recorded sound from this photographic strip by shining a bright light through the running filmstrip, with the resulting varying light illuminating a selenium cell. The changes in brightness caused a corresponding change to the selenium 's resistance to electrical currents, which was used to modulate the sound produced in a telephone receiver. He called this invention the photographophone, which he summarized as: "It is truly a wonderful process: sound becomes electricity, becomes light, causes chemical actions, becomes light and electricity again, and finally sound. ''
Ruhmer began a correspondence with the French - born, London - based Eugene Lauste, who had worked at Edison 's lab between 1886 and 1892. In 1907, Lauste was awarded the first patent for sound - on - film technology, involving the transformation of sound into light waves that are photographically recorded direct onto celluloid. As described by historian Scott Eyman,
It was a double system, that is, the sound was on a different piece of film from the picture... In essence, the sound was captured by a microphone and translated into light waves via a light valve, a thin ribbon of sensitive metal over a tiny slit. The sound reaching this ribbon would be converted into light by the shivering of the diaphragm, focusing the resulting light waves through the slit, where it would be photographed on the side of the film, on a strip about a tenth of an inch wide.
In 1908, Lauste purchased a photographophone from Ruhmer, with the intention of perfecting the device into a commercial product. Though sound - on - film would eventually become the universal standard for synchronized sound cinema, Lauste never successfully exploited his innovations, which came to an effective dead end. In 1914, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt was granted German patent 309,536 for his sound - on - film work; that same year, he apparently demonstrated a film made with the process to an audience of scientists in Berlin. Hungarian engineer Denes Mihaly submitted his sound - on - film Projectofon concept to the Royal Hungarian Patent Court in 1918; the patent award was published four years later. Whether sound was captured on cylinder, disc, or film, none of the available technology was adequate for big - league commercial purposes, and for many years the heads of the major Hollywood film studios saw little benefit in producing sound motion pictures.
A number of technological developments contributed to making sound cinema commercially viable by the late 1920s. Two involved contrasting approaches to synchronized sound reproduction, or playback:
In 1919, American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first optical sound - on - film technology with commercial application. In De Forest 's system, the sound track was photographically recorded onto the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite, or "married '', print. If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording, it could be absolutely counted on in playback. Over the next four years, he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field, Theodore Case.
At the University of Illinois, Polish - born research engineer Joseph Tykociński - Tykociner was working independently on a similar process. On June 9, 1922, he gave the first reported U.S. demonstration of a sound - on - film motion picture to members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. As with Lauste and Tigerstedt, Tykociner 's system would never be taken advantage of commercially; however, De Forest 's soon would.
On April 15, 1923, at New York City 's Rivoli Theater, came the first commercial screening of motion pictures with sound - on - film, the future standard: a set of shorts under the banner of De Forest Phonofilms, accompanying a silent feature. That June, De Forest entered into an extended legal battle with an employee, Freeman Harrison Owens, for title to one of the crucial Phonofilm patents. Although De Forest ultimately won the case in the courts, Owens is today recognized as a central innovator in the field. The following year, De Forest 's studio released the first commercial dramatic film shot as a talking picture -- the two - reeler Love 's Old Sweet Song, directed by J. Searle Dawley and featuring Una Merkel. However, phonofilm 's stock in trade was not original dramas but celebrity documentaries, popular music acts, and comedy performances. President Calvin Coolidge, opera singer Abbie Mitchell, and vaudeville stars such as Phil Baker, Ben Bernie, Eddie Cantor and Oscar Levant appeared in the firm 's pictures. Hollywood remained suspicious, even fearful, of the new technology. As Photoplay editor James Quirk put it in March 1924, "Talking pictures are perfected, says Dr. Lee De Forest. So is castor oil. '' De Forest 's process continued to be used through 1927 in the United States for dozens of short Phonofilms; in the UK it was employed a few years longer for both shorts and features by British Sound Film Productions, a subsidiary of British Talking Pictures, which purchased the primary Phonofilm assets. By the end of 1930, the Phonofilm business would be liquidated.
In Europe, others were also working on the development of sound - on - film. In 1919, the same year that DeForest received his first patents in the field, three German inventors, Josef Engl (1893 -- 1942), Hans Vogt (1890 -- 1979), and Joseph Massolle (1889 -- 1957), patented the Tri-Ergon sound system. On September 17, 1922, the Tri-Ergon group gave a public screening of sound - on - film productions -- including a dramatic talkie, Der Brandstifter (The Arsonist) -- before an invited audience at the Alhambra Kino in Berlin. By the end of the decade, Tri-Ergon would be the dominant European sound system. In 1923, two Danish engineers, Axel Petersen and Arnold Poulsen, patented a system that recorded sound on a separate filmstrip running parallel with the image reel. Gaumont licensed the technology and briefly put it to commercial use under the name Cinéphone.
Domestic competition, however, eclipsed Phonofilm. By September 1925, De Forest and Case 's working arrangement had fallen through. The following July, Case joined Fox Film, Hollywood 's third largest studio, to found the Fox - Case Corporation. The system developed by Case and his assistant, Earl Sponable, given the name Movietone, thus became the first viable sound - on - film technology controlled by a Hollywood movie studio. The following year, Fox purchased the North American rights to the Tri-Ergon system, though the company found it inferior to Movietone and virtually impossible to integrate the two different systems to advantage. In 1927, as well, Fox retained the services of Freeman Owens, who had particular expertise in constructing cameras for synch - sound film.
Parallel with improvements in sound - on - film technology, a number of companies were making progress with systems that recorded movie sound on phonograph discs. In sound - on - disc technology from the era, a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector, allowing for synchronization. In 1921, the Photokinema sound - on - disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D.W. Griffith 's failed silent film Dream Street. A love song, performed by star Ralph Graves, was recorded, as was a sequence of live vocal effects. Apparently, dialogue scenes were also recorded, but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them. On May 1, 1921, Dream Street was re-released, with love song added, at New York City 's Town Hall theater, qualifying it -- however haphazardly -- as the first feature - length film with a live - recorded vocal sequence. There would be no others for more than six years.
In 1925, Sam Warner of Warner Bros., then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions, saw a demonstration of the Western Electric sound - on - disc system and was sufficiently impressed to persuade his brothers to agree to experiment with using this system at New York 's Vitagraph Studios, which they had recently purchased. The tests were convincing to the Warner Brothers, if not to the executives of some other picture companies who witnessed them. Consequently, in April 1926 the Western Electric Company entered into a contract with Warner Brothers and W.J. Rich, a financier, giving them an exclusive license for recording and reproducing sound pictures under the Western Electric system. To exploit this license the Vitaphone Corporation was organized with Samuel L. Warner as its president. Vitaphone, as this system was now called, was publicly introduced on August 6, 1926, with the premiere of Don Juan; the first feature - length movie to employ a synchronized sound system of any type throughout, its soundtrack contained a musical score and added sound effects, but no recorded dialogue -- in other words, it had been staged and shot as a silent film. Accompanying Don Juan, however, were eight shorts of musical performances, mostly classical, as well as a four - minute filmed introduction by Will H. Hays, president of the Motion Picture Association of America, all with live - recorded sound. These were the first true sound films exhibited by a Hollywood studio. Warner Bros. ' The Better ' Ole, technically similar to Don Juan, followed in October.
Sound - on - film would ultimately win out over sound - on - disc because of a number of fundamental technical advantages:
Nonetheless, in the early years, sound - on - disc had the edge over sound - on - film in two substantial ways:
As sound - on - film technology improved, both of these disadvantages were overcome.
The third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback:
In 1913, Western Electric, the manufacturing division of AT&T, acquired the rights to the de Forest audion, the forerunner of the triode vacuum tube. Over the next few years they developed it into a predictable and reliable device that made electronic amplification possible for the first time. Western Electric then branched - out into developing uses for the vacuum tube including public address systems and an electrical recording system for the recording industry. Beginning in 1922, the research branch of Western Electric began working intensively on recording technology for both sound - on - disc and sound - on film synchronised sound systems for motion - pictures.
The engineers working on the sound - on - disc system were able to draw on expertise that Western Electric already had in electrical disc recording and were thus able to make faster initial progress. The main change required was to increase the playing time of the disc so that it could match that of a standard 1,000 ft (300 m) reel of 35 mm film. The chosen design used a disc nearly 16 inches (about 40 cm) in diameter rotating at 33 1 / 3 rpm. This could play for 11 minutes, the running time of 1000 ft of film at 90 ft / min (24 frames / s). Because of the larger diameter the minimum groove velocity of 70 ft / min (14 inches or 356 mm / s) was only slightly less than that of a standard 10 - inch 78 rpm commercial disc. In 1925, the company publicly introduced a greatly improved system of electronic audio, including sensitive condenser microphones and rubber - line recorders (named after the use of a rubber damping band for recording with better frequency response onto a wax master disc). That May, the company licensed entrepreneur Walter J. Rich to exploit the system for commercial motion pictures; he founded Vitagraph, in which Warner Bros. acquired a half interest, just one month later. In April 1926, Warners signed a contract with AT&T for exclusive use of its film sound technology for the redubbed Vitaphone operation, leading to the production of Don Juan and its accompanying shorts over the following months. During the period when Vitaphone had exclusive access to the patents, the fidelity of recordings made for Warners films was markedly superior to those made for the company 's sound - on - film competitors. Meanwhile, Bell Labs -- the new name for the AT&T research operation -- was working at a furious pace on sophisticated sound amplification technology that would allow recordings to be played back over loudspeakers at theater - filling volume. The new moving - coil speaker system was installed in New York 's Warners Theatre at the end of July and its patent submission, for what Western Electric called the No. 555 Receiver, was filed on August 4, just two days before the premiere of Don Juan.
Late in the year, AT&T / Western Electric created a licensing division, Electrical Research Products Inc. (ERPI), to handle rights to the company 's film - related audio technology. Vitaphone still had legal exclusivity, but having lapsed in its royalty payments, effective control of the rights was in ERPI 's hands. On December 31, 1926, Warners granted Fox - Case a sublicense for the use of the Western Electric system; in exchange for the sublicense, both Warners and ERPI received a share of Fox 's related revenues. The patents of all three concerns were cross-licensed. Superior recording and amplification technology was now available to two Hollywood studios, pursuing two very different methods of sound reproduction. The new year would finally see the emergence of sound cinema as a significant commercial medium.
In February 1927, an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies: Famous Players - Lasky (soon to be part of Paramount), Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer, Universal, First National, and Cecil B. DeMille 's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation (PDC). The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion. The alliance then sat back and waited to see what sort of results the frontrunners came up with. In May, Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI (along with the Fox - Case sublicense) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox 's for use of Western Electric technology. Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema, moving in different directions both technologically and commercially: Fox moved into newsreels and then scored dramas, while Warners concentrated on talking features. Meanwhile, ERPI sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios.
The big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of preexisting celebrity. On May 20, 1927, at New York 's Roxy Theater, Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh 's celebrated flight to Paris, recorded earlier that day. In June, a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York and Washington, D.C., was shown. These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date. In May, as well, Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue: the short They 're Coming to Get Me, starring comedian Chic Sale. After rereleasing a few silent feature hits, such as Seventh Heaven, with recorded music, Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23: Sunrise, by acclaimed German director F.W. Murnau. As with Don Juan, the film 's soundtrack consisted of a musical score and sound effects (including, in a couple of crowd scenes, "wild '', nonspecific vocals).
Then, on October 6, 1927, Warner Bros. ' The Jazz Singer premiered. It was a smash box office success for the mid-level studio, earning a total of $2.625 million in the United States and abroad, almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warners film. Produced with the Vitaphone system, most of the film does not contain live - recorded audio, relying, like Sunrise and Don Juan, on a score and effects. When the movie 's star, Al Jolson, sings, however, the film shifts to sound recorded on the set, including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad - libbed speech -- one of Jolson 's character, Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin), addressing a cabaret audience; the other an exchange between him and his mother. The "natural '' sounds of the settings were also audible. Though the success of The Jazz Singer was due largely to Jolson, already established as one of U.S. biggest music stars, and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film (let alone the "first ''), the movie 's profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in.
The development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before The Jazz Singer, and the film 's success did not change things overnight. Not until May 1928 did the group of four big studios (PDC had dropped out of the alliance), along with United Artists and others, sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film. Initially, all ERPI - wired theaters were made Vitaphone - compatible; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well. However, even with access to both technologies, most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own. No studio besides Warner Bros. released even a part - talking feature until the low - budget - oriented Film Booking Offices of America (FBO) premiered The Perfect Crime on June 17, 1928, eight months after The Jazz Singer. FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor, General Electric 's RCA division, which was looking to market its new sound - on - film system, Photophone. Unlike Fox - Case 's Movietone and De Forest 's Phonofilm, which were variable - density systems, Photophone was a variable - area system -- a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the standard. (In both sorts of systems, a specially - designed lamp, whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input, is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines. In a variable - density process, the lines are of varying darkness; in a variable - area process, the lines are of varying width.) By October, the FBO - RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood 's newest major studio, RKO Pictures.
Meanwhile, Warner Bros. had released three more talkies, all profitable, if not at the level of The Jazz Singer: In March, Tenderloin appeared; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts, though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue. Glorious Betsy followed in April, and The Lion and the Mouse (31 minutes of dialogue) in May. On July 6, 1928, the first all - talking feature, Lights of New York, premiered. The film cost Warner Bros. only $23,000 to produce, but grossed $1.252 million, a record rate of return surpassing 5,000 %. In September, the studio released another Al Jolson part - talking picture, The Singing Fool, which more than doubled The Jazz Singer 's earnings record for a Warners movie. This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical 's ability to turn a song into a national hit: inside of nine months, the Jolson number "Sonny Boy '' had racked up 2 million record and 1.25 million sheet music sales. September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry 's Dinner Time, among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound. Soon after he saw it, Walt Disney released his first sound picture, the Mickey Mouse short Steamboat Willie.
Over the course of 1928, as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films, the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology. Paramount, the industry leader, put out its first talkie in late September, Beggars of Life; though it had just a few lines of dialogue, it demonstrated the studio 's recognition of the new medium 's power. Interference, Paramount 's first all - talker, debuted in November. The process known as "goat glanding '' briefly became widespread: soundtracks, sometimes including a smatter of post-dubbed dialogue or song, were added to movies that had been shot, and in some cases released, as silents. A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a "musical. '' (Griffith 's Dream Street had essentially been a "goat gland. '') Expectations swiftly changed, and the sound "fad '' of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929. In February 1929, sixteen months after The Jazz Singer 's debut, Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as "majors '' during Hollywood 's Golden Age to release its first part - talking feature, Lone Wolf 's Daughter. In late May, the first all - color, all - talking feature, Warner Bros. ' On with the Show!, premiered.
Yet most American movie theaters, especially outside of urban areas, were still not equipped for sound: while the number of sound cinemas grew from 100 to 800 between 1928 and 1929, they were still vastly outnumbered by silent theaters, which had actually grown in number as well, from 22,204 to 22,544. The studios, in parallel, were still not entirely convinced of the talkies ' universal appeal -- through mid-1930, the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions, silent as well as talking. Though few in the industry predicted it, silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory. Points West, a Hoot Gibson Western released by Universal Pictures in August 1929, was the last purely silent mainstream feature put out by a major Hollywood studio.
The Jazz Singer had its European sound premiere at the Piccadilly Theatre in London on September 27, 1928. According to film historian Rachael Low, "Many in the industry realized at once that a change to sound production was inevitable. '' On January 16, 1929, the first European feature film with a synchronized vocal performance and recorded score premiered: the German production Ich küsse Ihre Hand, Madame (I Kiss Your Hand, Madame). Dialogueless, it contains only a few songs performed by Richard Tauber. The movie was made with the sound - on - film system controlled by the German - Dutch firm Tobis, corporate heirs to the Tri-Ergon concern. With an eye toward commanding the emerging European market for sound film, Tobis entered into a compact with its chief competitor, Klangfilm, a joint subsidiary of Germany 's two leading electrical manufacturers. Early in 1929, Tobis and Klangfilm began comarketing their recording and playback technologies. As ERPI began to wire theaters around Europe, Tobis - Klangfilm claimed that the Western Electric system infringed on the Tri-Ergon patents, stalling the introduction of American technology in many places. Just as RCA had entered the movie business to maximize its recording system 's value, Tobis also established its own production operations.
During 1929, most of the major European filmmaking countries began joining Hollywood in the changeover to sound. Many of the trend - setting European talkies were shot abroad as production companies leased studios while their own were being converted or as they deliberately targeted markets speaking different languages. One of Europe 's first two feature - length dramatic talkies was created in still a different sort of twist on multinational moviemaking: The Crimson Circle was a coproduction between director Friedrich Zelnik 's Efzet - Film company and British Sound Film Productions (BSFP). In 1928, the film had been released as the silent Der Rote Kreis in Germany, where it was shot; English dialogue was apparently dubbed in much later using the De Forest Phonofilm process controlled by BSFP 's corporate parent. It was given a British trade screening in March 1929, as was a part - talking film made entirely in the UK: The Clue of the New Pin, a British Lion production using the sound - on - disc British Photophone system. In May, Black Waters, a British and Dominions Film Corporation promoted as the first UK all - talker, received its initial trade screening; it had been shot completely in Hollywood with a Western Electric sound - on - film system. None of these pictures made much impact.
The first successful European dramatic talkie was the all - British Blackmail. Directed by twenty - nine - year - old Alfred Hitchcock, the movie had its London debut June 21, 1929. Originally shot as a silent, Blackmail was restaged to include dialogue sequences, along with a score and sound effects, before its premiere. A British International Pictures (BIP) production, it was recorded on RCA Photophone, General Electric having bought a share of AEG so they could access the Tobis - Klangfilm markets. Blackmail was a substantial hit; critical response was also positive -- notorious curmudgeon Hugh Castle, for example, called it "perhaps the most intelligent mixture of sound and silence we have yet seen. ''
On August 23, the modest - sized Austrian film industry came out with a talkie: G'schichten aus der Steiermark (Stories from Styria), an Eagle Film -- Ottoton Film production. On September 30, the first entirely German - made feature - length dramatic talkie, Das Land ohne Frauen (Land Without Women), premiered. A Tobis Filmkunst production, about one - quarter of the movie contained dialogue, which was strictly segregated from the special effects and music. The response was underwhelming. Sweden 's first talkie, Konstgjorda Svensson (Artificial Svensson), premiered on October 14. Eight days later, Aubert Franco - Film came out with Le Collier de la reine (The Queen 's Necklace), shot at the Épinay studio near Paris. Conceived as a silent film, it was given a Tobis - recorded score and a single talking sequence -- the first dialogue scene in a French feature. On October 31, Les Trois masques debuted; a Pathé - Natan film, it is generally regarded as the initial French feature talkie, though it was shot, like Blackmail, at the Elstree studio, just outside London. The production company had contracted with RCA Photophone and Britain then had the nearest facility with the system. The Braunberger - Richebé talkie La Route est belle, also shot at Elstree, followed a few weeks later.
Before the Paris studios were fully sound - equipped -- a process that stretched well into 1930 -- a number of other early French talkies were shot in Germany. The first all - talking German feature, Atlantik, had premiered in Berlin on October 28. Yet another Elstree - made movie, it was rather less German at heart than Les Trois masques and La Route est belle were French; a BIP production with a British scenarist and German director, it was also shot in English as Atlantic. The entirely German Aafa - Film production It 's You I Have Loved (Dich hab ich geliebt) opened three - and - a-half weeks later. It was not "Germany 's First Talking Film '', as the marketing had it, but it was the first to be released in the United States.
In 1930, the first Polish talkies premiered, using sound - on - disc systems: Moralność pani Dulskiej (The Morality of Mrs. Dulska) in March and the all - talking Niebezpieczny romans (Dangerous Love Affair) in October. In Italy, whose once vibrant film industry had become moribund by the late 1920s, the first talkie, La Canzone dell'amore (The Song of Love), also came out in October; within two years, Italian cinema would be enjoying a revival. The first movie spoken in Czech debuted in 1930 as well, Tonka Šibenice (Tonka of the Gallows). Several European nations with minor positions in the field also produced their first talking pictures -- Belgium (in French), Denmark, Greece, and Romania. The Soviet Union 's robust film industry came out with its first sound features in December 1930: Dziga Vertov 's nonfiction Entuziazm had an experimental, dialogueless soundtrack; Abram Room 's documentary Plan velikikh rabot (The Plan of the Great Works) had music and spoken voiceovers. Both were made with locally developed sound - on - film systems, two of the two hundred or so movie sound systems then available somewhere in the world. In June 1931, the Nikolai Ekk drama Putevka v zhizn (The Road to Life or A Start in Life), premiered as the Soviet Union 's first true talking picture.
Throughout much of Europe, conversion of exhibition venues lagged well behind production capacity, requiring talkies to be produced in parallel silent versions or simply shown without sound in many places. While the pace of conversion was relatively swift in Britain -- with over 60 percent of theaters equipped for sound by the end of 1930, similar to the U.S. figure -- in France, by contrast, more than half of theaters nationwide were still projecting in silence by late 1932. According to scholar Colin G. Crisp, "Anxiety about resuscitating the flow of silent films was frequently expressed in the (French) industrial press, and a large section of the industry still saw the silent as a viable artistic and commercial prospect till about 1935. '' The situation was particularly acute in the Soviet Union; as of May 1933, fewer than one out of every hundred film projectors in the country was as yet equipped for sound.
During the 1920s and 1930s, Japan was one of the world 's two largest producers of motion pictures, along with the United States. Though the country 's film industry was among the first to produce both sound and talking features, the full changeover to sound proceeded much more slowly than in the West. It appears that the first Japanese sound film, Reimai (Dawn), was made in 1926 with the De Forest Phonofilm system. Using the sound - on - disc Minatoki system, the leading Nikkatsu studio produced a pair of talkies in 1929: Taii no musume (The Captain 's Daughter) and Furusato (Hometown), the latter directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. The rival Shochiku studio began the successful production of sound - on - film talkies in 1931 using a variable - density process called Tsuchibashi. Two years later, however, more than 80 percent of movies made in the country were still silents. Two of the country 's leading directors, Mikio Naruse and Yasujirō Ozu, did not make their first sound films until 1935 and 1936, respectively. As late as 1938, over a third of all movies produced in Japan were shot without dialogue.
The enduring popularity of the silent medium in Japanese cinema owed in great part to the tradition of the benshi, a live narrator who performed as accompaniment to a film screening. As director Akira Kurosawa later described, the benshi "not only recounted the plot of the films, they enhanced the emotional content by performing the voices and sound effects and providing evocative descriptions of events and images on the screen... The most popular narrators were stars in their own right, solely responsible for the patronage of a particular theatre. '' Film historian Mariann Lewinsky argues,
The end of silent film in the West and in Japan was imposed by the industry and the market, not by any inner need or natural evolution... Silent cinema was a highly pleasurable and fully mature form. It did n't lack anything, least in Japan, where there was always the human voice doing the dialogues and the commentary. Sound films were not better, just more economical. As a cinema owner you did n't have to pay the wages of musicians and benshi any more. And a good benshi was a star demanding star payment.
By the same token, the viability of the benshi system facilitated a gradual transition to sound -- allowing the studios to spread out the capital costs of conversion and their directors and technical crews time to become familiar with the new technology.
The Mandarin - language Gēnǚ hóng mǔdān (歌 女 紅 牡 丹, Singsong Girl Red Peony), starring Butterfly Wu, premiered as China 's first feature talkie in 1930. By February of that year, production was apparently completed on a sound version of The Devil 's Playground, arguably qualifying it as the first Australian talking motion picture; however, the May press screening of Commonwealth Film Contest prizewinner Fellers is the first verifiable public exhibition of an Australian talkie. In September 1930, a song performed by Indian star Sulochana, excerpted from the silent feature Madhuri (1928), was released as a synchronized - sound short, the country 's first. The following year, Ardeshir Irani directed the first Indian talking feature, the Hindi - Urdu Alam Ara, and produced Kalidas, primarily in Tamil with some Telugu. Nineteen - thirty - one also saw the first Bengali - language film, Jamai Sasthi, and the first movie fully spoken in Telugu, Bhakta Prahlada. In 1932, Ayodhyecha Raja became the first movie in which Marathi was spoken to be released (though Sant Tukaram was the first to go through the official censorship process); the first Gujarati - language film, Narsimha Mehta, and all - Tamil talkie, Kalava, debuted as well. The next year, Ardeshir Irani produced the first Persian - language talkie, Dukhtar - e-loor. Also in 1933, the first Cantonese - language films were produced in Hong Kong -- Sha zai dongfang (The Idiot 's Wedding Night) and Liang xing (Conscience); within two years, the local film industry had fully converted to sound. Korea, where pyonsa (or byun - sa) held a role and status similar to that of the Japanese benshi, in 1935 became the last country with a significant film industry to produce its first talking picture: Chunhyangjeon (春香 傳 / 춘향전) is based on the seventeenth - century pansori folktale "Chunhyangga '', of which as many as fifteen film versions have been made through 2009.
In the short term, the introduction of live sound recording caused major difficulties in production. Cameras were noisy, so a soundproofed cabinet was used in many of the earliest talkies to isolate the loud equipment from the actors, at the expense of a drastic reduction in the ability to move the camera. For a time, multiple - camera shooting was used to compensate for the loss of mobility and innovative studio technicians could often find ways to liberate the camera for particular shots. The necessity of staying within range of still microphones meant that actors also often had to limit their movements unnaturally. Show Girl in Hollywood (1930), from First National Pictures (which Warner Bros. had taken control of thanks to its profitable adventure into sound), gives a behind - the - scenes look at some of the techniques involved in shooting early talkies. Several of the fundamental problems caused by the transition to sound were soon solved with new camera casings, known as "blimps '', designed to suppress noise and boom microphones that could be held just out of frame and moved with the actors. In 1931, a major improvement in playback fidelity was introduced: three - way speaker systems in which sound was separated into low, medium, and high frequencies and sent respectively to a large bass "woofer '', a midrange driver, and a treble "tweeter. ''
There were consequences, as well, for other technological aspects of the cinema. Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed. Before sound, 16 frames per second (fps) was the supposed norm, but practice varied widely. Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect. Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows. Variable frame rate, however, made sound unlistenable, and a new, strict standard of 24 fps was soon established. Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors. The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock. The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical.
As David Bordwell describes, technological improvements continued at a swift pace: "Between 1932 and 1935, (Western Electric and RCA) created directional microphones, increased the frequency range of film recording, reduced ground noise... and extended the volume range. '' These technical advances often meant new aesthetic opportunities: "Increasing the fidelity of recording... heightened the dramatic possibilities of vocal timbre, pitch, and loudness. '' Another basic problem -- famously spoofed in the 1952 film Singin ' in the Rain -- was that some silent - era actors simply did not have attractive voices; though this issue was frequently overstated, there were related concerns about general vocal quality and the casting of performers for their dramatic skills in roles also requiring singing talent beyond their own. By 1935, rerecording of vocals by the original or different actors in postproduction, a process known as "looping '', had become practical. The ultraviolet recording system introduced by RCA in 1936 improved the reproduction of sibilants and high notes.
With Hollywood 's wholesale adoption of the talkies, the competition between the two fundamental approaches to sound - film production was soon resolved. Over the course of 1930 -- 31, the only major players using sound - on - disc, Warner Bros. and First National, changed over to sound - on - film recording. Vitaphone 's dominating presence in sound - equipped theaters, however, meant that for years to come all of the Hollywood studios pressed and distributed sound - on - disc versions of their films alongside the sound - on - film prints. Fox Movietone soon followed Vitaphone into disuse as a recording and reproduction method, leaving two major American systems: the variable - area RCA Photophone and Western Electric 's own variable - density process, a substantial improvement on the cross-licensed Movietone. Under RCA 's instigation, the two parent companies made their projection equipment compatible, meaning films shot with one system could be screened in theaters equipped for the other. This left one big issue -- the Tobis - Klangfilm challenge. In May 1930, Western Electric won an Austrian lawsuit that voided protection for certain Tri-Ergon patents, helping bring Tobis - Klangfilm to the negotiating table. The following month an accord was reached on patent cross-licensing, full playback compatibility, and the division of the world into three parts for the provision of equipment. As a contemporary report describes:
Tobis - Klangfilm has the exclusive rights to provide equipment for: Germany, Danzig, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Holland, the Dutch Indies, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Finland. The Americans have the exclusive rights for the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and Russia. All other countries, among them Italy, France, and England, are open to both parties.
The agreement did not resolve all the patent disputes, and further negotiations were undertaken and concords signed over the course of the 1930s. During these years, as well, the American studios began abandoning the Western Electric system for RCA Photophone 's variable - area approach -- by the end of 1936, only Paramount, MGM, and United Artists still had contracts with ERPI.
While the introduction of sound led to a boom in the motion picture industry, it had an adverse effect on the employability of a host of Hollywood actors of the time. Suddenly those without stage experience were regarded as suspect by the studios; as suggested above, those whose heavy accents or otherwise discordant voices had previously been concealed were particularly at risk. The career of major silent star Norma Talmadge effectively came to an end in this way. The celebrated German actor Emil Jannings returned to Europe. Moviegoers found John Gilbert 's voice an awkward match with his swashbuckling persona, and his star also faded. Audiences now seemed to perceive certain silent - era stars as old - fashioned, even those who had the talent to succeed in the sound era. The career of Harold Lloyd, one of the top screen comedians of the 1920s, declined precipitously. Lillian Gish departed, back to the stage, and other leading figures soon left acting entirely: Colleen Moore, Gloria Swanson, and Hollywood 's most famous performing couple, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. As actress Louise Brooks suggested, there were other issues as well:
Studio heads, now forced into unprecedented decisions, decided to begin with the actors, the least palatable, the most vulnerable part of movie production. It was such a splendid opportunity, anyhow, for breaking contracts, cutting salaries, and taming the stars... Me, they gave the salary treatment. I could stay on without the raise my contract called for, or quit, (Paramount studio chief B.P.) Schulberg said, using the questionable dodge of whether I 'd be good for the talkies. Questionable, I say, because I spoke decent English in a decent voice and came from the theater. So without hesitation I quit.
Buster Keaton was eager to explore the new medium, but when his studio, MGM, made the changeover to sound, he was quickly stripped of creative control. Though a number of Keaton 's early talkies made impressive profits, they were artistically dismal.
Several of the new medium 's biggest attractions came from vaudeville and the musical theater, where performers such as Jolson, Eddie Cantor, Jeanette MacDonald, and the Marx Brothers were accustomed to the demands of both dialogue and song. James Cagney and Joan Blondell, who had teamed on Broadway, were brought west together by Warner Bros. in 1930. A few actors were major stars during both the silent and the sound eras: John Barrymore, Ronald Colman, Myrna Loy, William Powell, Norma Shearer, the comedy team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, and the incomparable Charlie Chaplin, whose City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) employed sound almost exclusively for music and effects. Janet Gaynor became a top star with the synch - sound but dialogueless Seventh Heaven and Sunrise, as did Joan Crawford with the technologically similar Our Dancing Daughters (1928). Greta Garbo was the one non -- native English speaker to retain Hollywood stardom on both sides of the great sound divide. Silent film extra Clark Gable, who had received extensive voice training during his earlier stage career, went on to dominate the new medium for decades. The new emphasis on speech also caused producers to hire many novelists, journalists, and playwrights with experience writing good dialogue. Among those who became Hollywood scriptwriters during the 1930s were Nathanael West, William Faulkner, Robert Sherwood, Aldous Huxley, and Dorothy Parker.
As talking pictures emerged, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work. More than just their position as film accompanists was usurped; according to historian Preston J. Hubbard, "During the 1920s live musical performances at first - run theaters became an exceedingly important aspect of the American cinema. '' With the coming of the talkies, those featured performances -- usually staged as preludes -- were largely eliminated as well. The American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever '' and reads in part:
Canned Music on Trial This is the case of Art vs. Mechanical Music in theatres. The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical education. Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical music as a substitute for Real Music. If the theatre - going public accepts this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art of Music is inevitable. Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is lost in mechanization. It can not be otherwise because the quality of music is dependent on the mood of the artist, upon the human contact, without which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost.
By the following year, a reported 22,000 U.S. moviehouse musicians had lost their jobs.
In September 1926, Jack L. Warner, head of Warner Bros., was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable: "They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures, and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play, the action, the plot, and the imagined dialogue for himself. '' Much to his company 's benefit, he would be proven very wrong -- between the 1927 -- 28 and 1928 -- 29 fiscal years, Warners ' profits surged from $2 million to $14 million. Sound film, in fact, was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry. During that same twelve - month span, Paramount 's profits rose by $7 million, Fox 's by $3.5 million, and Loew 's / MGM 's by $3 million. RKO, which did not even exist in September 1928 and whose parent production company, FBO, was in the Hollywood minor leagues, by the end of 1929 was established as one of America 's leading entertainment businesses. Fueling the boom was the emergence of an important new cinematic genre made possible by sound: the musical. Over sixty Hollywood musicals were released in 1929, and more than eighty the following year.
Even as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression, the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune. The 1929 -- 30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous, with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs. Reality finally struck later in 1930, but sound had clearly secured Hollywood 's position as one of the most important industrial fields, both commercially and culturally, in the United States. In 1929, film box - office receipts comprised 16.6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation; by 1931, the figure had reached 21.8 percent. The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half. Hollywood ruled on the larger stage, as well. The American movie industry -- already the world 's most powerful -- set an export record in 1929 that, by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film, was 27 percent higher than the year before. Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S. film exports turned out to be largely unfounded. In fact, the expense of sound conversion was a major obstacle to many overseas producers, relatively undercapitalized by Hollywood standards. The production of multiple versions of export - bound talkies in different languages (known as "Foreign Language Version ''), as well as the production of the cheaper "International Sound Version '', a common approach at first, largely ceased by mid-1931, replaced by post-dubbing and subtitling. Despite trade restrictions imposed in most foreign markets, by 1937, American films commanded about 70 percent of screen time around the globe.
Just as the leading Hollywood studios gained from sound in relation to their foreign competitors, they did the same at home. As historian Richard B. Jewell describes, "The sound revolution crushed many small film companies and producers who were unable to meet the financial demands of sound conversion. '' The combination of sound and the Great Depression led to a wholesale shakeout in the business, resulting in the hierarchy of the Big Five integrated companies (MGM, Paramount, Fox, Warners, RKO) and the three smaller studios also called "majors '' (Columbia, Universal, United Artists) that would predominate through the 1950s. Historian Thomas Schatz describes the ancillary effects:
Because the studios were forced to streamline operations and rely on their own resources, their individual house styles and corporate personalities came into much sharper focus. Thus the watershed period from the coming of sound into the early Depression saw the studio system finally coalesce, with the individual studios coming to terms with their own identities and their respective positions within the industry.
The other country in which sound cinema had an immediate major commercial impact was India. As one distributor of the period said, "With the coming of the talkies, the Indian motion picture came into its own as a definite and distinctive piece of creation. This was achieved by music. '' From its earliest days, Indian sound cinema has been defined by the musical -- Alam Ara featured seven songs; a year later, Indrasabha would feature seventy. While the European film industries fought an endless battle against the popularity and economic muscle of Hollywood, ten years after the debut of Alam Ara, over 90 percent of the films showing on Indian screens were made within the country.
Most of India 's early talkies were shot in Bombay, which remains the leading production center, but sound filmmaking soon spread across the multilingual nation. Within just a few weeks of Alam Ara 's March 1931 premiere, the Calcutta - based Madan Pictures had released both the Hindi Shirin Farhad and the Bengali Jamai Sasthi. The Hindustani Heer Ranjha was produced in Lahore, Punjab, the following year. In 1934, Sati Sulochana, the first Kannada talking picture to be released, was shot in Kolhapur, Maharashtra; Srinivasa Kalyanam became the first Tamil talkie actually shot in Tamil Nadu. Once the first talkie features appeared, the conversion to full sound production happened as rapidly in India as it did in the United States. Already by 1932, the majority of feature productions were in sound; two years later, 164 of the 172 Indian feature films were talking pictures. Since 1934, with the sole exception of 1952, India has been among the top three movie - producing countries in the world every single year.
In the first, 1930 edition of his global survey The Film Till Now, British cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared, "A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema. It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and can not be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema. '' Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form; Alfred Hitchcock, though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe, held that "the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema '' and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside "photographs of people talking ''. In Germany, Max Reinhardt, stage producer and movie director, expressed the belief that the talkies, "bringing to the screen stage plays... tend to make this independent art a subsidiary of the theater and really make it only a substitute for the theater instead of an art in itself... like reproductions of paintings. ''
In the opinion of many film historians and aficionados, both at the time and subsequently, silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents. For instance, despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed, silent cinema is represented by eleven films in Time Out 's Centenary of Cinema Top One Hundred poll, held in 1995. The first year in which sound film production predominated over silent film -- not only in the United States, but also in the West as a whole -- was 1929; yet the years 1929 through 1933 are represented by three dialogueless pictures (Pandora 's Box (1929), Zemlya (1930), City Lights (1931)) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll. (City Lights, like Sunrise, was released with a recorded score and sound effects, but is now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as a "silent '' -- spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema.) The earliest sound film to place is the French L'Atalante (1934), directed by Jean Vigo; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby (1938), directed by Howard Hawks.
The first sound feature film to receive near - universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel); premiering on April 1, 1930, it was directed by Josef von Sternberg in both German and English versions for Berlin 's UFA studio. The first American talkie to be widely honored was All Quiet on the Western Front, directed by Lewis Milestone, which premiered April 21. The other internationally acclaimed sound drama of the year was Westfront 1918, directed by G.W. Pabst for Nero - Film of Berlin. Historian Anton Kaes points to it as an example of "the new verisimilitude (that) rendered silent cinema 's former emphasis on the hypnotic gaze and the symbolism of light and shadow, as well as its preference for allegorical characters, anachronistic. '' Cultural historians consider the French L'Âge d'Or, directed by Luis Buñuel, which appeared late in 1930, to be of great aesthetic import; at the time, its erotic, blasphemous, anti-bourgeois content caused a scandal. Swiftly banned by Paris police chief Jean Chiappe, it was unavailable for fifty years. The earliest sound movie now acknowledged by most film historians as a masterpiece is Nero - Film 's M, directed by Fritz Lang, which premiered May 11, 1931. As described by Roger Ebert, "Many early talkies felt they had to talk all the time, but Lang allows his camera to prowl through the streets and dives, providing a rat 's - eye view. ''
"Talking film is as little needed as a singing book. '' Such was the blunt proclamation of critic Viktor Shklovsky, one of the leaders of the Russian formalist movement, in 1927. While some regarded sound as irreconcilable with film art, others saw it as opening a new field of creative opportunity. The following year, a group of Soviet filmmakers, including Sergei Eisenstein, proclaimed that the use of image and sound in juxtaposition, the so - called contrapuntal method, would raise the cinema to "... unprecedented power and cultural height. Such a method for constructing the sound - film will not confine it to a national market, as must happen with the photographing of plays, but will give a greater possibility than ever before for the circulation throughout the world of a filmically expressed idea. '' So far as one segment of the audience was concerned, however, the introduction of sound brought a virtual end to such circulation: Elizabeth C. Hamilton writes, "Silent films offered people who were deaf a rare opportunity to participate in a public discourse, cinema, on equal terms with hearing people. The emergence of sound film effectively separated deaf from hearing audience members once again. ''
On March 12, 1929, the first feature - length talking picture made in Germany had its premiere. The inaugural Tobis Filmkunst production, it was not a drama, but a documentary sponsored by a shipping line: Melodie der Welt (Melody of the World), directed by Walter Ruttmann. This was also perhaps the first feature film anywhere to significantly explore the artistic possibilities of joining the motion picture with recorded sound. As described by scholar William Moritz, the movie is "intricate, dynamic, fast - paced... juxtapos (ing) similar cultural habits from countries around the world, with a superb orchestral score... and many synchronized sound effects. '' Composer Lou Lichtveld was among a number of contemporary artists struck by the film: "Melodie der Welt became the first important sound documentary, the first in which musical and unmusical sounds were composed into a single unit and in which image and sound are controlled by one and the same impulse. '' Melodie der Welt was a direct influence on the industrial film Philips Radio (1931), directed by Dutch avant - garde filmmaker Joris Ivens and scored by Lichtveld, who described its audiovisual aims:
To render the half - musical impressions of factory sounds in a complex audio world that moved from absolute music to the purely documentary noises of nature. In this film every intermediate stage can be found: such as the movement of the machine interpreted by the music, the noises of the machine dominating the musical background, the music itself is the documentary, and those scenes where the pure sound of the machine goes solo.
Many similar experiments were pursued by Dziga Vertov in his 1931 Entuziazm and by Chaplin in Modern Times, a half - decade later.
A few innovative commercial directors immediately saw the ways in which sound could be employed as an integral part of cinematic storytelling, beyond the obvious function of recording speech. In Blackmail, Hitchcock manipulated the reproduction of a character 's monologue so the word "knife '' would leap out from a blurry stream of sound, reflecting the subjective impression of the protagonist, who is desperate to conceal her involvement in a fatal stabbing. In his first film, the Paramount Applause (1929), Rouben Mamoulian created the illusion of acoustic depth by varying the volume of ambient sound in proportion to the distance of shots. At a certain point, Mamoulian wanted the audience to hear one character singing at the same time as another prays; according to the director, "They said we could n't record the two things -- the song and the prayer -- on one mike and one channel. So I said to the sound man, ' Why not use two mikes and two channels and combine the two tracks in printing? ' '' Such methods would eventually become standard procedure in popular filmmaking.
One of the first commercial films to take full advantage of the new opportunities provided by recorded sound was Le Million, directed by René Clair and produced by Tobis 's French division. Premiering in Paris in April 1931 and New York a month later, the picture was both a critical and popular success. A musical comedy with a barebones plot, it is memorable for its formal accomplishments, in particular, its emphatically artificial treatment of sound. As described by scholar Donald Crafton,
Le Million never lets us forget that the acoustic component is as much a construction as the whitewashed sets. (It) replaced dialogue with actors singing and talking in rhyming couplets. Clair created teasing confusions between on - and off - screen sound. He also experimented with asynchronous audio tricks, as in the famous scene in which a chase after a coat is synched to the cheers of an invisible football (or rugby) crowd.
These and similar techniques became part of the vocabulary of the sound comedy film, though as special effects and "color '', not as the basis for the kind of comprehensive, non-naturalistic design achieved by Clair. Outside of the comedic field, the sort of bold play with sound exemplified by Melodie der Welt and Le Million would be pursued very rarely in commercial production. Hollywood, in particular, incorporated sound into a reliable system of genre - based moviemaking, in which the formal possibilities of the new medium were subordinated to the traditional goals of star affirmation and straightforward storytelling. As accurately predicted in 1928 by Frank Woods, secretary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, "The talking pictures of the future will follow the general line of treatment heretofore developed by the silent drama... The talking scenes will require different handling, but the general construction of the story will be much the same. ''
This system used an operator adjusted non-linkage form of primitive synchronization. The scenes to be shown were first filmed, and then the performers recorded their dialogue or songs on the Lioretograph (usually a Le Éclat concert cylinder format phonograph) trying to match tempo with the projected filmed performance. In showing the films, synchronization of sorts was achieved by adjusting the hand cranked film projector 's speed to match the phonograph. the projectionist was equipped with a telephone through which he listened to the phonograph which was located in the orchestra pit.
Is Music Worth Saving? No great volume of evidence is required to answer this question. Music is a well - nigh universally beloved art. From the beginning of history, men have turned to musical expression to lighten the burdens of life, to make them happier. Aborigines, lowest in the scale of savagery, chant their song to tribal gods and play upon pipes and shark - skin drums. Musical development has kept pace with good taste and ethics throughout the ages, and has influenced the gentler nature of man more powerfully perhaps than any other factor. Has it remained for the Great Age of Science to snub the Art by setting up in its place a pale and feeble shadow of itself?
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when did shaun white first enter the olympics | Shaun White - Wikipedia
Shaun Roger White (born September 3, 1986) is an American professional snowboarder, skateboarder and musician. He is a three - time Olympic gold medalist. He holds the record for the most X-Games gold medals and most Olympic gold medals by a snowboarder, and has won 10 ESPY Awards.
White was born in San Diego, California. His ancestry includes Irish and Italian. He was born with a Tetralogy of Fallot, a congenital heart defect for which he endured two open - heart operations before the age of one. White spent his formative years riding Okemo Mountain and Bear Mountain, small ski resorts found in Ludlow, Vermont, and the San Bernardino Mountains of Southern California.
White quickly drew the eyes of many in the skateboarder scene, including professional skateboarder Tony Hawk. Hawk befriended the nine - year - old White at a local skatepark and mentored him, helping him turn pro in skateboarding at the age of 17. White has won many titles on his skateboard, including the overall title of Action Sports Tour Champion, and was the first person to compete in and win both the Summer and Winter X Games in two different sports.
Following in his older brother Jesse White 's footsteps, White switched from skiing to snowboarding at age six, and by age seven he received his first sponsorship. White has participated in four Winter Olympics in his career. At the 2006, 2010, and 2018 Winter Olympics, White won gold in the snowboard halfpipe event. White has also participated in the Winter X Games, where he has won a medal every year since 2002. Including all winter X Games competitions through 2013, his medal count stands at 18 (13 gold, 3 silver, 2 bronze), among which is the first quadruple win streak by a male athlete in one discipline, the snowboard slopestyle. White 's streak was snapped in 2007 when he lost to Andreas Wiig and Teddy Flandreau, with White taking the bronze. He won the Air & Style Contest in 2003 and 2004.
At the 2006 Winter Olympics, White won gold in the half - pipe. After his first run in qualifications, White was almost out of competition, scoring only 37.7. On his second run, he recorded a score of 45.3. In the finals, White recorded a score of 46.8 (50 is the highest possible score) to win. Fellow American Danny Kass won the silver with a points total of 44.0.
Executing a near - flawless second run, White captured his third consecutive snowboard halfpipe title at the 2008 U.S. Open Snowboarding Championships to go along with his third US Open slopestyle competition. This followed White 's win at the 25th (2007) Burton US Open, where he placed third in slopestlyle and first in the halfpipe. At the 2007 Open, White was also crowned the first "Burton Global Open Champion ''. His take for the event was $100,000 (Global Open Champ), $20,000 (1st Place Halfpipe), $90,000 (3rd Place Slopestyle), and a new Corvette.
On November 16, 2008, White released his first video game Shaun White Snowboarding in North America (November 14, 2008, in Europe). Shaun White Snowboarding was the 20th best - selling game of December 2008 in the United States.
There was a lot of controversy over who won the 2009 SuperPipe at Winter X Games XIII. Kevin Pearce had 5 hits in the pipe, and all were the same tricks White did in his final run. White, on the other hand, had 6 hits and he started off his run with a big backside rodeo 540 where Pearce started his run off with a big grab. Although Pearce went bigger, he had only 5 hits, and his first hit was n't as technical as White 's first hit. Judges came to the conclusion that White deserved the better score because he started off with a more technical trick and he had 1 more hit than Pearce. With the win, White became the second competitor, after Tanner Hall, to win a gold medal in the superpipe in consecutive years at the Winter X Games. He also won a gold medal in Slopestyle, finally winning gold after 2 straight years of bronze.
On February 14, 2009, White won the FIS World Cup Men 's Halfpipe event at Vancouver 's Cypress Mountain. Out of the gate in his first qualifying run, he qualified immediately with the day 's best score of 45.5. With a thumb sprained on an over-rotated backside 1080 in the second qualifying run, he clinched the event with the first of his two runs in the finals. His first finals run was awarded the highest score ever in FIS halfpipe, a 47.3.
At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, White again won gold in the halfpipe. In the finals, White recorded a score of 46.8 on his first run, which proved a high enough score to secure the gold medal without a second run. He performed his second run anyway, as a victory lap, ending his run with a well - anticipated Double McTwist 1260 which he named The Tomahawk. This second run resulted in a record score of 48.4 (50 is the highest possible score) enlarging his margin of victory. His nearest competitor won the silver with a points total of 45.0, 3.4 behind White.
After a sub-par performance in the Slopestyle, failing to reach the finals, White "redeemed '' himself in the Superpipe. With an 89, he sat in second place going into his 2nd of three runs. He completed the run, landing his infamous Double McTwist 1260 and finishing with a score of 97.33 to take the lead and claim the historical 4th straight Gold in the Winter X Games, held in Aspen Colorado. The score tied an X Games record which was set by White one year before. His 3rd run was a simple victory run featuring mostly straight air.
At Winter X, White became the first person in the history of Winter X Games to score a perfect 100 in the men 's Snowboard Superpipe.
White won his 6th consecutive SuperPipe victory, making him the second participant ever to achieve this, with SnoCross racer Tucker Hibbert achieving his 6th consecutive victory earlier in the same day.
In December 2013, he won the third place in the Pipe & Slope contest at the FIS Snowboard World Cup in Copper Mountain, Colorado.
White finished fourth at the 2014 Winter Olympics in the Halfpipe event.
During the winter games, he was the most talked - about Olympic athlete on Facebook.
While in New Zealand, training for the 2018 Winter Olympics, White crashed into the edge of a superpipe; the resulting injuries to his face required 62 stitches. Despite the accident, White qualified for the 2018 US Olympic Team. On February 14, he won his third Olympic gold medal for the Men 's Halfpipe event with a score of 97.75, with Ayumu Hirano of Japan taking the silver medal and Scott James of Australia taking the bronze. White was trailing Hirano by one full point coming into his last run with a score of 94.25. Despite this, White dramatically won the gold medal with back - to - back 1440s. His gold medal was also the 100th for the United States at the Winter Olympic Games.
White has had a sponsor since he was seven years old. White signed CAA Sports for representation after working with IMG for eight years. Corporate endorsement deals include or have included Burton Snowboards, Oakley, Inc., Birdhouse Skateboards, Park City Mountain Resort, Target Corporation, Red Bull, Ubisoft, Adio and Hewlett - Packard. White also has his own character on the game Shaun Palmer 's Pro Snowboarder as well as the video games Shaun White Snowboarding and Shaun White Skateboarding. In 2009, Forbes magazine estimated that he had earned $9 million from his endorsements in 2008.
White has made cameo appearance as himself in the 2011 film Friends with Benefits, the 2013 episode "Da Flippity Flop '' of the animated TV series American Dad!, and the 2014 Disney Channel Original Movie Cloud 9.
In a 2007 interview with Outside magazine, White stated that he had turned down numerous film roles in which "the first lines (for his character) are always "What up, brah? ' ''.
White plays guitar in the electronic rock band Bad Things, which also features former Augustana bassist Jared Palomar. The band played in one of the four Saturday headlining slots at the 2013 Lollapalooza festival, as a last - minute replacement for Death Grips. Their self - titled debut album was released in January 2014.
In October 2013, White appeared in the music video for "City of Angels '' by Thirty Seconds to Mars.
White has had the longstanding nickname "The Flying Tomato '', due to his shock of red hair. In 2006, Rolling Stone wrote about the nickname, saying, "he used to embrace it, even wearing headbands with a flying - tomato logo, but he has grown tired of it. '' He has also been nicknamed "animal '', a reference to a character from The Muppet Show.
In February 2009, Red Bull built White a halfpipe completely out of natural snow in the back country of Colorado on the backside of Silverton Mountain, coordinates (37.838801, - 107.710299).
On September 17, 2012, White was arrested near a hotel in Nashville for public intoxication and vandalism after attending the wedding party of the drummer of The Black Keys, Patrick Carney.
His girlfriend is Sarah Barthel of the band Phantogram. White has been dating Barthel since 2013.
In 2016, Bad Things drummer Lena Zawaideh brought a lawsuit against White, claiming sexual harassment and breach of contract. White and Zawaideh reached an out - of - court settlement in May 2017; the terms of the settlement were not disclosed. At a press conference following White 's win at the 2018 Winter Olympics, he was asked if he was concerned that the lawsuit and settlement would tarnish his image. In replying, he referred to the incident as gossip, a response that created widespread condemnation of White for minimizing sexual harassment. White later apologized for his choice of words.
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u.s. department of state’s bureau of educational and cultural affairs | Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs - Wikipedia
The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA) of the United States Department of State fosters mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries around the world. It is responsible for the United States Cultural Exchange Programs.
The current Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs is Mark Taplin.
In 1940, Nelson Rockefeller began the exchange of persons program with Latin America, as the Coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Affairs for the American Republics. This program sent 130 journalists from Latin America to the United States. In 1942, The United States Office of War Information (OWI) was created out of the United States Government 's need for a centralized location for information. OWI was disbanded under the Truman administration, though a small element of the original structure was maintained within the State Department as the Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs (OIC), which was renamed the Office of International Information and Educational Exchange.
In 1948, the Smith - Mundt Act sought to "promote a better understanding of the United States in other countries, and to increase mutual understanding. '' The educational and cultural exchange aspects of the State Department were removed from the Bureau of Public Affairs and entered the newly created Bureau of Educational and Cultural Relations (CU) in 1959.
In 1961, Congress passed the Fulbright - Hays Act to establish a program to "strengthen the ties which unite us with other nations by demonstrating the educational and cultural interests, developments, and achievements of the people of the United States and other nations ''. In 1978, the United States International Communication Agency (USICA) absorbed the bureau with the understanding that USICA was in charge of United States public diplomacy. Ronald Reagan renamed USICA to the United States Information Agency in 1982, and in 1999, USIA was absorbed by the State Department.
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which was the first tube station in london | London Underground - wikipedia
The London Underground (also known simply as the Underground, or by its nickname the Tube) is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom.
The world 's first underground railway, the Metropolitan Railway, which opened in 1863, is now part of the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines; the first line to operate underground electric traction trains, the City & South London Railway in 1890, is now part of the Northern line. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2016 -- 17 carried 1.379 billion passengers, making it the world 's 11th busiest metro system. The 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day.
The system 's first tunnels were built just below the surface, using the cut - and - cover method; later, smaller, roughly circular tunnels -- which gave rise to its nickname, the Tube -- were dug through at a deeper level. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles (400 km) of track. Despite its name, only 45 % of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, with less than 10 % of the stations located south of the River Thames.
The early tube lines, originally owned by several private companies, were brought together under the "UndergrounD '' brand in the early 20th century and eventually merged along with the sub-surface lines and bus services in 1933 to form London Transport under the control of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). The current operator, London Underground Limited (LUL), is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London (TfL), the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92 % of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares. The Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014.
The LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. The schematic Tube map, designed by Harry Beck in 1931, was voted a national design icon in 2006 and now includes other TfL transport systems such as the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground and TfL Rail. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, created by Edward Johnston in 1916.
The idea of an underground railway linking the City of London with some of the railway termini in its urban centre was proposed in the 1830s, and the Metropolitan Railway was granted permission to build such a line in 1854. To prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, filled up. The world 's first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas - lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, and borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service. The Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground "inner circle '' connecting London 's main - line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and cover method. Both railways expanded, the District building five branches to the west reaching Ealing, Hounslow, Uxbridge, Richmond and Wimbledon and the Metropolitan eventually extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles (80 km) from Baker Street and the centre of London.
For the first deep - level tube line, the City and South London Railway, two 10 feet 2 inches (3.10 m) diameter circular tunnels were dug between King William Street (close to today 's Monument station) and Stockwell, under the roads to avoid the need for agreement with owners of property on the surface. This opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, known as the "twopenny tube ''. These two ran electric trains in circular tunnels having diameters between 11 feet 8 inches (3.56 m) and 12 feet 2.5 inches (3.721 m), whereas the Great Northern and City Railway, which opened in 1904, was built to take main line trains from Finsbury Park to a Moorgate terminus in the City and had 16 - foot (4.9 m) diameter tunnels.
In the early 20th century, the District and Metropolitan railways needed to electrify and a joint committee recommended an AC system, the two companies co-operating because of the shared ownership of the inner circle. The District, needing to raise the finance necessary, found an investor in the American Charles Yerkes who favoured a DC system similar to that in use on the City & South London and Central London railways. The Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted.
Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway and established the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in 1902 to finance and operate three tube lines, the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (Bakerloo), the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (Hampstead) and the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, (Piccadilly), which all opened between 1906 and 1907. When the "Bakerloo '' was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified "gutter title ''. By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines.
In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway and the City & South London Railway, as well as many of London 's bus and tram operators. Only the Metropolitan Railway, along with its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway, and the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by the main line London and South Western Railway, remained outside of the Underground Group 's control.
A joint marketing agreement between most of the companies in the early years of the 20th century included maps, joint publicity, through ticketing and UNDERGROUND signs outside stations in Central London. The Bakerloo line was extended north to Queen 's Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the tube stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war and completed in 1920. After the war government - backed financial guarantees were used to expand the network and the tunnels of the City and South London and Hampstead railways were linked at Euston and Kennington, although the combined service was not named the Northern line until later. The Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the "Metro - land '' brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925 and from Wembley Park to Stanmore in 1932. The Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow (later Uxbridge) and Hounslow.
In 1933, most of London 's underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, which used the London Transport brand. The Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, Harry Beck 's diagrammatic tube map appeared for the first time.
In the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936. The 1935 -- 40 New Works Programme included the extension of the Central and Northern lines and the Bakerloo line to take over the Metropolitan 's Stanmore branch. World War II suspended these plans after the Bakerloo line had reached Stanmore and the Northern line High Barnet and Mill Hill East in 1941. Following bombing in 1940 passenger services over the West London Line were suspended, leaving Olympia exhibition centre without a railway service until a District line shuttle from Earl 's Court began after the war. After work restarted on the Central line extensions in east and west London, these were complete in 1949.
During the war many tube stations were used as air - raid shelters. On 3 March 1943, a test of the air - raid warning sirens, together with the firing of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket, resulted in a crush of people attempting to take shelter in Bethnal Green tube station. A total of 173 people, including 62 children, died, making this both the worst civilian disaster of World War II, and the largest loss of life in a single incident on the London Underground network.
On 1 January 1948, under the provisions of the Transport Act 1947, the London Passenger Transport Board was nationalised and renamed the London Transport Executive, becoming a subsidiary organisation of the British Transport Commission, which was formed on the same day. Under the same act, the country 's main line railways were also nationalised, and their reconstruction was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground and most of the unfinished plans of the pre-war New Works Programme were shelved or postponed.
However, the District line needed new trains and an unpainted aluminium train entered service in 1953, this becoming the standard for new trains. In the early 1960s the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham, British Railways providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and Aylesbury. In 1962, the British Transport Commission was abolished, and the London Transport Executive was renamed the London Transport Board, reporting directly to the Minister of Transport. Also during the 1960s, the Victoria line was dug under central London and, unlike the earlier tubes, the tunnels did not follow the roads above. The line opened in 1968 -- 71 with the trains being driven automatically and magnetically encoded tickets collected by automatic gates gave access to the platforms.
On 1 January 1970 responsibility for public transport within Greater London passed from central government to local government, in the form of the Greater London Council (GLC), and the London Transport Board was abolished. The London Transport brand continued to be used by the GLC.
On Friday 28 February 1975, a southbound train on the Northern City Line failed to stop at its Moorgate terminus and ploughed into the wall at the end of the tunnel. In the resulting tube crash, 43 people died and a further 74 were injured, this being the greatest loss of life during peacetime on the London Underground. In 1976 the Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the main line railway at Finsbury Park, a transfer that had already been planned prior to the accident.
In 1979 another new tube, the Jubilee line, named in honour of Queen Elizabeth 's Silver Jubilee, took over the Stanmore branch from the Bakerloo line, linking it to a newly constructed tube between Baker Street and Charing Cross stations. Under the control of the Greater London Council, London Transport introduced a system of fare zones for buses and underground trains that cut the average fare in 1981. Fares increased following a legal challenge but the fare zones were retained, and in the mid-1980s the Travelcard and the Capitalcard were introduced.
In 1984 control of London Buses and the London Underground passed back to central government with the creation of London Regional Transport (LRT), which reported directly to the Secretary of State for Transport, whilst still retaining the London Transport brand. One person operation had been planned in 1968, but conflict with the trade unions delayed introduction until the 1980s.
On 18 November 1987, fire broke out in an escalator at King 's Cross St. Pancras tube station. The resulting fire cost the lives of 31 people and injured a further 100. London Underground were strongly criticised in the aftermath for their attitude to fires underground, and publication of the report into the fire led to the resignation of senior management of both London Underground and London Regional Transport. To comply with new safety regulations issued as a result of the fire, and to combat graffiti, a train refurbishment project was launched in July 1991.
In April 1994, the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by British Rail and known as the Waterloo & City line, was transferred to the London Underground. In 1999, the Jubilee line was extended from Green Park station through Docklands to Stratford station, resulting in the closure of the short section of tunnel between Green Park and Charing Cross stations, and including the first stations on the London Underground to have platform edge doors.
Transport for London (TfL) was created in 2000 as the integrated body responsible for London 's transport system. TfL is part of the Greater London Authority and is constituted as a statutory corporation regulated under local government finance rules. The TfL Board is appointed by the Mayor of London, who also sets the structure and level of public transport fares in London. However the day - to - day running of the corporation is left to the Commissioner of Transport for London.
TfL eventually replaced London Regional Transport, and discontinued the use of the London Transport brand in favour of its own brand. The transfer of responsibility was staged, with transfer of control of the London Underground delayed until July 2003, when London Underground Limited became an indirect subsidiary of TfL. Between 2000 and 2003, London Underground was reorganised in a Public - Private Partnership where private infrastructure companies (infracos) upgraded and maintained the railway. This was undertaken before control passed to TfL, who were opposed to the arrangement. One infraco went into administration in 2007 and TfL took over the responsibilities, TfL taking over the other in 2010.
Electronic ticketing in the form of the contactless Oyster card was introduced in 2003. London Underground services on the East London line ceased in 2007 so that it could be extended and converted to London Overground operation, and in December 2009 the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London to a spiral also serving Hammersmith. From September 2014, passengers have been able to use contactless cards on the Tube, the use of which has grown very quickly and now over a million contactless transactions are made on the Underground every day.
The Underground serves 270 stations. Fourteen Underground stations are outside Greater London, of which five (Amersham, Chalfont & Latimer, Chesham, and Chorleywood on the Metropolitan line, and Epping on the Central line), are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway. Of the 32 London boroughs, six (Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Lewisham and Sutton) are not served by the Underground network, while Hackney has Old Street and Manor House only just inside its boundaries. Lewisham used to be served by the East London Line (stations at New Cross and New Cross Gate). The line and the stations were transferred to the London Overground network in 2010.
London Underground 's eleven lines total 402 kilometres (250 mi) in length, making it the third longest metro system in the world. These are made up of the sub-surface network and the deep - tube lines. The Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines form the sub-surface network, with railway tunnels just below the surface and of a similar size to those on British main lines. The Hammersmith & City and Circle lines share stations and most of their track with each other, as well as with the Metropolitan and District lines. The Bakerloo, Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines are deep - level tubes, with smaller trains that run in two circular tunnels (tubes) with a diameter about 11 feet 8 inches (3.56 m). These lines have the exclusive use of a pair of tracks, except for the Piccadilly line, which shares track with the District line between Acton Town and Hanger Lane Junction and with the Metropolitan line between Rayners Lane and Uxbridge; and the Bakerloo line, which shares track with London Overground services north of Queen 's Park.
Fifty - five per cent of the system runs on the surface. There are 20 miles (32 km) of cut - and - cover tunnel and 93 miles (150 km) of tube tunnel. Many of the central London underground stations on deep - level tube lines are higher than the running lines to assist deceleration when arriving and acceleration when departing. Trains generally run on the left - hand track. However, in some places, the tunnels are above each other (for example, the Central line east of St Paul 's station), or the running tunnels are on the right (for example on the Victoria line between Warren Street and King 's Cross St. Pancras, to allow cross-platform interchange with the Northern line at Euston).
The lines are electrified with a four - rail DC system: a conductor rail between the rails is energised at − 210 V and a rail outside the running rails at + 420 V, giving a potential difference of 630 V. On the sections of line shared with mainline trains, such as the District line from East Putney to Wimbledon and Gunnersbury to Richmond, and the Bakerloo line north of Queen 's Park, the centre rail is bonded to the running rails.
The London Underground was used by 1.34 billion passengers in 2015 / 2016.
The Underground uses a number of railways and alignments that were built by main - line railway companies.
Some tracks now in LU ownership remain in use by main line services.
London Underground trains come in two sizes, larger sub-surface trains and smaller deep - tube trains. Since the early 1960s all passenger trains have been electric multiple units with sliding doors and a train last ran with a guard in 2000. All lines use fixed length trains with between six and eight cars, except for the Waterloo & City line that uses four cars. New trains are designed for maximum number of standing passengers and for speed of access to the cars and have regenerative braking and public address systems. Since 1999 all new stock has had to comply with accessibility regulations that require such things as access and room for wheelchairs, and the size and location of door controls. All underground trains are required to comply with The Rail Vehicle Accessibility (Non Interoperable Rail System) Regulations 2010 (RVAR 2010) by 2020.
Stock on sub-surface lines is identified by a letter (such as S Stock, used on the Metropolitan line), while tube stock is identified by the year of intended introduction (for example, 1996 Stock, used on the Jubilee line).
The Underground is served by the following depots:
When the Bakerloo line opened in 1906 it was advertised with a maximum temperature of 60 ° F (16 ° C), but over time the tube tunnels have warmed up. In 1938 approval was given for a ventilation improvement programme, and a refrigeration unit was installed in a lift shaft at Tottenham Court Road. Temperatures of 47 ° C (117 ° F) were reported in the 2006 European heat wave. It was claimed in 2002 that, if animals were being transported, temperatures on the Tube would break European Commission animal welfare laws. A 2000 study reported that air quality was seventy - three times worse than at street level, with a passenger breathing the same mass of particulates during a twenty - minute journey on the Northern line as when smoking a cigarette. The main purpose of the London Underground 's ventilation fans is to extract hot air from the tunnels, and fans across the network are being refurbished, although complaints of noise from local residents preclude their use at full power at night.
In June 2006 a groundwater cooling system was installed at Victoria station. In 2012, air - cooling units were installed on platforms at Green Park station using cool deep groundwater and at Oxford Circus using chiller units at the top of an adjacent building. New air - conditioned trains are being introduced on the sub-surface lines, but space is limited on tube trains for air - conditioning units and these would heat the tunnels even more. The Deep Tube Programme, investigating replacing the trains for the Bakerloo and Piccadilly lines, is looking for trains with better energy conservation and regenerative braking, on which it might be possible to install a form of air conditioning.
In the original Tube design, trains passing through close fitting tunnels act as pistons to create air pressure gradients between stations. This pressure difference drives ventilation between platforms and the surface exits through the passenger foot network. This system depends on adequate cross sectional area of the airspace above the passengers ' heads in the foot tunnels and escalators, where laminar airflow is proportional to the fourth power of the radius, the Hagen -- Poiseuille equation. It also depends on an absence of turbulence in the tunnel headspace. In many stations the ventilation system is now ineffective because of alterations that reduce tunnel diameters and increase turbulence. An example is Green Park tube station, where false ceiling panels attached to metal frames have been installed that reduce the above - head airspace diameter by more than half in many parts. This has the effect of reducing laminar airflow by some 94 %.
Originally air turbulence was kept to a minimum by keeping all signage flat to the tunnel walls. Now the ventilation space above head height is crowded with ducting, conduits, cameras, speakers and equipment acting as a baffle plates with predictable reductions in flow. Often electronic signs have their flat surface at right angles to the main air flow, causing choked flow. Temporary sign boards that stand at the top of escalators also maximise turbulence. The alterations to the ventilation system are important, not only to heat exchange, but also the quality of the air at platform level, particularly given its asbestos content.
Originally access to the deep - tube platforms was by a lift. Each lift was staffed, and at some quiet stations in the 1920s the ticket office was moved into the lift, or it was arranged that the lift could be controlled from the ticket office. The first escalator on the London Underground was installed in 1911 between the District and Piccadilly platforms at Earl 's Court and from the following year new deep - level stations were provided with escalators instead of lifts. The escalators had a diagonal shunt at the top landing. In 1921 a recorded voice instructed passengers to stand on the right and signs followed in World War II. Travellers were asked to stand on the right so that anyone wishing to overtake them would have a clear passage on the left side of the escalator. The first ' comb ' type escalator was installed in 1924 at Clapham Common. In the 1920s and 1930s many lifts were replaced by escalators. After the fatal 1987 King 's Cross fire, all wooden escalators were replaced with metal ones and the mechanisms are regularly degreased to lower the potential for fires. The only wooden escalator not to be replaced was at Greenford station, which remained until October 2015 when TfL replaced it with the first incline lift on the UK transport network.
There are 426 escalators on the London Underground system and the longest, at 60 metres (200 ft), is at Angel. The shortest, at Stratford, gives a vertical rise of 4.1 metres (13 ft). There are 164 lifts, and numbers have increased in recent years because of a programme to increase accessibility.
In summer 2012 London Underground, in partnership with Virgin Media, tried out Wi - Fi hot spots in many stations, but not in the tunnels, that allowed passengers free internet access. The free trial proved successful and was extended to the end of 2012 whereupon it switched to a service freely available to subscribers to Virgin Media and others, or as a paid - for service. It is not currently possible to use mobile phones underground using native 2G, 3G or 4G networks, and a project to extend coverage before the 2012 Olympics was abandoned because of commercial and technical difficulties. UK subscribers to the O2 or Three mobile networks can use the Tu Go or InTouch apps respectively to route their voice calls and texts messages via the Virgin Media Wifi network at 138 London Transport stations. The EE network also has recently released a WiFi calling feature available on the iPhone.
The Elizabeth line, under the project name Crossrail, is under construction and expected to open in stages until 2018, providing a new underground route across central London integrated with, but not part of the London Underground system. A part of National Rail which will become part of Crossrail, and which has already been completed, is currently running under the name "TfL Rail ''. The new line will use Class 345 trains, currently built and tested by Bombardier in Derby, UK, and serve 40 stations. Two options are being considered for the route of Crossrail 2 on a north - south alignment across London, with hopes that it could be open by 2033.
The Croxley Rail Link involves re-routing the Metropolitan line 's Watford branch from the current terminus at Watford over part of the disused Croxley Green branch line to Watford Junction with stations at Cassiobridge, Watford Vicarage Road and Watford High Street (which is currently only a part of London Overground). Funding was agreed in December 2011, and the final approval for the extension was given on 24 July 2013, with the aim of completion by 2020.
However, in 2015 TfL took over responsibility for designing and building the extension from Hertfordshire County Council, and after further detailed design work concluded that an additional £ 50m would be needed on top of that. As of November 2017, the project is on hold awaiting additional funding.
It is planned that the Northern line be extended to Battersea (Battersea Power Station) with an intermediate station at Nine Elms, branching off from the existing line at Kennington. In December 2012, the Treasury confirmed that it will provide a guarantee that allows the Greater London Authority to borrow up to £ 1 billion from the Public Works Loan Board, at a preferential rate, to finance the construction of the line. In April 2013, Transport for London applied for the legal powers of a Transport and Works Act Order to proceed with the extension. Preparation works started in Spring 2015. The main tunnelling started in 2017. The stations could open in 2020.
Provision will be made for a possible future extension to Clapham Junction by notifying the London Borough of Wandsworth of a reserved course under Battersea Park and subsequent streets.
In 1931 the extension of the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle to Camberwell was approved, with stations at Albany Road and an interchange at Denmark Hill. However, with post-war austerity, the plan was abandoned. In 2006 Ken Livingstone, the then Mayor of London, announced that within twenty years Camberwell would have a tube station. Transport for London has indicated that extensions, possibly to Camberwell, could play a part in the future transport strategy for South London over the coming years. However, no such planning of an extension has been revealed. There have also been many other proposals to extend the line to Streatham, Lewisham, and even beyond Lewisham, taking over the suburban Hayes line via Catford Bridge to relieve some capacity on the suburban rail network.
In 2006, as part of the planning for the transfer of the North London Line to what became London Overground, TfL proposed re-extending the Bakerloo line to Watford Junction.
The London Borough of Hillingdon has proposed that the Central line be extended from West Ruislip to Uxbridge via Ickenham, claiming this would cut traffic on the A40 in the area.
In Summer 2014 Transport for London issued a tender for up to 18 trains for the Jubilee line and up to 50 trains for the Northern line. These would be used to increase frequencies and cover the Battersea extension on the Northern line.
In early 2014 the Bakerloo, Piccadilly, Central and Waterloo & City line rolling - stock replacement project was renamed New Tube for London (NTfL) and moved from the feasibility stage to the design and specification stage. The study had showed that, with new generation trains and re-signalling:
The project is estimated to cost £ 16.42 billon (£ 9.86 bn at 2013 prices). A notice was published on 28 February 2014 in the Official Journal of the European Union asking for expressions of interest in building the trains. On 9 October 2014 TFL published a shortlist of those (Alstom, Siemens, Hitachi, CAF and Bombardier) who had expressed an interest in supplying 250 trains for between £ 1.0 billion and £ 2.5 billion, and on the same day opened an exhibition with a design by PriestmanGoode. The fully automated trains may be able to run without drivers, but the ASLEF and RMT trade unions that represent the drivers strongly oppose this, saying it would affect safety. The Invitation to Tender for the trains was issued in January 2016; the specifications for the Piccadilly line infrastructure are expected in 2016, and the first train is due to run on the Piccadilly line in 2022.
The Underground received £ 2.669 billion in fares in 2016 / 17 and uses Transport for London 's zonal fare system to calculate fares. There are nine zones, zone 1 being the central zone, which includes the loop of the Circle line with a few stations to the south of River Thames. The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park, outside Greater London. Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies. Paper tickets, the contactless Oyster cards, contactless debit or credit cards and Apple Pay smartphones and watches can be used for travel. Single and return tickets are available in either format, but Travelcards (season tickets) for longer than a day are available only on Oyster cards.
TfL introduced the Oyster card in 2003; this is a pre-payment smartcard with an embedded contactless RFID chip. It can be loaded with Travelcards and used on the Underground, the Overground, buses, trams, the Docklands Light Railway, and National Rail services within London. Fares for single journeys are cheaper than paper tickets, and a daily cap limits the total cost in a day to the price of a Day Travelcard. The Oyster card must be ' touched in ' at the start and end of a journey, otherwise it is regarded as ' incomplete ' and the maximum fare charged. In March 2012 the cost of this in the previous year to travellers was £ 66.5 million. Contactless payment cards can be used instead of an Oyster card on buses, and this was extended to London Underground, London Overground, DLR and most National Rail services in London from 16 September 2014. The use of these has grown very quickly and now over a million contactless transactions are made on the Underground every day.
A concessionary fare scheme is operated by London Councils for residents who are disabled or meet certain age criteria. Residents born before 1951 were eligible after their 60th birthday, whereas those born in 1955 will need to wait until they are 66. Called a "Freedom Pass '' it allows free travel on TfL - operated routes at all times and is valid on some National Rail services within London at weekends and after 09: 30 on Monday to Fridays. Since 2010, the Freedom Pass has included an embedded holder 's photograph; it lasts five years between renewals.
In addition to automatic and staffed faregates at stations, the Underground also operates on a proof - of - payment system. The system is patrolled by both uniformed and plain - clothes fare inspectors with hand - held Oyster - card readers. Passengers travelling without a valid ticket must pay a penalty fare of £ 80 (or £ 40 if paid within 21 days) and can be prosecuted for fare evasion under the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 and Transport for London Byelaws.
The tube closes overnight. The first trains run from about 05: 00 and the last trains until just after 01: 00, with later starting times at weekends. The nightly closures are used for maintenance, but some lines stay open on New Year 's Eve and run for longer hours during major public events such as the 2012 London Olympics. Some lines are occasionally closed for scheduled engineering work at weekends.
The Underground runs a limited service on Christmas Eve with some lines closing early, and does not operate on Christmas Day. Since 2010 a dispute between London Underground and trade unions over holiday pay has resulted in a limited service on Boxing Day.
On 19 August 2016, London Underground launched a 24 - hour service on the Victoria and Central lines with plans in place to extend this to the Piccadilly, Northern and Jubilee lines in the autumn starting on Friday morning and continuing right through until Sunday evening. The Night Tube proposal was originally scheduled to start on 12 September 2015, following completion of upgrades, but in August 2015 it was announced that the start date for the Night Tube had been pushed back because of ongoing talks about contract terms between trade unions and London Underground. On 23 May 2016 it was announced that the night service would launch on 19 August 2016 for the Central and Victoria lines. The service operates on the:
The Jubilee, Piccadilly and Victoria lines operate at 10 - minute intervals, and the Central line between White City and Leytonstone, but operates at 20 - minute intervals from Leytonstone to Hainault / Loughton, and 20 minutes between White City and Ealing Broadway. The Northern line operates at roughly 8 - minute intervals between Morden and Camden Town via Charing Cross, and 15 - minute intervals from Camden Town to Edgware / High Barnet.
No services will operate on the other lines for the time being. When the upgrade of the Circle, Hammersmith & City, District and Metropolitan lines is complete and the new signalling system has been fully introduced, along with new trains already in operation, the Night Tube service will be extended to these lines.
Accessibility for people with limited mobility was not considered when most of the system was built, and before 1993 fire regulations prohibited wheelchairs on the Underground. The stations on the Jubilee Line Extension, opened in 1999, were designed for accessibility, but retrofitting accessibility features to the older stations is a major investment that is planned to take over twenty years. A 2010 London Assembly Report concluded that over 10 % of people in London had reduced mobility and, with an ageing population, numbers will increase in the future.
The standard issue tube map indicates stations that are step - free from street to platforms. There can also be a step from platform to train as large as 12 inches (300 mm) and a gap between the train and curved platforms, and these distances are marked on the map. Access from platform to train at some stations can be assisted using a boarding ramp operated by staff, and a section has been raised on some platforms to reduce the step.
As of December 2012 there are 66 stations with step - free access from platform to train, and there are plans to provide step - free access at another 28 in ten years. By 2016 a third of stations are to have platform humps that reduce the step from platform to train. New trains, such as those being introduced on the sub-surface network, have access and room for wheelchairs, improved audio and visual information systems and accessible door controls.
During peak hours, stations can get so crowded that they need to be closed. Passengers may not get on the first train and the majority of passengers do not find a seat on their trains, some trains having more than four passengers every square metre. When asked, passengers report overcrowding as the aspect of the network that they are least satisfied with, and overcrowding has been linked to poor productivity and potential poor heart health. Capacity increases have been overtaken by increased demand, and peak overcrowding has increased by 16 percent since 2004 / 5.
Compared with 2003 / 4, the reliability of the network had increased in 2010 / 11, with Lost Customer Hours reduced from 54 million to 40 million. Passengers are entitled to a refund if their journey is delayed by 15 minutes or more due to circumstances within the control of TfL, and in 2010, 330,000 passengers of a potential 11 million Tube passengers claimed compensation for delays. A number of mobile phone apps and services have been developed to help passengers claim their refund more efficiently.
London Underground is authorised to operate trains by the Office of Rail Regulation, and the latest Safety Certification and Safety Authorisation is valid until 2017. As at 19 March 2013 there had been 310 days since the last major incident, when a passenger had died after falling on the track. As of 2015 there have been nine consecutive years in which no employee fatalities have occurred.
In November 2011 it was reported that 80 people had committed suicide in the previous year on the London Underground, up from 46 in 2000. Most platforms at deep tube stations have pits, often referred to as ' suicide pits ', beneath the track. These were constructed in 1926 to aid drainage of water from the platforms, but halve the likelihood of a fatality when a passenger falls or jumps in front of a train.
Early maps of the Metropolitan and District railways were city maps with the lines superimposed, and the District published a pocket map in 1897. A Central London Railway route diagram appears on a 1904 postcard and 1905 poster, similar maps appearing in District Railway cars in 1908. In the same year, following a marketing agreement between the operators, a joint central area map that included all the lines was published. A new map was published in 1921 without any background details, but the central area was squashed, requiring smaller letters and arrows. Harry Beck had the idea of expanding this central area, distorting geography, and simplifying the map so that the railways appeared as straight lines with equally spaced stations. He presented his original draft in 1931, and after initial rejection it was first printed in 1933. Today 's tube map is an evolution of that original design, and the ideas are used by many metro systems around the world.
The current standard tube map shows the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Emirates Air Line, London Tramlink and the London Underground; a more detailed map covering a larger area, published by National Rail and Transport for London, includes suburban railway services. The tube map came second in a BBC and London Transport Museum poll asking for a favourite UK design icon of the 20th century and the underground 's 150th anniversary was celebrated by a Google Doodle on the search engine.
While the first use of a roundel in a London transport context was the trademark of the London General Omnibus Company registered in 1905, it was first used on the Underground in 1908 when the UERL placed a solid red circle behind station nameboards on platforms to highlight the name. The word "UNDERGROUND '' was placed in a roundel instead of a station name on posters in 1912 by Charles Sharland and Alfred France, as well as on undated and possibly earlier posters from the same period. Frank Pick thought the solid red disc cumbersome and took a version where the disc became a ring from a 1915 Sharland poster and gave it to Edward Johnston to develop, and registered the symbol as a trademark in 1917. The roundel was first printed on a map cover using the Johnston typeface in June 1919, and printed in colour the following October.
After the UERL was absorbed into the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933, it used forms of the roundel for buses, trams and coaches, as well as the Underground. The words "London Transport '' were added inside the ring, above and below the bar. The Carr - Edwards report, published in 1938 as possibly the first attempt at a graphics standards manual, introduced stricter guidelines. Between 1948 and 1957 the word "Underground '' in the bar was replaced by "London Transport ''. As of 2013, forms of the roundel, with differing colours for the ring and bar, is used for other TfL services, such as London Buses, Tramlink, London Overground, London River Services and Docklands Light Railway. Crossrail, due to open in 2018, is to be identified with a roundel. The 100th anniversary of the roundel was celebrated in 2008 by TfL commissioning 100 artists to produce works that celebrate the design.
Seventy of the 270 London Underground stations use buildings that are on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest, and five have entrances in listed buildings. The Metropolitan Railway 's original seven stations were inspired by Italianate designs, with the platforms lit by daylight from above and by gas lights in large glass globes. Early District Railway stations were similar and on both railways the further from central London the station the simpler the construction. The City & South London Railway opened with red - brick buildings, designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis, topped with a lead - covered dome that contained the lift mechanism. The Central London Railway appointed Harry Bell Measures as architect, who designed its pinkish - brown steel - framed buildings with larger entrances.
In the first decade of the 20th century Leslie Green established a house style for the tube stations built by the UERL, which were clad in ox - blood faience blocks. Green pioneered using building design to guide passengers with direction signs on tiled walls, with the stations given a unique identity with patterns on the platform walls. Many of these tile patterns survive, though a significant number of these are now replicas. Harry W. Ford was responsible for the design of at least 17 UERL and District Railway stations, including Barons Court and Embankment, and claimed to have first thought of enlarging the U and D in the UNDERGROUND wordmark. The Met 's architect Charles Walter Clark had used a neo-classical design for rebuilding Baker Street and Paddington Praed Street stations before World War I and, although the fashion had changed, continued with Farringdon in 1923. The buildings had metal lettering attached to pale walls. Clark would later design "Chiltern Court '', the large, luxurious block of apartments at Baker Street, that opened in 1929. In the 1920s and 1930s, Charles Holden designed a series of modernist and art - deco stations some of which he described as his ' brick boxes with concrete lids '. Holden 's design for the Underground 's headquarters building at 55 Broadway included avant - garde sculptures by Jacob Epstein, Eric Gill and Henry Moore.
When the Central line was extended east, the stations were simplified Holden proto - Brutalist designs, and a cavernous concourse built at Gants Hill in honour of early Moscow Metro stations. Few new stations were built in the 50 years after 1948, but Misha Black was appointed design consultant for the 1960s Victoria line, contributing to the line 's uniform look, with each station having an individual tile motif. Notable stations from this period include Moor Park, the stations of the Piccadilly line extension to Heathrow and Hillingdon. The stations of the 1990s extension of the Jubilee line were much larger than before and designed in a high - tech style by architects such as Norman Foster and Michael Hopkins, making extensive use of exposed metal plating. West Ham station was built as a homage to the red brick tube stations of the 1930s, using brick, concrete and glass.
Many platforms have unique interior designs to help passenger identification. The tiling at Baker Street incorporates repetitions of Sherlock Holmes 's silhouette and at Tottenham Court Road semi-abstract mosaics by Eduardo Paolozzi feature musical instruments, tape machines and butterflies. Robyn Denny designed the murals on the Northern line platforms at Embankment.
The first posters used a number of type fonts, as was contemporary practice, and station signs used sans serif block capitals. The Johnston typeface was developed in upper and lower case in 1916, and a complete set of blocks, marked Johnston Sans, was made by the printers the following year. A bold version of the capitals was developed by Johnston in 1929. The Met changed to a serif letterform for its signs in the 1920s, used on the stations rebuilt by Clark. However, Johnston was adopted systemwide after the formation of the LPTB in 1933 and the LT wordmark was applied to locomotives and carriages. Johnston was redesigned, becoming New Johnston, for photo - typesetting in the early 1980s when Elichi Kono designed a range that included Light, Medium and Bold, each with its italic version. The typesetters P22 developed today 's electronic version, sometimes called TfL Johnston, in 1997.
Early advertising posters proclaimed the advantages of travelling using various letter forms. Graphic posters first appeared in the 1890s, and it became possible to print colour images economically in the early 20th century. The Central London Railway used colour illustrations in their 1905 poster, and from 1908 the underground group, under Pick 's direction, used images of country scenes, shopping and major events on posters to encourage use of the tube. Pick found he was limited by the commercial artists the printers used, and so commissioned work from artists and designers such as Dora Batty, Edward McKnight Kauffer, the cartoonist George Morrow, Herry (Heather) Perry, Graham Sutherland, Charles Sharland and the sisters Anna and Doris Zinkeisen. According to Ruth Artmonsky, over 150 women artists were commissioned by Pick and latterly Christian Barman to design posters for London Underground, London Transport and London County Council Tramways. The Johnston Sans letter form began appearing on posters from 1917. The Met, strongly independent, used images on timetables and on the cover of its Metro - land guide that promoted the country it served for the walker, visitor and later the house - hunter. By the time London Transport was formed in 1933 the UERL was considered a patron of the arts and over 1000 works were commissioned in the 1930s, such as the cartoon images of Charles Burton and Kauffer 's later abstract cubist and surrealist images. Harold Hutchison became London Transport publicity officer in 1947, after World War II and nationalisation, and introduced the "pair poster '', where an image on a poster was paired with text on another. Numbers of commissions dropped, to eight a year in the 1950s and just four a year in the 1970s, with images from artists such Harry Stevens and Tom Eckersley.
Art on the Underground was introduced in 1986 by Henry Fitzhugh to revive London Transport as a patron of the arts with the Underground commissioning six works a year, judged first on artistic merit. In that year Peter Lee, Celia Lyttleton and a poster by David Booth, Malcolm Fowler and Nancy Fowler were commissioned. Today commissions range from the pocket tube map cover to installations in a station.
Similarly, Poems on the Underground has commissioned poetry since 1986 that are displayed in carriages.
The Underground (including several fictitious stations) has been featured in many movies and television shows, including Skyfall, Die Another Day, Sliding Doors, An American Werewolf in London, Creep, Tube Tales, Sherlock and Neverwhere. The London Underground Film Office received over 200 requests to film in 2000. The Underground has also featured in music such as The Jam 's "Down in the Tube Station at Midnight '' and in literature such as the graphic novel V for Vendetta. Popular legends about the Underground being haunted persist to this day.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 has a level named Mind The Gap where most of the level takes place between the dockyards and Westminster while the player and a team of SAS attempt to take down terrorists attempting to escape using the London Underground via a hijacked train. The game also features the map "Underground '', in which players are put in a fictitious Underground station. The London Underground map serves as a playing field for the conceptual game of Mornington Crescent (which is named after a station on the Northern line) and the board game The London Game.
Route map: Google
London Transport portal
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dungeon ni deai wo motomeru no wa machigatteiru darou season 2 | Is It Wrong to Try to Pick up Girls in a Dungeon? - Wikipedia
Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon? (Japanese: ダンジョン に 出会い を 求める の は 間違っ て いる だろ うか, Hepburn: Danjon ni Deai o Motomeru no wa Machigatteiru Darō ka), also known as DanMachi (ダン まち) for short, and with English subtitle Familia Myth, is a Japanese light novel series written by Fujino Ōmori and illustrated by Suzuhito Yasuda. SB Creative has published eleven volumes since January 2013 under their GA Bunko imprint. It has received two manga adaptations as well as an anime television adaptation by J.C. Staff, which aired from April 4 to June 27, 2015. An OVA was released on December 7, 2016. A second anime season and an original anime film adaptation were both announced in February 2018.
Additionally, a spin - off light novel series titled Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon?: Sword Oratoria began in January 2014, and another spin - off light novel series titled Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon?: Familia Chronicle (illustrated by Nilitsu) began in March 2017. Both spinoffs have also received manga adaptations, and a television anime adaptation of Sword Oratoria aired from April 14 to June 30, 2017.
The story takes place in the fictional city of Orario whose main feature place is the Dungeon (ダンジョン, Danjon) which contains an assortment of monsters from goblins to dragons. Adventurers visit the dungeon to defeat monsters and take their crystal shards, which are used to craft magic items, among other treasures; however, they can also be exchanged for the world 's currency. The people of Orario join groups called Familia (ファミリア, Famiria), who serve a range of functions from dungeon crawling to crafting items. Each Familia is named after and serves a resident deity. In a fashion similar to role playing games, the adventurers are grouped into levels, increasing their levels and abilities according to their achievements.
The story follows the exploits of Bell Cranel, a 15 - year - old solo adventurer under the goddess Hestia. As the only member of the Hestia Familia, he works hard every day in the dungeon to make ends meet while seeking to improve himself. He looks up to Ais Wallenstein, a famous and powerful swordswoman who once saved his life, and with whom he fell in love. He is unaware that several other girls, deities and mortals alike, also develop affections towards him; most notably Hestia herself, as he also gains allies and improves himself with each new challenge he faces.
Fujino Ōmori wrote the story under the title Familia Myth as his entry for the 4th GA Bunko Award, where he won the Great Prize and received an offer for publication. The first light novel volume was published on January 15, 2013, by SB Creative under their GA Bunko imprint. As of October 14, 2016, eleven volumes have been published. The series has estimated sales of over 1,500,000 copies. Yen Press has licensed the series in North America and released the first volume under the Yen On imprint in December 2014. The light novel ranked at No. 4 in 2014 in Takarajimasha 's annual light novel guide book Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi!.
The Familia Chronicle light novels are a series of side stories that go more in - depth on characters that do not get as much attention in the main storylines of Danmachi and Sword Oratoria.
A manga adaptation with art by Kunieda began serialization in Square Enix 's seinen manga magazine Young Gangan from August 2, 2013. It has been collected in seven tankōbon volumes. Yen Press announced at their New York Comic Con 2014 panel the rights to publish the manga in North America.
A four - panel manga series titled Dungeon ni Deai o Motomeru no wa Machigatteiru Darō ka 4 - koma: Kamisama no Nichijō (ダンジョン に 出会い を 求める の は 間違っ て いる だろ うか 4 コマ (神様 の 日常)) by Masaya Takamura began serialization in Square Enix 's online manga magazine Gangan Online from August 14, 2014.
An anime television series adaptation by J.C. Staff began airing the broadcast night of April 3, 2015. The opening theme is "Hey World '' by Yuka Iguchi, and the ending theme is "Right Light Rise '' by Kanon Wakeshima. Crunchyroll has streamed the series internationally. Sentai Filmworks has licensed the anime for digital and home video release in North America with an English dub slated to be released in March 2017. An original video animation was released on December 7, 2016.
A second season of the anime and an original film adaptation titled Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon?: Arrow of the Orion (劇場 版 ダンジョン に 出会い を 求める の は 間違っ て いる だろ うか ー オリオン の 矢 ー, Danjon ni Deai o Motomeru no wa Machigatteiru Darō ka ー Orion no Ya ー) were announced on February 18, 2018, during the GA Bunko 2018 Happyō Stage at Wonder Festival.
5pb. announced that they are developing a "dungeon action RPG '' based on the light novels. The platforms have yet to be announced.
DanMachi: MEMORIA FREESE is a role - playing mobile game for the iOS and Android platforms, released in Japan in 2017 and worldwide in 2018. The game sold over 3 million copies in its first month, and has about 35 million registered users and more than 1 million subscribers as of March 2018. The game 's earnings are 40 % higher in the United States than in Japan.
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dilators of gradually increasing sizes are used in the treatment of . | Hegar dilators - wikipedia
Hegar dilators are dilators used to treat vaginismus, induce cervical dilation, and for inflatable penile implant procedures.
Hegar dilators were developed and introduced by Alfred Hegar in 1879. Typically, dilators are a set of metal rods of increasing diameters, from a few millimeters up to 26 millimeters. The rods are round, slightly curved, and have a conal tip. Some sets have conal tips at both ends, while others have one end flattened for handling. Hegar dilators are marked with a Hegar number equivalent to 0.5 millimeters.
Hegar dilators are used to treat vaginismus, also known as genito - pelvic pain disorder. Females with vaginismus use Hegar dilators of gradually increasing size, followed by penetration from their male spouse.
Hegar dilators are used to induce cervical dilation in order to gain entry to the interior of the uterus.
During the process of dilation, the cervix may have to be stabilized with a tenaculum, and then the dilators are slowly entered into the cervical canal with a lubricant, starting with a thin, low Hegar number rod and progressing gradually to larger numbers. The dilators can also be used to sound the uterus.
Hegar dilators are widely used in gynecology to open up the cervix. This may be necessary prior to a uterine curettage or biopsy. They have also found application in the management of vaginismus or hymenal stenosis. They are also used to overcome stenosis in non-gynecological situations, such as in urology and proctology.
Laminaria rods have also been used to open up the cervix but work slowly as they increase size by absorbing water.
Hegar dilators (commonly, sizes 11 and 12) are used during the insertion of two intracorporal cylinders into the Corpus cavernosum penis as part of an Inflatable penile implant procedure. These cylinders are inflated and deflated by a pump that moves sterile saline under pressure between a holding reservoir and the cylinders, inflating or deflating an erection of the penis.
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what is the legal driving age in australia | Driving licence in Australia - Wikipedia
A driver 's licence (or driver licence) is required in Australia before a person is permitted to drive a motor vehicle of any description on a road in Australia for commerce. The responsibility for the regulation and enforcement of road use, including light vehicle driver licensing is the responsibility of the state and territory governments.
All states and territories in Australia have a uniform driver licence system.
The medical standards for drivers of commercial vehicles are set by the National Transport Commission and Austroads.
The driver of a vehicle carrying paying passengers (such as a school bus or tourist coach) is required to hold a driver licence depending on the size of the vehicle as well as a "Public Passenger Vehicle Driver Authority '' which is issued by the state or territory Ministry of Transport.
The official nomenclature for car licences varies in the states and territories, for example "Driver 's Licence '' or "Driver Licence ''. However, "Driver 's Licence '' is most commonly used.
The official names for learners also vary, for example "Learner Driver Licences '' or "Learner 's Permit ''.
The minimum driving age for probationary drivers varies between States and Territories. It is 18 years in Victoria; 16 years and 6 months in the Northern Territory; and 17 years in all other states and the ACT. Learner drivers may drive, under qualified supervision, from 15 years and 9 months in the ACT and 16 years in the other states and the Northern Territory since 1966
The driving age in the Australian Capital Territory is 17 years. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a three - year probationary period.
The road ready course is a minimum of ten hours, if undertaken at a road ready centre and not through school. During the course, applicants for a Learner Licence learn the road rules, undergo alcohol education and hazard perception training. Once this course has been completed, and a computerised Road rules test is passed, a Learner 's Licence is obtained. This licence is valid for two years. Learners must display black on yellow "L Plates '' and drive under the supervision of a full Australian licence holder, who has held their licence for at least four years.
The second method in which a Provisional Licence may be obtained, is through recording driving experience in the same logbook, with a supervisor who has held an open licence for twelve months for the class of vehicle used. The difference in using this method to obtain a provisional licence is that the log book only records time spent driving, and not the Learner 's ability to drive. While no minimum amount of hours are required, Learners are advised when obtaining their Learner 's licence, that 50 or more practical hours are recommended before attempting the practical test. Using this method, provided the driver has held their Learner 's licence for a period greater than 6 months, they may book into an ACT Roads and Transit Authority Centre, and attempt the practical driving test.
If either method is used, and the driver has obtained their licence in an Automatic transmission vehicle, an "A '' condition is placed on the licence, for a period of 12 months. This condition restricts the license holder, for the duration of this period, to driving vehicles with automatic transmission only. To remove the condition prior to 12 months, the provisional driver must re-attempt the practical driving exam in a manual transmission vehicle. The Provisional Licence is valid for three years. Provisional drivers must display red on white "P Plates '' for three years unless: (a) they take an additional road safety program Road Ready Plus after six months of obtaining their Provisional Licence; or (b) they are over 26 years of age and held their licence for six months. Provisional holders who have taken the Road Ready Plus (RRP) course, (commonly called a "P - off '' course), or are over 26 years of age also get an additional four demerit point allowance. A "PC '' condition is displayed on the licence, which indicates that the provisional driver can drive with "P plates not displayed ''. Provisional drivers must have a zero blood - alcohol limit. No speed restrictions are imposed on ACT learner or Provisional drivers, and they are permitted to drive the posted speed limit.
The minimum driving age in New South Wales is 16 years. The government introduced the Graduated Licensing Scheme in 2000 and therefore learners progress from a learner licence, to a provisional P1 licence, to a provisional P2 licence and finally to a full licence over an extended period of time. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a three - year probationary period.
In New South Wales the minimum age to be eligible for a provisional P1 licence is 17. As of 1 July 2007, new laws for P1 drivers have been introduced, including a limit of one passenger under the age of 21 between 11 pm and 5 am, and instant suspension for three months for any speeding offence. Furthermore, it is also now a requirement that red "P - plates '' be displayed on the outside of the vehicle.
P1 and P2 drivers are also prohibited from driving a vehicle with a power - to - weight ratio of or greater than 130 kilowatts per tonne as of 1 August 2014, replacing the previous law of being prohibited from driving vehicles with 8 or more cylinders and being turbocharged or supercharged (diesel vehicles exempt) If a P1 or P2 licence holder is disqualified by a court for a serious driving offence, they will have a one - passenger condition imposed on them at all times while on their P1 or P2 licence. It is also worth noting that any time a P1 or P2 licence is suspended or disqualified will NOT count towards the 12 months / 24 months needed for the holder to progress to a P2 / full licence.
The learner licence may be obtained at age 16. Learner drivers may not use a mobile phone and must be supervised by a full licence holder and may not drive faster than 80 km / h. After holding the learner licence for six months a provisional licence may be obtained. Once the provisional licence is obtained, it must be held for a minimum of 2 years before obtaining the full northern territory licence.
You will need to hold your provisional licence for a minimum of two (2) years before you progress to an open licence.
Now that you have your provisional licence you still need to comply with all road rules and traffic laws and there are some additional requirements for provisional licence holders including: SpeedYou may not exceed 100 km / h, irrespective of the sign - posted speed limit. AlcoholYou must have a zero Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) at all times whilst driving. Displaying P - platesYou must display approved P - plates that are clearly visible to the front and rear of the vehicle you are driving and must not obstruct your vision while driving. P - plates must have the letter ' P ' in red on a white background. The plate must be a minimum of 150mm wide and 150mm tall. P - plates must not be displayed when the person driving the vehicle is not a provisional driver -- so make sure you remember to display and then remove your P - plates from the vehicle when you start and finish driving. Mobile phones and other devices Provisional drivers are not permitted to use a mobile phone in any form whilst driving, including hands - free devices and texting. Demerit pointsAccumulating five (5) or more demerit points within a 12 - month period will trigger action against your provisional licence.
Source: Northern Territory Department of Transport
Persons may apply for their Learner Licence at 16 years of age, passing a written Road Rules Test. Learners under 25 must hold their licence for at least one year and log a total of 100hrs on - road driving experience (including 10hrs night driving) in the issued logbook. However a logbook exemption can be applied for, meaning the learner will not need to submit a logbook with 100 hours of driving, but will need to hold their learner licence for a minimum of 12 months before going for their provisional licence. Learners over 25 years of age are not required to complete a log book of 100 logged driving hours, however may voluntarily wish to do so. Learners must display yellow L plates and are not speed restricted by the licence. Learners must be accompanied by an open licence holder who has held the relevant class open licence for at least 1 year. The drinking level must be 0.00 for a learner and instructor must be under 0.049.
From 2005, Queensland licences have been called a "Driver Licence '' (as opposed to the traditional "Driver 's Licence '' or the variant "Driving Licence ''), and no longer carry information about the holder 's organ donor status. The Australian Organ Donor Register is now used for national registration of tissue donation status.
Elderly drivers are required to have their licences renewed more often and are required to have compulsory eye tests, which does not include colour vision.
For more information on driver 's licences in Queensland, see Department of Transport and Main Roads and click on Licensing.
To get a Provisional Licence (also called a probationary licence and commonly referred to as Ps), you must have held a learner 's permit for at least 12 months, be at least 17 years of age or have an equivalent interstate or overseas driver 's licence and be at least 17. If you had a learner 's permit, you must also have a log book showing you have had at least 75 hours driving experience (including at least 15 hours of night - time driving) which must have all been signed by the Qualified Supervising Driver. All applicants must pass a practical driving test or be signed off on several points by a driving instructor in a competency - based training course. Drivers are then issued with a P1 licence. The main restrictions on P - platers are a maximum speed limit of 100 km / h (even where the posted speed limit is higher), a requirement that no alcohol or party drugs be in the system, and not being allowed to accrue more than 4 demerit points. They must also display red P plates (shown on left).
Drivers who obtain a P1 provisional licence on or after 4 September 2010 must not drive a high - powered vehicle if they are under the age of 25. High powered includes vehicles with engines of eight or more cylinders, vehicles with turbocharged or supercharged engines (excluding diesel powered vehicles), vehicles that have been modified to increase engine performance, and nominated high - performance vehicles. High - powered vehicle restrictions do not apply to drivers over 25 years of age. P plates of any kind are not displayed when on the P2 licence.
A driver must have held a provisional licence (combined P1s and P2s) for at least 3 years (one year on P1 and 2 years on P2) before becoming a fully licensed driver. Fully licensed drivers have their restrictions on alcohol relaxed to 0.05 per cent blood alcohol concentration and may drive at the full speed limit (which is 110 km / h on many country roads).
After 3 months a Learner can go for a practical driving test, this test proves in the driver can drive safely. This test can be undertaken in an automatic or manual vehicle, if the L2 's test was undertaken in an automatic vehicle the learner can still go for their manual licence when the undertake the P 's test. (there is no plate change it still remains the yellow L plate) Once a Learner is on their L2 's they begin logging their driving hours, a learner must complete 50hours of driving and must be of the age of 17 before they can take the practical driving test. This test contains several sections including the "I left something behind '' task. If the learner fails the test he / she must wait 28 days before retaking the test.
Note: there are no vehicle restrictions in Tasmania.
VicRoads is the authority in Victoria responsible for the administration of driver licensing in the state.
The minimum driving age in Victoria is 18 years. A learner can drive at the age of 16 under the supervision of a fully licensed driver since 1966. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a 4 - year probationary period.
' L ' plates must be displayed while driving, and must not tow a trailer. There are no special speed or vehicle restrictions.
Learner permits, P1 and P2 Probationary licences have a maximum of 5 demerit points in any 12 month period, and 12 points in any 3 year period.
An applicant for a Driver Licence must have held a Learner 's Permit for at least 12 months if the applicant is under 21 years at the time of applying; 6 months if the applicant is between 21 and 24 years; and 3 months for applicants aged over 25 years. If a driver obtained their Learner 's Permit after 1 July 2007, and are under 21 years of age, they must have logged 120 hours of practice, including 10 hours at night.
Probationary drivers must drive with a zero BAC, and are not permitted to drive ' high powered vehicles ' (formerly those powered at more than 125 kW / tonne or 3.5 litres / tonne; now all petrol turbocharged and supercharged cars and any car of more than 6 cylinders, refer below). If the driver was tested in an automatic vehicle, the driver will have an "A '' condition applied to their licence and are not permitted to drive a manual transmission vehicle. The "A '' condition can be lifted anytime during the probationary period (s) by taking the practical drive test in a manual transmission vehicle.
There are no speed restrictions, however trailers may not be towed except for work purposes. P1 drivers have a peer passenger restriction which sees P1 drivers only able to carry no more than one passenger aged between 16 -- 21 years old (excluding family members; exemptions may also be allowed by VicRoads for other reasons) at any time. They must not use any form of mobile phone including hands - free.
On 1 July 2008, what is considered a high power vehicle was redefined. P plate drivers were no longer allowed to drive cars with engines larger than a V6, cars that have a turbo or supercharger (unless it is a diesel). A shortlist was produced of cars that comply with these restrictions but are still considered powerful and therefore banned. The list includes BMW M3 and Porsche 911. There have been many complaints about this system as several slower cars have been banned, such as the Peugeot 308, but faster cars such as VW Golf R32 and BMW 130i were still permitted.
On 1 July 2014, the rules were again modified, to distinguish between vehicles manufactured before 1 January 2010, and those manufactured after. Probationary drivers are now permitted to drive any vehicle manufactured after 1 January 2010 that does not have a power to mass ratio of greater than 130 kilowatts per tonne, and does not have a modified engine for increased performance. Vehicles manufactured before 1 January 2010 remain subject to previous restrictions, which include a restriction on engines larger than a V6, and cars that have a turbocharger or supercharger.
After 1 July 2008, those aged over 21 years when applying for a licence qualify as P2 drivers after passing the computerised Hazard Perception Test and a practical driving test, as well as an eyesight test.
The same P1 restrictions apply, except P2 drivers may tow trailers. As of 25 November 2013, P2 drivers must not use a mobile phone while driving, including hands - free phones. The peer passenger restriction does not apply to P2 drivers. They must display the white - on - green ' P - plates ', rather than the red. If a person is over 21 when licensed they go straight onto the P2 licence for three years.
P2 licences last for 3 years, making the minimum age of receiving a full licence 22 years, up from 21 years for drivers who obtained their Probationary Licence before 1 July 2008. The minimum age for obtaining a P2 Licence is 19 years. All drivers who obtained their Probationary Licence before 1 July 2008 qualify as P2 drivers and must display the green ' P ' plates.
There are few restrictions on fully licensed drivers, other than not being able to drive while holding a mobile phone, and the requirement to have a BAC under 0.05 %. Full licences are valid for ten years, but can be made available for three years if requested. Full driver licences have a maximum of 12 demerit points in any 3 year period.
For more information on driver 's licences in Victoria, see Arrive Alive website.
Driver 's licences in Western Australia are administered by the Department of Transport. The driving age in Western Australia is 17 years. A learner can drive at the age of 16 under the supervision of a fully licensed driver. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a 2 - year probationary period.
As of 1 December 2010, the Western Australian Government introduced a new Graduated Demerit Point system for Novice Drivers (which includes L - and P - plate drivers). Under this system, a driver may accrue less than 4 demerit points within the first year of their provisional licence, and less than 8 points within the second year, before losing their licence. These limits include demerit points accrued before these 1 - and 2 - year periods.
The provisional licence automatically converts into a full driver 's licence after the 2 - year probationary period. Drivers with full driver 's licences must drive with a blood alcohol content less than 0.05 %, may accrue less than 12 demerit points before being disqualified, and may drive at up to 110 km / h (the maximum speed limit in the state). ' P ' plate drivers may also drive up to 110 km / h, where permitted by the state.
WA has two classes of drivers licence: C which enables one to drive any vehicle weighing less than 4.5 tonnes C-A which enables one to drive any vehicle fitted with an automatic transmission and weighing less than 4.5 tonnes. Refer
Drivers who have accrued 12 or more demerit points can choose to continue driving on a 12 - month Good Behaviour Period. If more than two demerit points are accrued during the 12 - month period (even on different fines), the licence is lost for twice the original disqualification period; usually 6 months (3 months x 2).
In Australia, where there is no national identity card in operation, driver 's licences serve as a common means of photo identification. Photo cards are also available, especially for non-drivers. These may be used for entry to venues which have age restrictions, such as alcohol selling premises.
Licences and photo cards are hologrammed, and contain a photograph, signature, the holder 's address, and date of birth.
Electronic online identification can be (partly) established using a drivers licence for online applications for some services such as SIM card activation, and opening bank accounts.
The Australian Attorney - General 's Department provides a document verification service that allows for validation of some licences.
Many issuing authorities such as NSW allow for an online check of the validity of a drivers licence.
Visitors from other countries are conditionally permitted to drive with their overseas drivers licence for a period of time. Conditions vary for every state and territory. Generally, drivers must carry their overseas licence with them. A certified translation or International Driving Permit is only required if the licence is not in English, and the original licence must be carried regardless. Once a driver becomes a permanent resident a local licence should be obtained generally within three months.
Interstate visitors are permitted to travel on their current Australian or New Zealand licence. They must obey the local road rules of that state. The differences in state laws have generated much confusion to visiting drivers, with many pushing for uniform federal road rules.
Drivers who move interstate must apply for a new driver 's licence within three months of moving. Unless a driving test is required, there is no charge for a conversion from a current interstate licence. Usually, licences are converted in the same day, to the same or equivalent class, or, in the case of the conversion of a non-GLS licence to a GLS system, a P1 or P2 licence is issued, depending on the length of time that the holder of the licence has been driving. The licence may need to be confirmed by obtaining a letter from the interstate licence issuing authority (on their letterhead) confirming the licence details (including first issue date) and status.
Drivers moving states may be eligible to upgrade their licence class, due to the varying age rules that apply in each state. For example, a Victorian learner driver who moves to NSW may be eligible to sit the driving test to obtain a P1 licence. However, drivers who are under 18 will not be able to obtain the same licence class in Victoria, where one must be at least 18 to do so. Another example is a Victorian over 25 moving to Tasmania, SA, QLD or WA will be able to obtain a full licence after having held their Ps for 12 months in Victoria despite the fact that the probationary period for over-21 - year - olds in Victoria is 3 years. If a driver is about to lose their licence in their home state, they may obtain a new licence in another state of Australia, provided that the demerit points have not already been added and the fine has not yet been paid, or in the case of immediate licence disqualification, the actual disqualification period has not yet commenced (prior 28 days after offence).
Most states do not allow a person to have an interstate commercial driving job if the person does not "reside '' in that state. For example, a person with a Queensland Driver 's Licence and Driver 's Authority (a variation of the wording Driver 's Accreditation) can not obtain a commercial driving job in South Australia unless that person registers a "residential '' address in South Australia, even though they may not live there, and swap over the Driver 's Licence and obtain a new Driver 's Accreditation.
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who do the saints play first in the playoffs | New Orleans Saints - wikipedia
National Football League (1967 -- present)
Old Gold, Black, White
League championships (1)
Conference championships (1)
Division championships (6)
Temporary stadiums in 2005 due to the effects of Hurricane Katrina:
The New Orleans Saints are a professional American football team based in New Orleans, Louisiana. The Saints currently compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The team was founded by John W. Mecom Jr., David Dixon and the city of New Orleans. The Saints began play in Tulane Stadium in 1967.
The name "Saints '' is an allusion to November 1 being All Saints Day in the Catholic faith, New Orleans ' large Catholic population, and the spiritual "When the Saints Go Marching In '', which is strongly associated with New Orleans and often sung by fans at games. The franchise was founded on November 1, 1966. The team 's primary colors are old gold and black; their logo is a simplified fleur - de-lis. They played their home games in Tulane Stadium through the 1974 NFL season. The following year, they moved to the new Louisiana Superdome (now the Mercedes - Benz Superdome, since Mercedes - Benz has purchased the stadium 's naming rights).
For most of their first 20 years, the Saints were barely competitive, only getting to. 500 twice. In 1987, they finished 12 -- 3 -- their first - ever winning season -- and qualified for the NFL playoffs for the first time in franchise history, but lost to the Minnesota Vikings 44 -- 10. The next season of 1988 ended with a 10 -- 6 record, but no playoff berth. In the 2000 season, the Saints defeated the defending Super Bowl champion St. Louis Rams 31 -- 28 to notch their first - ever playoff win.
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans and much of the Gulf Coast region. The Superdome was used as an emergency temporary shelter for displaced residents. The stadium suffered damage from the hurricane (notably from flooding and part of the roof being torn off as well as internal damage), and from lack of available facilities. The Saints were forced to play their first scheduled home game against the New York Giants at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey (the Giants ' home stadium); other home games were rescheduled at the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas or Tiger Stadium in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. During the season, it was rumored that Saints owner Tom Benson might deem the Superdome unusable and seek to legally void his contract and relocate the team to San Antonio, where he has business interests. Ultimately, however, the Superdome was repaired and renovated in time for the 2006 season at an estimated cost of US $185 million. The New Orleans Saints ' first post-Katrina home game was an emotionally charged Monday Night Football game versus their division rival, the Atlanta Falcons. The Saints, under rookie head coach Sean Payton and new quarterback Drew Brees, defeated the Falcons 23 -- 3, and went on to notch the second playoff win in franchise history.
The 2009 season was a historic one for the Saints. Winning a franchise - record 13 games, they qualified for Super Bowl XLIV and defeated the AFC champion Indianapolis Colts 31 -- 17. To date, it is the only Super Bowl championship that they have won, and as it is the only Super Bowl the Saints have appeared in, they join the New York Jets and Tampa Bay Buccaneers as the only three NFL teams to win their lone Super Bowl appearance.
Over the course of 50 seasons, the Saints have compiled an overall record of 345 -- 436 -- 5, with a regular season record of 338 -- 427 -- 5 and a playoff record of 8 -- 10.
First the brainchild of local sports entrepreneur Dave Dixon, who later built the Louisiana Superdome and founded the USFL, the Saints were actually secretly born in a backroom deal brought about by U.S. Congressman Hale Boggs, U.S. Senator Russell Long, and NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle. The NFL needed congressional approval of the proposed AFL -- NFL merger. Dixon and a local civic group had been seeking an NFL franchise for over five years and had hosted record crowds for NFL exhibition games. To seal the merger, Rozelle arrived in New Orleans within a week, and announced on November 1, 1966, that the NFL officially had awarded the city of New Orleans an NFL franchise. The team was named for the great jazz song most identified with New Orleans -- "When the Saints Go Marching In '', and it was no coincidence that the franchise 's official birth was announced on November 1, which is the Catholic All Saints ' Day. When the deal was reached a week earlier, Dixon strongly suggested to Rozelle that the announcement be delayed until then. Dixon told an interviewer that he even cleared the name with New Orleans ' Archbishop Philip M. Hannan: "He thought it would be a good idea. He had an idea the team was going to need all the help it could get. ''
Boggs ' Congressional committee in turn quickly approved the NFL merger. John W. Mecom Jr., a young oilman from Houston, became the team 's first majority stockholder. The team 's colors, black and gold, symbolized both Mecom 's and New Orleans ' strong ties to the oil industry. Trumpeter Al Hirt was part owner of the team, and his rendition of "When the Saints Go Marching In '' was made the official fight song.
That first season started with a 94 - yard opening kickoff return for a touchdown by John Gilliam, but the Saints lost that game 27 -- 13 to the Los Angeles Rams at Tulane Stadium. It was one of the few highlights of a season that ultimately saw the Saints finish 3 -- 11, which set an NFL record for most wins by an expansion team.
For most of their first 20 years, the Saints were the definition of NFL futility. They would not finish as high as second in their division until 1979. The 1979 and 1983 teams were the only ones to even finish at. 500 until 1987.
One of the franchise 's early bright moments came on November 8, 1970, when Tom Dempsey kicked an NFL record - breaking 63 - yard field goal to defeat the Detroit Lions by a score of 19 -- 17 in the final seconds of the game. The record was not broken until 2013 by Matt Prater of the Denver Broncos.
In 1980, the Saints lost their first 14 games, prompting local sportscaster Bernard "Buddy D '' Diliberto to advise Saints supporters to wear paper bags over their heads at the team 's home games; many bags rendered the club 's name as the "' Aints '' rather than the "Saints. ''
Current Saints owner Tom Benson acquired the franchise in 1985, and hired Jim Finks as general manager and Jim Mora as head coach. That combination provided the Saints with their first - ever winning record and playoff appearance, going 12 -- 3 in 1987, which had one fewer game than normal due to a players ' strike. Another playoff berth would follow in 1991, and the club 's first division title came in 1991. During Mora 's tenure, the Saints made the playoffs four times, with teams marked by strong defenses led by the "Dome Patrol '' linebacking corps, but they were never able to win a playoff game. Mora coached the Saints until the middle of the 1996 season, when he stepped down halfway through the 3 -- 13 season. His 93 wins were three more than the Saints won in their entire history prior to his arrival, and would remain the most for any Saints coach until 2016.
After the end of the 1996 season, ironically as Diliberto had suggested before Mora 's resignation, former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka was hired to replace Mora. Although this initially generated a lot of excitement among Saints fans, Ditka 's tenure ended up being a failure. The Saints went 6 -- 10 in their first two seasons under Ditka (1997 and 1998). During the 1999 NFL Draft, Ditka traded all of his picks for that season, as well as the first - round and third - round picks for the following season, to the Washington Redskins in order to draft University of Texas Heisman Trophy running back Ricky Williams in the first round. Ditka and Williams had a mock wedding picture taken to commemorate the occasion. However, Ditka, most of his coaching staff, and general manager Bill Kuharich were fired at the end of the 1999 season due to the club 's 3 -- 13 record.
Jim Haslett held the post from 2000 to 2005. In his first year, he took the team to the 2000 playoffs and defeated the defending Super Bowl champion St. Louis Rams for the team 's first ever playoff win. The team lost the following week to the Minnesota Vikings. After winning the 2000 NFL Executive of the Year Award, General Manager Randy Mueller was fired between the 2001 and 2002 seasons without explanation by Benson. The Saints failed to make the playoffs in 2001 and 2002, although in the latter year they had the distinction of beating the eventual Super Bowl XXXVII champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers in both of their regular season meetings, only the second team to do so in NFL history.
In 2003, the Saints again missed the playoffs after finishing 8 -- 8. The 2004 season started poorly for the Saints, as they went 2 -- 4 through their first six games and 4 -- 8 through their first twelve games. At that point Haslett 's job appeared to be in jeopardy; however, he managed to win the three straight games leading up to the season finale, leaving the Saints in playoff contention in the final week of the season. In week 17, the Saints defeated division rivals Carolina; however, the Saints needed other results to break their way and when the St. Louis Rams beat the New York Jets the Saints were eliminated despite having beaten the Rams, who finished with the same record. The Rams, Saints, and Vikings all were 8 -- 8, with the Rams having a 7 -- 5 conference record, Saints 6 -- 6, and the Vikings 5 -- 7. The Rams received the # 1 wild - card due to having the best conference record out of the 3, followed by the Vikings due to the 38 -- 31 loss handed to the Saints in Week 6. Haslett was fired after the 2005 season, in which the Saints finished 3 -- 13 and did not play any regular season games in New Orleans due to Hurricane Katrina.
Due to the damage Hurricane Katrina caused to the Superdome and the New Orleans area, the Saints ' scheduled 2005 home opener against the New York Giants was moved to Giants Stadium. The remainder of their 2005 home games were split between the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas, and LSU 's Tiger Stadium in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
On January 17, 2006, the Saints hired Sean Payton as their new head coach.
2006 season
On March 23, the Saints announced that the team 's two 2006 preseason games were to be played at Shreveport, Louisiana, and Jackson, Mississippi. After a $185 million renovation of the historic stadium, on April 6 the Saints released their 2006 schedule, with all home games scheduled to be played at the Superdome. On September 19, Saints owner Tom Benson announced that the team had sold out the Louisiana Superdome for the entire season with season tickets alone (68,354 seats), a first in franchise history.
The September 25, 2006 home opener, the first home game in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, was won by the Saints 23 -- 3 against the Atlanta Falcons, who were undefeated in the 2006 season at that time. The attendance for the game was a sellout crowd of 70,003. Meanwhile, the broadcast of the game was ESPN 's highest - ever rated program to date, with an 11.8 rating, and viewership by 10,850,000 homes. It was the most - watched program for the night, broadcast or cable, and was the second - highest rated cable program of all time at the time. Green Day and U2 performed "Wake Me Up When September Ends '' and "The Saints Are Coming '', respectively, before the game. The game received a 2007 ESPY award for "Best Moment in Sports. '' The game is remembered by Saints fans for Steve Gleason 's blocked punt on the opening series that resulted in a touchdown for New Orleans.
On December 17, 2006, the Saints clinched their third division title and their first NFC South title in franchise history. For the first time in Saints ' history, they clinched their NFC South title on their home field. Sean Payton became the second consecutive Saints coach to win a division title in his first season. After the Philadelphia Eagles beat the Dallas Cowboys 23 -- 7 on Christmas Day 2006, the Saints clinched a first - round playoff bye for the first time in franchise history.
After the first - round bye, the Saints beat the Philadelphia Eagles 27 -- 24 in the Superdome in the 2006 Divisional Playoffs. No team had ever had such a poor record in the prior year (3 -- 13) and then gone on to a league or conference championship game since the 1999 St. Louis Rams who advanced to win their first Super Bowl after being 4 -- 12 the season before. Since the Saints ' only previous playoff win was in the wild card round, this was the farthest the Saints had ever advanced at the time. The victory was only the second playoff win in team history. The season ended on January 21, 2007, when the Saints lost 39 -- 14 to the Chicago Bears in the NFC Championship game.
2007 season
The Saints announced that for the second year in a row, the Louisiana Superdome had sold out every ticket for the season. Additionally, all luxury boxes had been sold out for the season. Both of these statistics are particularly surprising given that the city - proper has about 300,000 people or 150,000 fewer people than July 2005 population data (though the metro area still accounts for 1.2 million people).
The first game of the season was against the defending Super Bowl XLI champion Indianapolis Colts. The Saints lost this game, 41 -- 10, and lost their next three games. In one of these three games, against the Tennessee Titans, the Saints lost running back Deuce McAllister for the season with his second career (second time in three seasons) ACL tear. After winning their first game, against the Seattle Seahawks, two weeks later, the team went on a four - game winning streak to bring their record to an even 4 -- 4. After reaching 7 -- 7, the Saints lost their final two games to finish 7 -- 9.
2008 season
Following a disappointing 7 -- 9 record in the 2007 season, the Saints ended the 2008 season 8 -- 8. Failing to qualify for the post season for the second straight year, the Saints found themselves struggling on defense. However, the Saints would match the explosive offense they had in the 2006 season. Drew Brees ended the 2008 season just 16 yards short of beating Dan Marino 's single - season record of 5084 total passing yards, and receiver Lance Moore came 72 yards short of his first 1000 - yard season.
2009 season: First Super Bowl championship
The 2009 season was the team 's most successful season, which culminated in the franchise 's first league championship win against the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLIV. After achieving a record of 13 -- 0 with their win over the Atlanta Falcons, it marked the Saints ' best start to a season in its franchise history. The result clinched an NFC playoff berth, a bye in the first round of the playoffs. By winning their first 13 games, the Saints also set the record for the longest undefeated season opening (13 -- 0) by an NFC team since the AFL -- NFL merger, surpassing the previous record (12 -- 0) held by the 1985 Chicago Bears. However, they would fall victim to the Dallas Cowboys in week 14, going on to end the season with a three - game losing streak. Saints became the first team to win a Super Bowl after losing its last three regular season games.
Although its opponents would include winners of 9 of the last 15 NFL MVP awards, the team advanced to the 2009 NFC Championship game where they defeated the Minnesota Vikings, led by Brett Favre, 31 -- 28 in overtime (at 9: 19 CST), earning their first Super Bowl appearance in franchise history. Television ratings for Super Bowl XLIV (44) were the highest for any TV program, sports or otherwise, in history, as their successful bid to win the Super Bowl was seen by many to represent the city 's resurgence after the devastating Hurricane Katrina.
2010 season
The Saints 2010 season began in the Superdome as the defending Super Bowl champions defeated the Minnesota Vikings 14 -- 9, in a rematch of the 2009 NFC Championship Game. It was played on Thursday September 9, 2010 and televised on NBC, making it the first time the Saints have opened the NFL 's season at home. On Sunday, August 8, 2010, NBC announced the televised opening festivities of the evening would begin with Taylor Swift and Dave Matthews Band. On December 27, 2010, with a 17 -- 14 win against the Atlanta Falcons in Atlanta the Saints clinched a playoff appearance (wild card). This marked the first time a team in the NFC South had made back - to - back playoff appearances since the division was formed in 2002. The Saints would face the Seattle Seahawks for the wild - card opener at Qwest Field. The Seahawks were the first NFL team to capture their division with a sub -. 500 regular season record (7 -- 9). Drew Brees completed a postseason - record 39 passes for 404 yards and two touchdowns. Despite throwing 60 passes and hindered by a lack of depth at running back, last year 's Super Bowl MVP was not intercepted and rallied the Saints within 34 -- 30 in the fourth quarter. In the end, his efforts were negated by a defense that could not get enough stops and a late touchdown run by Marshawn Lynch breaking over a half - dozen tackles with 3: 22 left which helped the Seahawks defeat the Saints 41 -- 36.
2011 season
The Saints began their season with a loss against the Green Bay Packers, but the team rebounded for the next four weeks to bring their record to 4 -- 1. A loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers brought the record to 4 -- 2, but the team bounced back with a 62 -- 7 blowout win against the struggling Indianapolis Colts. A surprise loss to the St. Louis Rams resulted in the record dropping to 5 -- 3. In the next seven weeks the Saints beat talented teams such as the eventual Super Bowl XLVI champion New York Giants, Detroit Lions, and Atlanta Falcons, bringing their season record to 12 -- 3. To cap off the season, quarterback Drew Brees broke the single season passing record held for over 25 years, on the way to a Saints division winning game. The Saints won the NFC South title on December 26 and ended the 2011 season as the 3rd Seed in the NFC. They finished with a 13 -- 3 record, beating Carolina 45 -- 17 and also giving running back Darren Sproles the record for most all - purpose yards in a single season. The team broke numerous records that year including most yards in a season, completion percentage, yards passing, completions and more. The New Orleans Saints beat the Detroit Lions in the 2011 NFC wild - card playoff game 45 -- 28. New Orleans also tied the NFL 's postseason mark for team first downs in a game (34), and broke the record for total yards with 626, eclipsing the yardage record set 49 years ago. The Saints lost Saturday, January 14, 2012 in the Divisional round in the playoffs against the San Francisco 49ers in Candlestick Park. A game that was considered an instant classic by many as the game saw numerous lead changes in the final 4 minutes of play.
2012 season: Payton suspended; punishment for Bountygate
After an offseason dominated by news of the bounty scandal and the year - long suspension of head coach Sean Payton, the Saints sought to refocus on football and produce yet another winning year. Instead, the team, led by offensive line coach Aaron Kromer for its first six games, started the season with four straight losses and a last place spot in the NFC South. The team finally broke through with a win in Week 5, against the San Diego Chargers, a game that also saw quarterback Drew Brees break Johnny Unitas 's longstanding record for consecutive games with a touchdown pass. After their scheduled bye, the Saints went on to win 4 of their next 5 games, to bring their record to an even 5 -- 5. Joe Vitt returned after his six - game suspension to serve as interim head coach for the rest of the season. The team failed to hold its momentum, however, and lost the next three games, including a loss at Atlanta that also marked the end of Brees ' record touchdown streak after 54 games, and a 52 -- 27 blowout loss to the Giants that dropped the Saints to 5 -- 8. Despite winning 2 of their last 3 games, and Brees again leading the league with 5,177 passing yards (his third time to surpass 5,000 yards, as he remained the only quarterback to break that barrier more than once), the team finished tied for last in the NFC South, at 7 -- 9. The Saints defense allowed 7,042 yards, setting an NFL record.
2013 season
The Saints finished their 2013 preseason 3 -- 1, and won their first five regular season games against the Atlanta Falcons, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Arizona Cardinals, Miami Dolphins and Chicago Bears. The Saints under Sean Peyton had been winless in Chicago 's Soldier Field and had not won in the Windy City since 2000. The Saints fared well against Chicago, Arizona and Miami, winning 26 -- 18, 31 -- 7 and 38 -- 17 respectively, but needed a 4th down shutdown and a last - minute field goal to escape Atlanta and Tampa Bay. The Saints went on a 5 -- 0 win streak, but were stopped short by the New England Patriots in Week 6, losing 30 -- 27, with a touchdown pass by Tom Brady in the last 5 seconds of the game. New Orleans would go undefeated at home for the second straight season with Sean Payton as the head coach, but finish just 3 -- 5 on the road. Key losses included a 7 -- 34 blowout against the Seattle Seahawks on Monday Night Football in Seattle which cost them homefield advantage throughout the playoffs, a 16 -- 27 upset against the St. Louis Rams in St. Louis which led to the Saints needing to win their next game against Carolina to control their own playoff destiny, and a heartbreaking 13 -- 17 defeat to their division rival the Carolina Panthers in Charlotte who went on to win the NFC South. The Saints finished the season with an 11 -- 5 record and earned a wild card berth as the 6th seed in the NFC. On January 4, 2014, the Saints recorded their first road playoff win in franchise history over the Philadelphia Eagles 26 -- 24. On January 11, the Saints lost to the number 1 seed Seattle Seahawks once again in Seattle 15 -- 23. The weather conditions were very poor, which gave the offense much difficulty. Despite the conditions, the defense of the Saints played well, holding Seattle to just 23 over the 34 points allowed against Seattle during the regular season.
2014 season
The Saints finished the season 7 -- 9, second in their division behind the 7 -- 8 -- 1 Carolina Panthers. They missed out on the playoffs after being defeated 14 -- 30 by their divisional rival, the Atlanta Falcons, in the second - to - last week of the season. This season was notorious in Saints history for having the 31st worst ranked defense in the league, which is one of the main reasons for the Saints poor 2014 campaign. The only two great performances by the defense out of the entire season came from a 44 -- 23 home win against the Green Bay Packers and a 31 -- 15 victory against the Chicago Bears in Chicago.
2015 season
The Saints finished with a 7 - 9 record for the second consecutive season. They were third in the NFC South after the 15 - 1 NFC champions Carolina Panthers and the 8 - 8 Atlanta Falcons. Their defense was historically bad. They allowed the most passing touchdowns in a season in NFL history as they allowed 45, effectively making them the worst passing defense in NFL history. They also set the NFL record in opposing passer rating (116.2), while finishing last in points allowed (29.8) and yards allowed per play (6.6). Atrocious play by defensive captain Brandon Browner, who set the NFL record for most penalties with 23, did n't help the struggling Saints defense. Defensive coordinator Rob Ryan was fired near the half - way point in the season and was replaced by senior defensive assistant Dennis Allen. The Saints had strong play from their 2015 draft class. The Saints first pick Andrus Peat started at right tackle and left guard at certain points in the season, and other first - round pick Stephone Anthony finished his rookie season with 112 tackles, one sack, one interception, and two forced fumbles. He had two scores, both coming against the Carolina Panthers and led all rookies in tackles. Second - round pick Hau'oli Kikaha had 4 sacks. Canadian football star Delvin Breaux, who was signed in the offseason, led the Saints struggling secondary with 3 interceptions and 19 pass deflections. Drew Brees also tied the NFL record for touchdown passes in a game with 7, coming against the New York Giants.
After a lengthy investigation conducted by the National Football League 's security department, the league alleged on March 2, 2012, that 22 to 27 defensive players on the New Orleans Saints maintained a "pay for performance '' program that included "bounty '' payments administered by defensive coordinator Gregg Williams during the 2009, 2010 and 2011 seasons. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell stated, "The payments here are particularly troubling because they involved not just payments for ' performance, ' but also for injuring opposing players. '' The report also found that head coach Sean Payton was aware of the allegations but failed to stop the program. The league also said that Mickey Loomis, the Saints ' general manager, was directed to end the program by owner Tom Benson, but did n't. The memo released to NFL teams found Payton and Loomis guilty of "conduct detrimental '' to the league.
On March 3, 2012, Benson addressed the bounty payments controversy on the Saints ' website, stating, "I have been made aware of the NFL 's findings relative to the "Bounty Rule '' and how it relates to our club. I have offered and the NFL has received our full cooperation in their investigation. While the findings may be troubling, we look forward to putting this behind us and winning more championships in the future for our fans. ''
On March 21, 2012, Commissioner Goodell announced that, as a result of the bounty scandal and the NFL 's investigation, Sean Payton has been suspended for one year, Gregg Williams indefinitely, and Mickey Loomis for the first eight regular season games. The team was also fined $500,000 and docked second round draft picks in 2012 and 2013. Saints assistant coach Joe Vitt also was suspended six games and fined $100,000. Payton 's suspension started on April 1, 2012, and all the suspensions are without pay. Goodell will meet with Williams again after the 2012 season to determine the coach 's status.
On May 2, 2012, it was announced that four players who played for the team between 2009 and 2011 would receive suspensions for their alleged participation in "Bountygate '': Saints linebacker Jonathan Vilma (16 games), Saints defensive lineman Will Smith (4 games), former Saints / retired linebacker Scott Fujita (3 games), and former Saints / current Packers defensive lineman Anthony Hargrove (8 games).
Most of the players who were the targets of questionable hits by the Saints, including Favre and Warner, claimed the bounties were merely part of the game. However, several former players interviewed by Sports Illustrated said that while payments for good hits and sacks were indeed considered part of the game, bounties for intentionally injuring opponents violated an unwritten code.
However, on July 26, 2012, Jonathan Vilma and seven witnesses from the Saints testified in front of a federal judge in New Orleans that NFL commissioner Roger Goodell got his facts wrong in the bounty scandal. "Everybody was sworn in under oath in front of a judge with the risk of perjury and jail time if we were lying, and categorically denied there was a bounty '', Vilma said in a text message to ESPN 's Ed Werder. "Seven people testified, 2 sworn affidavits (one by Drew Brees) all saying the same thing. I ask that you and ESPN report the facts. No more bias or b.s. or hearsay. I gave you facts that you can report if so choose. ''
Tulane University Sports Law Program Director Gabe Feldman (who attended the hearing in court) said, "Clearly the judge, by her questions, indicated she thinks Goodell overstepped his authority, and this case was always going to be about if he executed his power fairly... The NFL 's retort is that with all due deference, you do n't get to second guess (commissioner Roger Goodell). Judges only have limited jurisdiction over arbitration issues. ''
Saints All - Pro quarterback Drew Brees made a controversial tweet on June 20, 2012, stating, "If NFL fans were told there were ' weapons of mass destruction ' enough times, they 'd believe it. But what happens when you do n't find any???? '' Brees immediately issued another statement to clarify, "My WMD comment has nothing to do with politics or our brave military. Merely an analogy to show how media influences public perception. '' He went on to say, "I apologize if the WMD comment offended anyone. Especially our military. There is no one I respect more than our service men and women. ''
Black, along with old gold and white, has always been one of the team colors, but it was n't the first choice of original majority owner John W. Mecom Jr. His preference was for Mecom blue, a medium shade which was used by all of his other investments. The NFL office, however, informed him that his proposed combination too closely resembled that worn by the San Diego Chargers. Although the Chargers were members of the AFL, the older league did n't want to offend its soon - to - be partner so soon after the merger. Mecom settled on black as the primary color as a nod to his financial involvement in the petroleum industry. "Black gold '' is a term synonymous with oil. Although the Pittsburgh Steelers -- who played a few home games in New Orleans during their early years to avoid conflict with the Pittsburgh Panthers football team -- have long used black and gold as their colors, their shade of gold more closely resembles yellow, making the Saints black and gold compatible with the rest of the NFL.
Except for minor modifications, the Saints ' logo and uniforms have basically remained the same since the club debuted in 1967. The team 's logo is a fleur - de-lis (a symbol of the City of New Orleans and of France 's Royal Family, which included the House of Bourbon), while its uniform design consists of gold helmets, gold pants, and either black or white jerseys. Minor changes to the uniform stripes and trim have been made throughout the years. The team wore black helmets during the 1969 preseason, but NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle barred the Saints from using the helmets during the regular season, since Mecom did not notify the league office of the change.
The Saints predominantly wore white at home when the club played at Tulane Stadium from 1967 through 1974 (except in 1969 and 1970), forcing opponents to suffer in their darker jerseys in the subtropical climate of New Orleans. When the surface at Tulane Stadium switched from natural grass to PolyTurf in 1971, field temperatures became hotter still. In Archie Manning 's first game, in the 1971 season opener against the Los Angeles Rams, temperatures on the field reached as high as 130 ° F (54 ° C). The heavily favored Rams wilted in the stifling heat, and the Saints claimed their first - ever victory over their NFC West rivals, 24 -- 20, on Manning 's one - yard quarterback sneak on the last play of the game.
The Saints switched to white pants in 1975, coinciding with the team 's move from Tulane Stadium to the Superdome, and have worn white at home numerous times since then. One year later, they started to wear black pants with their white jerseys, a move influenced by coach Hank Stram, who introduced red pants to the Kansas City Chiefs ' uniforms in 1968. In an October 3, 1976 home game against the Houston Oilers, Hank Stram used the Saints ' road uniforms, the white jerseys and black pants. The Saints lost that game 31 -- 26. During the 1981 -- 82 seasons (Bum Phillips ' first two seasons as coach), the team wore white jerseys with black pants at home, but reverted to the black jerseys and white pants for 1983. They reverted to wearing gold pants with both their black and white jerseys in 1986 under new coach Jim E. Mora. From 1986 through 1995, the sleeves of the jerseys and sides of the pants featured a logo with a fleur - de-lis inside an outline of the state of Louisiana (with the location of New Orleans marked with a star in the state outline). The logo replaced the striping pattern that had been on the uniforms since the team 's inception; save for color variations, the striping pattern was similar to that used by the Washington Redskins (until 1979), Green Bay Packers (until 1997), and Cleveland Browns (until 2014), which is likely why the change was made. That logo was removed in 1996 and replaced with a fleur - de-lis on both the sleeves and sides of the pants.
From 1996 through 1998, the Saints returned to gold numbers on both the white and black jerseys, but complaints about the numbers on the white jerseys being too difficult to read forced the numbers on the white jerseys to be changed to black in 1999. The Saints wore black pants with a wide gold stripe with their white jerseys in 1999, but following a 3 -- 13 season and the dismissal of coach Mike Ditka, the black pants were mothballed by new coach Jim Haslett.
In 2000, the Saints won their first playoff game as they hosted the St. Louis Rams, and after having a better road record than home record, they wore their white jerseys, and won 31 -- 28 over the defending champion Rams. The defining play of the game came with the Saints clinging to a three - point lead with minutes to play. The Saints punted to the Rams ' Az - Zahir Hakim (who would play one season for the Saints in 2005), who fumbled the punt deep in Rams ' territory. Brian Milne recovered for the Saints, who then ran out the clock to preserve the victory.
In 2001, they wore their white jerseys in the first six home games. During that same year, they primarily wore black pants with both their white and black jerseys. They became the first NFL team to wear all - black uniforms in a week 5 road game against the Carolina Panthers, and again in weeks 16 and 17 in home games against the Washington Redskins and San Francisco 49ers; the Saints were outscored 78 -- 10 in the final two contests to end a 7 -- 9 campaign.
In 2002, the Saints wore black pants with their white jerseys (except for the final road game, a 20 -- 13 loss in Cincinnati when they went back to the gold pants), and gold pants with their black jerseys, a gold alternate jersey, and a 1967 - style throwback uniform, complete with an accurate 1967 - era helmet which featured a larger fleur - de-lis, a darker shade of gold and grey facemasks. But one season later, they stopped using the alternates and again reverted to wearing gold pants with both their black and white jerseys.
The team introduced a gold alternate jersey (worn with the black pants) during a December 15, 2002 game versus the Minnesota Vikings, a 32 -- 31 loss, but have never worn them since then. Because of the metallic gold 's bright color, the gold jerseys were considered the "light '' jersey in the game, so the Vikings wore their purple home jerseys as the "dark '' colored team. One team must wear "dark '' and one team must wear "light '', this was done because of black & white t.v. broadcasts so viewers could tell the teams apart. The only exception being if both teams are wearing throwback uniforms, such as Thanksgiving Classic games. From 2003 through 2007, the New England Patriots had a "light '' jersey (their alternate, a bright metallic silver) that is n't white in which the other team would wear their colored, or "dark '' jerseys against them since the third jersey rule was implemented in the NFL in 2002.
The Saints also introduced a 1967 - style throwback uniform in a 23 -- 20 win on December 1, 2002, against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. This uniform was n't worn again until a 40 -- 33 win against the Houston Texans on September 25, 2011, and also on November 6, 2011, against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in a 27 -- 16 Saints win. However, the 2011 throwbacks use the current - helmet, meaning the shades of gold on the helmet and jersey do not match.
In 2006, to honor their return to Louisiana, the Saints wore a patch on their uniforms with an outline of the State of Louisiana with a fleur - de-lis superimposed, similar to the logo from the 1980s.
The Saints originally planned to wear white jerseys at home for the 2006 season, but during the season, the players voted to wear the black jerseys at home after the second game. Since the team had informed the NFL office that they planned to wear white jerseys at home, each of the Saints ' remaining home opponents would have to agree to New Orleans ' request. The Atlanta Falcons, Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Cincinnati Bengals did not agree to the switch, forcing the Saints to wear white jerseys for those games.
Starting in week 13 of the 2006 season, the Saints wore black pants with the black jerseys against the San Francisco 49ers, and in a Week 16 game in The Meadowlands against the New York Giants (a 30 -- 7 Saints win), the Saints wore the black pants with their road white jerseys. The Saints later stuck with the black pants in their 2006 playoff run.
Since 2008, the Saints have worn white jerseys at home for preseason games and early regular season home games.
In 2009, the Saints wore the black pants only once, beating St. Louis 28 -- 23. They wore the white jerseys / gold pants combination during the Super Bowl XLIV victory over the Indianapolis Colts. In 2012, the Saints wore black pants 12 times and wore gold pants 4 times. In 2013, gold pants were used only 7 times (including playoffs).
The Mercedes - Benz Superdome is the Saints ' home stadium. It has a listed seating capacity of 76,468 (expanded) or 73,208 (not expanded). The Saints own a perfect record there against the Houston Texans (2 - 0) and Jacksonville Jaguars (3 - 0), but a winless one against the Baltimore Ravens (0 -- 2).
The Saints ' oldest rival are the Atlanta Falcons. The Falcons lead the rivalry series 49 -- 45. The two clubs joined the NFL within a year of each other as expansion teams and have played each other twice a season since the Saints joined the league in 1967.
The Saints have a developing rivalry with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who have been part of the NFC South with the Saints since 2002.
The teams actually played each other quite often as non-division rivals. Between 1977 and 2001, there were only five years in which the teams did not play. This includes 12 years in a row from 1981 to 1992 -- all as a result of the scheduling formulas in place prior to 2002 (this remains a record for most consecutive years in which two teams not from the same division met each other).
The Saints won 13 of 20 games as non-division opponents. Since becoming division rivals, the Saints have the edge in the series, winning 16 games to the Bucs ' 10.
One notable pre-division game is a 1977 matchup that resulted in Tampa Bay 's first win in franchise history coming against New Orleans after previously starting out 0 -- 26 overall.
The Saints and the Carolina Panthers have been minor rivals since Carolina joined the league as an expansion franchise in 1995. The teams have been divisional rivals since then, originally in the NFC West and then in the NFC South since 2002. This series has been extremely close. As of the end of the 2017 regular season Carolina leads 24 -- 23.
Carolina defeated New Orleans on the road every year from 2002 to 2008, a streak of seven seasons. Notable games include Carolina 's 19 -- 7 home victory in 1996 that sparked Saints head coach Jim Mora 's infamous "Diddley Poo '' rant and resignation from the team, Carolina 's 10 -- 6 win in the 2002 season finale at the Superdome to knock the Saints out of the playoffs, and the emotional 2005 season opener at Carolina where the Saints won 23 -- 20 in the face of Hurricane Katrina and an eventual 3 -- 13 season. After the bounty scandal broke, it was revealed that the Saints had deliberately targeted Panthers rookie quarterback Cam Newton.
In their last game in the 2014 NFL season, a fight between the players broke out in the end zone and spilled out into the tunnel entrance after a Cam Newton touchdown, with Panther 's tight end Brandon Williams getting ejected and both teams receiving offsetting penalties. The Panthers won the contest 41 -- 10, with early turnovers by the Saints being a factor in the blowout.
On January 7, 2018 the two teams met in the NFL Playoffs for the first time. The Saints beat Carolina, 31 - 26, in the Wild Card round thus eliminating Carolina.
The New Orleans Saints ' rivalry with NFC counterparts Dallas Cowboys is more of a regional rivalry rather than a divisional one as the two franchises have never competed in the same division since the last time both clubs were in the same division, in 1969, as a part of the NFL Capital Division, before the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970. Their fanbases overlap in parts of northern Louisiana, such as the Shreveport -- Bossier City metropolitan area which borders the state of Texas.
The teams have played each other 28 times, with New Orleans owning the recent series winning 8 out of the last 10 games. The Saints have won 4 of the last 5 meetings in Dallas, with a 2 -- 1 record at Cowboys Stadium. The all - time series record stands at 12 -- 16, in favor of Dallas. The two teams most recently met on October 4, 2015, which the Saints won 26 -- 20 in overtime in New Orleans. In the teams ' most recent meeting at the Superdome, the Saints set a National Football League record of 40 first downs and a franchise record of 625 yards of total offense with Texas native Drew Brees throwing four touchdown passes without any interceptions for the 15th time in his career. Additionally, the Saints ' defensive coordinator was Rob Ryan, who had been let go by the Cowboys earlier that year, and Ryan 's replacement Monte Kiffin was demoted from the position at the end of the 2013 season.
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
* * The Saints were designated as the home team for this game.
Until the selection of Rickey Jackson in 2010, there had been no players in the Hall of Fame who earned their credentials primarily as Saints; the others were chosen for their work with previous teams. However, Jim Finks 's tenure as Saints general manager was a significant factor in his selection. When offensive tackle Willie Roaf was selected in 2012, he became the second Saint to earn his Hall of Fame credentials mostly while in New Orleans. Roaf was a member of the NFL 's All - Decade team of the 90s.
The following Saints players have been named to at least one Pro Bowl:
On October 9, 2013, the Saints announced the creation of a Ring of Honor to commemorate former players, administrators and individuals with significant contributions to the franchise. Their names are displayed along the Mercedes - Benz Superdome 's Terrace Level fascia. The first three honorees were Archie Manning, Rickey Jackson and Willie Roaf and were officially inducted during halftime of the Saints ' game against the Dallas Cowboys on November 10, 2013.
To commemorate the club 's 45th anniversary, the New Orleans Saints Hall of Fame selected its All - 45th Anniversary Team. The Hall of Fame updates its all - time team every five years, and this latest squad of head coach and players features four standouts from the club 's roster at the time of selection: QB Drew Brees, G Jahri Evans, and DE Will Smith as well as head coach Sean Payton.
The players are chosen in a vote by the Hall of Fame media selection committee, which includes local and regional media members who cover the Saints now or did so in the past. The All - 45th Anniversary Team is as follows, with an asterisk (*) designating those players who have already been inducted into the Hall of Fame:
Offense
Specialists
Defense
Coach
* Unanimous selection
2005 induction ceremonies postponed to October 27, 2006, due to Hurricane Katrina
Note: Statistics are correct through the 2017 NFL season.
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Joe Gemelli Fleur - De-Lis Award award is given yearly to a person who has contributed to the betterment of the New Orleans Saints organization. The award is named for Joe Gemelli, a New Orleans clothing store owner and an active supporter of sports in the city, who was known as the team 's biggest fan.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 20, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 50 Active, 17 Inactive, 23 FAs
The Saintsations are the cheerleading squad for the Saints. A cheerleading squad has existed since the franchise 's founding but the current name was only adopted in 1987.
The Saints ' flagship station is WWL (870 AM / 105.3 FM), one of the oldest radio stations in the city of New Orleans and one of the nation 's most powerful as a clear - channel station with 50,000 watts of power. Jim Henderson is the play - by - play announcer, with former Saints running back Deuce McAllister as color commentator. McAllister succeeded another former Saints running back, Hokie Gajan, in the role after Gajan 's death on April 11, 2016, from liposarcoma. Henderson has been the play - by - play announcer for Saints radio broadcasts continuously since 1993, and previously held the position from 1986 -- 89. Previous color commentators include former Saints players Archie Manning (QB, 1971 -- 82) and Stan Brock (OT, 1980 -- 91).
Most preseason games are televised by WVUE (Channel 8), a station which has been owned by a consortium led by Saints owner Tom Benson since mid-2008, and, as the Fox affiliate for New Orleans, carries the majority of Saints games; both stations also carry a heavy complement of coach and player shows. Tim Brando and Jon Stinchcomb call the preseason games for the Saints.
Saints preseason games were previously produced by Cox Sports Television. Beginning in the 2015 season, owing to Raycom Media 's management of the station on behalf of Tom Benson 's ownership group, production of preseason telecasts were taken over by Raycom Sports under a new multi-year deal, and syndicated to Raycom stations and others around the team 's footprint. Regular season games are aired on WWL - TV, the local CBS station whenever they host an AFC opponent (and games vs. NFC opponents cross-flexed from Fox to CBS) and NBC affiliate WDSU via Sunday Night Football.
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when was the movie field of dreams made | Field of Dreams - wikipedia
Field of Dreams is a 1989 American fantasy - drama sports film directed by Phil Alden Robinson, who also wrote the screenplay, adapting W.P. Kinsella 's novel Shoeless Joe. It stars Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan, James Earl Jones, Ray Liotta and Burt Lancaster in his final role. It was nominated for three Academy Awards, including for Best Original Score, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Picture.
In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Ray Kinsella is a novice Iowa farmer who lives with his wife, Annie, and daughter, Karin. In the opening narration, he explains how he had a troubled relationship with his father, John Kinsella, who had been a devoted baseball fan. While walking through his cornfield one evening, he hears a voice whispering, "If you build it, he will come. '' He continues hearing this before finally seeing a vision of a baseball diamond in his field. Annie is skeptical, but she allows him to plow the corn under in order to build a baseball field. As he builds, he tells Karin the story of the 1919 Black Sox Scandal. Months pass and nothing happens; his family faces financial ruin until, one night, Karin spots a uniformed man on the field. Ray recognizes him as Shoeless Joe Jackson, a deceased baseball player idolized by John. Thrilled to be able to play baseball again, he asks to bring others to the field to play. He later returns with the seven other players banned as a result of the 1919 scandal.
Ray 's brother - in - law, Mark, ca n't see the players and warns him that he will go bankrupt unless he replants his corn. While in the field, Ray hears the voice again, this time urging him to "ease his pain. ''
Ray attends a PTA meeting at which the possible banning of books by radical author Terence Mann is discussed. He decides the voice was referring to Mann. He comes across a magazine interview dealing with Mann 's childhood dream of playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers. After Ray and Annie both dream about him and Mann attending a baseball game together at Fenway Park, he convinces her that he should seek out Mann. He heads to Boston and persuades a reluctant, embittered Mann to attend a game with him at Fenway Park. While there, he hears the voice again, this time urging him to "go the distance. '' At the same time, the scoreboard "shows '' statistics for a player named Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, who played one game for the New York Giants in 1922, but never had a turn at bat. After the game, Mann eventually admits that he, too, saw it.
Ray and Mann then travel to Chisholm, Minnesota where they learn that Graham had become a doctor and had died sixteen years earlier. During a late night walk, Ray finds himself back in 1972 and encounters the then - living Graham, who states that he had moved on from his baseball career. He also says that the greater disappointment would have been not having a medical career. He declines Ray 's invitation to fulfill his dream; however, during the drive back home, Ray picks up a young hitchhiker who introduces himself as Archie Graham. While Archie sleeps, Ray reveals to Mann that John had wanted him to live out his dream of being a baseball star. He stopped playing catch with him after reading one of Mann 's books at 14. At 17, he had denounced Shoeless Joe as a criminal to John and that was the reason for the rift between them. Ray expresses regret that he did n't get a chance to make things right before John died. When they arrive back at Ray 's farm, they find that enough players have arrived to field two teams. A game is played and Archie finally gets his turn at bat.
The next morning, Mark returns and demands that Ray sell the farm. Karin says that they will not need to because people will pay to watch the ballgames. Mann agrees, saying that "people will come '' in order to relive their childhood innocence. Ray, after much thought, refuses and a frustrated Mark scuffles with him, during which Karin is accidentally knocked off the bleachers. The young Graham runs from the field to help, becoming old Graham, complete with Gladstone bag, the instant he steps off of it, and saves Karin from choking (she had been eating a hot dog when she fell). Ray realizes that Graham sacrificed his young self in order to save her. After reassuring Ray that his true calling was medicine and being commended by the other players, Graham leaves, disappearing into the corn. Suddenly, Mark is able to see the players and urges Ray not to sell the farm.
After the game, Shoeless Joe invites Mann to enter the corn; he accepts and disappears into it. Ray is angry at not being invited, but Shoeless Joe rebukes him: if he really wants a reward for having sacrificed so much, then he had better stay on the field. Shoeless Joe then glances towards a player at home plate, saying "If you build it, he will come. '' The player then removes his mask, and Ray recognizes him to be John as a young man. Shocked, Ray realizes that "ease his pain '' referred to John, and believes that Shoeless Joe was the voice all along; however, Joe implies that the voice was Ray himself. Joe then disappears into the corn.
Ray introduces John to Annie and Karin. As he heads towards the corn, Ray asks him if he wants to play a game of catch. They begin to play and Annie happily watches. Meanwhile, hundreds of cars can be seen approaching the baseball field, fulfilling Karin and Mann 's prophecy that people will come to watch baseball.
Phil Alden Robinson read Shoeless Joe in 1981 and liked it so much that he brought it to producers Lawrence Gordon and Charles Gordon. Lawrence Gordon worked for 20th Century Fox, part of the time as its president, and repeatedly mentioned that the book should be adapted into a film. The studio, however, always turned down the suggestion because they felt the project was too esoteric and noncommercial. Meanwhile, Robinson went ahead with his script, frequently consulting W.P. Kinsella, the book 's author, for advice on the adaptation. Lawrence Gordon left Fox in 1986 and started pitching the adaptation to other studios. Universal Studios accepted the project in 1987 and hired USC coach Rod Dedeaux as baseball advisor. Dedeaux brought along World Series champion and USC alumnus Don Buford to coach the actors.
The film was shot using the novel 's title; eventually, an executive decision was made to rename it Field of Dreams. Robinson did not like the idea saying he loved Shoeless Joe, and that the new title was better suited for one about dreams deferred. Later, Kinsella told Robinson that his originally chosen title for the book had been The Dream Field and that the title Shoeless Joe had been imposed by the publisher.
Robinson and the producers did not originally consider Kevin Costner for the part of Ray because they did not think that he would want to follow Bull Durham with another baseball film. He, however, did end up reading the script and became interested in the project, stating that he felt it would be "this generation 's It 's a Wonderful Life ''. Since Robinson 's directing debut In the Mood had been a commercial failure, Costner also said that he would help him with the production. Amy Madigan, a fan of the book, joined the cast as Ray 's wife, Annie. In the book, the writer Ray seeks out is real - life author J.D. Salinger. When Salinger threatened the production with a lawsuit if his name was used, Robinson decided to rewrite the character as reclusive Terence Mann. He wrote with James Earl Jones in mind because he thought it would be fun to see Ray trying to kidnap such a big man. Robinson had originally envisioned Shoeless Joe Jackson as being played by an actor in his 40s, someone who would be older than Costner and who could thereby act as a father surrogate. Ray Liotta did not fit that criterion, but Robinson thought he would be a better fit for the part because he had the "sense of danger '' and ambiguity which Robinson wanted in the character. Burt Lancaster had originally turned down the part of Moonlight Graham, but changed his mind after a friend, who was also a baseball fan, told him that he had to work on the film.
Filming began on May 25, 1988. The shooting schedule was built around Costner 's availability because he would be leaving in August to film Revenge. Except for some weather delays and other time constraints, production rolled six days a week. The interior scenes were the first ones shot because the cornfield planted by the filmmakers was taking too long to grow. Irrigation had to be used to quickly grow the corn to Costner 's height. Primary shot locations were in Dubuque County, Iowa; a farm near Dyersville was used for the Kinsella home; an empty warehouse in Dubuque was used to build various interior sets. Galena, Illinois served as Moonlight Graham 's Chisholm, Minnesota. One week was spent on location shots in Boston, most notably Fenway Park.
Robinson, despite having a sufficient budget as well as the cast and crew he wanted, constantly felt tense and depressed during filming. He felt that he was under too much pressure to create an outstanding film, and that he was not doing justice to the original novel. Lawrence Gordon convinced him that the end product would be effective.
During a lunch with the Iowa Chamber of Commerce, Robinson broached his idea of a final scene in which headlights could be seen for miles along the horizon. The Chamber folks replied that it could be done and the shooting of the final scene became a community event. The film crew was hidden on the farm to make sure the aerial shots did not reveal them. Dyersville was then blacked out and local extras drove their vehicles to the field. In order to give the illusion of movement, the drivers were instructed to continuously switch between their low and high beams.
Scenes of the Kinsella farm were taken on the property of Don Lansing; some of the baseball field scenes were shot on the neighboring farm of Al Ameskamp. Because the shooting schedule was too short for grass to naturally grow, the experts on sod laying responsible for Dodger Stadium and the Rose Bowl were hired to create the baseball field. Part of the process involved painting the turf green.
After shooting, Ameskamp again grew corn on his property; Lansing maintained his as a tourist destination. He did not charge for admission or parking, deriving revenue solely from the souvenir shop. By the film 's twentieth anniversary, approximately 65,000 people visited annually. In July, 2010, the farm containing the "Field '' was listed as for sale. It was sold on October 31, 2011, to Go The Distance Baseball, LLC, for an undisclosed fee, believed to be around $5.4 million.
At first, James Horner was unsure if he could work on the film due to scheduling restrictions. Then he watched a rough cut and was so moved that he accepted the job of scoring it. Robinson had created a temp track which was disliked by Universal executives. When the announcement of Horner as composer was made, they felt more positive because they expected a big orchestral score, similar to Horner 's work for An American Tail. Horner, in contrast, liked the temporary score, finding it "quiet and kind of ghostly. '' He decided to follow the idea of the temp track, creating an atmospheric soundtrack which would "focus on the emotions ''. In addition to Horner 's score, portions of several pop songs are heard during the film. They are listed in the following order in the closing credits:
The character played by Burt Lancaster and Frank Whaley, Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, is based on an actual baseball player with the same name. His character is largely true to life except for a few factual liberties taken for artistic reasons. For instance, the real Graham 's lone major league game occurred in June 1905, rather than on the final day of the 1922 season. The real Graham also died in 1965, as opposed to 1972 as the film depicts. In the film, Terence Mann interviews a number of people about Graham. The DVD special points out that the facts they gave him were taken from articles written about the real one.
Universal scheduled the film to open in the U.S. on April 21, 1989. It debuted in just a few theaters and was gradually released to more screens so that it would have a spot among the summer blockbusters. It ended up playing until December.
As of June 2017, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 86 %, based on 57 reviews with an average score of 7.9 out of 10. The consensus states: "Field of Dreams is sentimental, but in the best way; it 's a mix of fairy tale, baseball, and family togetherness. ''
In June 2008, after having polled over 1,500 people in the creative community, AFI revealed its "Ten Top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres. The film was acknowledged as the sixth best one in the fantasy genre.
In 2017, the US Library of Congress selected Field of Dreams as one of its 25 annual additions to the National Film Registry. The announcement quotes film critic Leonard Maltin, who called the film "a story of redemption and faith, in the tradition of the best Hollywood fantasies with moments of pure magic. ''
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how many customers does southern california edison have | Southern California Edison - wikipedia
Southern California Edison (or SCE Corp), the largest subsidiary of Edison International, is the primary electricity supply company for much of Southern California, USA. It provides 14 million people with electricity across a service territory of approximately 50,000 square miles. However, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, San Diego Gas & Electric, Imperial Irrigation District, and some smaller municipal utilities serve substantial portions of the southern California territory. The northern part of the state is generally served by the Pacific Gas & Electric Company of San Francisco.
Southern California Edison (SCE) still owns all of its electrical transmission facilities and equipment, but the deregulation of California 's electricity market in the late 1990s forced the company to sell many of its power plants, though some were probably sold by choice. In California, SCE retained only its hydroelectric plants, totaling about 1,200 MW, and its 75 % share of the 2,150 - MW San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, which has been shut down since January 2012; in June 2013 the company announced its intention to permanently close and decommission the nuclear plant. Also, SCE still owns about half of the 1,580 - MW coal - fired Mohave Generating Station in Laughlin, Nevada, which supplied electricity to California, Nevada, and Arizona; Mohave closed in December 2005, amid concerns regarding water rights and coal supplies. The utility lost all of its natural gas - fired plants, which provided most of its electrical generation. The large, aging plants were bought by out - of - state companies such as Mirant and Reliant Energy, which allegedly used them to manipulate the California energy market.
Southern California Edison 's power grid is linked to PG&E 's by the Path 26 wires that generally follow Interstate 5 over Tejon Pass. The interconnection takes place at a massive substation at Buttonwillow. PG&E 's and WAPA 's Path 15 and Path 66, respectively, from Buttonwillow north eventually connect to BPA 's grid in the Pacific Northwest. There are several other interconnections with local and out - of - state utilities, such as Path 46.
In addition, SCE operates a regulated gas and water utility. SCE is the sole commercial provider of natural gas and fresh water service to Santa Catalina Island, including the city of Avalon, California. SCE operates the utilities under the names of Catalina Island Gas Company and Catalina Island Water Company.
The origins of the company lie with the grand scheme of magnate Henry E. Huntington and hydraulic engineer John S. Eastwood, developed around 1908, for a vast complex of reservoirs to be constructed in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of central California. Huntington founded Pacific Light and Power, one of the roughly two dozen companies he controlled at the time, to execute what would eventually become one of the largest hydropower systems in the United States, the Big Creek Hydroelectric Project. Pacific Light and Power was one of the predecessor companies to SCE, along with Edison Electric, Mt. Whitney Power & Electric Co., California Electric Power Co., Southern California Power Co., and others.
In November, 2014, Southern California Edison announced a partnership with Ice Energy to provide more efficient energy storage by freezing water at night when electricity is cheaper.
In 2015, Southern California Edison began laying off American information technology employees and replacing them with H - 1B visa immigrants from India; the lay off of American employees affected 400 individuals, and was due to the utility hiring Infosys for its information technology needs. The layoffs were questioned by members of the United States Senate.
Southern California Edison agreed to pay a $650,000 settlement for the 2011 blackout with FERC and NERC.
On December 16, 2011, a shooting occurred when an employee of Southern California Edison opened fire at an office building in Irwindale. The employee killed two co-workers and seriously wounded two others before committing suicide.
Southern California Edison allows its customer to obtain their electricity entirely from renewable sources by subscribing to a "green rate ''.
In 2006, Southern California Edison planned to secure 1,500 megawatts or more of power generated from new projects to be built in the Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm area. The contract, which more than doubles SCE 's wind energy portfolio, envisions more than 50 square miles (130 km) of wind parks in the Tehachapi region, which is triple the size of any existing U.S. wind farm.
In March 2008, Southern California Edison announced a $875 million project to build a network of 250 megawatts of photovoltaic solar power generation, making it the biggest solar cell project in the nation. The photovoltaic cells will cover 65,000,000 square feet (6,000,000 m) of rooftops in southern California and will generate enough power to serve 162,000 homes.
In 2009, Southern California Edison entered into a contract with Solar Millennium to purchase solar thermal power up to 726 MW. Southern California Edison also entered into a contract with Stirling Energy Systems to buy electricity from a 500 megawatt, 4,600 acre (19 km), solar power plant which was due to open in 2009. The purchase was canceled in late 2010, as changes in technology reduced the cost of photovoltaic - based solar power to below that of solar Stirling generated power. This would have been the first commercial application of the dish stirling system. A different technology from the more familiar solar panel, the dish concentrates solar energy by the use of reflective surfaces and by the use of the Stirling heat engine to convert the heat into electricity.
In 2014, Southern California Edison installed more than 600,000 lithium - ion battery cells at a substation in Tehachapi, California in order to test storing power generated from an area that currently has 5,000 wind turbines.
In 2014 SCE had a renewables mix of 23 %. By 2016, 28.2 % of SCE 's power sources were renewable.
Southern California Edison has a number of resources and a rate designed specifically for electric vehicle users.
As of July 2018, Southern California Edison plans to add thousands of new charging stations for passenger electric vehicles (EV). This addition is a component of the company 's "Charge Ready '' program, a pilot program with the aim of increasing the availability of charging ports for EVs. Since 2016, Southern California Edison has installed 1,000 charging stations throughout their Southern and Central California service area.
Southern California Edison has a long history of research in the energy arena. Often this includes working with other companies and government entities. One example is the SOLARII feasibility generator, which was a solar - powered energy plant that could produce electricity 24 hours a day. This was done by heating molten salts that would hold the heat during the day and would be used to generate power at night.
Dr. John Jurewitz served as Director of Regulatory Policy for Southern California Edison for 15 years until his retirement in July 2007. His major areas of research are in oil, gas, and electricity policy and greenhouse gas regulation. He has testified and participated in government - sponsored proceedings addressing electric industry restructuring and energy policy at the state, federal, and international levels.
In April 2015, Southern California Edison laid off about 400 IT employees, with an additional 100 IT workers leaving voluntarily. Meanwhile, the utility company hired Infosys, based in Bangalore, and Tata Consultancy Services in Mumbai, which are among the largest users of H - 1B visas. About 70 % of the work to be done by Tata and Infosys will be completed offshore, according to SCE. The company claimed it had to lay off US - based employees to stay competitive. SCE was subsequently investigated by the US Department of Labor for potential H1 - B visa abuse. In October, Department of Labor concluded Infosys did not abuse the H1 - B program in the dealings with SCE, while Tata 's case remained open.
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which of the following contains properties of metals only | Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals - wikipedia
The chemical elements can be broadly divided into metals, metalloids and nonmetals according to their shared physical and chemical properties. All metals have a shiny appearance (at least when freshly polished); are good conductors of heat and electricity; form alloys with other metals; and have at least one basic oxide. Metalloids are metallic - looking brittle solids that are either semiconductors or exist in semiconducting forms, and have amphoteric or weakly acidic oxides. Typical nonmetals have a dull, coloured or colourless appearance; are brittle when solid; are poor conductors of heat and electricity; and have acidic oxides. Most or some elements in each category share a range of other properties; a few elements have properties that are either anomalous given their category, or otherwise extraordinary.
Metals appear lustrous (beneath any patina); form mixtures (alloys) when combined with other metals; tend to lose or share electrons when they react with other substances; and each forms at least one predominantly basic oxide.
Most metals are silvery looking, high density, relatively soft and easily deformed solids with good electrical and thermal conductivity, closely packed structures, low ionisation energies and electronegativities, and are found naturally in combined states.
Some metals appear coloured (Cu, Cs, Au), have low densities (e.g. Be, Al) or very high melting points, are liquids at or near room temperature, are brittle (e.g. Os, Bi), not easily machined (e.g. Ti, Re), or are noble (hard to oxidise) or have nonmetallic structures (Mn and Ga are structurally analogous to, respectively, white P and I).
Metals comprise the large majority of the elements, and can be subdivided into several different categories. From left to right in the periodic table, these categories include the highly reactive alkali metals; the less reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides and radioactive actinides; the archetypal transition metals, and the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. Specialized subcategories such as the refractory metals and the noble metals also exist.
Metalloids are metallic looking brittle solids; tend to share electrons when they react with other substances; have weakly acidic or amphoteric oxides; and are usually found naturally in combined states.
Most are semiconductors, and moderate thermal conductors, and have structures that are more open than those of most metals.
Some metalloids (As, Sb) conduct electricity like metals.
The metalloids, as the smallest major category of elements, are not subdivided further.
Nonmetals have open structures (unless solidified from gaseous or liquid forms); tend to gain or share electrons when they react with other substances; and do not form distinctly basic oxides.
Most are gases at room temperature; have relatively low densities; are poor electrical and thermal conductors; have relatively high ionisation energies and electronegativities; form acidic oxides; and are found naturally in uncombined states in large amounts.
Some nonmetals (C, black P, S and Se) are brittle solids at room temperature (although each of these also have malleable, pliable or ductile allotropes).
From left to right in the periodic table, the nonmetals can be subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals which, being nearest to the metalloids, show some incipient metallic character; the diatomic nonmetals, which are essentially nonmetallic; and the monatomic noble gases, which are almost completely inert.
The characteristic properties of metals and nonmetals are quite distinct, as shown in the table below. Metalloids, straddling the metal - nonmetal border, are mostly distinct from either, but in a few properties resemble one or the other, as shown in the shading of the metalloid column below and summarized in the small table at the top of this section.
Authors differ in where they divide metals from nonmetals and in whether they recognize an intermediate metalloid category. Some authors count metalloids as nonmetals with weakly nonmetallic properties. Others count some of the metalloids as post-transition metals.
Oliver Sacks Uncle Tungsten (2001, p. 204)
Within each category, elements can be found with one or two properties very different from the expected norm, or that are otherwise notable.
Sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, barium, platinum, gold
Manganese
Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium
Iridium
Gold
Mercury
Lead
Bismuth
Uranium
Plutonium
Boron
Boron, antimony
Silicon
Arsenic
Antimony
Hydrogen
Helium
Carbon
Phosphorus
Iodine
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where do we go from here rock song | Where Do We Go from Here (Filter song) - Wikipedia
"Where Do We Go from Here '' is a song by American industrial rock band Filter for their third studio album, The Amalgamut. The song was released as the album 's first single in 2002. "Where Do We Go from Here '' failed to match the success of their earlier hit single, 2000 's "Take a Picture '' on the Billboard Hot 100. However, it managed to come close to the top ten of the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks and Hot Modern Rock Tracks charts at number 12 and number 11, respectively. A popular remix of this song was made by The X-Ecutioners which gained extensive club play.
A music video was also produced for the song. It received moderate airplay upon release.
Like many of the band 's singles, the single version of "Where Do We Go From Here '' (the one used for radio and the music video) is much shorter than the album version. The album version extends the pre-choruses and bridge mostly.
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how many times have the cowboys won this season | Dallas Cowboys - wikipedia
National Football League (1960 -- present)
Navy Blue, Metallic Silver, White, Royal Blue
League championships (5)
Conference championships (10)
Division championships (22)
The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football team based in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Frisco, Texas, and plays its home games at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, which opened for the 2009 season. The stadium took its current name prior to the 2013 season. The Cowboys joined the NFL as an expansion team in 1960. The team 's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell - outs. The Cowboys ' streak of 190 consecutive sold - out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in 2002. The franchise has made it to the Super Bowl eight times, tied with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and the Denver Broncos for second most Super Bowl appearances in history, just behind the New England Patriots record nine Super Bowl appearances. This has also corresponded to eight NFC championships, most in the NFC. The Cowboys have won five of those Super Bowl appearances, tying them with their NFC rivals, the San Francisco 49ers, and the AFC 's Patriots; all three are second to Pittsburgh 's record six Super Bowl championships. The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (1966 -- 85), in which they only missed the playoffs twice (1974 and 1984), an NFL record that remains unchallenged.
In 2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it the most valuable sports team in the world, according to Forbes. The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team.
Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since the Dallas Texans folded in 1952. Oilman Clint Murchison Jr. had been trying to get an NFL expansion team in Dallas (as was Lamar Hunt -- who ended up with an AFL franchise), but George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, had a monopoly in the South.
Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins from Marshall in 1958. An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms. This infuriated Murchison and he called off the deal. Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas. Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall 's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league.
Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin. Breeskin had written the music to the Redskins fight song "Hail to the Redskins '' and Marshall 's wife had penned the lyrics. Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison 's plight to get an NFL franchise. Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison 's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959. Murchison purchased "Hail to the Redskins '' for $2,500. Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he owned the song and Marshall could not play it during games. After a few Marshall expletives, Murchison gave the rights to "Hail to the Redskins '' to Marshall for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and a rivalry was born.
From 1970 through 1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL franchise during that span. In addition, they appeared in 5 and won two Super Bowls, at the end of the 1971 and 1977 regular seasons.
Danny White became the Cowboys ' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterback Roger Staubach retired. Despite going to 12 -- 4 in 1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team. In the opening round of the 1980 -- 81 NFL playoffs they avenged their elimination from the prior year 's playoffs by defeating the Rams. In the Divisional Round they squeaked by the Atlanta Falcons 30 -- 27. For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rival Philadelphia, the team that won the division during the regular season. The Eagles captured their first conference championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20 -- 7.
1981 brought another division championship for the Cowboys. They entered the 1981 - 82 NFL playoffs as the number 2 seed. Their first game of the postseason saw them blowout and shutout Tampa Bay 38 -- 0. For the Conference Title game they were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. Despite having a late 4th quarter 27 -- 21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28 -- 27. 49ers quarterback Joe Montana led his team to an 89 - yard game - winning touchdown drive connecting to Dwight Clark in a play known as The Catch.
The 1982 season was shortened after a player strike. With a 6 -- 3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season. As the number 2 seed for the 1982 -- 83 NFL playoffs they eliminated the Buccaneers 30 -- 17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37 -- 26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game. 3 times was not a charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31 -- 17 to division rival and eventual Super Bowl XVII champions Redskins.
For the 1983 season the Cowboys went 12 -- 4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were defeated at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24 -- 17. Prior to the 1984 season, H.R. "Bum '' Bright purchased the Dallas Cowboys from Clint Murchison Jr. Dallas posted a 9 -- 7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons. After going 10 -- 6 in 1985 and winning a division title, the Cowboys were blown out in the Divisional round at home to the Rams 20 -- 0.
Hard times came for the organization as they went 7 -- 9 in 1986, 7 -- 8 in 1987, and 3 -- 13 in 1988. During this time period Bright became disenchanted with the team. During the Savings and Loan crisis, the team and Mr. Bright 's Savings and Loan were taken over by the FSLIC. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was "horrified '' at coach Tom Landry 's play calling. The FSLIC forced Mr. Bright to sell the Cowboys to Jerry Jones on February 25, 1989.
Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him with University of Miami head coach Jimmy Johnson, who was also Jerry Jones ' teammate in University of Arkansas as a fellow defensive lineman and Michael Irvin was under his tutelage in college. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected UCLA quarterback Troy Aikman. Later that same year, they would trade veteran running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1 -- 15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, "The Trade '' later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team.
Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL 's elite. Skillful drafts added fullback Daryl Johnston and center Mark Stepnoski in 1989, running back Emmitt Smith in 1990, defensive tackle Russell Maryland and offensive tackle Erik Williams in 1991, and safety Darren Woodson in 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiver Michael Irvin, guard Nate Newton, linebacker Ken Norton Jr., and offensive lineman Mark Tuinei, defensive lineman Jim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight end Jay Novacek and defensive end Charles Haley.
Things started to look up for the franchise in 1990. On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated the San Diego Chargers 17 -- 14. They went 2 -- 7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7 -- 9 record.
Coming into 1991 the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinator Dave Shula with Norv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6 -- 5 start, then defeated the previously - unbeaten Redskins despite injury to Troy Aikman. Backup Steve Beuerlein took over and the Cowboys finished 11 -- 5. In the Wild Card round they defeated the Bears 17 -- 13 for the Cowboys first playoff win since 1982. In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38 -- 6 playoff rout by the Lions.
In 1992 Dallas set a team record for regular season wins with a 13 -- 3 mark. They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23 -- 10. Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first round bye before facing division rival the Philadelphia Eagles. The Cowboys won that game 34 -- 10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years. They were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. On January 17, 1993 the Cowboys went to Candlestick Park and defeated the 49ers 30 -- 20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978. Dallas defeated the Buffalo Bills 52 -- 17 in Super Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers. Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football.
Despite starting the 1993 season 0 -- 2, they again defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII, 30 -- 13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0 -- 2). Dallas finished the regular season 12 -- 4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC. They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27 -- 17 in the divisional round. In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38 -- 21. Dallas sent a then - NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safety Thomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski and Williams.
Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation. Jones then hired former University of Oklahoma head coach Barry Switzer to replace Johnson. The Cowboys finished 12 -- 4 in 1994. They once again clinched a first round bye and defeated Green Bay 35 -- 9 in the Divisional Round. They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to the 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 38 -- 28.
Prior to the start of 1995 season Jerry Jones lured All - Pro cornerback Deion Sanders away from San Francisco. Dallas started the season 4 -- 0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35 -- 0 at Giants Stadium to open their season. Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing touchdowns that season. They ended the season 12 -- 4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed. In the Divisional round they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30 -- 11 to advance to their 4th consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38 -- 27. In Super Bowl XXX the Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27 -- 17 at Sun Devil Stadium for their fifth Super Bowl championship. Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl.
The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll. Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of 1996 following a drug - related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2 -- 3. They finished the regular season with a 10 -- 6 record, won the NFC East title, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the NFC. They defeated Minnesota 40 -- 15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional round of the playoffs 26 -- 17 by the Carolina Panthers.
The Cowboys went 6 -- 10 in 1997 (including losing their last 6 games of the season), with discipline and off - field problems becoming major distractions. As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinator Chan Gailey was hired to take his place.
Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10 -- 6 record in 1998 and an NFC East championship, but the Cowboys were defeated in the playoffs by the Arizona Cardinals 20 -- 7.
In 1999 Dallas went 8 -- 8 (during which Irvin suffered a career - ending spinal injury in a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles) ending in another playoff loss (this time to the Minnesota Vikings 27 -- 10). Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not take the team to a Super Bowl.
Defensive coordinator Dave Campo was promoted to head coach for the 2000 season. Prior to the season starting cornerback Deion Sanders was released after 5 seasons with the team. He later signed with division rival Washington. In Week 1, they were blown out 41 -- 14 by Philadelphia. That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career. Longtime NFL QB Randall Cunningham filled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at QB. The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5 -- 11 record. The only highlights of 2000 were Emmitt Smith having his 10th consecutive 1,000 yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins.
2001 was another hard year in Dallas. Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received. Jerry Jones signed Tony Banks as a QB. Banks had been a starter for half of the season the previous year for the Super Bowl Champion Baltimore Ravens before being benched. Jones also drafted QB Quincy Carter in the second round of that year 's draft, but Banks was released during the preseason. Ryan Leaf, Anthony Wright, and Clint Stoerner all competed for the quarterback position that season. Dallas again finished at 5 -- 11, last place in the NFC East. They did sweep the Redskins for the 4th consecutive season.
Prior to the 2002 season Dallas drafted safety Roy Williams with the 8th overall pick. The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to the expansion Houston Texans 19 -- 10 on Week 1. By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against the Seattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all - time NFL rushing record previously held by Walter Payton. Their Thanksgiving Day win over the Redskins was their 10th consecutive win against Washington. However, that was their final win of 2002: Dallas lost their next 4 games to finish with another last place 5 -- 11 record. The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20 -- 14 loss against Washington. That game was Smith 's last game as a Cowboys player: he was released during the offseason. Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season.
Jones then lured Bill Parcells out of retirement to coach the Cowboys. The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season getting off to a hot 7 -- 2 season, but went 3 -- 4 for the rest of the season. They were able to win the division with a 10 -- 6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference champion Carolina Panthers 29 -- 10.
In 2004 Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success, and ended 6 -- 10. Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at QB by Vinny Testaverde.
Dallas got off to a hot 7 -- 3 start for the 2005 season but ended the season in 3rd place with a 9 -- 7 record. Prior to the season starting the Cowboys signed veteran Drew Bledsoe as a quarterback.
2006 was an interesting year for the Cowboys. Prior to the season Dallas signed free agent wide receiver Terrell Owens who was talented yet controversial. The Cowboys started the season 3 -- 2. During a week 7 matchup against the Giants, Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backup Tony Romo. Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 38 -- 22. However, Romo was named the starter for team and went 5 -- 1 in his first 6 games. Dallas ended the season with a 9 -- 7 2nd - place finish. They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed. They traveled to play Seattle where the Seahawks won 21 -- 20. After the season Parcells retired and was replaced as head coach by Wade Phillips.
Dallas started off the 2007 season with a bang. They began the season with a 12 -- 1 start, including winning their first five games. Their only loss during that time span came against New England, who went undefeated that season. Despite dropping two of their last three regular season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first round bye and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. The Cowboys lost in the divisional round 21 -- 17 to the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants.
In the tumultuous 2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3 -- 0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4 -- 1 start. However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to the Arizona Cardinals. With Brad Johnson and Brooks Bollinger playing as backups, Dallas went 1 -- 2 during a three - game stretch. Romo 's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3 -- 0. However, injuries mounted during the season with the team losing several starters for the year, such as Kyle Kosier, Felix Jones, safety Roy Williams and punter Mat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries. Entering December, the 8 -- 4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1 -- 3. They failed to make the playoffs after losing at Philadelphia in the final regular season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead.
On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys ' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm. The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coach Joe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team 's 33 - year - old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed.
The 2009 season started on a positive with a road win against Tampa Bay, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2 -- 2 start. In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiver Miles Austin got his first start of the season and had a record setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 TDs) to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over Kansas City. Following their bye week, Dallas went on a three - game winning streak including wins over Atlanta and NFC East division rival Philadelphia. Despite entering December with a record of 8 -- 3, Dallas lost its slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to the New York Giants and San Diego. Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated. However, the Dallas team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24 -- 17 victory at the Superdome, ending New Orleans ' previously unbeaten season in week 15. For the first time in franchise history, Dallas posted back - to - back shutouts when they beat division rivals Washington (17 -- 0) and Philadelphia (24 -- 0) to end the season. In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs. Six days later, in the wild - card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17. The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys ' post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses. Dallas ended their playoff run after a hard divisional playoff loss to the Minnesota Vikings.
After beginning the 2010 season at 1 -- 7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinator Jason Garrett as the interim head coach. The Cowboys finished the season 6 -- 10.
With the 9th pick of the 1st round of the 2011 draft, the Cowboys selected USC tackle Tyron Smith.
To start the 2011 season the Cowboys played the New York Jets on a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11, 2011. The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game. In week 2 Dallas traveled to San Francisco to play the 49ers. In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10 -- 7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced by Jon Kitna. Kitna threw 1 Touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17 -- 7. Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes to Miles Austin as the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime. On the Cowboys opening possession after 49ers punt, Romo found WR Jesse Holley on a 78 - yard pass, which set up the game - winning field goal by rookie kicker Dan Bailey.
Dallas ended the season 8 -- 8. They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to the Giants in a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game on NBC which allowed New York to win the division. The Giants would go on to win Super Bowl XLVI.
The Cowboys started off the 2012 season on a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl Champion New York Giants 24 -- 17 on the opening night of the season. They would hover around the. 500 mark for the majority of the season. They lost a close Week 6 game to eventual Super Bowl XXVII Champion Baltimore Ravens 31 -- 29 at M&T Bank Stadium in Baltimore.
Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division. Standing in their way was the Redskins who had beat them on Thanksgiving at AT&T Stadium and whom were also one win away from their first division title since 1999. Led by Robert Griffin III the Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28 - 18. Dallas once again finished the season 8 -- 8.
In the 2013 season Dallas started off by defeating the Giants for the second straight year this time 36 -- 31. It was the first time since AT&T Stadium had opened back in 2009 that the Cowboys were able to defeat New York at home. The win was punctuated by Brandon Carr returning an Eli Manning interception to a touchdown late in the 4th quarter.
For the third straight year Dallas once again found themselves stuck in the. 500 area. In Week 5, they lost a shootout to eventual AFC Champion Denver Broncos 51 -- 48. They battled it out with Philadelphia for control of the division throughout the season. In December however they lost 2 crucial back to back games to Chicago and Green Bay. They were very successful in division games having a 5 -- 0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles. That included beating Washington 24 -- 23 on Week 16 thanks to late game heroics of Tony Romo. However Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season. The Cowboys called upon backup QB Kyle Orton to lead them into battle on the final week of the season. Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game ending interception to the Eagles which allowed Philly to win 24 -- 22. Dallas ended the year at 8 -- 8 for the third year in a row. The only difference of this 8 -- 8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous 3rd - place finishes.
To start off the 2014 season Dallas began by losing to San Francisco 28 -- 17. After that they went on a 6 - game winning streak. The highlight of this streak was defeating the Seahawks at CenturyLink Field 30 -- 23. In Week 8, the Redskins won in overtime 20 -- 17, and Romo 's back became once again injured. He missed next week, a home loss to the Arizona Cardinals 28 -- 17 with backup QB Brandon Weeden. Romo returned in Week 9 to lead a 31 -- 17 victory of the Jacksonville Jaguars which was played at Wembley Stadium in London, England as part of the NFL International Series.
Dallas played into their traditional Thanksgiving home game, this time against division rival Philadelphia. Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8 -- 3 records. The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch up, losing 33 -- 10. They would rebound the next week where on the road Thursday night game they defeated Chicago 41 -- 28 for their 9th win of the year to clinch their first winning season since 2009. This was the first time that Dallas played on back to back Thursdays. Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia. This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21 -- 0. Then the Eagles put up 24 answered points but Dallas came back to win 38 -- 27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10 -- 4. Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against Indianapolis, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts thanks to the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins. They would not disappoint as they blew out the Colts 42 -- 7 to become the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs. Dallas would end the regular season with a 12 -- 4 record and an 8 -- 0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44 -- 17. They would also finish December 4 -- 0 which was huge for the Cowboys since they had struggled in the recent years in the month of December.
On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seed Detroit Lions in the wild card round of the NFL playoffs. In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14 -- 0 in the first quarter. Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball. However, towards the end of the second quarter Romo threw a 76 - yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams. Matt Prater of the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17 -- 7. Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterback Matthew Stafford on the first play of the third quarter. However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas 's ensuing drive. Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20 -- 7. A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20 -- 14. A 51 - yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys ' deficit to 3. The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field. On 3rd down - and - 1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17 - yard pass intended for Lions tight end Brandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebacker Anthony Hitchens in the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew. The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens. However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew. The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41 - yard line and had a successful 59 - yard drive which was capped off by an 8 - yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24 -- 20. The Lions got the ball back with less than 2: 30 to play in regulation. Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2 minute mark. The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive end DeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions. Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down - and - 3 play. The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24 -- 20. This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game. The following week, the Cowboys traveled to Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin to play the Packers in the divisional round. Despite having a 14 -- 7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26 -- 21, thus ending their season. The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant. The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the "Calvin Johnson rule. ''
During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running back DeMarco Murray to become a free agent. Murray signed with the division rival Philadelphia Eagles. On July 15 wide receiver Dez Bryant signed a 5 - year, $70 million contract.
At home against the New York Giants, Dallas won 27 -- 26. Dez Bryant left the game early with a fractured bone in his foot. On the road against the Philadelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, and Brandon Weeden replaced him. Dallas won 20 -- 10 to begin the season 2 -- 0, but then went on a seven - game losing streak. Dallas finished the season 4 -- 12 and last in their division.
After a preseason injury to Tony Romo, rookie quarterback Dak Prescott was slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6 -- 8 weeks. In game 1 against the New York Giants, Dallas lost 20 -- 19. After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven - game winning streak. After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott has earned the right to take over as Cowboys quarterback.
In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time this season and was the backup quarterback. Dallas defeated the Baltimore Ravens to win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977. It also marked rookie running back Ezekiel Elliott breaking Tony Dorsett 's single season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie. Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held by Russell Wilson and Dan Marino by throwing multiple touchdowns in 5 straight games. Dallas finished 13 -- 3, tying their best 16 - game regular season record. While Dallas defeated Green Bay at Lambeau Field in week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of the NFL playoffs on a last - second field goal, ending their season.
Dak Prescott was named NFL Rookie of the Year in the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards. Both Prescott and Elliott made the 2017 Pro Bowl. This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl.
The Dallas Cowboys ' blue star logo, representative of Texas as "The Lone Star State '', is one of the most well - known team logos in professional sports. The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border was added in 1964. The logo has remained the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones ' AFL team, the Dallas Desperados that have a similar logo based on the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility.
The Dallas Cowboys ' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home pants are a common metallic silver - green color (PMS 8280 C) that help bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the "Stars and Stripes '' jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white / gray / white stripe are on each sleeve as well as the collared V - neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A "Cowboys '' chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic - silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates.
The team 's helmets are also a unique silver with a tint of blue known as "Metallic Silver Blue '' (PMS 8240 C) and have a blue / white / blue vertical stripe placed upon the center of the crown. The Cowboys also include a unique, if subtle, feature on the back of the helmet: a blue strip of Dymo tape with the player 's name embossed, placed on the white portion of the stripe at the back of the helmet.
Front of Dallas Cowboys helmet
Back of Dallas Cowboys helmet
When the Dallas Cowboys franchise debuted in 1960, the team 's uniform included a white helmet adorned with a simple blue star and a blue - white - blue stripe down the center crown. The team donned blue jerseys with white sleeves and a small blue star on each shoulder for home games and the negative opposite for away games. Their socks also had two horizontal white stripes overlapping the blue.
c1960 -- 1963
Blue home uniforms
White away uniforms
In 1964 the Cowboys opted for a simpler look (adopting essentially the team 's current uniform) by changing their jersey / socks to one solid color with three horizontal stripes on the sleeves; the white jersey featured royal blue stripes with a narrow black border, the royal blue jersey white stripes with the same black outline. The star - shouldered jerseys were eliminated; "TV '' numbers appeared just above the jersey stripes. The new helmet was silverblue, with a blue - white - blue tri-stripe down the center (the middle white stripe was thicker). The blue "lone star '' logo was retained, but with a white border setting it off from the silver / blue. The new pants were silverblue, with a blue - white - blue tri-stripe. In 1964 the NFL allowed teams to wear white jerseys at home; several teams did so, and the Cowboys have worn white at home ever since, except on certain "throwback '' days.
In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern. In 1967 the "lone star '' helmet decal added a blue outline to the white - bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look. The logo and this version of the uniform has seen little change to the present day.
c1964 -- 1966
White home uniforms
Blue away uniforms
The only notable changes in the last 40 years were:
During the 1976 season, the blue - white - blue stripe on the crown of the helmets were temporarily changed to red - white - blue to commemorate the United States ' bicentennial anniversary.
In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back - to - back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white "Double - Star '' jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994 -- 1995 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960 -- 63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league - wide "throwback '' policy.
During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy "Double - Star '' jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy "Double - Star '' jersey was not seen again until the NFL 's Classic Throwback Weekend on Thanksgiving Day 2001 -- 2003.
In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960 -- 1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform became the team 's alternate or "third jersey '' and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day. Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. While the team did n't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years. In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007 against the Green Bay Packers. In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008 against the San Francisco 49ers. The team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks. Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009 as part of one of the NFL 's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans ' uniforms. This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team. The 1960 -- 1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasion. Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles.
In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players will no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league 's enhanced concussion awareness. This caused the Cowboys ' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant. The team instead decided to wear their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving, which has since become an annual tradition. For 2017, the team will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis.
In 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home. Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents ' colors at home games. Since then, a number of other teams have worn their white uniforms at home, including the Miami Dolphins. According to Mike McCord, the Cowboys ' equipment director, one of the reasons why the Cowboys started wearing white at home was because of the intense heat during Cowboys ' home games at Texas Stadium.
Throughout the years, the Cowboys ' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be "jinxed '' because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys. However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue - shirted Cowboys were upset by the Cleveland Browns in what turned out to be Don Meredith 's final game with the Cowboys. Dallas 's lone victory in a conference championship or Super Bowl wearing the blue jerseys was in the 1978 NFC Championship game against the Los Angeles Rams.
Since the 1970 NFL - AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse, such as when the Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game, as well as their November 4, 2007 meeting. Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s.
Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse. Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys ' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates. With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white - jersey - at - home tradition.
With the Cowboys traditionally hosting Thanksgiving Day games, separate uniform practices have been used for these games in recent years. Through the 2000 season, the Cowboys continued the usual practice of wearing white at home. In 2001, the Cowboys wore blue at home for the first time in years, but it was an older design of the blue jersey. Dallas would lose the game, but again wore the older blue jersey at home on Thanksgiving the next year and won. With the 2002 victory, it seems an exception the theory of the blue jersey jinx is invoked on Thanksgiving.
Thus, the Cowboys continued wearing blue at home on Thanksgiving from 2003 -- 2006, however it was always an older - styled blue jersey. In 2007 and 2008, the Cowboys returned to wearing white at home for their Thanksgiving game. Since 2009, the Cowboys returned to wearing blue at home on Thanksgiving only (From 2009 -- 2012, the team again decided to go with an older - styled blue uniform as they had in previous years on Thanksgiving, and since 2013 have worn the newer - styled blue jersey).
In the 2015 season, the Cowboys wore a variation of their 1990s "Double Star '' jerseys for Thanksgiving, but with white pants and socks, as part of the NFL 's "Color Rush '' design initiated during select Thursday games.
The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as "The House That Doak Built '' due to the immense crowds that former SMU running back Doak Walker drew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located in Fair Park, site of the State Fair of Texas. Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators. The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annual Cotton Bowl Classic college football bowl game, for which the stadium is named. (Beginning with the January 2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington.) The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team 's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved to Texas Stadium. It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallas city limits. The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the 1966 NFL Championship at the Cotton Bowl.
For the majority of the franchise 's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium. Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located in Irving, Texas. The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with a seating capacity of 65,675. The stadium was famous for its hole - in - the - roof dome. The roof 's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving. It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened. The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered. The Cowboys lost their final game at Texas Stadium to the Baltimore Ravens, 33 -- 24, on December 20, 2008. After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving.
In 2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys by Cowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009 in Arlington, Texas. Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010.
AT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is a domed stadium with a retractable roof in Arlington, Texas. After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones along with the city of Arlington, Texas a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion. The stadium is located in Tarrant County, the first time the Cowboys will call a stadium home outside of Dallas County. It was completed on May 29, 2009 and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is the largest domed stadium in the world.
A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic, center - hung high - definition television screen, the largest in the world. The 160 by 72 feet (49 by 22 m), 11,520 - square - foot (1,070 m) scoreboard surpasses the 8,736 sq ft (812 m) screen that opened in 2009 at the renovated Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri as the world 's largest.
At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker, A.J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in. screen above the field. The punt deflected and was ruled in - play until Titans coach Jeff Fisher informed the officials that the punt struck the scoreboard. (Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.) The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines -- hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height. No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game. Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen. According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen. Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet.
The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants. A league record - setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional "blue star '' at the 50 - yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33 -- 31.
The Cowboys got their first regular season home win on September 28, 2009. They beat the Carolina Panthers 21 -- 7 with 90,588 in attendance. The game was televised on ESPN 's Monday Night Football and marked a record 42nd win for the Cowboys on Monday Night Football.
On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced that AT&T will take over the naming rights for the stadium.
Dallas Cowboys training camp locations:
The NFC East, composed of the Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, Washington Redskins and New York Giants, is one of the least - changed divisions of the original six formed in the wake of the NFL - AFL merger (its only major changes being the relocation of the Cardinals franchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to the NFC West in the league 's 2002 realignment). Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys ' entry into the NFL. As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport.
The Redskins and Dallas Cowboys enjoy what has been called by Sports Illustrated the top NFL rivalry of all time and "one of the greatest in sports. '' Some sources trace the enmity to before the Cowboys were even formed, due to a longstanding disagreement between Redskins owner George Preston Marshall and Cowboys founder Clint Murchison Jr. over the creation of a new football team in the South, due to Preston 's TV monopoly in that region. The two teams ' storied on - field rivalry goes back to 1960 when the two clubs first played each other, resulting in a 26 -- 14 Washington victory. Since that time, the two teams have met in 100 regular season contests and two NFC Championships. Dallas leads the regular season all - time series 67 -- 44 -- 2, and the Redskins lead the all - time playoff series 2 -- 0. The Cowboys currently have a 13 -- 5 advantage over the Redskins at FedEx Field. Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington 's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter 's 1989 win over the Redskins for their only victory that season. The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988. In the 2010s, the Redskins have struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings.
The competition with Philadelphia has been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long - moribund Eagles returned to contention. In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20 -- 7. A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989 "Bounty Bowls '', in which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kicker Luis Zendejas and Veterans Stadium fans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris. A 1999 game at Philadelphia saw Eagles fans cheering as Michael Irvin lay motionless and possibly paralyzed on the field. In 2008 the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44 -- 6. The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild - card playoff game by a combined score of 78 -- 30, including a 24 -- 0 shutout in week 17. That three game sweep was Dallas ' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992 -- 1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia. During the 2013 season Dallas won the first meeting 17 -- 3 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. They would meet again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title. The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterback Tony Romo out with a season ending back injury which put backup Kyle Orton as the starter. It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24 -- 22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation. Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense, which ended the game and the Cowboys season. In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road, with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33 -- 10 win on Thanksgiving Day in Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38 -- 27 in Philadelphia. The second game between these rivals clenched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season. Dallas leads the regular season all - time series 63 -- 50.
The first game ever played between the Giants and Cowboys was a 31 -- 31 tie on December 4, 1960. Dallas logged its first win in the series on October 29, 1961 and New York 's first was on November 11, 1962. Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants ' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory in Super Bowl XLII and winning the first regular season game played at Cowboys Stadium in 2009. Dallas currently leads the all - time series 62 -- 45 -- 2.
The two teams met in the first regular season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35 -- 28 loss to the Steelers), the first - ever regular season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events. The Steelers - Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests. The Steelers won Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last - second throw by Roger Staubach, then as a fourth - quarter rally by Dallas fell short on an onside kick. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX in January 1996. It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a "flashy '' team with Roger Staubach 's aerial attack and the "flex '' Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a "blue - collar '' team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esque Steel Curtain defense, a contrast that still exists today. In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. Dallas leads the all - time series 16 -- 15 including the playoffs.
The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers has been going on since the 1970s. The NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers ' Joe Montana complete a game - winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as The Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992 -- 1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times. Dallas won the first two match - ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match - ups, the game 's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers (and the New England Patriots) are second all time in Super Bowl victories to the Pittsburgh Steelers with five each. The 49ers - Cowboys rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas. The all - time series is tied with a record of 17 -- 17 -- 1.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated December 8, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 8 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a "Ring of Honor '', which is on permanent display encircling the field. Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display at AT&T Stadium in Arlington. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager / president. Although the team does not officially retire jersey numbers, some are kept "unofficially inactive '', so it is uncommon to find any current players wearing the number of one of the "Ring of Honor '' inductees. For instance, the jersey numbers of inductees Aikman (8), Staubach (12), Hayes and Smith (22), Irvin (88), and Lilly (74) were not worn during the 2008 season. For the 2010 season, number 88 was issued to rookie Dez Bryant.
The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a "one - man committee '' in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebacker Lee Roy Jordan because of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan 's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm 's Ring of Honor "power '' and immediately inducted Jordan.
Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the "Ring of Honor ''. For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm 's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year 's Cowboys - Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones finally chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Unfortunately, Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys - Eagles game that fall.
Some of the more recent inductees were Troy Aikman, all - time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as "The Triplets ''. The Cowboys waited until Smith had retired as a player before inducting Aikman and Irvin, so all three could be inducted together, which occurred during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the arch - rival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005.
The most recent inductees are defensive end Charles Haley, offensive lineman Larry Allen, and wide receiver Drew Pearson, who were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys ' game vs. the Seattle Seahawks on November 6, 2011, and safety Darren Woodson, who was inducted on November 1, 2015.
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As of 2010, the Cowboys ' flagship radio station is KRLD - FM. Brad Sham is the team 's longtime play - by - play voice. Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterback Babe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one - year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters. The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg 's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the "Blue Star Network '', which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station is KTVT, the CBS owned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games included KVIL - FM, KRLD, and KLUV - FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts.
During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach 's show with late veteran sportscaster Frank Glieber and later with Brad Sham. Landry 's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for he and his co-host making their NFL "predictions '' at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along with Bill Mercer, famous for calling the Ice Bowl of 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator of World Class Championship Wrestling in the 1980s. Upon Mercer 's departure, Verne Lundquist joined the network, and became their play - by - play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill - in for Lundquist.
Longtime WFAA - TV sports anchor Dale Hansen was the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play - by - play announcer from 1985 -- 1996.
Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys ' play - by - play announcer from 1995 -- 97, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers ' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One.
Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five - year partnership with Compass Media Networks on February 2, 2011. The result was the America 's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise 's regional one. Beginning with the 2011 season, Kevin Burkhardt and Danny White handled the broadcasts, with Jerry Recco as the studio host.
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what is a goats purpose on a farm | Goat farming - wikipedia
Goat farming is the raising and breeding of domestic goats (Capra aegagrus hircus). It is a branch of animal husbandry. Goats are raised principally for their meat, milk, fibre and skin.
Goat farming can be very suited to production with other livestock such as sheep and cattle on low - quality grazing land. Goats efficiently convert sub-quality grazing matter that is less desirable for other livestock into quality lean meat. Furthermore, goats can be farmed with a relatively small area of pasture and limited resources.
As with other herbivores, the number of animals that a goat farmer can raise and sustain is dependent on the quality of the pasture. However, since goats will eat vegetation that most other domesticated livestock decline, they will subsist even on very poor land. Therefore, goat herds remain an important asset in regions with sparse and low quality vegetation.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the top producers of goat milk in 2008 were India (4 million metric tons), Bangladesh (2.16 million metric tons) and the Sudan (1.47 million metric tons).
Meat goats are farmed in all US states, although most meat goat production occurs in the Southeast. Texas is the primary producer of meat goats, representing 38 % of US production.
Three - quarters of the global population eat goat meat. It comprises 10 % of worldwide meat consumption and 60 % of red meat.
Goat meat contains low amounts of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol. It is considered to be a healthier alternative to other types of red meat.
The taste of goat kid meat has been reported as similar to that of spring lamb meat. In some localities (e.g. the Caribbean, Bangladesh, Pakistan and India) the word "mutton '' is used to describe both goat and lamb meat. However, some compare the taste of goat meat to veal or venison, depending on the age and condition of the goat. The flavour is primarily linked to the presence of 4 - methyloctanoic and 4 - methylnonanoic acid.
Goat meat can be prepared in a variety of ways, including stewing, baking, grilling, barbecuing, canning, and frying; it can be minced, curried, or made into sausage. Because of its low fat content, the meat can toughen at high temperatures if cooked without additional moisture. One of the most popular goats farmed for meat is the South African Boer, introduced into the United States in the early 1990s. The New Zealand Kiko is also considered a meat breed, as is the myotonic or "fainting goat ''.
When slaughtered, none of the animal need be wasted -- so, all of the eviscerate can be used. This includes heart, liver, kidneys, spleen, lungs, stomach and intestines.
The stomach can be eaten as tripe or stuffed like a haggis.
The intestines make good sausage casings but have to be processed whilst still warm, otherwise the digestive enzymes start to digest the gut itself post mortem. Once cleaned out and cut into convenient lengths they can be turned inside out so that the internal lining can be scraped away with a knife. They can then be left in an isotopic cool solution (salty water) which keeps them supple until needed. This is traditionally done in autumn / fall when the temperature drops to below 55 deg Fahrenheit to avoid the meat within rotting - which can lead to botulism poisoning. Likewise, the skins need to be pricked so that air can ingress, as botulism needs an anaerobic medium in order to multiply. Goat sausages dry cured in this way, require no refrigeration. Modern curing methods include nitre to inhibit botulism but it is best not to wean a baby on sausages as it could induce infantile botulism from any spores present (this is not something that an older child or adult should be concerned about because honey often contains botulism spores since the bacteria is ubiquitous in our environment but a neonate 's gut has less of a immune response). It is considered by some that such dry cured sausages of goat, take on a rancid taste quite quickly and develop a strong taste so are not popular today. Yet, for those that like a goaty taste it only adds to their appeal.
In the case of billy goats, the testicles sliced and fried are considered a delicacy.
Goats produce about 2 % of the world 's total annual milk supply. Some goats are bred specifically for milk. Unprocessed goat milk has small, well - emulsified fat globules, which means the cream remains suspended in the milk instead of rising to the top, as in unprocessed cow milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Indeed, if goat milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture 's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese. Dairy goats in their peak milk production (generally around the third or fourth lactation cycle) average -- 2.7 to 3.6 kg (6 to 8 lb) -- of milk production daily -- roughly 2.8 to 3.8 l (3 to 4 U.S. qt) -- during a ten - month lactation, producing more just after freshening and gradually dropping in production toward the end of their lactation. The milk generally averages 3.5 % butterfat.
Goat milk is commonly processed into cheese, butter, ice cream, yogurt, cajeta and other products. Goat cheese is known as fromage de chèvre ("goat cheese '') in France. Some varieties include Rocamadour and Montrachet. Goat butter is white because goats produce milk with the yellow beta - carotene converted to a colourless form of vitamin A.
Male goats are generally not required for the dairy - goat industry and are usually slaughtered for meat soon after birth. In the UK, approximately 30,000 billy goats from the dairy industry are slaughtered each year.
Most goats have soft insulating hairs near the skin and longer guard hairs on the surface. The desirable fibre for the textile industry is the former; it has several names including "down '', "cashmere '' and "pashmina ''. The guard hairs are of little value as they are too coarse, difficult to spin and difficult to dye. Goats are typically shorn twice a year, with an average yield of about 4.5 kg (10 lb).
In South Asia, cashmere is called "pashmina '' (from Persian pashmina, "fine wool ''). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Kashmir (then called Cashmere by the British), had a thriving industry producing shawls from goat - hair imported from Tibet and Tartary through Ladakh. The shawls were introduced into Western Europe when the General in Chief of the French campaign in Egypt (1799 -- 1802) sent one to Paris. Since these shawls were produced in the upper Kashmir and Ladakh region, the wool came to be known as "cashmere ''.
The cashmere goat produces a commercial quantity of cashmere wool, which is one of the most expensive natural fibres commercially produced; cashmere is very fine and soft. The cashmere goat fibre is harvested once a year, yielding around 260 g (9 oz) of down.
Angora goats produce long, curling, lustrous locks of mohair. Their entire body is covered with mohair and there are no guard hairs. The locks constantly grow to 9 cm or more in length. Angora crossbreeds, such as the pygora and the nigora, have been selected to produce mohair and / or cashgora on a smaller, easier - to - manage animal.
The skin of goats is a valuable by product of goat farming. Up until 1849 all Rolls of Parliament were written upon parchment usually made from goat skin. Another populer use is for drum skins. Parchment is prepared by liming (in a solution of quick lime) to loosen the hair follicles. After several days in this bath, the hair can then be scraped off and the under surface of the skin scraped clean. After that the finished skins are sewn into a wooden frame to dry and shrink.
Parchment is still available today, but imported skins can carry a small risk of harboring anthrax unless properly treated.
Goat farm
Goat milking
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metro station near okhla industrial area phase 2 | Harkesh Nagar Okhla Metro station - Wikipedia
Harkesh Nagar Okhla is a Delhi Metro station in Delhi. It is located between Govind Puri and Jasola Apollo stations on the Violet Line. The station was opened with the first section of the Line on 3 October 2010 in time for the Commonwealth Games opening ceremony on the same day. It was earlier known as Okhla, and was renamed in December 2014.
List of available ATM at Harkesh Nagar Okhla metro station are HDFC Bank
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is it illegal to have a tattoo at 17 | Legal status of Tattooing in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor can not enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).
In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and / or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.
Cal. Penal Code 653
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a - 92g
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 § 122 (3) (w)
Fla. Stat. § 381.0775 et seq. Fla. Stat. § 381.075
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes. ''
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.
Ga. Code § 16 - 12 - 5
Ga. Code § 16 - 5 - 71.1
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321 - 379
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent / guardian consent.
Ill. Stat. 410 § 54 / 1 t0 54 / 999
Ind. Code Ann. § 16 - 19 - 3 - 4.1
Iowa Code § 135.37
Kan. Stat. Ann. § 65 - 1940 to 65 - 1954
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 194A. 050; 211.760
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40: 2831 et seq.
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50 -- 100 for a first offense to $300 and / or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 101 to 110
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 201 to 209
N.J.A.C. 8: 27 - 1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 26 - 1A - 7
N.Y. Public Health Law § 460 - 466
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14 - 400
N.D. Code § 12.1 - 31 - 13
Scleral tattooing is illegal.
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders can not be tattooed or pierced.
Minors can not be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent / guardian consent.
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920
RI Gen L § 11 - 9 - 15
S.C. Code § 44 - 34 - 10 to 44 - 34 - 110
S.D. Laws § 9 - 34 - 17
For piercings: Parent / Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor, breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.
Minors may, with parent / guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang - related, or drug - related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person 's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover ''
Tongue splitting prohibited.
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation
Civic / local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.
Va. Code § 15.2 - 912
Va. Code § 18.2 - 371.3.
Wash. Code § 18.300
Wash. Code § 246 - 145 - 001 to 060
Wash. Code § 70.54
W. Va. Code § 16 - 38
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who wins the show dil hai hindustani 2 | Dil Hai Hindustani (season 2) - wikipedia
The Second Season of singing reality show Dil Hai Hindustani premiered on 7 July 2018. The show was broadcast on StarPlus and streams on Hotstar. The show was hosted by Mukti Mohan and Raghav Juyal. Sunidhi Chauhan, Badshah and Pritam are judges in the show. The show was produced by Ranjeet Thakur and Hemant Ruprell under Frames Production. The season was won by Akshay Dhawan.
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what is the name of train driver in english | Railroad engineer - wikipedia
An engineer (American and Canadian), engine driver, loco pilot, motorman, train operator (British and Commonwealth English), is a person who operates a train. The driver is in charge of, and responsible for driving the engine, as well as the mechanical operation of the train, train speed, and all train handling.
For many American railroads, the following career progression is typical: assistant conductor (brakeman), conductor and finally driver. In the US, drivers are required to be certified and re-certified every two to three years. In American English a hostler moves engines around train yards, but does not take them out on the normal tracks.
In India, a driver starts as a diesel assistant or electrical assistant (in case of electric locomotives). They then get promoted on a scale: goods, passenger, Mail / Express and Rajdhani / Shatabdi / Duronto.
In the United States and Canada, train drivers are historically known as "locomotive engineers '', or "handlers ''. In the United Kingdom, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia they are known as "train drivers '', "engine drivers '', "locomotive drivers '', or "locomotive operators ''.
The United Kingdom based transport historian Christian Wolmar stated in October 2013 that train operators employed by the Rio Tinto Group to transport iron ore across the Australian outback were likely to be the highest - paid members of the occupation in the world at that time.
The following examine the role of the railroad engineer from 1890 to 1919, discussing qualifications for becoming an engineer and typical experiences on the job:
Media related to Locomotive drivers at Wikimedia Commons
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who is the president of costa rica 2017 | Luis Guillermo Solís - wikipedia
Luis Guillermo Solís Rivera (born 25 April 1958) is a Costa Rican politician who has been President of Costa Rica since 2014. He is a member of the center - left Citizens ' Action Party (PAC). Solís led the field in the 2014 presidential election, and he was effectively handed the presidency after the runner - up in the first round, San José mayor Johnny Araya Monge, ceased active campaigning. Solís has a long academic and political career, culminating in his election as the first President of Costa Rica to be a member of the PAC.
Solís was born in San José, Costa Rica, to Vivienne Rivera Allen, an educator, and Freddy Solís Avendaño, an uneducated shoemaker. Both his parents lived in Turrialba, and as such many residents consider him Turrialban. His family has Afro - Caribbean and Chinese roots, coming from Jamaica to Costa Rica in the early 1900s. Solís grew up in San Pedro de Montes de Oca and Curridabat, neighborhoods of San José. He attended Methodist High School in San José, where he was president of the student body, before studying history at the University of Costa Rica, where he earned a degree with academic honors in 1979. He earned a master 's degree in Latin American Studies at Tulane University in New Orleans.
Solís has held various academic and consulting positions. Between 1981 and 1987, he was an associate professor at the University of Costa Rica. In addition, he was a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Michigan from 1983 to 1985. During this time, Solís worked with the Arias administration and eventually became director of the Center for Peace and Reconciliation (CPR for its Spanish initials). From 1992 to 1995, Solís worked with the Academic Council of the United Nations System. Starting in 1999, Solís worked for Florida International University as coordinator in the Center for the Administration of Justice and as a researcher for the Latin American and Caribbean Center, where he analyzed political and social events in Latin America.
A writer and editorial writer, Solís has published numerous essays and books about national and international affairs. In the 1990s, he wrote for La República, a daily newspaper based in San José. His writing has been published by Foreign Affairs Latinoamérica, Frontera Norte, Espacios and Global Governance. His writing has focused on civil society, international relations, and trade.
While still at UCR, Solís joined the National Liberation Party (PLN for its Spanish initials) in 1977. Solís was an adviser to Óscar Arias in the Foreign Ministry, working on the Esquipulas Peace Agreement for which Arias would later win a Nobel Peace Prize. Solís served as Director of International Relations for the PLN. During José María Figueres Olsen 's time in office, Solís was ambassador of Central American Affairs.
In 2002, Solís followed Rolando González Ulloa as General Secretary of the PLN, a position he resigned from the following year, citing his disappointment with the Alcatel - Lucent bribery scandal that many PLN leaders were involved in. In 2005, he denounced the PLN for irregularities and corruption during party elections, along with a host of former PLN members. Solís went as far as to call the PLN leadership "Napoleonic '' and "anti-democratic ''. He officially renounced his affiliation with the party and returned to academics.
After the 2006 election, Solís ' name began to come up in PAC circles, particularly at meetings of the "ungroup, '' an informal gathering of PAC officials, led by former deputy and former Vice President of the National University of Costa Rica Alberto Salom Echeverría. Ottón Solís, one of PAC 's founders and three - time presidential candidate, suggested that Luis Guillermo Solís run as a vice presidential candidate in 2010. Luis Guillermo Solis rejected the offer because he was working for the General Secretariat of Ibero - America (SEGIB for its Spanish initials), and employees of SEGIB were not allowed to participate in elections.
In 2009, Luis Guillermo Solís began his official affiliation with PAC. He began attending meetings of the "ungroup '' in 2010. Within the party, PAC leader María Eugenia Venegas recognized Solís ' potential and pushed for him to be elevated within the party. Solís undertook several trips around the country to meet with national and provincial PAC leaders.
Solís announced his candidacy for president on 27 November 2012. In the PAC 's primary, he ran against Epsy Campbell Barr, Juan Carlos Mendoza García, and Ronald Solís Bolaños, winning with 35 percent of the vote, only 110 votes more than Juan Carlos Mendoza García.
In October 2013, he chose Helio Fallas and Ana Helena Chacón Echeverría as his Vice-Presidential running mates. Among his aims, Solís claimed he would clean up corruption, create major investments in infrastructure, and shore up Costa Rica 's universal health care and social security system. He also promised to continue initiatives to keep Costa Rica environmentally friendly. He said that he would "put the brakes '' on new free trade agreements and would begin correctly administrating current free trade agreements. As such, Solís received a tremendous amount of political support from the country 's trade unions.
On 2 February 2014, Solís won the most votes in the election with 30.95 percent. PLN candidate Johnny Araya came second with 29.95 percent of the vote. Most of Solís ' support came from the Central Valley provinces of San José, Alajuela, Heredia and Cartago.
Because no candidate exceeded 40 percent of the vote, a runoff was scheduled for 6 April, as required by the constitution. However, on 5 March, Araya announced that he would abandon his campaign after polls showed him far behind Solís; one poll showed him losing by over 43 percent. However, under Costa Rican law the runoff still had to take place, and Solís won with over 77 percent of the vote, the largest margin ever recorded for a free election in Costa Rica. Unlike the first round, Solís earned a majority in every province, including Puntarenas, Limón, and Guanacaste. When he took office on 8 May, he was the first president in 66 years not to come from the PLN or what is now the PUSC.
Immediately after the election, Solís thanked Costa Rican voters. He received congratulatory notes from world leaders, including US Secretary of State John Kerry, Ecuadoran President Rafael Correa, Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto, Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro, Bolivian President Evo Morales, and the spokesperson from the French Ministry of International Affairs. For his part, Araya congratulated Solís on his victory, calling for national unity.
A little over a week before taking office, in April 2014, Solís announced the creation of his cabinet. His cabinet consists of mostly PAC members or non-aligned citizens. However, two PUSC members were also added: María del Rocío Sáenz, Abel Pacheco 's former health minister, heads the Costa Rican Social Security System (Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social). Delia Villalobos, another former health minister, heads the Social Protection Council (Consejo de Seguridad).
Solís took office on 8 May 2014, amid festive fanfare. Delegations from more than 80 countries attended his inauguration at La Sabana Metropolitan Park, including Prince Felipe de Borbón of Spain, Evo Morales of Bolivia, Rafael Correa of Ecuador, and the Secretary General of the Organization of American States, José Miguel Insulza. Solís said, in Costa Rican vernacular, that he is taking over a "weed farm '' (finca encharralada), pointing out growing income inequality and poverty, as well as a national teachers ' strike.
In 2014, President Solís presented a budget with an increase in spending of 19 % for 2015, an increase of 0.5 % for 2016 and an increase of 12 % for 2017. When the 2017 budget was finally proposed, it totaled US $15.9 billion. Debt payments account for one - third of that amount. Of greater concern is the fact that a full 46 % of the budget will require financing, a step that will increase the debt owed to foreign entities.
The country 's credit rating was reduced by Moody 's Investors Service in early 2017 to Ba2 from Ba1, with a negative outlook on the rating. The agency particularly cited the "rising government debt burden and persistently high fiscal deficit, which was 5.2 % of GDP in 2016 ''. Moody 's was also concerned about the "lack of political consensus to implement measures to reduce the fiscal deficit (which) will result in further pressure on the government 's debt ratios ''. In late July 2017, the Costa Rica Central Bank estimated the budget deficit at 6.1 percent of the country 's GDP.
A 2017 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that reducing the foreign debt must be a very high priority for the government. Other fiscal reforms were also recommended to moderate the budget deficit.
In early August 2017, the President promised admitted that the country was facing a "liquidity crisis '' and promised that a higher VAT tax and higher income tax rates were being considered by his government. Such steps are essential, Solís told the nation, because it was facing difficulties in paying its obligations and guaranteeing the provision of services. '' "Despite all the public calls and efforts we have made since the start of my administration to contain spending and increase revenues, there is still a gap that we must close with fresh resources, '' he said. The crisis was occurring in spite of growth, low inflation and continued moderate interest rates, Solís concluded.
He explained that the Treasury will prioritize payments on the public debt first, then salaries, and then pensions. The subsequent priorities include transfers to institutions "according to their social urgency. '' All other payments will be made only if funds are available.
Like most members of PAC, Solís identifies himself as a progressivist. His Plan Rescate, or Rescue Plan, outlines his political beliefs. This plan focused on three central issues: anti-corruption, economic growth, and reducing income inequality.
Solís claims that economic neoliberalism has created too much income inequality for Costa Rica. Past governments have avoided collecting taxes on large companies and high - income earners, leading to budget deficits which Solís claims his administration will fix through better enforcement. Banks should not encourage exports at the expense of income growth among the poor, according to Solís. He believes that economic liberalization has generally harmed women more than men because they have traditionally had less access to higher - income jobs. Part of that liberalization, he claims, included ignoring the financial and growth needs of the agricultural industry.
Solís supports environmental protections, which he believes Costa Rica has forgotten. As such, Solís believes that water must be safeguarded from private development and mismanagement, something that has caused water shortages in many of the country 's municipalities. Solís claims that he will prosecute violators of the Water Resources Management Bill.
In addition, Solís supports increased rights for rights for lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transsexuals. In May 2014, he ordered that a rainbow flag be flown over the Presidential House as a show of solidarity with gays on International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia.
Solís is a Catholic. As a presidential candidate, he visited the basilica of Our Lady of Angels, home to the Costa Rican patron saint La Negrita, a traditional pilgrimage for many Costa Ricans and tourists. He supports the separation of church and state despite Catholicism being the country 's official religion. With regard to ethical issues, he also supports civil unions, and in - vitro fertilization.
Solis has ten children from his previous marriage to his first wife, Nancy Olive Worsfold Richards (1987 -- 2006): Monica, Cristina, Beatriz, Charlie, Carly, Jennifer, John, Carlos, Diego and Ignacio.
Solís is not married to Mercedes Peñas Domingo, but she is altogether considered the First Lady of Costa Rica. He and Peñas, who began dating in 2006, have one daughter, Inés. Peñas said that she hopes to be active as an adviser to Solís, who called her "Jiminy Cricket. '' Saying that some of her duties as First Lady are machista, she will nevertheless greet dignitaries and perform other obligations. In addition to public service and academics, Solís enjoys farming.
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where did the calligraphy of the mughal empire originated | Mughal painting - wikipedia
Mughal paintings are a particular style of South Asian painting, generally confined to miniatures either as book illustrations or as single works to be kept in albums, which emerged from Persian miniature painting (itself largely of Chinese origin), with Indian Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist influences, and developed largely in the court of the Mughal Empire of the 16th to 18th centuries.
Mughal paintings later spread to other Indian courts, both Muslim and Hindu, and later Sikh. The mingling of foreign Persian and indigenous Indian elements was a continuation of the patronisation of other aspects of foreign culture as initiated by the earlier Turko - Afghan Delhi Sultanate, and the introduction of it into the subcontinent by various Central Asian Turkic dynasties, such as the Ghaznavids.
This art of painting developed as a blending of Persian and Indian ideas. There was already a Muslim tradition of miniature painting under the Turko - Afghan Sultanate of Delhi which the Mughals overthrew, and like the Mughals, and the very earliest of Central Asian invaders into the subcontinent, patronized foreign culture. Although the first surviving manuscripts are from Mandu in the years either side of 1500, there were very likely earlier ones which are either lost, or perhaps now attributed to southern Persia, as later manuscripts can be hard to distinguish from these by style alone, and some remain the subject of debate among specialists. By the time of the Mughal invasion, the tradition had abandoned the high viewpoint typical of the Persian style, and adopted a more realistic style for animals and plants.
No miniatures survive from the reign of the founder of the dynasty, Babur, nor does he mention commissioning any in his diaries, the Baburnama. Copies of this were illustrated by his descendents, Akbar in particular, with many portraits of the many new animals Babur encountered when he invaded India, which are carefully described. However some surviving un-illustrated manuscripts may have been commissioned by him, and he comments on the style of some famous past Persian masters. Some older illustrated manuscripts have his seal on them; the Mughals came from a long line stretching back to Timur and were fully assimilated into Persianate culture, and expected to patronize literature and the arts.
Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Persian miniatures. Animals and plants were also more realistically shown. Although many classic works of Persian literature continued to be illustrated, as well as Indian works, the taste of the Mughal emperors for writing memoirs or diaries, begun by Babur, provided some of the most lavishly decorated texts, such as the Padshahnama genre of official histories. Subjects are rich in variety and include portraits, events and scenes from court life, wild life and hunting scenes, and illustrations of battles. The Persian tradition of richly decorated borders framing the central image was continued.
The style of the Mughal school developed within the royal atelier. Knowledge was primarily transmitted through familial and apprenticeship relationships, and the system of joint manuscript production which brought multiple artists together for single works.
When the second Mughal emperor, Humayun was in exile in Tabriz in the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp I of Persia, he was exposed to Persian miniature painting, and commissioned at least one work there, an unusually large painting of Princes of the House of Timur, now in the British Museum. When Humayun returned to India, he brought two accomplished Persian artists Abd al - Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali with him. His usurping brother Kamran Mirza had maintained a workshop in Kabul, which Humayan perhaps took over into his own. Humayan 's major known commission was a Khamsa of Nizami with 36 illuminated pages, in which the different styles of the various artists are mostly still apparent. Apart from the London painting, he also commissioned at least two miniatures showing himself with family members, a type of subject that was rare in Persia but was to be common among the Mughals.
Mughal painting developed and flourished during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
During the reign of Humayun 's son Akbar (r. 1556 - 1605), the imperial court, apart from being the centre of administrative authority to manage and rule the vast Mughal empire, also emerged as a centre of cultural excellence. Akbar inherited and expanded his father 's library and atelier of court painters, and paid close personal attention to its output. He had studied painting in his youth under Abd as - Samad, though it is not clear how far these studies went.
Between 1560 and 1566 the Tutinama ("Tales of a Parrot ''), now in the Cleveland Museum of Art was illustrated, showing "the stylistic components of the imperial Mughal style at a formative stage ''. Among other manuscripts, between 1562 and 1577 the atelier worked on an illustrated manuscript of the Hamzanama consisting of 1,400 canvas folios. Sa'di 's masterpiece The Gulistan was produced at Fatehpur Sikri in 1582, a Darab Nama around 1585; the Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or. 12208) followed in the 1590s and Jami 's Baharistan around 1595 in Lahore. As Mughal - derived painting spread to Hindu courts the texts illustrated included the Hindu epics including the Ramayana and the Mahabharata; themes with animal fables; individual portraits; and paintings on scores of different themes. Mughal style during this period continued to refine itself with elements of realism and naturalism coming to the fore. Between the years of 1570 to 1585 Akbar hired over a one hundred painters to practice Mughal style painting.
Jahangir had an artistic inclination and during his reign Mughal painting developed further. Brushwork became finer and the colors lighter. Jahangir was also deeply influenced by European painting. During his reign he came into direct contact with the English Crown and was sent gifts of oil paintings, which included portraits of the King and Queen. He encouraged his royal atelier to take up the single point perspective favoured by European artists, unlike the flattened multi-layered style used in traditional miniatures. He particularly encouraged paintings depicting events of his own life, individual portraits, and studies of birds, flowers and animals. The Jahangirnama, written during his lifetime, which is an autobiographical account of Jahangir 's reign, has several paintings, including some unusual subjects such as the union of a saint with a tigress, and fights between spiders.
During the reign of Shah Jahan (1628 -- 58), Mughal paintings continued to develop, but court paintings became more rigid and formal. The illustrations from the "Padshanama '' (chronicle of the King of the world), one of the finest Islamic manuscripts from the Royal Collection, at Windsor, were painted during the reign of Shah Jahan. Written in Persian on paper that is flecked with gold, has exquisitely rendered paintings. The "Padshahnama '' has portraits of the courtiers and servants of the King painted with great detail and individuality. In keeping with the strict formality at court, however the portraits of the King and important nobles was rendered in strict profile, whereas servants and common people, depicted with individual features have been portrayed in the three - quarter view or the frontal view. Themes including musical parties; lovers, sometimes in intimate positions, on terraces and gardens; and ascetics gathered around a fire, abound in the Mughal paintings of this period.
Aurangzeb (1658 - 1707) did not actively encourage Mughal paintings, but as this art form had gathered momentum and had a number of patrons, Mughal paintings continued to survive, but the decline had set in. Some sources however note that a few of the best Mughal paintings were made for Aurangzeb, speculating that they believed that he was about to close the workshops and thus exceeded themselves in his behalf. There was a brief revival during the reign of Muhammad Shah ' Rangeela ' (1719 -- 48), but by the time of Shah Alam II (1759 -- 1806), the art of Mughal painting had lost its glory. By that time, other schools of Indian painting had developed, including, in the royal courts of the Rajput kingdoms of Rajputana, Rajput painting and in the cities ruled by the British East India Company, the Company style under Western influence. Late Mughal style often shows increased use of perspective and recession under Western influence.
The Persian master artists Abd al - Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, who had accompanied Humayun to India in the 16th century, were in charge of the imperial atelier during the formative stages of Mughal painting. Many artists worked on large commissions, the majority of them apparently Hindu, to judge by the names recorded. Mughal painting flourished during the late 16th and early 17th centuries with spectacular works of art by master artists such as Basawan, Lal, Daswanth, and Miskin. Another influence on the evolution of style during Akbar 's reign was Kesu Das, who understood and developed "European techniques of rendering space and volume ''.
Govardhan was a noted painter during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
The sub-imperial school of Mughal painting included artists such as Mushfiq, Kamal, and Fazl.
During the first half of the 18th century, many Mughal - trained artists left the imperial workshop to work at Rajput courts. These include artists such as Bhawanidas and his son Dalchand.
Mughal painting generally involved a group of artists, one to decide the composition, the second to actually paint, and the third to focus on portraiture, executing individual faces.
Mughal - style miniature paintings are still being created today by a small number of artists in Lahore concentrated mainly in the National College of Arts. Although many of these miniatures are skillful copies of the originals, some artists have produced contemporary works using classic methods with, at times, remarkable artistic effect.
The skills needed to produce these modern versions of Mughal miniatures are still passed on from generation to generation, although many artisans also employ dozens of workers, often painting under trying working conditions, to produce works sold under the signature of their modern masters.
Portrait of Akbar
Portrait of Bahadur Shah
A noble lady, Mughal dynasty, India. 17th century. Color and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art F1907. 219
A Mughal prince and ladies in a garden
Nur Jahan
Shah Jahan on a terrace holding a pendant set with his portrait
Daud Khan Karrani receives a Kaftan of honor from Munim Khan
A Mughal tournament
Victory of Ali Quli Khan on the river Gomti - Akbarnama, 1561
Mir Sayyid Ali 's depiction of a young scholar in the Mughal Empire, reading and writing a commentary on the Quran, 1559.
The scribe and painter of the Khamsa of Nizami manuscript for Akbar
Battle scene from the Hamzanama of Akbar, 1570
The Submission of the rebel brothers Ali Quli and Bahadur Khan. Akbarnama, 1561
Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I pursuing another elephant across a collapsing bridge of boats (right), 1561
Pir Muhammad Drowns While Crossing the Narbada - Akbarnama, 1562
Akbar receiving his sons at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbarnama, 1573
Lion at rest Met
A young woman playing a Veena to a parakeet, a symbol of her absent lover. 18th - century painting in the provincial Mughal style of Bengal
Female performer with a tanpura, 18th century. Color and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art F1907. 195
Ascetic Seated on Leopard 's Skin, late 18th century
Mughal Ganjifa Playing Cards, Early 19th century, with miniature paintings - courtesy of the Wovensouls collection
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what's the legal age of consent in hawaii | Ages of consent in North America - wikipedia
The ages of consent in North America for sexual activity vary by jurisdiction.
The age of consent in Canada is 16. All U.S. states set their limits between 16 and 18.
The age of consent in Mexico is complex. Typically, Mexican states have a "primary '' age of consent (which may be as low as 12), and sexual conduct with persons below that age is always illegal. Sexual relations which occur between adults and teenagers under 18 are left in a legal gray area: laws against corruption of minors as well as estupro laws can be applied to such acts, at the discretion of the prosecution. These laws are situational and are subject to interpretation.
The ages of consent in the countries of Central America range from 14 to 18.
The below is a list of all jurisdictions in North America as listed in List of sovereign states and dependent territories in North America.
The age of consent is the age at or above which a person is considered to have the legal capacity to consent to sexual activity. Both partners must be of legal age to give consent, although exceptions to the age of consent law exist in some jurisdictions when the minor and his or her partner are within a certain number of years in age or when a minor is married to his / her partner. Persons below the age of consent may not, by law, give consent, and sexual relations involving such persons may be punished by criminal sanctions similar to those for rape or sexual assault. Non-violent sexual contact with persons under the age of consent may be punished with varying degrees of severity, ranging from a misdemeanor with a simple fine, to a felony with a punishment equivalent to rape.
Different ages may apply if one partner is in a position of power or authority over the other, such as a teacher, manager, coach, parent or stepparent. For example, in Indiana the age of consent is 16 but it is illegal for a person over 18 to have sex with anyone under 18 if they work at their school, are their parent or a stepparent, or are a person recruiting them to join the military.
Historically, the age of consent applied to male - female relationships; same - sex relationships were often illegal regardless of the ages of participants. Modern laws vary, and there may be multiple ages that apply in any jurisdiction. For instance, different ages may apply if the relationship is between partners of the same sex, or if the sexual contact is not strictly vaginal intercourse.
In Antigua and Barbuda, the age of consent is 16. The Sexual Offences Act of 1995 raised the age of consent from 14 to 16 years of age.
6. (1) Where a male person has sexual intercourse with a female person who is not his wife with her consent and who has attained the age of fourteen years but has not yet attained the age of sixteen years, he is guilty of an offence, and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for ten years.
(2) A male person is not guilty of an offence under subsection (1) --
(a) if he honestly believed that the female person was sixteen years of age or more; or
(b) if the male person is not more than three years older than the female person and the court is of the opinion that the evidence discloses that as between the male person and the female person, the male person is not wholly or substantially to blame.
7. (1) Where a female adult has sexual intercourse with a male person who is not her husband and who is under the age of sixteen years, she is guilty of an offence, whether or not the male person consented to the intercourse, and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for seven years.
A female adult is not guilty of an offence under subsection (1) --
(a) if she honestly believed that the male person was sixteen years of age or more; or
(b) if the female adult is not more than three years older than the male person and the court is of the opinion that evidence discloses that as between the female adult and the male person, the female adult is not wholly or substantially to blame.
The age of consent in Anguilla is 16. It is determined in Part 14 of the Criminal Code - SEXUAL OFFENCES - Sexual Offences Against Minors - by Article 143. "Sexual intercourse with person between 14 and 16 years of age ''.
The age of consent in Aruba is 15, as specified in Article 251 of the Criminal Code of Aruba (which Aruba adapted after its secession from the Netherlands Antilles) which reads:
Article 251: "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person who has reached the age of twelve but has not reached fifteen, performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than eight years or a fine of at most 100 000 florin ''.
In The Bahamas, the age of consent for opposite - sex activity is 16 and the age of consent for same - sex activity is 18. Homosexuality was legalized in 1991, but "public homosexuality '' is an offense that carries a 20 - year jail term without parole.
11. (1) Any person who has unlawful sexual intercourse with any person being of or above fourteen years of age and under sixteen years of age, whether with or without the consent of the person with whom he had unlawful sexual intercourse, is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for life subject to, on a first conviction for the offence, a term of imprisonment of seven years and, in the case of a second or subsequent conviction for the offence, a term of imprisonment of fourteen years.
In Barbados the age of consent is 16.
Section 5, part I "Sexual intercourse with person between 14 and 16 '' of the Sexual Offences Act 1992
(1) Where a person has sexual intercourse with another with the other 's consent and that other person has attained the age of 14 but has not yet attained the age of 16 that person is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term of 10 years.
In Belize, the age of consent is 16, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.
The legislation reads:
Criminal Code (CAP. 101)
"Every person who, with or without consent, has sexual intercourse with a person who is under the age of fourteen years commits the offence of unlawful sexual intercourse and is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term that is not less than twelve years but may extend to imprisonment for life. ''
"Every person who has unlawful sexual intercourse with a person who is above the age of fourteen years but under the age of sixteen years, commits an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term that is not less than five years but no more than ten years. ''
Age of sexual consent is 16, regardless of sexual orientation and / or gender.
The Tackling Violent Crime Act took effect on 1 May 2008, raising the age of consent from 14 to 16.
There exist two close - in - age exemptions, depending on the age of the younger partner. A youth of twelve or thirteen can consent to sexual activity with an individual less than two years older than they. A fourteen - or fifteen - year - old can consent to sexual activity with a partner who is less than five years older than they.
Criminal law (including the definition of the age of consent) is in the exclusive jurisdiction of the federal government, so the age of consent is uniform throughout Canada. Section 151 of the Criminal Code of Canada makes it a crime to touch, for a sexual purpose, any person under the age of 16 years. Section 153 then goes on to prohibit the sexual touching of a person under 18 by a person in three circumstances: if he or she is in a "position of trust or authority '' towards the youth, if the youth is in a "relationship of dependency '' with him or her, or if the relationship is "exploitative ''. The term "position of trust or authority '' is not defined in the Code but the courts have ruled that parents, teachers, and medical professionals hold a position of trust or authority towards youth they care for or teach. Section 153 (1.2) of the Code provides that a judge can infer whether or not a relationship is "exploitative '' by considering its nature and circumstances including how old the youth is, the difference in ages between the partners, how the relationship evolved, and the degree of control or influence that the older partner has over the youth.
The "position of trust under 18 '' anti-exploitation rules were expanded in 2005 by Bill C - 2 where a judge may choose to term a situation to be sexual exploitation based on the nature and circumstances of the relationship including the age of the younger party, age difference, evolution of the relationship (how it developed, e.g. quickly and secretly over the Internet), the control or influence over the young person (degree of control or influence the other person had over the young person). This passed before the 2008 amendments, and they were not repealed so they are still in effect and can apply towards adults in these situations with young persons over the age of consent and under 18 (16 - 17).
Where an accused is charged with an offence under s. 151 (Sexual Interference), s. 152 (Invitation to sexual touching), s. 153 (1) (Sexual exploitation), s. 160 (3) (Bestiality in presence of or by child), or s. 173 (2) (Indecent acts), or is charged with an offence under s. 271 (Sexual assault), s. 272 (Sexual assault with a weapon, threats to a third party, or causing bodily harm), or s. 273 (Aggravated sexual assault) in respect of a complainant under the age of sixteen years, it is not a defense that the complainant consented to the activity that forms the subject - matter of the charge.
Section 159 of the Criminal Code criminalizes anal intercourse, but provides exceptions for a husband and wife, and any two persons 18 years of age or older. These exceptions do not apply if a third person is present, or if the anal intercourse takes place anywhere but in private. However, courts in Ontario, Quebec, and Alberta have independently declared s. 159 to be unconstitutional as violations of the equality provision of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
During the 19th century, the age of consent for heterosexual vaginal sex was 12; in 1890, the Parliament raised the age of consent to 14. The punishment for anyone who had sexual intercourse with someone younger than 14 was life imprisonment and whipping, while the punishment for anyone who attempted to seduce an underage girl was two years ' imprisonment and whipping. Canada had also laws against "seducing '' minor girls who were over the age of consent. In 1886, a law was enacted that made the "seduction '' of a girl over 12 and under 16 "of previously chaste character '' a criminal offence; the "seduction '' of a female under 18 "under promise of marriage '' was also made illegal in 1886, and amended in 1887 to apply to females under 21. After the raising of the age of consent to 14, the laws against "seducing '' minor girls were amended to apply to those older than 14, and various laws of this kind have remained in force through the 20th century. The age of consent was raised from 14 to 16 in the spring of 2008, when the Tackling Violent Crime Act became effective. The new measures still allow for close - in - age exceptions between 12 and 16: if there is no more than a two - year gap for those 12 and 13, or a five - year gap for those 14 and 15. Anal sex remains illegal with exceptions for those over 18, if they comply with the restrictions set out under section 159.
Female homosexuality was never illegal in the former British colonies; oral sex was legalized in 1969 with the same age of consent as vaginal sex. Also introduced in 1969 were the exceptions regarding criminal anal sex (effectively legalizing it), but with a higher age barrier set at 21, under section 159; in 1988, the age barrier for these exceptions was lowered to 18. As of 2008 there are no plans to repeal section 159, even though it has been ruled unconstitutional in some Canadian provinces.
The age of consent in Cayman Islands is 16.
Defilement of girls under sixteen years of age, etc.
134. (1) Whoever unlawfully and carnally -
(a) knows any girl under the age of twelve years is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for twenty years; or
(b) knows any girl between the ages of twelve and sixteen years is guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for twelve years.
Indecent assaults on females
132. (1) It is an offence for a person to make an indecent assault on a woman.
(2) A girl under the age of sixteen can not in law give any consent which would prevent an act being an assault for the purposes of this section.
The age of consent in the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius) is 16, as specified by the Criminal Code BES, Articles 251, which reads:
Art 251: "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person who has reached the age of twelve but has not reached sixteen, performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than sixteen years ''. Before prosecution, the public attorney will, if possible, allow the minor to indicate if prosecution is deemed desirable.
Clipperton Island is an uninhabited nine - square - kilometre (approx. 3.5 - square - mile) coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean, a state private property under the direct authority of the French government, administered by the Minister of Overseas France. The laws of France where applicable apply. See Age of consent Europe # France.
In Costa Rica under the Penal Code of 2004, the age of consent is 18, regardless of sexual orientation and / or gender Artículo 159. - Será sancionado con pena de prisión de dos a seis años, quien aprovechándose de la edad, se haga acceder o tenga acceso carnal con una persona de uno u otro sexo, mayor de trece años y menor de quince años, por la vía oral, anal o vaginal, con su consentimiento. Igual pena se impondrá si la acción consiste en la introducción de uno o varios dedos, objetos o animales por la vía vaginal o anal.
Translation: Article 159. Anyone who, taking advantage of age, attempts to obtain or obtains carnal access, by oral, anal or vaginal penetration, to a person of either sex who is over 13 and under 15 years of age, with his or her consent, shall be punished with two to six years ' imprisonment. A similar penalty shall be imposed if the act involves the introduction of one or more fingers, objects or animals into the vagina or anus.
The age of consent use to be 15, but it was increase in recent years after a legal reform.
The age of consent in Cuba is 16.
The age of consent in Curaçao is 15, as specified by the Criminal Code of the Netherlands Antilles (which Curaçao did n't change after the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles), Articles 251, which reads:
Art 251: "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person who has reached the age of twelve but has not reached fifteen, performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than sixteen years ''.
For children 12 - 14 prosecution only takes place upon a "complaint '' by the minor, his parents, teacher, or the guardianship board.
In Dominica the age of consent is 16.
"Defilement of girls between fourteen (14) and sixteen (16) years of age '', Article 4 of the Sexual Offences Act
"(1) Subject to subsections (2) and (3), any person who - a) unlawfully and carnally knows, or attempts to have unlawful carnal knowledge of any girl of or above the age of fourteen (14) years and under the age of sixteen (16) years (...) - is liable to imprisonment for seven years.
The age of consent in the Dominican Republic is 18.
In El Salvador, the age of consent appears to be 18 (although the laws are not clear cut in regard to sexual acts with persons aged between 15 and 18).
VIOLACIÓN EN MENOR O INCAPAZ
Art. 159. - El que tuviere acceso carnal por vía vaginal o anal con menor de quince años de edad o con otra persona aprovechándose de su enajenación mental, de su estado de inconsciencia o de su incapacidad de resistir, será sancionado con prisión de catorce a veinte años.
Approximate translation: "Anyone who has vaginal or anal sexual intercourse with a minor younger than fifteen years of age or of another person by taking advantage of their insanity, their state of unconsciousness or inability to resist, shall be punished with imprisonment of fourteen to twenty years. ''
Several laws apply to sex with persons aged between 15 and 18.
Article 169 makes it illegal to "promote, facilitate, manage, finance, instigate or organize in any way the use of persons under eighteen years of age in sexual or erotic acts individually or organized, publicly or privately ''.
Art. 169. - El que promoviere, facilitare, administrare, financiare, instigare u organizare de cualquier forma la utilización de personas menores de dieciocho años en actos sexuales o eróticos, de manera individual u organizada, de forma pública o privada, será sancionado con pena de tres a ocho años de prisión.
En igual responsabilidad incurrirá quien con conocimiento de causa autorizare el uso o arrendare el inmueble para realizar cualquiera de las actividades descritas en el inciso anterior.
Approximate translation: Article 169. - Any person who promotes, facilitates, manages, finances, instigates or organizes in any way the use of persons under eighteen years of age in sexual or erotic acts, individually or organized, publicly or privately, shall be punished with penalty of three to eight years in prison.
Similarly, anyone who knowingly authorizes the use or rents a property to perform any of the activities described in the preceding paragraph, incurs criminal liability.
Article 167 makes it illegal to "promote or facilitate the corruption of a person under eighteen (...) through various sexual acts of carnal knowledge, even if the victim consents to participate in them ''.
CORRUPCIÓN DE MENORES E INCAPACES
Art. 167. - El que promoviere o facilitare la corrupción de una persona menor de dieciocho años de edad o de un deficiente mental, mediante actos sexuales diversos del acceso carnal, aunque la víctima consintiere participar en ellos, será sancionado con prisión de seis a doce años.
Approximate translation: Article 167. - Any person who promotes or facilitates the corruption of a person under eighteen years of age or a mentally handicapped through various sexual acts of carnal knowledge, even if the victim consents to participate in them, shall be punished with imprisonment of six to twelve years.
Article 171 deals with "obscene exhibition '', and also appears to set the age of consent at 18.
EXHIBICIONES OBSCENAS
Art. 171. - El que ejecutare o hiciere ejecutar an otros actos lúbricos o de exhibición obscena, o indecorosa, en lugar público o expuesto al público o bien ante menores de dieciocho años de edad o deficientes mentales, será sancionado con prisión de dos a cuatro años.
Approximate translation: Art. 171. Anyone who performs or makes others perform acts of lewd or lascivious exhibition, or indecency in a public place or a place open to the public or to minors under eighteen years of age or mentally handicapped, shall be punished with imprisonment from two to four years.
Articles 163 and 154 of the Penal Code (Código Penal) deal with estupro and make it illegal to use deception (engaño) or to take advantage of one 's superiority (superioridad) that arises from a relationship in order to gain sexual access to teenagers aged between 15 and 18.
ESTUPRO
Art. 163. - El que tuviere acceso carnal por vía vaginal o anal mediante engaño, con persona mayor de quince años y menor de dieciocho años de edad, será sancionado con prisión de cuatro a diez años.
Approximate translation: Art. 163. "Anyone who has vaginal or anal intercourse, by using deception, with a person over fifteen and under eighteen years of age, shall be punished with imprisonment of four to ten years ''.
ESTUPRO POR PREVALIMIENTO
Art. 164. - El que tuviere acceso carnal por vía vaginal o anal con persona mayor de quince y menor dieciocho años de edad, prevaliéndose de la superioridad originada por cualquier relación, será sancionado con prisión de seis a doce años.
Approximate translation: Art. 164. "Anyone who has vaginal or anal intercourse with a person over fifteen and under eighteen years of age, relying on the superiority arising from any relationship, shall be punished with imprisonment from six to twelve years. ''
The laws of Denmark, where applicable, apply. See Ages of consent in Europe # Denmark.
The age of consent in Grenada is 16. Penalties are 30 years ' imprisonment if the victim is less than 14, and 15 years ' imprisonment if the victim is 14 to 16 years of age.
In Guatemala, the age of consent is 18, regardless of sexual orientation and / or gender. The Law against Sexual Violence, Exploitation, and Trafficking in Persons was passed in February 2009, and provides sentences ranging from 13 to 24 years in prison, depending on the young persons age, for sex with a minor.
The age of consent in Haiti is 18.
Honduras, the age of consent is considered to be 14.
Article 142. The stupor of a person older than fourteen (14) and under eighteen (18) years taking advantage of trust, hierarchy or authority, is punishable by six (6) to eight (8) years of imprisonment. When rape is committed by deception is punishable by five (5) to seven (7) years of imprisonment.
Article 143. The sexual intercourse with parents or children, brothers, or relationship between adopter and adopted, with stepparent, when the victim is over eighteen (18) years constitutes the crime of incest, will be punished with four (4) to six (6) years of imprisonment and shall proceed under complaint by the injured party or his legal representative. When the victim is older than fourteen (14) and under eighteen (18) years, the penalty shall be increased in a medium (1 / 2).
Article 144. Whoever for sexual character and by force, intimidation or deceit abducts or retains a person shall be punished by imprisonment of four (4) to six (6) years. When the victim of this crime is a person under eighteen (18) years of age, it is punishable with the penalty prescribed in the preceding paragraph increased by half (1 / 2).
In Jamaica the age of consent is 16.
"Above twelve (12) and under sixteen (16) '', Article 50, Offences Against the Person
"Whosoever shall unlawfully and carnally know and abuse any girl being above the age of twelve (12) years and under the age of sixteen (16) years shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and being convicted thereof, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years;
In Mexico, criminal legislation is shared between the federal and state governments. The federal law establishes the age of 12 as the minimum age of consent, while the age at which there are no restrictions for consensual sexual activities is 18 (sex with someone 12 - 18 is not illegal per se, but can still be open to prosecution under certain circumstances). Local state laws may override the federal law. In practice, the decision as to whether or not to prosecute is left to state authorities regardless of the younger person 's age. At state level, the minimum ages of consent vary between 12 (and puberty in a few states) and 15, while the age at which there are no restrictions for consensual sexual activities vary from 16 to 18 (most common 18).
Estupro is a crime existing across Mexico, as well as in other Latin American jurisdictions. Although the definitions vary by state, it is usually defined as sexual conduct with a child who has reached the minimum age of consent but is under 18 (16 or 17 in some states) when the consent of the child is obtained by seduction and / or deceit. For instance the law of Aguascalientes reads: "El estupro consiste en realizar cópula con persona mayor de doce y menor de dieciséis años de edad, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de seducción o engaño. '' (translation: Estupro consists in copulating with a person over twelve and under sixteen years old, obtaining his / her consent through seduction or deceit). Traditionally, estupro applied only to acts committed with a girl, and required "chastity '' or "honesty '' of the girl. The vast majority of Mexican states have modernized their laws by removing the requirement of "chastity '' or "honesty '' and by making the laws gender neutral. However, traditional laws still exist in some states: for instance, the law of Baja California reads: Al que realice cópula con mujer de catorce años de edad y menor de dieciocho, casta y honesta, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de la seducción o el engaño (translation: "Whoever copulates with a chaste and honest female over fourteen and under eighteen years old, obtaining her consent through seduction or deceit ''). Some states have removed the requirement of "chastity '' or "honesty '', but continue to define estupro as applicable only to girls. For instance, in Campeche the law states: Al que tenga cópula con mujer mayor de doce años pero menor de dieciocho, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de la seducción o el engaño (translation: "Whoever copulates with a female over twelve and under eighteen years old, obtaining her consent through seduction or deceit ''). The exact type of coercion that must be used varies by state, for example the Federal Law only makes reference to "deceit '', omitting "seduction '' (it reads: Al que tenga cópula con persona mayor de doce años y menor de dieciocho, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de engaño, translation: "Whoever copulates with a person over twelve and under eighteen years old, obtaining his / her consent through deceit '').
Article 261 of the Federal Criminal Code (PDF) states that: "Whoever, without the purpose of reaching copulation, performs a sexual act in a person under 12 or in a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the act or that for any reason can not resist, or demands that the act is performed, will be punished with a term of 2 to 5 years in prison ''. If the offender uses moral or physical violence, an extra half term is added to the initial time.
Article 266 refers to the previous article 265, which covers the rape of adults in general and establishes a term of 8 to 14 years in prison for sex obtained through physical or moral violence. Article 266 then states that: "It is equivalent to rape and will be punished with the same penalty: (1st Clause) -- who without violence performs a copulation with a person under 12 ''. The 3rd Clause of this article punishes with the same penalties also "the vaginal or anal introduction of objects, without violence and with lascivious goals '', in a person under 12 or in a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the fact, or for any reason can not resist. If any of the aforementioned acts is performed with physical or moral violence, the sentence is raised in up to a half.
A further article, 266 Bis, determines an extra penalty of up to a half under certain circumstances -- (a) when there are multiple offenders; (b) when the offense is committed by a parent, legal guardian, stepfather or "companion '' (amasio) of the mother; (c) when there is an abuse of authority of someone as a civil servant; (d) when the crime is committed by a person who has the minor under his or her custody, guard or education, or yet through the abuse of trust.
There is another crime in Article 262 for consented sex with adolescents aged 12 to 18, when consent is obtained through deceit. The penalty is 3 months to 4 years in prison. This crime, however, is prosecuted only through a complaint of the minor or his / her parents or legal guardians, as determined in Article 263.
Artículo 262 del Código Penal: "Al que tenga cópula con persona mayor de doce años y menor de dieciocho, obteniendo su consentimiento por medio de engaño, se le aplicará de tres meses a cuatro años de prisión. ''
Translation: Article 262: "Whoever copulates with a person over twelve and under eighteen years old, obtaining his / her consent through deceit ''
Article 201 prohibits the "corruption '' of a minor under 16.
Further reading:
All Mexican states (as well as Mexico City) have corruption of minors statutes that can, upon complaint of the family (or minor), be used to punish sexual relations with persons under eighteen. Although actual prosecutions for violations of Corruption of Minors statutes (and age of consent statutes in general) tend to be sporadic, regional, and very situation dependent, many Mexican states nonetheless classify Corruption of Minors as a "Delito Grave '' (Major Crime) in their penal codes.
Additionally, all the states have "Estupro '' laws that can, upon complaint of the family (or minor), be used to prosecute adults who engage in sexual intercourse with minors by seduction or deceit (the exact definitions of this crime vary by state, see section estupro, above).
In some Mexican jurisdictions prosecutors have chosen to prosecute consensual sexual activity involving adults and underage minors only upon complaint by the minor, or a custodial complaint.
The age of consent in the Federal District (Mexico City) is 12, one of the lowest in the world, and the overall criminal legislation of Mexico 's capital is close to that of the federal law regarding this subject, although tougher in some aspects -- higher penalties and broader definitions.
According to the Estatuto del Gobierno del Distrito Federal (PDF) (in Spanish) (Government Statute of the Federal District), Article 42, Clause XII, the District 's Legislative Assembly has powers to legislate in criminal law.
Article 175 of the Federal District Criminal Code refers to the previous Article 174, which stipulates a term of 6 to 17 years of prison for the rape of adults, while defining copulation as "the introduction of the penis in the human body through the vagina, anus or mouth ''. Article 175 (violación) then states that: "It is equivalent to rape and will be punished with the same penalty: '' (first clause) -- "who performs a copulation with a person under 12 years of age or with a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the act or that for any reason can not resist ''; the second clause defines whosoever "introduces in the vagina or anus any element, instrument or any part of the human body different from the penis '' as having committed the same crime, in relation to these same persons.
Article 177 covers "sexual abuse '' and punishes other acts referred as "unintentional '' acts -- "who without purpose of reaching copulation, performs a sexual act with a person under 12 or a person that has no capacity of understanding the meaning of the act or that for any reason can not resist it, or that demands that such act is observed or performed, will be punished with 2 to 7 years in prison ''.
In both Articles (175 and 177), there is an extra half term in case of physical or moral violence. And according to Article 178, there is also a punishment of an extra two thirds of the term under the same circumstances foreseen in Article 266 Bis of the Federal Law (see above), added by two new circumstances -- (clause V) when the victim is inside a private vehicle or a public service vehicle; and (clause VI) when the crime is committed in a desert or isolated place.
There is a crime called estupro stipulated in Article 180, which refers to consented sex with adolescents aged 12 to 18, when consent is obtained through any means of deceit. The penalty is 6 months to 4 years of prison. This crime needs a complaint (querella) to be prosecuted.
There is a Corruption of Minors statute (Article 184) that can be used to punish by imprisonment, for seven to twelve years, adults who engage in sexual relations with persons under eighteen. This situation exists all over Mexico, and can be prosecuted upon complaint of victim or the victim 's family.
The age of consent in Montserrat is 16.
Unlawful sexual intercourse with girl under age of sixteen
121. (1) Subject to the provisions of the section, a man who has unlawful sexual intercourse with a girl above the age of thirteen and under the age of sixteen shall be guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for two years.
(2) It is immaterial in the case of a charge for an offence under this section that the intercourse was had with the consent of the girl concerned.
Indecent assault on a woman
122. (1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any man who makes an indecent assault on a woman shall be guilty of an offence and liable -- (...)
(2) A girl under the age of sixteen years can not in law give consent which would prevent an act being an assault for the purposes of this section.
In Nicaragua, the age of consent is 18, although, in regard to young people 16 - 17, the law (Article 175) is not clear cut.
Article 170. Statutory rape
Anyone who is married or in a stable de facto union or who is of age and who, without violence or intimidation, has or allows carnal access with a person aged between 14 and 16 shall be sentenced to imprisonment for a period of two to four years.
Article 175. Sexual exploitation, pornography and paid sexual acts with adolescents
Anyone who induces, provides, promotes or uses persons aged under 16 or a disabled person for sexual or erotic purposes, forcing them to witness or participate in an act or show in public or in private, even if the victim consents to witness or participate in such an act, shall be sentenced to imprisonment for a period of five to seven years, or four to six years if the victim is aged between 16 and 18.
(...)
Article 168. Rape of children under the age of 14
Anyone who has or allows carnal access with a person aged under 14 or who, for sexual purposes, inserts or forces the victim to insert a finger, object or instrument, by way of the vagina, anus or mouth, with or without consent, shall be sentenced to imprisonment for a period of 12 to 15 years.
Article 172. Sexual abuse
Anyone who engages in lewd acts with or improper touching of another person, without their consent, (...)
In no circumstances shall the victim be considered to have given consent if the victim is under the age of 14 or has a mental disability or illness.
In Panama, the age of consent is in general 18, although sexual conduct with children aged 14 to 18 is not always illegal.
Artículo 176. Quien, valiéndose de una condición de ventaja, logre acceso sexual con persona mayor de catorce años y menor de dieciocho, aunque medie consentimiento, será sancionado con prisión de dos a cuatro años
Translation: Article 176. Whoever, using a condition of advantage, achieves sexual intercourse with a person over fourteen and under eighteen, even with consent, shall be punished with imprisonment from two to four years
This does not apply if the age difference is less than 5 - years and the partners are in a stable couple relationship.
No se aplicarán las sanciones señaladas en este artículo cuando entre la víctima y el agente exista una relación de pareja permanente debidamente comprobada y siempre que la diferencia de edad no supere los cinco años.
Translation: The sanctions provided in this article do not apply if there is a couple relationship duly established between the victim and the agent, and the age difference does not exceed five years.
The age of consent in Puerto Rico is 16. There is a 4 - year close - in - age exception subject to a minimum age of 14.
Article 130. - Sexual Assault. - Any person who performs sexual penetration, whether an orogenital act or vaginal or anal sex penetration, whether genital, digital, or instrumental... shall be punished... when the victim has not attained the age of sixteen (16) years, except when the victim is over fourteen (14) years old and the age difference between the victim and the accused is four (4) years or less.
Article 133. - Lewd Acts. - Any person who, without the intention to consummate the crime of sexual assault described in Article 130, subjects another person to an act that tends to awaken, excite or satisfy the sexual passion or desire of the accused... shall be punished... when the victim has not attained the age of sixteen (16) years at the time of the act.
The age of consent in Saint Kitts and Nevis is 16.
The age of consent in Saint Lucia is 16.
The age of consent in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is 15. The penalty for statutory rape of a girl over 13 but under 15 is five years ' imprisonment; under 13 it is life imprisonment.
The age of consent in Sint Maarten is 15, as specified by the Criminal Code of the Netherlands Antilles (which Sint Maarten did not change after the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles), Articles 251, which reads:
Art 251: 1. "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person who has reached the age of twelve but has not reached fifteen, performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than sixteen years ''.
Prosecution for the violation of the above article only takes place upon a "complaint '' by the minor, his parents, teacher, or the guardianship board (Art 251, 2. 3. 4.)
The age of consent in Trinidad and Tobago is 18, as per the Children Act, 2012. It was raised from 16 to 18 in 2015.
The Children Act, 2012 defines a "child '' as "a person under the age of eighteen years ''.
18. Subject to section 20, a person who sexually penetrates a child commits an offence and is liable on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for life.
19. (1) Subject to section 20, where a person touches a child and -- (a) the touching is sexual; and (b) the child is under sixteen years of age, the person commits an offence.
(2) A person who commits an offence under subsection (1) is liable -- (a) on summary conviction, to a fine of fifty thousand dollars and to imprisonment for ten years; or (b) on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for twenty years. (3) Where a person commits an offence under subsection (1), and the touching involves the placing of any body part or of an object onto the penis or bodily orifice of a child, that person is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for life.
Three close - in - age exemptions exist, as per section 20:
20. (1) A person sixteen years of age or over but under twenty - one years of age is not liable under section 18 if -- (a) he is less than three years older than the child against whom he is purported to have perpetrated the offence; (b) he is not in a familial relationship with the child nor in a position of trust in relation to the child; (c) he is not of the same sex as the child; and (d) the circumstances do not reveal any element of exploitation, coercion, threat, deception, grooming or manipulation in the relationship.
(2) A person fourteen years of age or over but under sixteen years of age is not liable under section 18 or 19 if -- (a) he is less than two years older than the child against whom he is purported to have perpetrated the offence; (b) he is not in a familial relationship with the child nor in a position of trust in relation to the child; (c) he is not of the same sex as the child; and (d) the circumstances do not reveal any element of exploitation, coercion, threat, deception, grooming or manipulation in the relationship.
(3) A person twelve years of age or over but under fourteen years of age is not liable under section 18 or 19 if -- (a) he is less than two years older than the child against whom he is purported to have perpetrated the offence; (b) he is not in a familial relationship with the child nor in a position of trust in relation to the child; (c) he is not of the same sex as the child; and (d) the circumstances do not reveal any element of exploitation, coercion, threat, deception, grooming or manipulation in the relationship.
In the United States, the age of consent laws are made at the state, territorial, and federal district levels. There exist several federal statutes related to protecting minors from sexual predators, but none of them imposes an age limit on sexual acts. On 26 June 2003, both heterosexual and homosexual sodomy became legal in all U.S. states, territories, and the federal district under the U.S. Supreme Court decision Lawrence v. Texas (between non-commercial, consenting adults in a private bedroom). In State v. Limon (2005), the Kansas Supreme Court used Lawrence as a precedent to overturn the state 's "Romeo and Juliet '' law, which proscribed lesser penalties for heterosexuals than homosexuals convicted of similar age of consent related offenses.
Each U.S. state (and the District of Columbia) has its own age of consent. Currently state laws set the age of consent at 16, 17, or 18. The most common age is 16.
The age of consent is 18. There is however a close - in - age exemption that allows minors 16 and 17 years old to consent with someone no more than five years older than themselves and minors 13 to 15 years old to consent with one another, but not with anyone 16 or over.
Article § 1700. Aggravated rape in the first degree bans sexual intercourse or sodomy with a child under 13. Sexual acts with minors are aggravated by the use of force, intimidation, or the perpetrator 's position of authority, and by the fact that the minor, being under 16 and not the perpetrator 's spouse, is residing in the same household as the perpetrator. (see Article § 1700, Article § 1702, Article § 1708).
Other relevant articles of the criminal code are:
(a) Any person over 18 years of age who perpetrates under circumstances not amounting to rape in the first degree, an act of sexual intercourse or sodomy with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse who is at least 16 years but less than 18 years of age, and the perpetrator is 5 years or older than the victim, is guilty of rape in the second degree and shall be imprisoned not more than 10 years.
Any person under 18 years of age but over 16 years of age who perpetrates an act of sexual intercourse or sodomy with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse who is under 16 years of age but over 13 years of age, under circumstances not amounting to rape in the first degree, is guilty of rape in the third degree and shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the Family Division of the Superior Court
"Sexual contact '', that is, non-penetrative sex, defined as "the intentional touching of a person 's intimate parts, whether directly or through clothing, to arouse or to gratify the sexual desires of any person '' is not permitted with children under 16, but a close - in - age exemption allows those aged at least 13 to engage in such acts with partners under 18.
A person who engages in sexual contact with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse -- (...) (2) when the other person is under thirteen years of age;
A person over eighteen years of age who engages in sexual contact with a person not the perpetrator 's spouse who is over thirteen but under sixteen years of age is guilty of unlawful sexual contact in the second degree and shall be imprisoned not more than 1 year Paraphrasing Virgin Islands Code: V.I.C. § 1700 - 1709 Virgin Islands Code and appeals records Francis vs. VI NOTE: "mistake of fact as to the victim 's age is not a defense ''.
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who voices the blue rock guy in thor | Thor: Ragnarok - Wikipedia
Thor: Ragnarok is a 2017 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Thor, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2011 's Thor and 2013 's Thor: The Dark World, and is the seventeenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Taika Waititi from a screenplay by Eric Pearson and the writing team of Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost, and stars Chris Hemsworth as Thor alongside Tom Hiddleston, Cate Blanchett, Idris Elba, Jeff Goldblum, Tessa Thompson, Karl Urban, Mark Ruffalo, and Anthony Hopkins. In Thor: Ragnarok, Thor must escape the alien planet Sakaar in time to save Asgard from Hela and the impending Ragnarök.
A third Thor film was confirmed in January 2014, with Kyle and Yost beginning work on the screenplay. The involvement of Hemsworth and Hiddleston was announced that October. Waititi joined the film as director a year later, after The Dark World director Alan Taylor chose not to return. Ruffalo joined the cast reprising the role of Hulk from previous MCU films, which allowed elements of the 2006 comic storyline "Planet Hulk '' to be adapted for Ragnarok. The rest of the cast, including Blanchett as Hela, was confirmed in May 2016, with Pearson 's involvement revealed at the start of filming that July. Principal photography took place in Brisbane and Sydney, Australia, with the film also having exclusive use of Village Roadshow Studios in Oxenford, concluding in October 2016.
Thor: Ragnarok premiered in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, and was released in the United States on November 3, in 3D, IMAX, and IMAX 3D. The film received praise for its acting, direction, action sequences, soundtrack, and humor, with many critics declaring it the best of the Thor trilogy. It grossed $854 million, becoming the highest - grossing film of the trilogy and the ninth - highest - grossing film of 2017.
Two years after the battle of Sokovia, Thor is imprisoned by the fire demon Surtur in Muspelheim. Surtur reveals that Thor 's father Odin is no longer on Asgard, and that the realm will soon be destroyed in the prophesied Ragnarök, once Surtur unites his crown with the Eternal Flame that burns in Odin 's vault. Thor frees himself and defeats Surtur and takes his crown, believing he has prevented Ragnarök.
Thor returns to Asgard to find Heimdall gone and his brother Loki posing as Odin. After exposing Loki, Thor forces him to help find their father, and with directions from Stephen Strange on Earth, they locate Odin in Norway. Odin explains that he is dying and Ragnarök is imminent despite Thor 's efforts to prevent it. He then reveals his passing will allow his firstborn child, Hela, to escape from a prison she was sealed in long ago. Hela was the leader of Asgard 's armies, conquering the Nine Realms with Odin, but Odin imprisoned her and wrote her out of history after he feared that she had become too ambitious and powerful. Odin then dies and Hela appears, destroying Thor 's hammer Mjolnir. She pursues Thor and Loki as they attempt to flee through the Bifröst Bridge, forcing them out into space. Hela arrives in Asgard, defeating its army and killing the Warriors Three. She then resurrects the ancient dead who once fought with her, including her giant wolf Fenris, and appoints the Asgardian Skurge as her executioner. Hela plans to use the Bifröst to expand Asgard 's empire, but Heimdall takes the sword that controls the Bridge and begins hiding other Asgardians.
Thor crash - lands on Sakaar, a garbage planet surrounded by wormholes. A slave trader designated Scrapper 142 subdues him with an obedience disk and sells him as a gladiator to Sakaar 's ruler, the Grandmaster, with whom Loki has already ingratiated himself. Thor recognizes 142 as one of the Valkyrior, a legendary force of female warriors who were killed fighting Hela long ago. Thor is forced to compete in the Grandmaster 's Contest of Champions, facing his old friend Hulk. Summoning lightning, Thor gets the upper hand on Hulk, but the Grandmaster sabotages the fight to ensure Hulk 's victory. Still enslaved, Thor attempts to convince Hulk and 142 to help him save Asgard, but neither is willing. He soon manages to escape the palace and finds the Quinjet that brought Hulk to Sakaar. Hulk follows Thor to the Quinjet, where a recording of Natasha Romanoff makes him transform back into Bruce Banner for the first time since Sokovia.
The Grandmaster orders 142 and Loki to find Thor and Hulk, but the pair come to blows and Loki forces her to relive the deaths of her fellow Valkyrior at the hands of Hela. Deciding to help Thor, she takes Loki captive. Unwilling to be left behind, Loki provides the group with the means to steal one of the Grandmaster 's ships. They then liberate the other gladiators who, led by Korg and Miek, stage a revolution. Loki attempts to again betray his brother to the Grandmaster, but Thor anticipating this, leaves him behind, where Korg and the gladiators soon find him. Thor, Banner, and 142 escape through a wormhole to Asgard, where Hela 's forces are attacking Heimdall and the rescued Asgardians for the sword that controls the Bifröst. Banner becomes Hulk again, defeating Fenris, while Thor and 142 battle Hela and her warriors. Loki and the gladiators arrive to rescue the citizens. A repentant Skurge sacrifices himself to enable their escape. Thor, facing Hela, loses his right eye and then has a vision of Odin that helps him realize only Ragnarök can stop her. He sends Loki to retrieve Surtur 's crown and place it in the Eternal Flame. Surtur is reborn and destroys Asgard, seemingly killing Hela.
Aboard Grandmaster 's spaceship, Thor, now king, decides to take his people to Earth. In a mid-credits scene, they are intercepted by a large spacecraft. In a post-credits scene, the Grandmaster is confronted by his former subjects.
Additionally, Tadanobu Asano, Ray Stevenson, and Zachary Levi reprise their roles as Hogun, Volstagg, and Fandral, respectively, members of the Warriors Three. Feige called their appearances "noble ends '' that served to establish the threat of Hela and the danger she poses to the main characters. Benedict Cumberbatch reprises his role as Dr. Stephen Strange from the film Doctor Strange (2016). Rachel House, who has appeared in several of Waititi 's films, plays Topaz, the Grandmaster 's bodyguard, while Waititi portrays Korg, a gladiator who befriends Thor. Waititi provided a motion - capture performance for the character, who is made of rocks, and wanted to do something different by having the character be soft - spoken, ultimately basing Korg 's voice on that of Polynesian bouncers. Waititi also provided the motion - capture performance for the fire demon Surtur, based on the mythological being Surtr, with Clancy Brown voicing the character. Thor and Hulk co-creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a man on Sakaar who cuts Thor 's hair. There are also several cameos in a sequence where Asgardian actors perform a play based on the events of The Dark World: Sam Neill, with whom Waititi previously worked on Hunt for the Wilderpeople (2016), plays the Odin actor; Luke Hemsworth, brother of Chris, plays the Thor actor; and Matt Damon plays the Loki actor.
While promoting the release of Thor: The Dark World in October 2013, Chris Hemsworth expressed willingness to portraying Thor for as long as "people wanted more '', adding that he was contracted for another Thor film and two more Avengers films. Producer Kevin Feige stated that the next Thor would build from elements at the end of The Dark World. In January 2014, Marvel announced that Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost would write the screenplay for a third film, with Feige again producing; the story was being outlined that July. At the end of October 2014, Feige announced that the film would be titled Thor: Ragnarok, with a scheduled release date of July 28, 2017. Hemsworth and Tom Hiddleston were set to return as Thor and Loki, respectively. Feige added that the film would be "very important '' in Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), and also confirmed that, in the context of the film, the word Ragnarok means "the end of all things ''. He felt that "people will (not) read into that title alone what the movie 's going to be. ''
In February 2015, Marvel pushed back the release date to November 3, 2017. That April, Feige was expecting a draft for the film soon, and a month later he stated that a director, additional screenwriter, and further casting announcements would be revealed "towards the end of the summer '', with filming set for June 2016. The Dark World director Alan Taylor explained that he would not be returning, as "the Marvel experience was particularly wrenching because I was sort of given absolute freedom while we were shooting, and then in (post-production) it turned into a different movie. So, that is something I hope never to repeat and do n't wish upon anybody else. '' During the 2015 San Diego Comic - Con International, Jaimie Alexander said that she would reprise her role as Sif in "a very pivotal part '' of the film.
-- Taika Waititi, director of Thor: Ragnarok
By October 2015, Taika Waititi entered negotiations to direct Thor: Ragnarok. Other directors under consideration included Ruben Fleischer, Rob Letterman, and Rawson Marshall Thurber. Marvel presented the prospective directors with "the ten different ideas that we had for the movie '', asking them all to come back with a clearer picture of what the film should be. Waititi created "a sizzle reel for the tone, and some joke stuff '' using clips from other films, including Big Trouble in Little China, and scored it with Led Zeppelin 's "Immigrant Song ''. This is a practice that Marvel discourages because it "oftentimes can be really terrible '', but they thought Waititi 's reel was "amazing '', particularly its use of that song which Feige felt "defined what Taika was going to do with this ''; "Immigrant Song '' was later used in the film itself, and for marketing it. On why he decided to pursue directing the film, after stating in 2012 that he had no interest in "big features, where the art of the project was sacrificed for profit '', Waititi said he felt "like a guest in Marvel 's universe but with the creative freedom to do what I want ''. Waititi was confirmed as director of the film by multiple news outlets later in October.
Mark Ruffalo was also finalizing a deal that month, to reprise his role as Bruce Banner / Hulk from previous MCU films; he soon confirmed that he would appear. Hulk was last seen at the end of Avengers: Age of Ultron traveling in a Quinjet, which was originally planned to be shown flying near Saturn. Feige explained that this was changed to an Earth - based location to leave Hulk 's fate ambiguous and dispel rumors that a film based on "Planet Hulk '' was in development, since Marvel Studios had no plans to adapt the storyline at the time. According to executive producer Brad Winderbaum, the idea to include Hulk in Ragnarok came early on in development, when the production team looked at the "Planet Hulk '' storyline and felt it was a "no brainer '' to integrate Hulk into the Thor franchise and explore "the idea of a planet where there 's gladiatorial games as a Thor predicament. (That storyline) was a really cool idea to us. '' Feige further explained that initial discussions had focused on doing "something totally different with Thor '', and that centered on continuing the relationship with Loki and ideas for Hela, Valkyrie, Balder, and Beta Ray Bill, "but we were like, ' We need something big. ' '' This turned to discussing Thor going to space, and jokingly calling it "Planet Thor '', which led to including Hulk in the film and revealing that he ultimately went to space at the end of Age of Ultron.
Also in October, Australia 's Minister for Foreign Affairs Julie Bishop announced that filming would take place in the country, exclusively throughout the state of Queensland, including at Village Roadshow Studios in Oxenford, Gold Coast. According to Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk, the production was to spend over $ 100 million in Queensland and employ 750 Queenslanders. Hemsworth had asked Marvel to produce the film in Australia, where he lives. At the end of November 2015, Stellan Skarsgård, who portrayed Erik Selvig in the previous Thor films, said that he was contracted to appear should Marvel want to include him, but he was uncertain at the time if they did. He later confirmed that he would not appear in Thor: Ragnarok. The next month, Stephany Folsom was hired to work on the script, and Cate Blanchett entered final negotiations to join the cast.
In January 2016, with the film beginning pre-production, Ruffalo described it as a "road movie '' and indicated that additional filming would take place in Sydney. Waititi stated that he was working on the script "a little bit '', mainly adding humor to the screenplay, with Eric Pearson joining the project to rewrite the screenplay. Pearson felt joining presented many challenges, as "there were so many puzzle pieces already there, '' such as having Blanchett as Hela, who was confirmed in the role a month later, and including Hulk, Valkyrie, and Skurge, that he was asked to assemble. Pearson was told not to be restrained by anything from the previous films, and Waititi asked him to make the film fun and have Thor "be the coolest character. '' Alexander said in early March that she was no longer sure if she would appear in the film, due to scheduling conflicts with her television series Blindspot. She later indicated that this may not be the case, but ultimately was unable to appear in the film due to the conflict.
In April, Tessa Thompson was cast as Valkyrie, with Natalie Portman not returning from the previous films as love interest Jane Foster. Marvel never asked the screenwriters to include the Earth - based characters from the previous films, and Feige said that Foster and Thor have broken up between films. In May, Marvel confirmed Blanchett and Thompson for the film, announced the casting of Jeff Goldblum as Grandmaster and Karl Urban as Skurge, and revealed that Idris Elba and Anthony Hopkins would reprise their respective roles of Heimdall and Odin from the previous films. In early June, Palaszczuk and Marvel Studios executive David Grant announced that filming would begin on July 4, 2016, with Weta Workshop creating props for the film. Before the sets for Marvel 's Doctor Strange were demolished, Waititi wrote and filmed a scene for Ragnarok where Thor meets Benedict Cumberbatch 's Stephen Strange. Marvel and Doctor Strange director Scott Derrickson felt the scene was "kind of perfect '' to show Strange joining the wider MCU, so the scene also appears during the credits of Doctor Strange.
Feige noted that Thor: Ragnarok would primarily take place in the "cosmos '' rather than on Earth, a departure from the previous Thor films. He expanded by saying, "Tonally and geographically there are a lot of different planets outside of the nine realms that we visit '' in the film. Waititi consulted with theoretical physicist Clifford Johnson on space travel. Johnson viewed early drafts of the script, and gave Waititi physics ideas that could "wink at some of the classic old (Thor) stuff ''; Johnson previously consulted on the second season of the MCU television series Agent Carter. Comic artist and Thor co-creator Jack Kirby was one of Waititi 's major visual inspirations for the film. Winderbaum also called Walt Simonson 's "Ragnarok '' story arc an inspiration for "really fun elements... both stylistically and narratively '', as well as Thor: God of Thunder by Jason Aaron, which was the inspiration for Hela 's design and abilities. Waititi said the planet Sakaar, which is featured in the "Planet Hulk '' storyline, was "the biggest shift for the film and these characters '', with Winderbaum describing it as "the toilet of the universe '', surrounded by "wormholes that have been spitting things out into this place for eons ''. Also featured is Muspelheim, one of the Nine Realms, ruled by Surtur. Production designer Dan Hennah described it as a Dyson sphere, with the realm drawing power out of a dying star to energize its inhabitants. Hennah hoped to give Asgard "more of a humanity '' than in previous films, by adding smaller building perspectives to help the realm seem more practical and utilitarian. For Saakar 's gladiator arena, Hennah looked at Roman gladiators, but differentiated from previous similar ideas by going "all alien with it ''. The arena is surrounded by "standing up bleachers ''.
Waititi said that the film would reinvent the franchise, as "a lot of what we 're doing with the film is, in a way, kind of dismantling and destroying the old idea and rebuilding it in a new way that 's fresh. Everyone 's got a slightly new take on their characters, so in that way, it feels like (this is) the first Thor (2011). '' He added that he had seen the other films and respected them, but wanted to focus on making a "standalone film because this could be the only time I do this. I just want to make it (my) version of a Marvel film in the best way possible. '' This is something Hemsworth had hoped for, looking to have a lighter tone in Ragnarok compared to the previous Thor films, especially the second one, similar to Guardians of the Galaxy. He said, "I feel we had less of the sort of the naivety or fun or humor that the first (Thor) might have had. I wish we had more of that in the second (movie)... We 've done regal. We 've done Shakespeare, and we 've shown that. I think now it 's time to go, ' Ok, cool. Let 's try something different. ' '' Hemsworth continued that in order to prevent the character or film from becoming "predictable '', there was "definitely a goal to do something unexpected... I think we want to get back to more of a sense of adventure and fun ''.
The events of Ragnarok are set four years after the events of Thor: The Dark World, two years after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron, and around the same time as the events of Captain America: Civil War (2016) and Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), with Winderbaum noting that "things happen on top of each other now in Phase Three. '' The events of Ragnarok also set up Avengers: Infinity War, and Hemsworth spoke to Infinity War directors Anthony and Joe Russo before receiving the script for Ragnarok to see how it would link to Infinity War. He said Ragnarok "definitely bleeds nicely into those (films) '', and Winderbaum likened Ragnarok 's impact on the larger MCU to that of Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), saying it would break down ideas regarding Asgard that were previously established similar "to how Winter Soldier broke down S.H.I.E.L.D. ''
Principal photography began on July 4, 2016, under the working title Creature Report, at Village Roadshow Studios in Oxenford, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, exclusively using all nine of the studios ' sound stages. Additional filming was to occur throughout the state of Queensland, including Tamborine National Park. The Brisbane central business district, where filming took place from August 22 to 25, was used to double as New York City. Javier Aguirresarobe served as cinematographer on the film, describing his work on the film as "a rare combination of satisfaction and frustration '', feeling that he was mostly there to service the director and visual effects supervisor, but felt "very happy to have been able to respond to such incredible technical requirements ''.
Later in July, regarding the film 's "buddy - style comedy '' nature, Waititi said that the script had changed from then and it was still unclear what the final film would look like, but there "are buddy elements to it between Thor and the Hulk ''. He said it would be a "' 70s / ' 80s sci - fi fantasy '' and "the most ' out there ' of all the Marvel movies '', with the tone closest to that of Big Trouble in Little China. Inspiration for the road - trip aspect of the film included 48 Hrs. (1982), Withnail and I (1987), and Planes, Trains and Automobiles (1987). Waititi also asked the heads of each department to watch Flash Gordon (1980) before beginning work. Concept art released at San Diego Comic Con 2016 revealed that the character Fenris Wolf would appear.
By August, over 100 set and construction workers were given termination notifications, with some complaining that they had been promised work until October or November 2016, and that New Zealand crew members were receiving preferential treatment over the Australian locals. However, Premier Palaszczuk stated that the work for set builders simply "finished '', and that other jobs would become available as actors arrived for filming. Sets constructed for the film were for Sakaar, including the Grandmaster 's palace and surrounding junkyard, as well as Asgard (based on the aesthetics of the previous Thor films). The interior of the Avenger Quinjet, which was built for The Avengers (2012), was shipped to Australia. Waititi, who is Māori, made hiring Indigenous and Aboriginal Australians, along with New Zealanders, a priority for the various departments, saying, "It 's a responsibility you have to the Indigenous people. You 're coming to a country and you 're bringing money into the economy and creating jobs but I think you have an even bigger responsibility to look after the people that have less opportunities. '' He added that having these people on the crew "feel very much like family '' and "helps calm me down and makes me feel relaxed ''. The Indigenous and Aboriginals were hired as part of an initiative by Screen Australia 's Indigenous Department, whose mission is "to give Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders a foot in the door of the film industry ''.
In mid-September 2016, concept art seen during a set visit indicated Midgard Serpent would appear, and that Sif and the Warriors Three, allies of Thor in the previous two films, would be addressed in Ragnarok. Towards the end of the month, Sam Neill, who worked with Waititi in Hunt for the Wilderpeople, revealed he had a role in the film. Shortly after, Waititi teased the inclusion of the characters Korg, who Waititi portrays through motion - capture, and Miek, who is not portrayed by an actor as he does not speak in the film, and is depicted as "a larva - like creature... (with) cybernetic legs and arms ''. In mid-October, Waititi revealed that new camera technology had been used for a shot in the film, and that he had hoped to include John C. Reilly 's Nova Corpsman Rhomann Dey in the film, but there was "no real way to pull it off ''. Principal photography wrapped on October 28, 2016. Second unit filming took place on Dirk Hartog Island off the coast of Australia, and in the South Island of New Zealand. According to Waititi, 80 percent of the dialogue in Thor: Ragnarok was improvised, in order to create a "very loose and collaborate mood '' among the cast and an attempt to replicate the tone and sensibility from his previous films. He stated, "My style of working is I 'll often be behind the camera, or right next to the camera yelling words at people, like, ' Say this, say this! Say it this way! ' ''
In January 2017, it was revealed that Pearson would be receiving sole screenwriting credit on the film, with the story credited to Kyle, Yost, and Folsom. These credits were later updated the following September, with Pearson as the screenwriter and story credit for Kyle and Yost. Folsom took issue with Marvel marketing the film with these credits, noting the Writers Guild of America (WGA) had yet to determine the final credits for the film. She later said that Marvel had given her a story credit on the film, but was denied by the WGA due to their regulation that a maximum of two individuals can receive story credit, with an allowance for a writing team to count as one individual; Pearson and the team of Kyle and Yost received the story credit on Ragnarok. Folsom added that she planned to appeal the decision, and that Marvel has been supportive of her throughout her attempt to receive credit. By the end of the month, the writing credits were updated once again, this time simply crediting Pearson, Kyle, and Yost as screenwriters.
In February 2017, Rachel House said she had a small role in the film, having worked with Waititi before. Additional filming took place in Atlanta in July 2017, over three weeks, including filming post-credit scenes. One of these introduces the spaceship Sanctuary II, which belongs to Thanos, in Avengers: Infinity War and its untitled sequel, while the other, shown at the end of the credits, features the Grandmaster. Goldblum and Waititi improvised multiple versions of the latter scene; one unused version involved the singing of the Sakaarian national anthem, which was "made up on the spot ''. Also filmed in Atlanta was the completion of a sequence where Asgardian actors perform a play based on the events of The Dark World. Neill appears in the sequence as the Odin actor, and Hemsworth 's brother Luke portrays the Thor actor. Explaining the sequence, Waititi said, "if I was Loki and I was ruling Asgard, I would write a play about myself and force everyone to go and see it -- change the details of the play and get a huge celebrity to play myself. '' For the Loki actor, they "really wanted someone good and someone who 's funny '', and Chris Hemsworth suggested that Matt Damon, whom he knew personally, take on the role. Damon was in New York City at the time, and flew to Atlanta just to shoot the cameo "on a lark ''. Also changed during reshoots was the location of the sequence where Thor and Loki find Odin on Earth, and Hela subsequently destroys Mjolnir. Originally set in a New York City alley, Waititi decided that the environment was distracting from the emotions of the sequence. The location was changed to Norway, which Waititi felt gave more weight to the scenes, made Odin 's storyline more "authentic '', and also allowed the characters and the audience to "chill out for a second, and have that moment, because the rest of the film basically just runs at a clip ''.
By the time the reshoots for the film were completed, the film had been cut down from Waititi 's initial version of two hours and forty minutes to around ninety minutes, with that expected to increase slightly with the newly filmed scenes. However, after the film 's 2017 Comic Con panel, it was decided to add back a lot of the jokes that had been removed, with the final runtime being two hours and ten minutes. Joel Negron and Zene Baker served as editors on the film. Waititi described the process of deciding exactly what jokes to keep as "very tricky... sometimes it would be funny in the beginning of the film and then not funny at all (or) it was funny in the wrong places and in the end, we had to just keep testing jokes and testing parts of the film ''. Ragnarok also clarifies that an Infinity Gauntlet seen in Thor was a fake. Feige expanded, saying that it had been included in Thor as an easter egg, since Marvel Studios was "working on The Avengers and trying to (put) that all together for the conclusion of Phase One. '' However, shortly after The Avengers released and the studio began to solidify plans for Avengers: Infinity War, they realized that the gauntlet seen in Thor could not be the actual one, creating an internal theory that it was fake; this resulted in the scene in Ragnarok, which was created "just (to have) the opportunity to call it a fake ''.
Visual effects for the film were created by Industrial Light & Magic 's (ILM) San Francisco and Vancouver studios, with help from Base FX, Animatrik, and Virtuos; Framestore; Method Studios Vancouver; Digital Domain; Rising Sun Pictures; Luma Pictures; D Negative; Iloura; Image Engine; Trixter; The Secret Lab; WhiskeyTree Inc; Fin Designs + Effects; and Perception. Previsualization work was provided by The Third Floor and Day for Nite. Luma Pictures produced over 200 shoots in eight sequences, particularly for the characters Korg (receiving assets from Framestore) and Miek. Method Studios provided over 450 shots, including Thor 's opening fight against Surtur in Muspelheim and Hela 's fight against the Asgardian guards. D Negative worked on over 190 shots, creating the environment for the planet Sakaar, including its junkyard landscape and wormholes, with the wormholes also created through a collaboration with Digital Domain.
ILM, who worked on previous incarnations of the Hulk, had to add much more detail to the character 's facial features in Ragnarok due to the Hulk 's increased dialogue. ILM visual effects supervisor Chad Wiebe explained that Ruffalo 's expressions were captured fresh for the film using Medusa, a performance capture technology. With 90 different expressions captured, ILM "built an entirely new library that would allow (Hulk) to cover a full range of normal human visual characteristics. '' To help create the Hulk, a person on set was covered in green body paint, and would replicate the intended motions of the character to aid the visual effect artists. Additionally, stunt actor Paul Lowe, who is under 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, stood in for Hemsworth during some of his interactions with the Hulk so that the Hulk 's stunt men would be proportionally correct. In some instances when Thor and the Hulk interacted, a digital double was used for Thor, also created by ILM, to have greater flexibility for the shots. ILM worked on all of the Hulk moments in the film outside the final fight sequence, which was completed by Framestore using ILM 's assets, as Framestore was primarily responsible for rigging that sequence. Framestore completed nearly 460 shots, which featured digital doubles of Thor and Hela, Fenris, Korg, Miek, the giant Surtur at the end of the film, and over 9,000 buildings for Asgard, based on assets D Negative had from The Dark World, resulting in over 263 character, vehicle, prop, and crowd rigs.
Rising Sun Pictures produced more than 170 visual effects shots for Thor: Ragnarok. They worked on the Valkyrie flashback sequence, with the sequence 's surreal ethereal appearance achieved through a combination of motion capture, computer graphics, a 900 fps high - speed frame rate, and a special 360 - degree lighting rig containing 200 strobe lights to bathe the scene in undulating patterns of light and shadow. Rising Sun also helped create the various CGI aspects of Hela, such as her "hair wipe transition '' to her horns, and her original introduction in New York City. Following the reshoots, ImageEngine completed the new Norway introduction since Rising Sun was focused on the palace fight by then.
By August 2016, Mark Mothersbaugh was hired to score the film. The synthesized score is influenced by the work of Jean - Michel Jarre. Waititi stated he would have asked the band Queen to work on the soundtrack for the film if their lead singer Freddie Mercury was still alive, because the film is "a cool, bold, colorful cosmic adventure '' which would have suited the "feel '' of the band. Additional music featured in the film include "Immigrant Song '' by Led Zeppelin and "Pure Imagination '' from the film Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971). Patrick Doyle 's themes from Thor and Brian Tyler 's themes from The Dark World and Avengers: Age of Ultron, as well as Joe Harnell 's "The Lonely Man '' theme from The Incredible Hulk series, are also used in the film. Hollywood Records released the film 's soundtrack digitally on October 20, 2017, and physically on November 10, 2017.
Thor: Ragnarok had its world premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, and its Australian premiere took place on October 13, on the Gold Coast. It was released in the United Kingdom on October 24, 2017, with additional international releases on October 25, and in Australia on October 26. The film was released in the United States and Canada on November 3, in 4,080 theaters, of which over 3,400 were 3D, 381 were IMAX and IMAX 3D, and 204 were D - Box. The film opened in 1,187 IMAX theaters globally, which was a November opening weekend record. It was originally scheduled for release on July 28, 2017.
At the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con, a physical model of Hulk 's gladiator armor was revealed, concept art and rough animatics were shown, and a "mockumentary '' short titled Team Thor was screened. Directed by Waititi, it showed what Thor and Banner were doing during the events of Civil War, with Daley Pearson appearing as Thor 's Australian flatmate Darryl Jacobson. The short released online in August 2016, and with the digital download of Captain America: Civil War the following month. Team Thor: Part 2 was released on the home media of Doctor Strange in February 2017, with Pearson reprising his role. Footage and concept art for the film were shown at CinemaCon 2017.
On April 10, 2017, the first teaser trailer was released. Sandy Schaefer of Screen Rant felt it was "a strong start '' for the film, having "a distinctly playful vibe '' by setting it to "Immigrant Song ''. The Verge 's Chaim Gartenberg said "this may be the weirdest Marvel movie to date '' thanks to the costumes, makeup, and 80s aesthetic. Michael Arbeiter for Nerdist was pleased with the teaser, stating, "nothing in the MCU thus far can hold a candle to the imagination promised by this... have any of (the previous MCU films) felt this beholden to what we 've always known and loved as the adventure genre? '' The teaser was viewed 136 million times in 24 hours, the third - highest in that time frame behind The Fate of the Furious (139 million) and It (197 million). It also became Disney and Marvel 's most viewed trailer within that time period, surpassing Beauty and the Beast (127 million) and Captain America: Civil War (94 million), respectively. The line from the trailer of Thor saying Hulk "is a friend from work '' was suggested to Hemsworth by a Make - A-Wish child visiting the set on the day the scene was filmed.
Props and costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 along with set pieces for photo opportunities. The costumes were also on display at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, where Waitti and cast members promoted the film. Exclusive clips were shown, along with a new trailer. Ethan Anderton of / Film felt "the blend of comedy and bright, vibrant comic book action '' in the trailer was "incredible ''. Collider 's Haleigh Foutch was "in love with this trailer '' and "all in '' on the film. Germain Lussier for io9 called the trailer "a two - and - a-half - minute ball of action, awesomeness, humor, and insanity that may be the most purely fun Marvel movie trailer we 've ever seen. '' The poster also released was praised, being called by Anthony Couto from Comic Book Resources as "quite stunning '', "insanely colorful '', and "perfectly symmetrical '', with Matt Goldberg of Collider feeling it "really (lets) you know that this Thor movie is going to be radically different than the first two ''. Due to the Comic - Con presentation, Thor: Ragnarok generated over 264,000 new conversations on social media from July 17 to 23, the most out of any film during that time period, according to comScore and its PreAct service. It remained the most - discussed film on social media for two more weeks.
In August 2017, Marvel partnered with car manufacturer Renault on a commercial supporting the release of the Kwid in Brazil. Directed by Jonathan Gurvit and shot in São Paulo, it features the Hulk destroying a satellite headed towards the city. Framestore worked on visual effects for the commercial, building on the foundation they had from working on the character in previous films. Also in August, Marvel, in partnership with Dolby Laboratories, Synchrony Bank, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Broadcom Masters, and Society for Science & the Public, announced the "Superpower of STEM Challenge '', aimed at females aged 15 through 18 in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics education) fields, to "create an original Do - It - Yourself project that can be replicated by others '' and "help their family, community or the world be safer, healthier or happier ''. Five winners would attend the film 's world premiere, receive a tour of Walt Disney Studios, and a $500 saving account from Synchrony Bank, with one grand prize winner attending "an immersive three - day mentorship in New York City with Disney Imagineering '' to create a "professional - level video teaching other young people how to recreate '' their winning project. They were also given the opportunity to demonstrate the project on Good Morning America.
For the week of August 21, Ragnarok once again had the most social media conversations according to comScore and its PreAct service. New clips of Thor and Hulk fighting, released on the same day as the Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Conor McGregor fight, helped generate the 57,000 new conversations for the week. From September 25 to October 15, Ragnarok had the second-most social media conversations according to the service, and was once again first for the week of October 16 following the release of extended clips and plot details. Beginning October 6, 2017, Disney California Adventure showed a sneak peek of the film at the Sunset Showcase Theater in Hollywood Land, presented in 3D with "special in - theater effects ''. Ahead of the United States release of the film, Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Blanchett, Goldblum, Ruffalo, and Thompson appeared with James Corden on The Late Late Show with James Corden to present a "4D '' version of the film, which was actually a stage play. The cast performed various scenes from the film live in low - budget costumes and with cardboard stage props. Additional promotional partners of the film included Red Robin, United Healthcare, and Screenvision Media.
Thor: Ragnarok was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on February 20, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, DVD and On - Demand on March 6. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; and Team Darryl, a continuation of the "mockumentary '' short films Team Thor and Team Thor: Part 2, in which the Grandmaster moves in with Darryl after Thor leaves. In one of the deleted scenes, Michael Rooker makes an appearance as Yondu, reprising the role from the first two Guardians of the Galaxy films. James Gunn, writer and director of the Guardians films, clarified that the appearance of Yondu was never meant to appear in the final film, and that Rooker was on a nearby set recording material for the Halloween variant of the theme park attraction Guardians of the Galaxy -- Mission: Breakout! and decided to stop by the Ragnarok set "to goof around ''.
The film debuted at number one on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart during its first week of release, which tracks combined DVD and Blu - ray Disc unit sales, and a dedicated Blu - ray disc sales chart. Blu - ray accounted for 83 % of unit sales, with 11 % coming from Ultra HD Blu - ray. Thor: Ragnarok also debuted second on the Media Play News rental chart behind Coco. In its second week, the film fell to number two on the NPD VideoScan chart, coming in behind Justice League, but rose to number one on the Media Play News rental chart.
Thor: Ragnarok grossed $315.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $538.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $854 million. In September 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Ragnarok was the most anticipated fall film. On the weekend of November 3, 2017, the film earned $25.4 million from IMAX showings, surpassing Doctor Strange as the largest for a November weekend. The film had earned $650.1 million globally, surpassing the total grosses for Thor ($449.3 million) and Thor: The Dark World ($644.6 million), by the end of its third weekend. It became the ninth highest - grossing film of 2017. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $174.2 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, against box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it eighth on their list of 2017 's "Most Valuable Blockbusters ''.
Thor: Ragnarok earned $46.8 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $14.5 million from Thursday night previews), and had a total weekend gross of $122.7 million, which was the top film for the weekend, the sixth - best November opening, and the largest opening for all Thor films. IMAX contributed $12.2 million, which was the second - best IMAX opening of 2017 and the third - best November opening. The film 's earnings on Sunday ($32.1 million), was the second - best Sunday in November after The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013) ($34.5 million). The film had been projected to gross $100 -- 125 million in its opening weekend. Ragnarok remained the number one film in its second weekend, having earned a total of $211.6 million, which surpassed the entire runs of Thor ($181 million) and The Dark World ($206.4 million). In its third weekend, Thor: Ragnarok fell to third at the box office, and fourth in its fourth and fifth weekends. The film surpassed its projected total domestic gross of $280 million in its fifth weekend with $291.4 million, Thor: Ragnarok was fifth in its sixth weekend, and seventh in its seventh weekend, the final weekend it remained in the top 10.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 36 markets in its first weekend, ranking first in all, and earning $109.1 million, $6 million of which came from 189 IMAX screens. The United Kingdom opening ($16.2 million) was the best October opening for a non-James Bond film. South Korea ($15.7 million), Australia ($8.4 million), Brazil ($8.1 million), Indonesia ($5.5 M), Taiwan ($5.4 M), the Philippines ($3.8 M), Malaysia ($3.5 M), New Zealand, Vietnam, Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, and South Africa had the best October opening weekend ever, while France ($7.7 million) had the second - best. Brazil also had the third - best debut for an MCU film, while New Zealand 's opening was the biggest of 2017. In its second weekend, Ragnarok opened at number one in 19 more markets, with the largest November opening ever in China ($56.3 million, including $6 million from 446 IMAX screens), Mexico ($10.8 million), Germany ($8.9 million), and India ($5.5 million). It also remained at number one in many existing markets. The film earned an additional $13.2 million from 788 IMAX screens, the best November opening. In its third weekend, the film remained at number one in over 30 countries, and became the highest - grossing superhero film in the Czech Republic. By its fifth weekend, Ragnarok had become the highest - grossing superhero film in central and eastern Europe. As of December 10, 2017, the film 's largest markets were China ($112 million), the United Kingdom ($40.4 million), and South Korea ($35.1 million).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % approval rating based on 335 reviews, with an average score of 7.5 out of 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Exciting, funny, and above all fun, Thor: Ragnarok is a colorful cosmic adventure that sets a new standard for its franchise -- and the rest of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 74 out of 100 based on 51 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, the best of the Thor series, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 90 % overall positive score and an 85 % "definite recommend ''.
Sheri Linden of The Hollywood Reporter praised Waititi 's handling of "the clash - of - worlds CGI extravaganza '', particularly for the lighter tone he brought, with "even the story 's central bad guys (being) silly fun, hammed to the hilt by Cate Blanchett and Jeff Goldblum. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap wrote, "Both the banter and the fighting, it should be noted, are excellent, so whether you go to superhero movies for the glossy escapism or the pulse - pounding action, you 'll get your large soda 's worth. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three stars out of four, described it as "the most fun you 'll ever have at a Marvel movie '' while praising the film 's changing tone and direction, comparing it favourably to Guardians of the Galaxy. The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle lauded the performances of Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Blanchett, Thompson, Goldblum and Ruffalo, feeling the film "has confidence in its characters and in its own invention, and so it avoids repetition and stays fresh ''.
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times similarly praised the film, calling the performances of the ensemble cast "outstanding '' and Waititi 's direction "goofy and campy and marvelously self - referential ''. He also said the soundtrack that was used in the climactic battle sequence, particularly Led Zeppelin 's "Immigrant Song '' as being "perfectly synced ''. Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, positively comparing Hemsworth 's performance to Cary Grant: "Hemsworth 's charisma holds (Thor: Ragnarok) together whenever it threatens to spin apart ''. Justin Chang of Los Angeles Times praised Blanchett 's performance of Hela, drawing a comparison of the portrayal of her character to other iconic villains such as Maleficent and Chernabog, and the film 's similar themes and tone to Flash Gordon, Star Wars, (1977) and Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. The Daily Telegraph 's Robbie Collin gave the film four out of five, hailed it as "one of (Marvel 's) best films to date '' while commending the performances and describing Mark Mothersbaugh 's musical score as "turbo - charged ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune commended the performances of Hiddleston and Thompson as being "wonderfully matched ''. He also noted a similar directing style of Waititi to Edgar Wright 's "parodic work '' and labelled the film as "unusually lively and buoyant '' while acknowledging the effect of a "Marvel Fatigue factor '' towards the audiences.
Peter Debruge of Variety called the movie "preposterous '', but praised Goldblum 's performance. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine stated negatively that "Thor: Ragnarok is packed tight with zooming space vehicles and noisy thunder battles, but the movie 's extravagant excess is more narcotizing than energizing. '' Zacharek further added that "Even poor Thor seems lost in all of it, and he 's supposed to be its star '' while criticizing the film 's visual effects as being "an instance of fun overkill '' and "a special - effects coma ''. Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called the story "an uninteresting thicket of brawls, machinations and useful coincidences '' but did feel that Hemsworth "looks happier and far more relaxed in Ragnarok than he did in the previous Thor vehicles, which is perhaps Mr. Waititi 's truest achievement here. ''
By the release of Ragnarok, Waititi and Marvel had discussed a spin - off Marvel One - Shot short film following the characters Korg and Miek, but it was unfeasible due to Marvel 's commitment to producing three feature films a year. Feige said Marvel still had plans for those characters, but did not specify. In January 2018, Hemsworth indicated his interest in continuing to play Thor, despite his contract with Marvel Studios scheduled to end after the fourth Avengers film, saying the next month "if there 's another great script that comes along '' he would consider playing the character again. He and Waititi had discussed what they would want in a potential fourth Thor film by then.
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where will the winter olympics be held in | 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
The 2018 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XXIII Olympic Winter Games (Korean: 제 23 회 동계 올림픽, translit. Jeisipsamhoe Donggye Ollimpik) and commonly known as PyeongChang 2018, was an international winter multi-sport event held between 9 and 25 February 2018 in Pyeongchang County, Gangwon Province, South Korea, with the opening rounds for certain events held on 8 February 2018, the eve of the opening ceremony. Pyeongchang was elected as the host city in July 2011, during the 123rd IOC Session in Durban, South Africa. This was the first time that South Korea had hosted the Winter Olympics and the second Olympics held in the country overall, after the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. It was the third time that an East Asian country had hosted the Winter Games, after Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998), both in Japan. It was also the first of three consecutive Olympics to be held in East Asia, the other two being the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.
The Games featured 102 events in fifteen sports, with the addition of "big air '' snowboarding, mass start speed skating, mixed doubles curling, and mixed team alpine skiing to the Winter Olympic programme. 2,914 athletes from 92 NOCs competed, including the debuts of Ecuador, Eritrea, Kosovo, Malaysia, Nigeria and Singapore. After a state - sponsored doping program was exposed following the 2014 Winter Olympics, the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended, and selected athletes were allowed to compete neutrally under the IOC designation of "Olympic Athletes from Russia ''. Despite tense relations, North Korea agreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as a unified Korea, and field a unified team in women 's ice hockey.
Norway led the total medal tally with 39, followed by Germany 's 31 and Canada 's 29. Germany and Norway were tied for the most gold medals won; both won fourteen golds. Host nation South Korea won seventeen medals, their highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics, five of which were gold.
Pyeongchang bid to host both the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics, but lost in the final rounds of voting to Vancouver and Sochi respectively.
Munich also launched a bid to host these Games. Prior to Beijing 's successful 2022 Winter Olympics bid, Munich would have become the first city to host both the Winter and the Summer Games, having previously hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics, but received only 25 votes. Annecy (in southeastern France) launched their own bid, which failed to secure public support from the local citizens. Their bid ended up receiving seven votes.
Pyeongchang was elected as the host city at the 123rd IOC Session in Durban in 2011, earning the necessary majority of at least 48 votes in just one round of voting, more votes than its competitors combined. With this, Pyeongchang became the third Asian city to host the Winter Games; the first two were in Japan, at Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998).
On 5 August 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced the formation of the Pyeongchang 2018 Coordination Commission. On 4 October 2011, it was announced that the Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics would be headed by Kim Jin - sun. The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games (POCOG) was launched at its inaugural assembly on 19 October 2011. The first tasks of the organizing committee were putting together a master plan for the Games as well as forming a design for the venues. The IOC Coordination Commission for the 2018 Winter Olympics made their first visit to Pyeongchang in March 2012. By then, construction was already underway on the Olympic Village. In June 2012, construction began on a high - speed rail line that would connect Pyeongchang to Seoul.
The International Paralympic Committee met for an orientation with the Pyeongchang 2018 organizing committee in July 2012. Then - IOC President Jacques Rogge visited Pyeongchang for the first time in February 2013.
The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games created Pyeongchang WINNERS in 2014 by recruiting university students living in South Korea to spread awareness of the Olympic Games through social networking services and news articles.
The Games ' medal designs were unveiled on 21 September 2017. Designed by Lee Suk - woo, they feature a pattern of diagonal ridges on both sides, with the front including the Olympic rings, and the obverse featuring the Games ' emblem, the event name and the discipline. The edge of the medals features extrusions of hangul alphabets, while the ribbons are made from a traditional South Korean textile.
The torch relay started on 24 October 2017 in Greece and ended at the start of the Olympics on 9 February 2018. On 1 November 2017 the relay entered Korea. The relay lasted 101 days. There were 7,500 torch bearers to represent the Korean population of 75 million people. There were also 2,018 support runners to guard the torch and act as messengers.
The torch and its bearers traveled by a diverse means of transportation, including by turtle ship in Hansando Island, sailboat on the Baengmagang River in Buyeo, marine cable car in Yeosu, zip - wire over Bamseom Island, steam train in the Gokseong Train Village, marine rail bike along the east coast in Samcheok, and by yacht in Busan Metropolitan City.
There were also robot torch relays in Jeju and Daejeon.
Most of the outdoor snow events were held in the county of Pyeongchang, while the downhill, combined and super-G events in the Alpine skiing were held in the neighboring county of Jeongseon. The indoor ice events were held in Pyeongchang 's neighboring city of Gangneung.
The Alpensia Sports Park in Daegwallyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang, was the focus of the 2018 Winter Olympics. It was home to the Olympic Stadium, the Olympic Village and most of the outdoor sports venues.
Additionally, a stand - alone outdoor sports venue was located in Bongpyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang:
Another stand - alone outdoor sports venue was located in Pyeongchang 's neighboring county of Jeongseon:
The Gangneung Olympic Park in the city of Gangneung includes four indoor sports venues, all in close proximity to one another.
Additionally, a stand - alone indoor sports venue was located in the grounds of Catholic Kwandong University.
Ticket prices for the 2018 Winter Olympics were announced in April 2016 and tickets went on sale in October 2016. Event tickets ranged in price from ₩ 20,000 (approx. US $ 17) to ₩ 900,000 (~ US $776) while tickets for the opening and closing ceremonies ranged from ₩ 220,000 (~ US $190) to ₩ 1.5 million (~ US $1293). The exact prices were determined through market research; around 50 % of the tickets were expected to cost about ₩ 80,000 (~ US $69) or less, and tickets in sports that are relatively unknown in the region, such as biathlon and luge, were made cheaper in order to encourage attendance. By contrast, figure skating and the men 's ice hockey gold - medal game carried the most expensive tickets of the Games.
As of 11 October 2017, domestic ticket sales for the Games were reported to be slow. Of the 750,000 seats allocated to South Koreans, only 20.7 % had been sold. International sales were more favorable, with 59.7 % of the 320,000 allocated tickets sold. However, as of 31 January 2018, 77 % of all tickets had been sold.
The opening ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium on 9 February 2018; the US $100 million facility was only intended to be used for the opening and closing ceremonies of these Olympics and the subsequent Paralympics, and is scheduled to be demolished following their conclusion.
The 2018 Winter Olympics featured 102 events in 15 sports, making it the first Winter Olympics to surpass 100 medal events. Six new events in existing sports were introduced to the Winter Olympic program in Pyeongchang, including men 's and ladies ' big air snowboarding, mixed doubles curling, men 's and ladies ' mass start speed skating, and mixed team alpine skiing.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sport.
For the first time since 1998, the National Hockey League did not provide accommodations (including a break in the season for all teams during the Olympics) to allow its players to participate in the men 's ice hockey tournament. The NHL 's decision stemmed from their demands that the IOC cover the cost of insuring the NHL players who participated in the Games. Although the IOC did pay to insure NHL players in Sochi, the commission was unwilling to do so for Pyeongchang, and was concerned that the NHL 's demand could set a precedent for other professional sports bodies to follow. NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman added that a factor in the decision was that the IOC did not allow the NHL to promote the involvement of its players in the Olympics. The NHL secured the cooperation of the International Ice Hockey Federation and the IOC, who agreed to establish a blacklist forbidding national teams from nominating or accepting players under NHL contract to their Olympic rosters.
A total of 92 teams qualified at least one athlete to compete in the Games. The number of athletes who qualified per country is listed in the table below (number of athletes shown in parentheses). Six nations made their Winter Olympics debut: Ecuador, Eritrea, Kosovo, Malaysia, Nigeria and Singapore. Athletes from three further countries -- the Cayman Islands, Dominica and Peru -- qualified to compete, but all three National Olympic Committees returned the quota spots back to the International Ski Federation (FIS).
Under an historic agreement facilitated by the IOC, qualified athletes from North Korea were allowed to cross the Korean Demilitarized Zone into South Korea to compete in the Games. The two nations marched together under the Korean Unification Flag during the opening ceremony. A unified Korean team, consisting of 12 players from North Korea and 23 from South Korea, competed in the women 's ice hockey tournament under a special IOC country code designation (COR) following talks in Panmunjom on 17 January 2018. The two nations also participated separately: the South Korea team competed in every sport and the North Korea team competed in alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, figure skating and short track speed skating. See North Korea at the 2018 Winter Olympics for further details.
On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that the Russian Olympic Committee had been suspended due to the Russian doping controversy and the investigation into the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Individual Russian athletes, who qualified and could demonstrate they had complied with the IOC 's doping regulations, were given the option to compete at the 2018 Games as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) under the Olympic flag and with the Olympic anthem played at any ceremony.
Apart from the respective delegations, North Korea and South Korea formed a unified Korean women 's ice hockey team. Russian athletes participated as Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR) if individually cleared by the IOC.
To accommodate primetime broadcasts in the Americas, figure skating events were scheduled with morning start times; figure skating in particular has typically been one of the most popular Winter Olympic events among U.S. viewers. This scheduling practice had an impact on the events themselves, including skaters having to adjust to the modified schedule, as well as the attendance levels of the sessions themselves.
Conversely, and somewhat controversially, eight of the eleven biathlon events were scheduled at night, making it necessary for competitors to ski and shoot under floodlights, with colder temperatures and blustery winds.
* Host nation (South Korea)
Three podium sweeps were recorded during the Games.
The closing ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium on 25 February 2018, as Thomas Bach, the IOC president, declared the Games closed, and the cauldron extinguished.
Broadcast rights to the 2018 Winter Olympics in some countries were already sold as part of long - term broadcast rights deals, including the Games ' local rightsholder SBS, which in July 2011 had extended its rights to the Olympics through to 2024. SBS sub-licensed its rights to MBC and KBS.
On 29 June 2015, the IOC announced that Discovery Communications had acquired exclusive rights to the Olympics across all of Europe outside of Russia, from 2018 through to 2024. Discovery 's pan-European Eurosport networks were promoted as the main rightsholder of the Games, but Discovery free - to - air channels such as DMAX in Spain, Kanal 5 in Sweden and TVNorge in Norway, were also involved. Discovery was required to sub-licence at least 100 hours of coverage to free - to - air broadcasters in each market; some of these agreements required certain sports to be exclusive to Eurosport and its affiliated networks. The deal did not initially cover France due to France Télévisions ' rights, which run through to the 2020 Games. In the United Kingdom, Discovery held exclusive pay television rights under license from the BBC, in return for BBC sub-licencing the free - to - air rights to the 2022 and 2024 Olympics from Discovery.
Despite the Russian team being formally banned from competing under its flag in Pyeongchang, Russian state broadcaster Channel One, and sports channel Match TV, still committed to covering the Games with a focus on Russian athletes. Russia was not affected by the Eurosport deal, due to a pre-existing contract held by a marketing agency which runs through to 2024.
In the United States, the Games were once again broadcast by NBCUniversal properties under a long - term contract. As U.S. Eastern Time is fourteen hours behind Pyeongchang, morning events naturally fell within U.S. prime time hours (8pm to 11pm). This allowed NBC to broadcast its prime time coverage live in all U.S. time zones, rather than showing delayed footage as they had in previous Olympics. Notably, figure skating events were deliberately scheduled for the morning in Pyeongchang to accommodate the network 's live broadcast to a peak U.S. audience in the evening. However, the opening and closing ceremonies were still delayed until prime time for the U.S. audience and NBC did not repeat its previous practice of broadcasting the ceremonies via live streaming.
NHK and Olympic Broadcasting Services (OBS) once again filmed portions of the Games, including 90 hours of footage of selected events and the opening ceremonies, in high - dynamic - range 8K resolution video. In South Korea, ATSC 3.0 digital terrestrial television at 4K resolution was introduced in 2017 in time for the Olympics. In the U.S., this footage was delivered in 4K by NBCUniversal parent Comcast to participating television providers, including its own Xfinity, as well as DirecTV and Dish Network. NBC 's Raleigh, North Carolina affiliate WRAL - TV also held demonstration viewings as part of its ATSC 3.0 test broadcasts.
The 2018 Winter Olympics were also used to showcase 5G wireless technologies, as part of a collaboration between domestic wireless sponsor KT, and worldwide sponsor Intel. Several venues were outfitted with 5G networks to facilitate features such as live camera feeds from bobsleds, and multi-camera views from cross-country and figure skating events. These were offered as part of public demonstrations coordinated by KT and Intel.
The emblem for the Games was unveiled on 3 May 2013. It is a stylized representation of the hangul letters ᄑ p and ᄎ ch, these being the initial sounds of 평창 Pyeongchang. The left - hand symbol is said to represent the Korean philosophical triad of heaven, earth and humanity (Korean: 천지인 cheon - ji - in), and the right - hand symbol represents a crystal of ice. In the emblem and all official materials, Pyeongchang was stylized in CamelCase as "PyeongChang '', in order to alleviate potential confusion with Pyongyang, the similarly - named capital of neighbouring North Korea.
The official mascots for the Winter Games, "Soohorang and Bandabi '', were unveiled on 2 June 2016. Soohorang (Korean: 수 호랑), a white tiger, is the official mascot for the 2018 Winter Olympics, and Bandabi (Korean: 반 다비), an Asiatic black bear, is the official mascot for the 2018 Winter Paralympics.
In June 2017, Ubisoft announced that it would release an expansion pack for its winter sports video game Steep entitled Road to the Olympics, which features new game modes and content inspired by the 2018 Winter Olympics.
In November 2017, the IOC announced it would support and sponsor an Intel Extreme Masters StarCraft II tournament in Pyeongchang preceding the Games. Its support of the tournament as a de facto demonstration event came on the heels of a report by the IOC which recognized that eSports "could be considered as a sporting activity ''. The tournament was won by Sasha "Scarlett '' Hostyn of Canada; she became the second North American pro to place first at a major StarCraft II tournament in South Korea, and the first woman to win a major tournament.
The 2018 Winter Olympics saw increasing granularity in official sponsorships for technology vendors; Intel signed with the IOC to become part of its Worldwide Olympic Partner program, to promote 5G wireless technology, as well as broadcasting technology such as 360 - degree video and virtual reality. Alibaba Group was also named the official e-commerce and cloud services provider. These categories affected how the vendors were allowed to promote themselves within the context of the Olympics: Samsung could showcase VR experiences but only within the context of its own smartphones due to Intel 's sponsorship rights in relation to VR; Alibaba could not promote Alipay due to Visa Inc. sponsorship rights; and Intel could not promote end - user applications of 5G due to national sponsorship rights held by KT Corporation.
Due to the state of relations between North and South Korea, concerns were raised over the security of the 2018 Winter Olympics, especially in the wake of tensions over North Korean missile and nuclear tests. On 20 September 2017, South Korean president Moon Jae - in stated that the country would ensure the security of the Games. The next day, Laura Flessel - Colovic, the French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports, stated that France would pull out of the Games if the safety of its delegation could not be guaranteed.
The next day, Austria and Germany raised similar concerns and also threatened to skip the Games. France later reaffirmed its participation. In early December 2017, the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, told Fox News that it was an "open question '' whether the United States was going to participate in the Games, citing security concerns in the region. However, days later the White House Press Secretary, Sarah Huckabee Sanders, stated that the United States would participate.
In his New Year 's address on 1 January 2018, North Korean leader Kim Jong - un proposed talks in Seoul over the country 's participation in the Games, which would be the first high - level talks between the North and South in over two years. Because of the talks, held on 9 January, North Korea agreed to field athletes in Pyeongchang. On 17 January 2018, it was announced that North and South Korea had agreed to field a unified Korean women 's ice hockey team at the Games, and to enter together under a Korean Unification Flag during the opening ceremony.
These moves were met with opposition in South Korea, including protests and online petitions; critics argued that the government was attempting to use the Olympics to spread pro-North Korean sentiment, and that the unified hockey team would fail. A rap video entitled "The Regret for Pyeongchang '' (평창 유감), which echoed this criticism and called the event the "Pyongyang Olympics '', went viral in the country. Japan 's foreign affairs minister Tarō Kōno warned South Korea to be wary of North Korea 's "charm offensive '', and not to ease its pressure on the country.
The South Korean President, Moon Jae - in, at the start of the Olympics shook hands with the sister of North Korean leader Kim Jong - un and a prominent figure of the regime, Kim Yo - jong. This marked the first time since the Korean War that a member of the ruling Kim dynasty had visited South Korea. In contrast, U.S. vice president Mike Pence met with Fred Warmbier (father of Otto Warmbier, who had died after being released from captivity in North Korea) and a group of North Korean defectors in Pyeongchang. American officials said that North Korea cancelled a meeting with Pence at the last minute.
At the closing ceremony, North Korea sent general Kim Yong - chol as its delegate. His presence was met with hostility from South Korean conservatives, as there were allegations that he had a role in the ROKS Cheonan sinking and other past attacks. The Ministry of Unification stated that "there is a limitation in pinpointing who was responsible for the incident. '' Although he is subject to sanctions, they did not affect his ability to visit the country for the Games.
Russia 's participation in the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected by the aftermath of its state - sponsored doping program. As a result, the IOC suspended the Russian Olympic Committee in December 2017, although Russian athletes whitelisted by the IOC were allowed to compete neutrally under the OAR (Olympic Athletes from Russia) designation. The official sanctions imposed by the IOC included: the exclusion of Russian government officials from the Games; the use of the Olympic Flag and Olympic Anthem in place of the Russian flag and anthem; and the submission of a replacement logo for the OAR uniforms.
By early January 2018, the IOC had banned 43 Russian athletes from competing in the 2018 Winter Olympics and all future Olympic Games (as part of the Oswald Commission). Of those athletes, 42 appealed against their bans to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) and 28 of the appeals were successful, but eleven of the athletes had their sanctions upheld due to the weight of evidence against them. The IOC stated that the court ruling did not prove that the 28 athletes were innocent and that they would not necessarily be invited to the 2018 Games. Three of the athletes who appealed are still awaiting their hearings.
The eventual number of neutral Russian athletes that participated at the 2018 Games was 168. These were selected from an original pool of 500 athletes that was put forward for consideration and, in order to receive an invitation to the Games, they were obliged to meet a number of pre-games conditions to rule out any possibility of doping.
Russian president Vladimir Putin and other officials had signalled in the past that it would be a humiliation if Russian athletes were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag. However, there were never actually any official plans to boycott the 2018 Games and in late 2017 the Russian government agreed to allow their athletes to compete at the Games as individuals under a neutral designation. Despite this public show of co-operation, there were numerous misgivings voiced by leading Russian politicians, including a statement from Putin himself saying that he believed the United States had used its influence within the IOC to "orchestrate the doping scandal ''. 86 % of the Russian population opposed participation at the Olympics under a neutral flag, and many Russian fans attended the Games wearing the Russian colours and chanting "Russia! '' in unison, in an act of defiance against the ban.
The IOC 's decision was heavily criticized by Jack Robertson, primary investigator of the Russian doping program on behalf of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), in whose opinion the judgement was commercially and politically motivated. He argued that not only was doping rife amongst Russian athletes but that there was no sign of it being eradicated. The CAS decision to overturn the life bans of 28 Russian athletes and restore their medals was also fiercely criticised, by Olympic officials, IOC president Thomas Bach and whistleblower Grigory Rodchenkov 's lawyer.
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the gentle art of verbal self-defense by susette hayden-elgin | Suzette Haden Elgin - wikipedia
Suzette Haden Elgin (born Patricia Anne Wilkins; November 18, 1936 -- January 27, 2015) was an American science fiction author and linguist. She founded the Science Fiction Poetry Association and is considered an important figure in the field of science fiction constructed languages. Her best - known non-fiction includes the Gentle Art of Verbal Self - Defense series.
Patricia Anne Wilkins was born in 1936 in Jefferson City, Missouri.
She attended the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) in the 1960s, and began writing science fiction in order to pay tuition. She gained a PhD in linguistics, and was the first UCSD student ever to write two dissertations (on English and Navajo).
She created the engineered language Láadan for her Native Tongue science fiction series. A grammar and dictionary was published in 1985. She supported feminist science fiction, saying "women need to realize that SF is the only genre of literature in which it 's possible for a writer to explore the question of what this world would be like if you could get rid of (Y), where (Y) is filled in with any of the multitude of real world facts that constrain and oppress women. Women need to treasure and support science fiction. ''
In addition, she published works of shorter fiction. Overlying themes in her work include feminism, linguistics and the impact of proper language, and peaceful coexistence with nature. Many of her works also draw from her Ozark background and heritage.
Elgin became a professor at San Diego State University (SDSU). She retired in 1980 and lived in Arkansas with her second husband, George Elgin. She died at age 78 in 2015 from undisclosed causes. She was survived by her husband. Her son Michael pre-deceased her.
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what is a wine store called in france | Liquor store - wikipedia
A liquor store is a retail shop that predominantly sells prepackaged alcoholic beverages -- typically in bottles -- intended to be consumed off the store 's premises. Depending on region and local idiom (social issue), they may also be called bottle store, off licence, bottle shop, bottle - o, package store (in New England, called a packie), ABC store, state store, or other similar terms. Many states and jurisdictions have an alcohol monopoly.
In South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe, these stores are generally called bottle stores.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland the corresponding term is off licence, which refers to the fact that alcohol may be bought on the licensed premises, but must be consumed off the premises.
Almost all supermarkets and grocery stores, and many petrol stations, have an off - licence.
The price of alcohol in off licence establishments is substantially lower than in on - licence establishments (bars, pubs, and restaurants).
In Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain all supermarkets, convenience stores, and gas stations may sell beer, wine, and liquors only if they possess a licence. The consumption of alcohol on premises is not forbidden, but is frowned upon. In the Netherlands supermarkets are allowed to sell alcoholic beverages up to 15 % ABV, hard liquor is only sold from specialized bottle shops.
The Twenty - first Amendment of the United States Constitution allows states to regulate the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages. State regulations vary widely. The majority of the U.S. states have laws specifying which alcoholic beverages must be sold in specialty liquor stores and which may be sold in other venues.
In seventeen alcoholic beverage control (ABC) states, the specialty liquor stores are owned and operated exclusively by the state government, where liquor stores often sell only spirits or sometimes sell spirits and wine but not beer. ABC - run stores may be called ABC stores or state stores.
In Alabama, Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, liquor stores are also known as package stores, locally in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and areas bordering these states the term pack or packie is used as well, because purchased liquor must be packaged in sealed bottles or other containers when it is taken from the store.
In five states (Colorado, Kansas, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Utah), only low - point beer may be sold in supermarkets or gas stations. In Utah, stores not owned and operated by the state are known as Package Agencies. These are liquor outlets operated by private individuals or corporate entities under contract with the state for the purpose of selling packaged liquor, wine and beer to the general public for off - premise consumption. Package Agencies are located in communities too small to warrant the establishment of a state store, and in resorts and hotels where the outlets exist primarily for the benefit of their guests. In Minnesota there are both private liquor stores or city - owned municipal liquor stores. They are sometimes known as "Off Sales '', meaning purchase for off - premises consumption, similar to "Off - license '' in the UK. A bar or tavern is an "On Sale '' where liquor is consumed on - premises. Municipal liquor stores are sometimes called "Munis. ''
In some states (e.g., California, Louisiana, Missouri, Nevada, New Mexico, and Wisconsin), all alcoholic beverages can be sold practically anywhere, including drug stores and gas stations.
In Washington state, all beer and wine are available in specialty stores, grocery stores, convenience stores, department stores, taverns, and other locations. All spirits are available in stores greater than 10,000 sq ft (such as grocery stores, big box liquor chains, and drug stores). There are two exceptions to the 10,000 - sq - ft rule: 1) former state and contract liquor stores that reopened under private ownership may also sell spirits provided they have been issued a new license from the state; and 2) cities, mostly in rural areas, that do not have a store that meets the minimum floor space may be allowed to sell spirits if the Liquor Control Board deems that there are no sufficient establishments within the trade area.
In Los Angeles and most parts of Southern California, Angelenos often colloquially refer "liquor store '' to any Convenience store, corner store, minimart, or similar small local neighborhood grocery store.
All provinces except Alberta and British Columbia have government - owned retail liquor monopolies. Alberta has only privately owned liquor stores. British Columbia has both private and government - owned retail liquor outlets.
Due to federal law, all provincial liquor boards must act as the first importer of alcoholic beverages.
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who won song of the year at oscars | Academy award for Best original song - wikipedia
The Academy Award for Best Original Song is one of the awards given annually to people working in the motion picture industry by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is presented to the songwriters who have composed the best original song written specifically for a film. The performers of a song are not credited with the Academy Award unless they contributed either to music, lyrics or both in their own right. The songs that are nominated for this award are performed during the ceremony and before this award is presented.
The award category was introduced at the 7th Academy Awards, the ceremony honoring the best in film for 1934. Nominations are made by Academy members who are songwriters and composers, and the winners are chosen by the Academy membership as a whole.
"There must be a clearly audible, intelligible, substantive rendition (not necessarily visually presented) of both lyrics and melody, used in the body of the motion picture or as the first music cue in the end credits. ''
The original requirement was only that the nominated song appear in a motion picture during the previous year. This rule was changed after the 1941 Academy Awards, when "The Last Time I Saw Paris '', from the film Lady Be Good, with music by Jerome Kern and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II, won. Kern was upset that his song won because it had been published and recorded before it was used in the film. The song was actually written in 1940, after the Germans occupied Paris at the start of World War II. It was recorded by Kate Smith and peaked at No. 8 on the best seller list before it was used in the film.
Kern got the Academy to change the rule so that only songs that are "original and written specifically for the motion picture '' are eligible to win. Songs that rely on sampled or reworked material along with cover versions, remixes and parodies, such as "Gangsta 's Paradise '' in the 1995 film Dangerous Minds, are also ineligible.
This rule means that when a film is adapted from a previously - produced stage musical, none of the existing songs from the musical are eligible. As a result, many recent film adaptations of musicals have included original songs which could be nominated, such as "You Must Love Me '' in the 1996 film Evita (won award), and "Listen '', "Love You I Do '', "Patience '' in the 2006 film Dreamgirls and "Suddenly '' in the 2012 film Les Misérables.
There was a debate as to whether or not Glen Hansard and Marketa Irglova, who were awarded the Oscar in 2008 for "Falling Slowly '', were in fact eligible. "Falling Slowly '' had been released on two other albums -- The Swell Season, Hansard and Irglova 's duo project, and The Cost, by Hansard 's band The Frames. The Swell Season was released in August 2006, and The Cost in February 2007, before the release of Once. However, the AMPAS music committee determined that, in the course of the film 's protracted production, the composers had "played the song in some venues that were deemed inconsequential enough to not change the song 's eligibility ''. The same issue arose two years earlier with "In the Deep '' from Crash, which appeared on Bird York 's 2003 album The Velvet Hour after being written for Crash, but before the film was released. The current Academy rule says an eligible song "must be recorded for use in the motion picture prior to any other usage '', so recordings released prior to the film will not disqualify a song as long as the film version was "recorded '' before then.
Until the Academy Awards for 1945 (awarded in 1946) any number of songs could be nominated for the award. For the 1945 awards, 14 songs were nominated.
From 1946 to 2011, each member of the Music Branch of the Academy was asked to vote using a points system of 10, 9.5, 9, 8.5, 8, 7.5, 7, 6.5 or 6 points. Only those songs that received an average score of 8.25 or more were eligible for nomination. If no song qualified, there would be no nominees. And if only one song achieved that score, it and the song receiving the next highest score would be the two nominees. This system usually resulted in five nominations each year, except for 2010 when four were nominated, 1988, 2005, and 2008, when only three were nominated; and 2011 when only two were nominated.
Following the two song competition in 2011, the rules were changed once more. The number of nominations is now contingent upon the number of submissions. Depending on the amount received by the Academy there would be five, three or no nominations each year. Since then, there have always been five nominees, except in 2013 when one was disqualified.
The first film to receive multiple nominations was Fame in 1980. Only four films have featured three nominated songs: Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King, Dreamgirls, and Enchanted. Dreamgirls and Enchanted lost on every nomination: An Inconvenient Truth original song "I Need to Wake Up '' defeated all three of the nominated songs from Dreamgirls, while "Falling Slowly '' from Once defeated all three of Enchanted 's nominations. After these two consecutive defeats, a new rule was instated in June 2008 that a film could have no more than two songs nominated.
Nominated songs are usually performed live at the televised Academy Awards ceremonies. Although pre-televised ceremonies were broadcast on the radio, the tradition of performing the nominated songs did not begin until the 18th Academy Awards in 1946, in which performers included Frank Sinatra, Kathryn Grayson, Dinah Shore, and Dick Haymes.
In the early years, the songs were usually not performed by the original artists as in the film. For example, in 1965, Robert Goulet performed all the nominated songs at the ceremony. (Ironically, in the case of "The Look Of Love '', sung by Dusty Springfield in Casino Royale, the positive reaction to the performance by Sergio Mendes & Brasil ' 66 on the 1968 telecast led to their version being released as a single and eventually becoming the bigger hit.) In 1970, this was reversed and only the people who had performed the piece in the film were permitted to perform the song on the live telecast, even if a hit version was performed by another act.
However, since Oscar nominees for 1970, 1971 and 1972 had all been major hit records by other artists, in 1973 the rule was amended again and it became standard to first offer either the original artist or artists who performed the song in the film a chance to perform it at the ceremony, followed by the artist or artists who had the hit record with it.
When neither of those is able to do so (or in rare cases where the telecast producers decide to go with someone else), the Academy chooses more well - known entertainers to perform the song at the ceremony. For example, Robin Williams performed "Blame Canada '' from South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut at the 72nd Academy Awards instead of the film 's voice actors, Trey Parker and Mary Kay Bergman (Bergman died a few months before the show). Beyoncé Knowles sang three nominated songs (one of which was a duet with Josh Groban) during the 77th Academy Awards even though she had not performed those songs in any of the respective films.
That same year, the song "Al otro lado del río '' (On The Other Side Of The River), which was featured in the film The Motorcycle Diaries, won the award, becoming the first song in Spanish and the second in a foreign language to receive such an honor (the first winner was the title tune to Never on Sunday, which was sung in Greek in the film by its star, Melina Mercouri). It was written by Uruguayan composer Jorge Drexler, but the producers would not let Drexler perform the song during the show for fear of losing ratings. Instead, the song was performed by Carlos Santana and Antonio Banderas. Drexler 's acceptance speech for the award consisted of him singing a few lines a cappella and closed by simply saying "thank you ''.
In 1985, Phil Collins was passed over to perform his nominated composition "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now) ''. According to representatives of both Collins ' record company and Columbia Pictures, this was because the producers of the telecast were not familiar with his work. Ann Reinking performed the song instead, with Collins sitting in the audience.
At the 80th Academy Awards, "That 's How You Know '' from the film Enchanted was performed by Kristin Chenoweth, rather than the film 's star, Amy Adams. However, Adams performed "Happy Working Song '', which was nominated from the same film.
In 2009, Peter Gabriel, who was originally scheduled to perform his nominated song "Down to Earth '' during the live broadcast, declined to perform after learning that he would be allowed to sing only 65 seconds of the song during the ceremony 's Best Original Song nominee performance medley. Gabriel still attended the ceremony, with John Legend performing the song in his place, backed by the Soweto Gospel Choir.
The 84th Academy Awards did not feature performances from either nominated song ("Man or Muppet '' from The Muppets or "Real in Rio '' from Rio). No reason for this was given by Oscar producers. This was only the third time that Best Original Song nominees were not performed (the others were in 1989 and 2010). At the 2013 Oscars, only three of the five nominees were performed, with the eventual winner, the theme from Skyfall, being the only one performed separately on its own as opposed to being part of a musical montage sequence. The 88th Academy Awards also had three of the five nominees performed. Anohni, performer and writer of "Manta Ray '', one of the two nominated songs cut from the ceremony, boycotted the ceremony for this reason.
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all i want to do song with gunshots | Paper Planes - Wikipedia
"Paper Planes '' is a song by British rapper M.I.A. from her second studio album, Kala (2007). The song was written by M.I.A. and Diplo. The song 's backing track is a replayed sample of the 1982 song "Straight to Hell '' by The Clash, and the members of The Clash are credited as co-writers of the song. The chorus of "Paper Planes '' was widely speculated to be based on the chorus to the 1992 song "Rump Shaker '' by Wreckx - N - Effect, although that song 's writers are not credited. It was produced by Diplo with additional production by Switch. "Paper Planes '' was released for download in August 2007 and as the album 's third single by XL Recordings and Interscope Records on 11 February 2008.
"Paper Planes '' is a downtempo rap ballad, with a folk style melody considered less dance - influenced than the other songs on the album. The single 's accompanying music video, filmed in New York City, showed M.I.A. walking and dancing with friends along the streets of the city, selling sandwiches to local people and paper planes flying overhead. The song received wide acclaim upon release, with contemporary critics complimenting its music direction and the subversive, unconventional subject matter of the piece, citing its chorus and its lyrical humour in the promotion of globalization. The song won the Indie Award for Favourite International Single at the 2009 Canadian Independent Music Awards and the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) recognized the song as one of the most performed ones of 2008 at the ASCAP Pop Music Awards. It was also nominated for Record of the Year at the 51st Grammy Awards in 2009.
"Paper Planes '' peaked in the Top 20 in Belgium, Denmark, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States. M.I.A. 's first Top 20 single in the UK and her next Top 10 charting song in Canada following "Boyz '' (2007), it reached the Top 10 of seven Billboard charts and peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US. The single reached two positions higher than "Boyz '' to top the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales chart. The song became XL Recordings ' best selling single, is certified triple - platinum by the Music Canada (CRIA) in Canada and the Recording Industry Association of America in the US, where it is ranked the fifty - ninth most downloaded song in the digital era, and is certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand in New Zealand. The song has sold four million copies in the US.
"Paper Planes '' is regarded as one of the best songs of its decade, and has appeared in several lists of the greatest songs in popular music. Several artists have covered the composition or released their own remixes, with rappers T.I. and Jay - Z sampling it in "Swagga Like Us ''. The song has regularly featured on M.I.A. 's concert tours since 2007.
-- M.I.A. talking to the student newspaper The Miscellany News of Vassar College about "Paper Planes '' two days before performing the song at the university.
"Paper Planes '' was written and produced by M.I.A. and Diplo with additional production by Switch. It was recorded at the artist 's home in Bedford -- Stuyvesant, Brooklyn and in London where it includes kids from Brixton singing on the chorus; the song was one of the last written for Kala, recorded soon after she regained entry to the US. The track stems slightly from M.I.A. 's family history and from M.I.A. 's own frustration at American government visits to her official website following the release of her debut album Arular in 2005, a refusal to grant her a work visa to record her second album in the US in 2006 despite several previous travels to the country before and after her debut album 's release, coupled with her brief presence on the US Homeland Security Risk List in 2006 due to her politically charged lyrics. M.I.A. has openly discussed the origin of the song, saying "I was thinking about living (in Bed - Stuy), waking up every morning -- it 's such an African neighborhood. I was going to get patties at my local and just thinking that really the worst thing that anyone can say (to someone these days) is some shit like: "What I wan na do is come and get your money. '' People do n't really feel like immigrants or refugees contribute to culture in any way. That they 're just leeches that suck from whatever. So in the song I say "All I wan na do is (sound of gun shooting and reloading, cash register opening) and take your money. '' I did it in sound effects. It 's up to you how you want to interpret. America is so obsessed with money, I 'm sure they 'll get it. ''
-- M.I.A. talking to The Daily Beast about "Paper Planes ''.
She added that she felt that listeners could interpret the gunshots and cash register ringing in the song 's chorus as coming from any gun - toter, telling an interviewer "You can either apply it on a street level and go, oh, you 're talking about somebody robbing you and saying I 'm going to take your money. But, really, it could be a much bigger idea: someone 's selling you guns and making money. Selling weapons and the companies that manufacture guns -- that 's probably the biggest moneymaker in the world. '' Acknowledging that her heavily politicized lyrics in all of her compositions were "a bit of a jump for people '', she told Carolyn E. Davis of MTV in April 2005 that not talking about her experiences in her songs would disqualify her as an artist, noting that "the other point I was making referencing the violence I had seen in Sri Lanka is, if we 're going to invest so much money in creating wars around the world, that 's quite a given thing. If you 've seen somebody get shot and if you 've seen a bomb go off, then you 've given me total access to talk about it -- because you 've made that a part of my life. I did n't ask for nobody to bomb my school, but if they did, I would have the right to talk about it. And if people are uncomfortable, then they should think twice before they go off and hit random buildings. '' M.I.A has expressed surprise at the song 's wide commercial success, telling Rolling Stone in October 2008, "I always took pride in being a little underground -- it really is a very unlikely record to cross over. '' She also commented that it was intended to parody fear of immigrants: "It 's about people driving cabs all day... appearing really threatening to society. But not being so. Because, by the time you 've finished working a 20 - hour shift, you 're so tired you (just) want to get home to the family. ''
"Paper Planes '' is a worldbeat rap ballad and alternative dance song. Chris Power of BBC Collective terms the song as inventing a new genre -- "gangsta shoegaze ''. "Paper Planes '' follows the "nu world '' music style that M.I.A. categorizes Kala as presenting. According to the digital music sheet published at musicnotes.com, the song is written in the key of D major, with a beat of 86 beats per minute. M.I.A. 's vocal range in the song spans one octave in the western music scale, from the lower note of F ♯ to the higher note of F ♯. Written in common time, the song is in verse - chorus form with a bridge before the fourth and final chorus with the distorted guitar riff that provides accompaniment to the composition playing out the piece 's coda. M.I.A. chose to do the song 's famous chorus in sound effects rather than in full spoken word and recorded children singing the words. "Paper Planes '' incorporates elements of folk music and consists of "collapsing euphoric '' synths and a "glock - popping '' rhythm.
Fraser McAlpine of BBC Radio 1 compared the vocals favorably to those of "Boyz '', describing them as "icy and distant '' in the verse, giving way to a playground chant. M.I.A. has said that the song was written and recorded quickly in the morning and in one go, without the singer having brushed her teeth, which contributed to the vocals being "a bit weird ''. She also said that this is something she aims for in her vocal style when recording in the studio. She joked to Spin in December 2008 that the song "could be a rip - off of "Like a Virgin '' but you 'd never know because I 'm that out of tune ", adding that recording the song downtempo and departing from the denser compositions on the rest of the album was a risk she was willing to take. Eric Grandy of The Stranger described the chorus ' gunshots as "rock and roll swindle, anti-colonial cash register liberation '', and integral to the song 's meaning. The song, which epitomizes the lyrical content of Kala, satirizes US immigration 's perception of visa - seeking foreigners and immigrants from the Third World.
M.I.A. revealed that the track was written as she and her American collaborator Diplo were breaking up in their three - year relationship and that the latter came up with the idea to sample the track "Straight to Hell '' by London band The Clash on the song. A video of both recording the track surfaced online. Ben Thomson of The Guardian, citing Jon Hassell and cultural theorist Hillel Schwartz 's observations about the political implications of African folk music 's genesis and sampling music in the urban west, comments on sampling in the context of the song and its aims, stating "sampling is what imperialists did when they colonised ' undeveloped ' lands, calling theft ' development '. Sampling is (also) what ghettoised colonies do in revolt against property laws wired around them. '' According to Thomson, "Paper Planes '' gives the post-colonial folk / hip - hop rapprochement a human face, who also said "the fact that this goal was achieved with the help of a sample from Straight to Hell by the Clash -- who 'd aimed for the same ideological bull 's - eye decades before but not quite hit it -- was truly the spicing on the samosa. '' Identifying with the ethos of The Clash, but not the "corporate, jock - rock that passes for punk today '' M.I.A. told the Montreal Mirror of her motivations regarding the song "I do feel like a loner doing this, and I think punk is born out of a certain spirit that relates to that (...) You have to feel like nobody on the planet understands you, and you have to have teenage angst, basically, even after you grow up '' saying her views towards contemporary punk mirrored those towards contemporary hip hop and the mainstream American scene, objecting not to the depiction of women but more the treatment and reception of female artists.
The song was made available for digital download upon the release of Kala on 8 August 2007. On 11 February 2008, the song "Paper Planes '', the third single from the album, and the Paper Planes -- Homeland Security Remixes EP were released digitally in the UK, and in America the next day. The single was released via 7digital on 11 February and on iTunes on 12 February. The Paper Planes -- Homeland Security Remixes EP, featuring various mixes of "Paper Planes '', was released physically as a CD single three weeks later. The 7digital EP includes Blaqstarr 's remix of "Paper Planes '', with rap contributions from tourmates Rye Rye and Afrikan Boy. This remix was previously uploaded to M.I.A. 's MySpace account. The "Paper Planes (featuring Bun B and Rich Boy -- Diplo 's Street Remix) '', which had circulated on the internet beforehand appears on the EP; in addition, the EP contains remixes of the song by DFA Records and Scottie B, and a remix of opening Kala track "Bamboo Banga '' by DJ Eli. On iTunes, the track list differs slightly, with the "Bamboo Banga '' remix replaced with a remix of "Paper Planes '' by Ad - Rock. A new physical single version of "Paper Planes '' was released in the UK on 13 October 2008.
In July M.I.A. began the full KALA Tour with dates in the United States before going on to play a number of festivals in Europe and America during which songs from Kala were performed. "Paper Planes '' is usually performed as her encore song. After dates in Asia, she returned to America for a series of shows in October and November, before ending the year with concerts in the UK. The tour continued during the first half of 2008 under the banner of the People Vs. Money Tour with further dates in North America, although the planned European leg of the tour was eventually cancelled. Wearing a platinum blond wig, custom - made colour and black liner outfit in front of a glow - in - the - dark art stage installation, the singer / rapper performed "Paper Planes '' as her set finale to a packed and energetic Sahara tent crowd at the 2008 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, calling fans onstage mid performance, resulting in a mass stage invasion with gig attendees climbing girders to dance alongside her. This led to a standoff with security. Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone described it as "one of this weekend 's most buzzed about performances '' outdoing her history - making first performance at the festival three years prior. M.I.A responded to Eliscu in an interview that although the success of "Paper Planes '' may have led to increased interest in her work contributing to the packed out tent, she did not think "any one song is my perfect moment '' and of her 2005 performance at the festival she noted "I do n't think I 'd ever be able to do something like that again, because it was my moment. '' She performed her last date at the Bonnaroo Music Festival in June 2008 after "Paper Planes '' had seen some chart success, revealing her intentions to retire from the music industry and work on other art projects, start a family, go back to college and make a film. During an interview with Entertainment Weekly in August 2008, she explained that she stopped touring after the show and "did n't want to make music again, as she was quite happy to leave it all behind '', but that her mother 's increased belief in her coupled with the increased chart success of "Paper Planes '' during her hiatus encouraged her to make another record.
M.I.A. performed "Paper Planes '' live on American television for the first time on 13 September 2007 on the CBS talk show Late Show with David Letterman, three weeks after the release of the album. The American rapper Kanye West, who had wanted to collaborate with M.I.A. on his second album in 2005 emailed her during Christmas 2007, telling the singer he listened to the song repeatedly. His interest in the song culminated in the recording of the track "Swagga Like Us ''. M.I.A. broke her hiatus in October 2008 by performing several songs including "Swagga Like Us '' with T.I. and "Paper Planes '' with her new label signee Rye Rye and N.E.R.D. at the Diesel XXX party at Pier 3 in Brooklyn, United States where it was revealed that M.I.A. was pregnant with her first child. Following her performance of "Paper Planes '' at the 2009 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, she dedicated the song to the photographer Shawn Mortensen who died the previous week. She performed "Paper Planes '' and "Swagga Like Us '' live at the 51st Grammy Awards ceremony with the musicians West, T.I., Jay - Z and Lil Wayne on her son 's expected birth delivery date on 8 February 2009. She appeared on the red carpet wearing a blue and teal patterned, multi-tiered mini-dress designed by Manish Arora, that "both embraced and accentuated her full - bodied shape '' and on stage wearing a polka - dot dress ensemble designed by Henry Holland. Reactions to her dresses at the ceremony were mixed. Verena von Pfetten of Yahoo described her performance dress as "show - stoppingly sheer '' and included it on the list of "The Grammy 's Most Memorable Outfits of All - Time. '' Tracey Lomrantz and Susan Cernek of Glamour included the dresses in their Best Dressed lists, praising M.I.A. for sticking to her signature style and "having fun '' with her maternity wear fashion. Jocelyn Vena of MTV was less enthusiastic, saying of her Arora dress "there 's no excuse for wearing a blue - and - green printed dress that made her look like a globe. '' M.I.A. later tweeted a picture of her 5 - month old son wearing a small version of the Holland dress. Modelled after a 1950s performance in the main showroom of Las Vegas ' Sands Hotel, the five artists performed to a standing ovation at the ceremony. Shaheem Reid of MTV commented of her performance "M.I.A. is a G! Let 's never question her standing in hip - hop. '' Mike Bruno, writing in Entertainment Weekly, demanded that the singer be given a greater solo at the ceremony in future. Rosie Swash of The Guardian described her performance at the ceremony as "barnstorming '', and noted the different ways, following the performance, that Oscar producers suggested M.I.A. could perform "O... Saya '' at the 81st Academy Awards ceremony a few days later. Ben Thomson of The Guardian commented "by claiming the right to be on that stage, she 's expanding the "us '' of the sampled lyric to include all the hard - pressed quarriers of hip - hop 's musical raw materials, and women, and people who are n't American -- at a stroke. Not bad going for a few minutes ' work on a night when you 'd planned to have a baby anyway. ''
The song has received universal acclaim from a wide variety of publications, and has been viewed as a highlight of Kala. In a track - by - track review for Kala, Eric Grandy of The Stranger noted that the song contained more conceptual layers, musical information, and lyrical self - reference than seemingly possible in a three - and - a-half minute pop song, saying it was "the standout track '' on an album full of contenders, Kala 's "most exciting synthesis of the political and the pop '' and its chorus, "a sly, funny acknowledgement of the economics behind M.I.A. 's status as an exoticized sex symbol. '' This was somewhat echoed by Michael Hubbard of MusicOMH who noted the track 's humour and called the song "one of the many standouts '' of the album. The Observer ' s Emma Warren also marked the song as a highlight, calling it "a career high '' and comparing it favorably to an internationalist indie record made by Gorillaz. Similarly, Evan McGarvey of Stylus Magazine called the song "narcotic, gorgeous ''.
Dan Raper of PopMatters said that "the drug - slinging persona of "Paper Planes '' joined tracks such as "Bamboo Banga '' in providing plenty of hustle on the album, however it was M.I.A. 's meditation on the "unfortunate influence of rap 's portrayal of ' the game ' on those in the developing world '' that "obviously means the most to her. '' Todd Martens of Billboard described M.I.A. on the song as "a revolutionary leading a class war ''. Writing for NME, Alex Miller commented that "Paper Planes '' was Kala 's "only real pop moment (...) '' but that it "sabotages any FM potential by crafting its infectious chorus around four crystal clear gunshots ''. Describing the song as "soft, soaring '', he added that the song 's The Clash sample was the clearest indication of where M.I.A. sees herself, "as the inheritor of true rebel music in an era of corporate punks ''. Jon Pareles of Blender joked that "by M.I.A. standards (Paper Planes) is almost a ballad '', naming it a highlight of Kala. Bill Lamb of About.com claimed it served as a reaffirmation of popular music, deeming it "one of the most bracing pop hits in recent history '' and that the song 's patchwork world beat style "expands the boundaries of current hit pop music ''. Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle described the song 's impact alongside the rest of the album, saying "Even amid so much rocket - fueled noise, standout "Paper Planes '' causes its own commotion. '' Citing her lyric where she declares "Catch me at the border I got visas in my name '', he further added that "with music this vital, (America) should immediately extend an open - door policy to the globe - trotting MC 's stunning international flow. '' Fraser McAlpine, writing for BBC Radio 1 compared the artist 's vocals favorably to those of "Boyz '', describing them as "icy and distant '' in the verse, giving way to a "catchy, juvenile playground chant '' that made both songs "earworms ''. McAlpine noted that the power of the song lay in the discordance between the melody of the singing in the verses and the backing, saying "there 's something very calm and serene about the music, and the slight mismatch in tone with the melody slaps you around the ears, demanding your attention, and forcing you to listen to the words. And when you do, and realise it 's a dead - eyed skit on ruthless business practices, it just multiplies the queasy power of the song ''. Ben Thomson of The Guardian praised the song 's wider cultural significance, ranking the single 's release number 50 in the newspaper 's list of the 50 key events in the history of world and folk music, for having turned globalisation inside out.
Writing for Clash magazine, Colm Larkin said that the album 's penultimate track was a "downtempo masterpiece that 's like a torch song for the world 's disaffected and poor with its chorus line '', adding that with the song, the singer - songwriter remained "one of the best things to happen to 21st century music. '' In his review of Kala, Mark Pytlik of Pitchforkmedia wrote that the song was "an island tinged nursery rhyme. '' Writing for GQ, Gary Shteyngart praised M.I.A. 's self - sampling ethos, noting her profound sense of "just how fucked - up and unglamorous it is to grow up at the bottom of both First World and Third World societies. '' In the line "No one on the corner had swagger like us / Hit me on the burner prepaid wireless '' he writes that "it 's the prepaid wireless that 's genius: the tiny sociological detail of the immigrant buying prepaid minutes as opposed to the monthly plan, the daily calculations amounting to an extra fifty bucks a month sent back to Chiapas, Mexico, or Lomé, Togo, that rings true to those of us who came to the West from more dysfunctional parts of the world. '' Tom Breihan of the Village Voice praised the song as continuing the "confounding, ambiguous political subtexts '' that M.I.A. 's music carried, burying its meaning under layers of implication and forcing thorny and ambiguous questions about violence and advocacy, calling "Paper Planes '' "a light and airy and bewitchingly pretty song '' that also rode on its sample and chorus. Karim Maksoud of This Is Fake DIY called "Paper Planes '' an "immediately listenable '' track that "showcases all the coarse fatalism, superficiality and backstabbing acerbity of the modern urban life, both in veracious lyrics, the scratched aesthetic and the lethargic, sedated bassline and backing beat maintained throughout. '' He concluded that the song emanated M.I.A. 's life experience and background "relentlessly '' and presented a "tuneful amalgam of influences and exotic dynamic, one of the most promising for a while. ''
"Paper Planes '' and its remixes from the EP have received numerous accolades following its release. The song placed number 17 on the Triple J Hottest 100 of 2007 in Australia, becoming available for download and radio airplay in the country upon the release of Kala that year. "Paper Planes '' placed number six on the Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop poll of the top 40 singles of 2007, and was ranked the top single on the same poll of 2008. The song ranked at number 3 on the "10 Best Singles of 2008 '' list by American magazine Entertainment Weekly and number one on "The 20 Best Songs of 2008 '' list by American magazine Spin. The song ranked number three on the 2007 Pitchfork Readers Poll list for "Song of the Year ''. "Paper Planes (featuring Bun B and Rich Boy Remix) '' placed at number three on Pitchfork 's Top 100 Tracks of 2007, while the publication placed the remix as the third - best song of the 2000s. Blender 's Top 144 Songs of 2008 featured "Paper Planes '' at number 2, with the "Paper Planes (DFA remix) '' at number 63. Les Inrockuptibles positioned "Paper Planes '' at number 2 on its End of Year Best of List. Heineken España named "Paper Planes '' the Top song of 2007, and placed it number 2 on its list of The 50 Best International Songs of the 2000s. Slant Magazine and Rolling Stone Brasil named "Paper Planes '' the best song of 2008.
The song was nominated in the category for Record of the Year at the 2009 Grammy Awards. Despite its loss to "more conservative choices '', Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times described the award ceremony as having taken "ultimately a step on the continued road to relevancy '' with the nomination, which he termed one of the "Old man Grammy 's surprises for the 2009 telecast ''. "Swagga Like Us '', co-written by M.I.A. was nominated in the category for Best Rap Song at the awards. "Paper Planes '' won a 2009 PRS Award from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers and the Indie Award for Favorite International Single at the 2009 Canadian Independent Music Awards.
Entertainment Weekly put "Paper Planes '' on its end - of - the - decade, "Best - Of '' list, saying "Admit it: That gunfire - and - cash - registers hook was stuck in your head for weeks after seeing the Pineapple Express trailer (or, uh, Slum - dog Millionaire) in 2008. '' "Paper Planes '' placed number five on Rolling Stone 's 2009 list of the 50 Best Songs of the Decade. Rolling Stone also placed "Paper Planes '' at number 236 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' in the 2011 updated list. The same year, VH1 placed the song at number 89 on its list of the "100 Greatest Songs of the 00 's. '' "Paper Planes '' was ranked number 12 on Stylus Magazine 's list of "The Top 100 Singles of the 2000s. '' Slant ranked the song number 2 on its "Best of the Aughts: Singles '', -- The Top 100 Singles of 2000s decade. "Paper Planes '' was positioned number 4 on Rockdelux 's list of the "15 Best Singles of the 2000s. '' "Paper Planes '' was one of the ten "Songs of the Year '' on The Guardian 's "Readers ' Poll 2008. '' Its release is positioned number 50 on The Guardian 's list of the 50 key events in the history of world and folk music, praised for having turned globalisation inside out. The Guardian included "Paper Planes '' in its 2009 list "1000 Songs Everyone Must Hear. '' NME ranked the song number 8 on the publication 's 2008 best of the year list. In October 2011, the magazine placed it at number 15 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years ''. The review aggregate website Acclaimed Music listed "Paper Planes '' as the best song of the 2000s decade, and the 42nd best song of all time, based upon various decade - end and all - time rankings from mainstream critics. The song was named the 2nd best of the century so far in 2018 by Rolling Stone.
The song has been covered, sampled and remixed by various artists as well as being used by a range of media. Canadian band Holy Fuck, an opening act on the People vs. Money Tour, created a remix of "Paper Planes '' that leaked online on February 2008. Barbadian singer Rihanna has covered the song in live performances and "Paper Planes '' has been performed by Malawian singer Esau Mwamwaya as his own rendition "Tengazako ''. American indie rock band Built to Spill covered "Paper Planes '' at their live performances in Italy. English rapper Dizzee Rascal has covered the song at his live performances. Detroit rapper Esham used "Paper Planes '' as the basis for his song "Keys to the City ''. English rapper Lowkey made a remix of the song titled "You Probably Think '' and in some live performances raps "All MPs wan na do is... take your money ''. Paper Planes has been covered live by London band The Clientele.
The song 's line "No one on the corner has swagger like us '' was sampled by West in the song "Swagga Like Us '', a song by American rappers T.I. and Jay - Z, West and Lil Wayne. In September 2008 American rapper 50 Cent; State Property members Young Chris and Freeway, as well as Jim Jones released their own remixes of the song. Asked about her feelings regarding how, despite being over a year old, the track was still appearing on high - profile mixtapes, she told MTV "I think it 's cool when you bring all these rappers and artists like the Clash together... it 's cool that they support it. It 's so many people that be like, ' I do n't know what you 're talking about. ' It 's kind of like ' This is the sh --, and we think it 's hot '' before adding that having made a track that was organic, creative and not made with marketing be liked and find chart success was satisfying and interesting for the musician, even if charts did n't compute with her.
"Paper Planes '' soundtracked the theatrical trailer for the comedy film Pineapple Express starring Seth Rogen and James Franco. A "red - band '' trailer for the film Pineapple Express, featuring the song leaked in February 2008, before Sony Pictures had the video removed from YouTube within a few days of its posting. The film 's makers had been keen on including the song in the film 's main trailer and approached M.I.A. 's U.S. label Interscope Records for permission. She added "Interscope asked me and I was, like, well, since it 's just the trailer, that 's cool. I did n't really think twice about it '' stating she would have thought more carefully about permitting the song 's use if it was in the main film, "scrutinizing what scene they were using it in and stuff like that ''. Patrick Goldstein 's Summer Movie Posse of the Los Angeles Times described its incorporation at the time as "the most impressive use of M.I.A. 's ' Paper Planes ' ever ''. "Paper Planes '' and the DFA Records remix both appear in Danny Boyle 's drama Slumdog Millionaire; the remix also appears in the film Hancock. Boyle, who took the song with him to India and listened to it during the shoot, described it as a crucial one and "a key song '' he had in mind for his film from the onset, before its use in the trailer of Pineapple Express, telling Rodrigo Perez of MTV "(...) originally it was featured very early on in the film, but then we moved it to the halfway mark, and then the song was used in ' Pineapple Express ' (...) What can you do? '' "Paper Planes '' was used in the trailer for Michael Moore 's documentary Capitalism: A Love Story.
Rap rock supergroup Street Sweeper Social Club perform a live cover of "Paper Planes '' at their shows and a studio version appears on their 2010 EP The Ghetto Blaster EP. "Paper Planes '' is parodied by Funny or Die with a music video released on 27 July 2010. The Los Angeles Dodgers used "Paper Planes '' as their victory song during their three - week effort to win the National League West title in the 2008 season in the United States. "Paper Planes '' was covered by the alternative rock band This Century for the compilation album Punk Goes Pop 3.
The song is used as entry music by British comedian Shappi Khorsandi.
"Paper Planes '' is used in the opening intro of the video game Far Cry 3.
The song is used in the first episode of season two of The Last Man on Earth in which the sounds of Carol 's gunfire are drowned out by the song playing in the motor home.
"Paper Planes '' has achieved commercial success by reaching the top ten in the Canada and the United States, appearing in the top ten of six Billboard US charts, the top 20 in Denmark, Belgium, Israel and the United Kingdom and charting in many other countries in Europe, South America and Oceania. The song debuted at number 72 on the Hot Canadian Digital Sales chart and at number 89 on the Canadian Hot 100 in late February 2008 due to strong digital downloads. By late March 2008, the song reached number 3 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart and topped the US Hot Dance Singles Sales chart, becoming M.I.A. 's first single to top the chart after her debut "Galang '' reached number 11 and "Boyz '' peaked at number 3. After its appearance in the trailer for the film Pineapple Express, the song entered the Pop 100 chart at number 99, and the Bubbling Under Hot 100 at number 14 in the United States. By early May 2008, the song had climbed to number 4 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart, and number 80 on the US Billboard Pop 100, overtaking the peak of 99 achieved on the chart by M.I.A. 's previous single "Boyz ''. "Paper Planes '' debuted on the US Billboard Hot Digital Songs at the same time at number 57, climbing to number 71 on the Pop 100 chart. In Europe, the song debuted on the Belgian Singles Chart, peaking at 18 in June 2008. The song rebounded on the US charts following use in the Pineapple Express trailer the next month, entering the Billboard Hot 100 chart at position 55, with sales of 42,000 downloads. In subsequent weeks, it continued to climb the chart, with download sales totaling 888,000 the following month. In its ninth week on the chart, "Paper Planes '' rose from number five to number four on the Hot 100, where it peaked. The song was notable for having received heavy airplay across radio stations of different genres, including Pop, Modern Rock, and Urban Contemporary such as R&B and hip hop - formatted stations. As of August 2009, the song sold over three million units in the United States. "Paper Planes '' has been certified triple Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in the U.S. and Music Canada (CRIA) in Canada, becoming the 29th most downloaded song in the digital era in the United States in 2009, and, although not attaining a chart position in New Zealand, has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand. As of August 2013, "Paper Planes '' has sold 4 million digital copies in the United States. "Paper Planes '' ranks as of November 2011 as the 59th most downloaded song according to Nielsen SoundScan 's running list of the 200 best - selling songs in US digital history.
On 7 September 2008, "Paper Planes '' entered the UK Singles Chart at number 69 on downloads alone and by 4 October 2008 peaked at number 19. Following its appearance in the film Slumdog Millionaire, the song re-entered the UK Singles Chart on 15 February 2009 at number 33. The song spent thirty - five weeks on the chart, and reappeared on the singles chart in January 2010 at number 61, a position it retained for one week. By November 2011, "Paper Planes '' had sold 3.6 million copies in the US, becoming the seventh best - selling song by a British artist in the digital era. It entered the French Singles Chart for the first time on 18 February 2012 at position 196, before climbing to number 162.
"Paper Planes '' remained XL Recordings ' best selling single until the 2010 release of Adele 's "Rolling in the Deep ''. M.I.A. left the label in 2011 following the completion of her contract. Eric R. Danton of the Hartford Courant noted that the song 's success "speaks to the idea that the best pop music rarely originates with the major label corporate music machine that exists to sell pop music '' but rose from underground artists with something to say, offering significant lessons to the music industry in an era of declining music sales and general financial turmoil.
The music video for the song was shot in December 2007 in one day in Bedford - Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, New York. It was directed by Bernard Gourley. The video is M.I.A. 's first filmed in the United States. Initially planned to be shot in a factory on the border of Ecuador, the filming location was changed to accommodate M.I.A. 's time constraints due to touring commitments in the United States. The video was filmed during one day in the city, which she had free on the American leg of her KALA Tour after 4 months of concerts. It was made available on MTV 's website on 15 December 2007. The video for "Paper Planes '' was uploaded on M.I.A. 's personal "worldtown '' YouTube account on 16 December 2007, eventually gaining 43,500,000 views. The video was to have premiered on Total Request Live. The video was uploaded onto M.I.A. 's official YouTube page (via VEVO) on 16 June 2009, amassing 40,000,000 views. "Paper Planes '' video debuted on 17 December 2007 on video chart programs where it proved successful. It peaked at number 1 on MuchOnDemand 's Daily Ten and number 1 on Total Request Live. It appeared at Number 56 on BET 's Notarized: Top 100 Videos of 2008 countdown.
The video begins with several paper planes flying over New York City shot in black and white. In multiple colour scenes that follow, M.I.A. appears dancing and singing in the stairwell of the Nostrand Avenue New York City Subway station in Bed Stuy, Brooklyn, and as an immigrant who sells sandwiches from a van bearing a Jolly Roger to several other New Yorkers. Food is exchanged at the stalls for money and various other items. Nigerian rapper Afrikan Boy joins M.I.A. in serving street food on New York City 's streets in exchange for buyer 's chains, watches, and cash -- among those stopping by the cart are Mike D and Ad - Rock of the Beastie Boys, where Mike D. 's Rolex is exchanged for food. M.I.A. can be seen sitting in front of rugs and suitcases at a stall singing to the camera, and counting dollar notes from her takings in the van. A cash till can be seen empty, followed by scenes where the till fills up with money. During the chorus, at the sound of the gunshots, quick shots of street and restaurant signs, people and phone discount signs appear, followed by scenes of M.I.A. selling more sandwiches and opening the till to store more money. During the second verse, the singer can be seen happily shopping for condiments at a local shop, before she is depicted in more scenes of her singing with Afrikan Boy. New Yorkers are filmed and shown walking along streets throughout the video. M.I.A. is seen dancing and walking with friends, including Afrikan Boy and Rye Rye, wearing clothes from her fashion line "Okley Run '' and HowManyHowMany T - shirts from her "Boyz '' video. During the second chorus, scenes of Blaxploitation film DVDs on a shelf and the rapper driving the van are shown. M.I.A. can be seen wearing a Metallica Ride the Lightning shirt in later parts of the music video. At the end of the video, the scenes turn black and white, with the van driving off on a street, followed by several paper planes in pursuit.
A writer for AFP based in Colombo stated that M.I.A. 's music was not played on Sri Lankan radio or television -- which, like music retailers and night clubs there, chose not to stock or play her records due to political pressure from the Sri Lankan government as the Sinhala - Tamil conflict in Sri Lanka dragged on. Instead, fans of the artist on the island relied on certain social media websites on the internet to access her work. The success of "Paper Planes '' paralleling M.I.A. 's condemnation of government and army atrocities as amounting to "systematic genocide '' and ethnic cleansing resulted in death threats being made against her. Touré, writing in The Daily Beast noted that this was in keeping with the government 's censorship and regulation of news flowing out of the island, which, along with government restrictions to the northeastern theatre of the war in late 2008 meant "the world had heard little '' of the atrocities inflicted by the state against Tamils. An American Sinhalese rapper named DeLon circulated a viral YouTube video in which he rapped over "Paper Planes '' and accused M.I.A. of "supporting terrorism '' by using images of the tiger and discussing violence in her lyrics, showing graphic images of violence purportedly linked to the LTTE rebel group. After some media ran a story on this, M.I.A responded that her music is the voice of a civilian refugee and that she was not willing to discuss anything with someone looking for self - promotion. Colombo based writer Thomas Fuller of The New York Times wrote an article about M.I.A. 's statements against the Vanni onslaught, stating that her music 's ambiguity and her criticism of the government 's conduct had "not endeared her to the island 's Sinhalese majority ''. Zach Baron of the Village Voice accused the newspaper of using "chintzy, ad - hominem allegations '' on M.I.A. 's work in the piece, imploring the paper to use its "vaunted '' access instead to inquire as to why the government would not let aid through to the Vanni. M.I.A. said of the situation in Sri Lanka in 2010 "Every single Tamil person who 's alive today, who 's seen how the world does nothing, has to find a way to exist that is n't harboring bitterness and hate and revenge. '' Novelist Gary Shteyngart, writing in GQ, notes that "to her Sinhalese detractors, her music is precisely that form of revenge. ''
The "Paper Planes '' music video was censored by MTV in December 2007, who had also banned the video for M.I.A. 's single "Sunshowers ''. In this version, M.I.A. 's vocals were doubled, the gun sounds replaced with popping sounds, and the word "weed '' replaced with the word "seed ''. The producers of Pineapple Express asked for the word to be similarly changed before use, a request M.I.A. found "ridiculous, cause the whole movie 's about weed. '' On 16 December 2007, following some fan disapproval of the leaked MTV version, M.I.A. stated in a MySpace entry that MTV 's decision to change the sound disappointed and angered her, adding that MTV had "sabotaged '' a music video made more safe and mainstream than her regular videos. The song was similarly censored during her live performance on the Late Show with David Letterman to her visible surprise, an action she had not agreed to. The chorus effects during the soundcheck of her Late Show performance were different from what was played live during the taping. At her concert at the Austin City Limits festival a few days after the show, she spoke more of the incident, thanking David Letterman onstage "for letting her into the American mainstream. '' A writer for New York magazine felt the issue of MTV censoring "Paper Planes '' was a non-controversy as the edited clip had been removed from MTV following fan - pressure and replaced, noting "they 've been (censoring gun sounds and imagery) since 1997, according to Wikipedia. What does surprise us is that MTV ever considered showing the video at all. We had no idea they still aired music videos, much less ones by talented artists like M.I.A. If anything, it likely airs at odd hours when nobody 's watching. '' Tom Breihan of The Village Voice also noted this to be part of a general trend by networks like MTV and BET and radio towards rap songs such as those by 50 Cent where any references to drugs, sex and violence were removed and replaced, concluding that this was a double standard approach to rap artists ' work compared to songs by Green Day and My Chemical Romance. Commenting that "Paper Planes '' is a "song that deserves to start a few arguments, and it should go out into the wider world with its argument - starting potential left intact '', Breihan noted that although the uncensored version would not inspire rioting in the streets, more listeners opted to download music as mainstream "cultural outlets in which (...) music makes itself heard are increasingly afraid of offending anyone, ever, for any reason ''.
Digital 7digital EP (Released 11 February 2008)
US CD / Digital US iTunes EP (Released 12 February 2008)
XL 12 '' Vinyl EP (Released 24 March 2008)
UK CD
UK 7 - inch
Europe iTunes EP
Source:
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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which country has long occupied korea by the start of world war 2 | Korea under Japanese rule - wikipedia
Korea under Japanese rule began with the end of the short - lived Korean Empire in 1910 and ended at the conclusion of World War II in 1945. Japanese rule over Korea was the outcome of a process that began with the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1876, whereby a complex coalition of the Meiji government, military, and business officials sought to integrate Korea both politically and economically into the Empire of Japan. A major stepping - stone towards the Japanese occupation of Korea was the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1905, in which the then - Korean Empire was declared a protectorate of Japan. The annexation of Korea by Japan was set up in the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1910, which was never actually signed by the Korean Regent, Gojong.
Japanese rule over Korea ended in 1945, when U.S. and Soviet forces captured the peninsula. In 1965 the unequal treaties between Joseon - ruled Korea and Imperial Japan, especially those of 1905 and 1910, were declared "already null and void '' at the time of their promulgation (i.e. "dead on arrival '', implicitly a declaration of their illegality) by the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea.
Japanese administration of the Korean Peninsula was directed through the General Government. After the Japanese withdrawal from the Korean Peninsula followed by the Japanese surrender to Allied forces at the end of the Second World War, Korea returned to self - government, albeit under two separate governments and economic systems backed (in the north) by the Soviet Union and (in the south) by the United States.
The industrialization of the Korean Peninsula began with the Joseon dynasty (in particular with King, and later Emperor, Gojong) while Korea was still independent but accelerated under Japanese occupation. The manner of the acceleration of industrialization under Japanese occupation, especially the use of industrialization solely for the purposes of benefiting Japan, the exploitation of the Korean people in their own country, the marginalization of Korean history and culture, the environmental exploitation of the Korean Peninsula, and its long - term negative repercussions for modern - day North and South Koreas are among the most provocative aspects of the controversy.
In South Korea, the period is usually described as the "Japanese forced occupation '' (Hangul: 일제 강점기; Hanja: 日 帝 强占 期; RR: Ilje Gangjeom - gi). Other terms include "Japanese Imperial Period '' (Hangul: 일제 시대; Hanja: 日 帝 時代; RR: Ilje Sidae), "period of the Japanese imperial colonial administration '' (Hangul: 일제 식민 통치 시대; Hanja: 日 帝 植民 統治 時代; RR: Ilje Sikmin Tongchi Sidae), and "Wae (Japanese) administration '' (Hangul: 왜정; Hanja: 倭 政; RR: Wae - jeong).
In Japan, the term "Chōsen (Korea) of the Japanese - Governed Period '' (日本 統治 時代 の 朝鮮, Nippon Tōchi - jidai no Chōsen) has been used.
From the late 18th to late 19th centuries, Western governments sought to intercede in and influence the political and economic fortunes of Asian countries through the use of new approaches described by such terms as "protectorate '', "sphere of influence '', and "concession '', which minimized the need for direct military conflict between competing European powers. The newly modernized government of Meiji Japan sought to join these colonizing efforts and the Seikanron ("advocacy of a punitive expedition to Korea '') began in 1873. This effort was allegedly fueled by Saigō Takamori and his supporters, who insisted that Japan confront Korea 's refusal to recognize the legitimacy of Emperor Meiji, and as it involves the authority of the emperor, and military intervention "could not be postponed ''.
The debate concerned Korea, then in the sphere of influence of Qing China, which certain elements in the Japanese government sought to separate from Chinese influence and establish as a puppet state. Those in favor also saw the issue as an opportunity to find meaningful employment for the thousands of out - of - work samurai, who had lost most of their income and social standing in the new Meiji socioeconomic order. Further, the acquisition of Korea would provide both a foothold on the Asian continent for Japanese expansion and a rich source of raw materials for Japanese industry. The arguments against such designs were outlined in Ōkubo Toshimichi 's "7 Point Document '', dated October 1873, in which he argued that the action against Korea was premature, as Japan itself was in the process of modernization and an expedition would be far too costly for Japan to sustain. Okubo 's views were supported by the antiwar faction, which mostly consisted of those returning from the Iwakura Mission in 1873. Iwakura Tomomi, the diplomat who had led the mission, persuaded the emperor to reconsider, thus putting an end to the "Korean crisis '' debate.
The destabilization of the Korean nation may be said to have begun in the period of Sedo Jeongchi (Hangul: 세도 정치; Hanja: 勢 道 政治; lit. in - law politics) whereby, on the death of King Jeongjo of Joseon (r. 1776 -- 1800), the 10 - year - old Sunjo of Joseon (r. 1800 -- 34) ascended the Korean throne, with the true power of the administration residing with his regent, Kim Jo - sun, as a representative of the Andong Kim clan. As a result, the disarray and blatant corruption in the Korean government, particularly in the three main areas of revenues -- land tax, military service, and the state granary system -- heaped additional hardship on the peasantry. Of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries (Hyangni), who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom. Yangban families, formerly well - respected for their status as a noble class and being powerful both "socially and politically '', were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities. Faced with increasing corruption in the government, brigandage of the disenfranchised (such as the mounted fire brigands, or Hwajok, and the boat - borne water brigands or Sujok) and exploited by the elite, many poor village folk sought to pool their resources, such as land, tools, and production, to survive. Despite the government effort in bringing an end to the practice of owning slaves in 1801, slavery in Korea remained legal until 1894.
At this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well - tolerated among the nobles, most notably in and around the area of Seoul. Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, the Pungyang Jo clan, took the lives of priests and followers, known as the Korean Martyrs, dissuading membership by the upper class. The peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the religious teachings of Choe Je - u, (최제우, 崔濟愚, 1824 -- 64) called "Donghak '', which literally means Eastern Learning, and the religion became especially popular in rural areas. Themes of exclusionism (from foreign influences), nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing illiterate farmers to understand and accept them more readily. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo - French occupation of Beijing during the Second Opium War. He believed the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the Jinju uprising led by Yu Kye - chun, Choe was charged with "misleading the people and sowing discord in society ''. Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains.
Gojong of Korea (r. 1864 -- 1907), enthroned at the age of twelve, succeeded Cheoljong of Joseon (r. 1849 -- 63). King Gojong 's father, the Heungseon Daewongun (Yi Ha - ung; 1820 -- 98), ruled as the de facto regent and inaugurated far - ranging reforms to strengthen the central administration. Of special note was the decision to rebuild palace buildings and finance the project through additional levies on the population. Further inherited rule by a few elite ruling families was challenged by the adoption of a merit system for official appointments. In addition, Sowon -- private academies -- which threatened to develop a parallel system to the corrupt government and enjoyed special privileges and large landholdings, were taxed and repressed despite bitter opposition from Confucian scholars. Lastly, a policy of steadfast isolationism was enforced to staunch the increasing intrusion of Western thought and technology. He was impeached in 1873 and forced into retirement by the supporters of Empress Myeongseong, also called "Queen Min ''.
Three years later, on 27 February 1876, the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1876, also known in Japan as the Japanese -- Korea Treaty of Amity (日朝 修好 条規 Nitchō - shūkōjōki, 강화도 조약 Ganghwado joyak) was signed. It was designed to open up Korea to Japanese trade, and the rights granted to Japan under the treaty were similar to those granted Western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry in 1854. However, the treaty ended Korea 's status as a protectorate of China, forced open three Korean ports to Japanese trade, granted extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens, and was an unequal treaty signed under duress (gunboat diplomacy) of the Ganghwa Island incident of 1875.
As a result of the treaty, Japanese merchants came to Busan, which became the center for foreign trade and commerce. Japanese officials then published Korea 's first newspaper, Chōsen shinpō (朝鮮 新報), in 1881. Chinese language articles were aimed at Korea 's educated elite, which advocated for constitutional government, freedom of speech, strong rule of law and legal rights, and Korean - led industrialization. Few of these goals came to pass. Japanese language articles focused on news regarding business, specifically "the stagnant Pusan trade '' in rice and other farmed goods, which fluctuated wildly due to weather conditions and the whims of the tax - levying elite class. It ceased publication sometime after May 1882.
The Daewongun, who remained opposed to any concessions to Japan or the West, helped organize the Mutiny of 1882, an anti-Japanese outbreak against Queen Min and her allies. Motivated by resentment of the preferential treatment given to newly trained troops, the Daewongun 's forces, or "old military '', killed Japanese training cadre, and attacked the Japanese legation. Japanese diplomats, policemen, students and some Min clan members were also killed during the incident. The Daewongun was briefly restored to power, only to be forcibly taken to China by Chinese troops dispatched to Seoul to prevent further disorder.
In August 1882, the Treaty of Jemulpo (Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1882) indemnified the families of the Japanese victims, paid reparations to the Japanese government in the amount of 500,000 yen, and allowed a company of Japanese guards to be stationed at the Japanese legation in Seoul.
The struggle between the Heungseon Daewongun 's followers and those of Queen Min was further complicated by competition from a Korean independence faction known as the Progressive Party (Gaehwa - dang), as well as the Conservative faction. While the former sought Japan 's support, the latter sought China 's support. On December 4, 1884, the Progressive Party, assisted by the Japanese, attempted a coup (Gapsin coup) and established a pro-Japanese government under the reigning king, dedicated to the independence of Korea from Chinese suzerainty. However, this proved short - lived, as conservative Korean officials requested the help of Chinese forces stationed in Korea. The coup was put down by Chinese troops, and a Korean mob killed both Japanese officers and Japanese residents in retaliation. Some leaders of the Progressive Party, including Kim Ok - gyun, fled to Japan, while others were executed. For the next 10 years, Japanese expansion into the Korean economy was approximated only by the efforts of czarist Russia.
The outbreak of the Donghak peasant revolution in 1894 provided a seminal pretext for direct military intervention by Japan in the affairs of Korea. In April 1894, the Korean government asked for Chinese assistance in ending the Donghak peasant revolt. In response, Japanese leaders, citing a violation of the Convention of Tientsin as a pretext, decided upon military intervention to challenge China. On 3 May 1894, 1,500 Qing forces appeared in Incheon. The same day, 6,000 Japanese forces also landed in Incheon, producing the Sino - Japanese War. Japan won the First Sino - Japanese War, and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Among its many stipulations, the treaty recognized "the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea '', thus ending Korea 's tributary relationship with the Chinese Qing dynasty, leading to the proclamation of full independence of Joseon Korea in 1895. At the same time, Japan suppressed the Donghak revolution with Korean government forces. With the exception of czarist Russia, Japan now held military predominance in Korea.
The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gorō, orchestrated a plot against 43 - year - old Queen Min (later given the title of "Empress Myeongseong ''), and on 8 October 1895, she was assassinated by Japanese agents. In 2001, Russian reports on the assassination were found in the archives of the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation. The documents included the testimony of King Gojong, several witnesses of the assassination, and Karl Ivanovich Weber 's report to Aleksey Lobanov - Rostovsky, the Foreign Minister of Russia, by Park Jonghyo. Weber was the chargé d'affaires at the Russian legation in Seoul at that time. According to a Russian eyewitness, Seredin - Sabatin, an employee of the king, a group of Japanese agents entered Gyeongbokgung, killed Queen Min, and desecrated her body in the north wing of the palace.
When he heard the news, Heungseon Daewongun returned to the royal palace the same day. On 11 February 1896, King Gojong and the crown prince moved from Gyeongbokgung to the Russian legation in Jeong - dong, Seoul, from where they governed for about one year, an event known as the Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation.
After the Royal Refuge, some Korean activists established the Independence Club (독립 협회; 獨立 協會) in 1896. They claimed that Korea should negotiate with Western powers, particularly Russia, to counterbalance the growing influence of Japan. In 1897, this club had destroyed the 1537 Yeongeunmun, a special gate where Chinese envoys had been escorted and received, and contributed to the construction of Independence Gate and they held regular meetings in the Jongno streets, demanding democratic reforms as Korea became a constitutional monarchy, and an end to Japanese and Russian influence in Korean affairs.
In October 1897, Gojong decided to return to his other palace, Deoksugung, and proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire. During this period, the Korean government conducted a westernization policy. It was not an enduring reform, however, and the Independence Club was dissolved on 25 December 1898 as the new Emperor Gojong officially announced a prohibition on unofficial congresses.
Having established economic and military dominance in Korea in October 1904, Japan reported that it had developed 25 reforms which it intended to introduce into Korea by gradual degrees. Among these was the intended acceptance by the Korean Financial Department of a Japanese Superintendent, the replacement of Korean Foreign Ministers and consuls by Japanese and the "union of military arms '' in which the military of Korea would be modeled after the Japanese military. These reforms were forestalled by the prosecution of the Russo - Japanese War from 8 February 1904, to 5 September 1905, which Japan won, thus eliminating Japan 's last rival to influence in Korea. Under the Treaty of Portsmouth, signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan 's "paramount political, military, and economic interest '' in Korea.
Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate by the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1905 and the "reforms '' were enacted, including the reduction of the Korean Army from 20,000 to 1,000 men by disbanding all garrisons in the provinces, retaining only a single garrison in the precincts of Seoul. On 6 January 1905, Horace Allen, head of the American Legation in Seoul reported to his Secretary of State, John Hay, that the Korean government had been advised by the Japanese government "that hereafter the police matters of Seoul will be controlled by the Japanese gendarmerie '' and "that a Japanese police inspector will be placed in each prefecture ''. A large number of Koreans organized themselves in education and reform movements, but Japanese dominance in Korea had become a reality.
In June 1907, the Second Peace Conference was held in The Hague. Emperor Gojong secretly sent three representatives to bring the problems of Korea to the world 's attention. The three envoys were refused access to the public debates by the international delegates who questioned the legality of the protectorate convention. Out of despair, one of the Korean representatives, Yi Tjoune, committed suicide at The Hague. In response, the Japanese government took stronger measures. On 19 July 1907, Emperor Gojong was forced to relinquish his imperial authority and appoint the Crown Prince as regent. Japanese officials used this concession to force the accession of the new Emperor Sunjong following abdication, which was never agreed to by Gojong. Neither Gojong nor Sunjong was present at the ' accession ' ceremony. Sunjong was to be the last ruler of the Joseon dynasty, founded in 1392.
In May 1910, the Minister of War of Japan, Terauchi Masatake, was given a mission to finalize Japanese control over Korea after the previous treaties (the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1904 and the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1907) had made Korea a protectorate of Japan and had established Japanese hegemony over Korean domestic politics. On 22 August 1910, Japan effectively annexed Korea with the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1910 signed by Ye Wanyong, Prime Minister of Korea, and Terauchi Masatake, who became the first Japanese Governor - General of Korea.
The treaty became effective the same day and was published one week later. The treaty stipulated:
Both the protectorate and the annexation treaties were declared void in the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea because both treaties were obtained under threat of force, and that the Korean Emperor, whose royal assent was required to validate and finalize any legislation or diplomatic agreement under Korean law of the period, refused to sign the document.
This period is also known as Military Police Reign Era (1910 -- 19) in which Police had the authority to rule the entire country. Japan was in control of the media, law as well as government by physical power and regulations.
From around the time of the First Sino - Japanese War of 1894 - 1895, Japanese merchants started settling in towns and cities in Korea seeking economic opportunity. By 1910 the number of Japanese settlers in Korea had reached over 170,000, comprising the largest single overseas - Japanese community in the world at the time. The Japanese leadership, convinced that their own country was overcrowded -- especially in rural areas -- encouraged farmers to emigrate.
Many Japanese settlers showed interest in acquiring agricultural land in Korea even before Japanese land - ownership was officially legalized in 1906. Governor - General Terauchi Masatake facilitated settlement through land reform, which initially proved popular with most of the Korean population. The Korean land - ownership system featured absentee landlords, only partial owner - tenants and cultivators with traditional (but no legal proof of) ownership. Terauchi 's new Land Survey Bureau conducted cadastral surveys that established ownership on the basis of written proof (deeds, titles, and similar documents). The system denied ownership to those who could not provide such written documentation; these turned out to be mostly high - class and impartial owners who had only traditional verbal cultivator - rights. Japanese landlords included both individuals and corporations (such as the Oriental Development Company). Because of these developments, Japanese landownership soared, as did the amount of land taken over by private Japanese companies. Many former Korean landowners, as well as agricultural workers, became tenant farmers, having lost their entitlements almost overnight because they could not pay for the land reclamation and irrigation improvements forced on them. Compounding the economic stresses imposed on the Korean peasantry, the authorities forced Korean peasants to do long days of compulsory labor to build irrigation works; Japanese imperial officials made peasants pay for these projects in the form of heavy taxes, impoverishing many of them and causing even more of them lose their land. Although many other subsequent developments placed ever greater strain on Korea 's peasants, Japan 's rice shortage in 1918 was the greatest catalyst for hardship. During that shortage, Japan looked to Korea for increased rice cultivation; as Korean peasants started producing more for Japan, however, the amount they took to eat dropped precipitously, causing much resentment among them.
By 1910 an estimated 7 to 8 % of all arable land in Korea had come under Japanese control. This ratio increased steadily; as of the years 1916, 1920, and 1932, the ratio of Japanese land ownership increased from 36.8 to 39.8 to 52.7 %. The level of tenancy was similar to that of farmers in Japan itself; however, in Korea, the landowners were mostly Japanese, while the tenants were all Koreans. As often occurred in Japan itself, tenants had to pay over half their crop as rent, forcing many to send wives and daughters into factories or prostitution so they could pay taxes.
By the 1930s the growth of the urban economy and the exodus of farmers to the cities had gradually weakened the hold of the landlords. With the growth of the wartime economy, the government recognized landlordism as an impediment to increased agricultural productivity, and took steps to increase control over the rural sector through the formation in Japan in 1943 of the Central Agricultural Association (中央 農 会, Chuo Nokai), a compulsory organization under the wartime command - economy.
In 1925, the Japanese government established the Korean History Compilation Committee (조선사 편수 회, 朝鮮 史 編修 會), and it was administered by the Governor - General of Korea and engaged in collecting Korean historical materials and compiling Korean history. According to the Doosan Encyclopedia, some mythology was incorporated. The committee said that Korea had once hosted a Japanese colony called Mimana, which has since been debated by academic scholarship, as continued archaeological research in proposed / theorized areas on the Korean Peninsula have yielded no support for this conjecture.
The Japanese government conducted excavations of archeological sites and preserved artifacts found there. The Japanese administration also relocated some artifacts; for instance, a stone monument (hanja: 棕 蟬 縣 神 祠 碑), which was originally located in the Liaodong Peninsula, was taken out of its context and moved to Pyongyang.
The National Palace Museum of Korea, originally built as the "Korean Imperial Museum '' in 1908 to preserve the treasures in the Gyeongbokgung, was retained under the Japanese administration but renamed "Museum of the Yi Dynasty '' in 1938.
The Governor - General of Korea instituted a law in 1933 in order to preserve Korea 's most important historical artifacts. The system established by this law, retained as the present - day National Treasures of South Korea and National Treasures of North Korea, was intended to counter the deleterious effects of the speed of economic development as well as the lack of concern by Japanese developers for Korean cultural heritage on Korean historical artifacts, including those not yet unearthed.
Gyeongbokgung, the Korean royal palace, was demolished during the Japanese occupation. In 1911, shortly after the annexation of Korea by Japan, ownership of land at the palace was transferred to the Japanese Governor - General of Korea. In 1915, to hold an exhibition, more than 90 % of the buildings were torn down. Following the exhibition, the Japanese leveled whatever still remained and built their administrative headquarters, the Government - General Building (1916 -- 26), on the site.
Restoration of Gyeongbokgung has been undertaken since 1990. The Government - General Building was removed in 1996 and Heungnyemun (2001) and Gwanghwamun (2006 -- 10) were reconstructed in their original locations and forms. Reconstructions of the Inner Court and Crown Prince 's residence have also been completed.
A series of anti-Chinese riots erupted throughout Korea in 1931 as a result of public anger against the treatment of Korean migrants in Manchuria. In the small town of Wanpaoshan near Changchun, "violent clashes '' broke out between the Chinese and Korean residents. The Governor - General of Korea announced there were more than 100 dead Chinese victims. Approximately 127 Chinese people were killed, 393 wounded, and a considerable number of properties were destroyed. The worst of the rioting occurred in Pyongyang on 5 July. The Chinese further alleged the Japanese authorities in Korea did not take adequate steps to protect the lives and property of the Chinese residents, and blamed the authorities for allowing inflammatory accounts to be published. The anti-Chinese sentiments benefited the Japanese, as these sentiments "displaced attention and resentment away from Japanese imperialism ''. As a result of this riot, the Minister of Foreign Affairs Kijūrō Shidehara, who insisted on Japanese, Chinese, and Korean harmony, lost his position.
Attempts were made to introduce the modern household registration system. This brought about the abolishment of the Korean caste system. In 1911, the proclamation "Matter Concerning the Changing of Korean Names '' (朝鮮 人 ノ 姓名 改称 ニ 関 スル 件) was issued, barring ethnic Koreans from taking Japanese names and retroactively reverting the names of Koreans who had already registered under Japanese names back to the original Korean ones. By 1939, however, this position was reversed and Japan 's focus had shifted towards cultural assimilation of the Korean people; an Imperial Decree 19 on Korean Civil Affairs (조선민 사령; "勅 令 第 19 号 「 朝鮮 民事 改正 令 」 '') went into effect, whereby ethnic Koreans were forced to surrender their Korean family names and adopt Japanese surnames.
Korean migration had increased after World War I and accelerated after 1930; in 1939, there were 981,000 Koreans living in the Japanese archipelago as internal migrants.
The combination of immigrants and forced laborers during World War II brought the total to over 2 million by the end of the war, according to estimates by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. In 1946, some 1,340,000 ethnic Koreans were repatriated to Korea, with 650,000 choosing to remain in Japan, where they now form the Zainichi Korean community. A 1982 survey by the Korean Youth Association showed that conscripted laborers accounts for 13 percent of first - generation Zainichi Koreans.
From 1939, labor shortages as a result of conscription of Japanese males for the military efforts of World War II led to organized official recruitment of Koreans to work in mainland Japan, initially through civilian agents, and later directly, often involving elements of coercion. As the labor shortage increased, by 1942, the Japanese authorities extended the provisions of the National Mobilization Law to include the conscription of Korean workers for factories and mines on the Korean peninsula, Manchukuo, and the involuntary relocation of workers to Japan itself as needed.
Of the 5,400,000 Koreans conscripted, about 670,000 were taken to mainland Japan (including Karafuto Prefecture, present - day Sakhalin, now part of Russia) for civilian labor. Those who were brought to Japan were often forced to work under appalling and dangerous conditions. Apparently Koreans were better treated than laborers from other countries, but still their work hours, food and medical care were such that large numbers died. This is clear from the 60,000 Korean laborers that died in Japan out of the near 670,000 that were brought there in the years 1939 to 1945 (line 119a). The total number of deaths of Korean forced laborers in Korea and Manchuria is estimated to be between 270,000 and 810,000. The 43,000 ethnic Koreans in Karafuto, which had been occupied by the Soviet Union just prior to Japan 's surrender, were refused repatriation to either mainland Japan or the Korean peninsula, and were thus trapped in Sakhalin, stateless; they became the ancestors of the Sakhalin Koreans.
Most Korean atomic - bomb victims in Japan were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the name of humanitarian assistance, Japan paid South Korea four billion yen (approx. thirty five million dollars) and built a welfare center for those suffering from the effects of the atomic bomb.
Japan did not draft ethnic Koreans into its military until 1944 when the tide of WW II turned dire. Until 1944, enlistment in the Imperial Japanese Army by ethnic Koreans was voluntary, and highly competitive. From a 14 % acceptance rate in 1938, it dropped to a 2 % acceptance rate in 1943 while the raw number of applicants increased from 3000 per annum to 300,000 in just five years during World War II.
Korea produced seven generals and numerous field grade officers (Colonels, Lieutenant - Colonels and Majors) during 35 years of colonial governance by Japan, despite institutionalized discrimination.
The first and the best - known general was Lieutenant General and Crown Prince Yi Un. The other six were graduates of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. They were: Lieutenant General Jo Seonggeun; Major General Wang Yushik; Lieutenant General Viscount Yi Beyongmu; Major General Yi Heedu; Major General Kim Eungseon (also military aide and personal guard to Prince Yi Un); and Lieutenant General Hong Sa - ik, who was executed for war crimes committed while commanding the prison camps in the southern Philippines in 1944 -- 1945.
Other Japanese Army officers of South Korean origin moved onto successful careers in the post-occupation period. Examples include Park Chung - hee, who became president of South Korea, Chung Il - kwon (정일권, 丁 一 權), prime minister from 1964 to 1970, and Paik Sun - yup, South Korea 's youngest general, famous for his defense during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter during the Korean War. The first ten of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South Korea graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and none from the Korean Liberation Army.
Officer cadets had been joining the Japanese Army since before the Annexation by attending the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Enlisted Soldier recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the army of Manchukuo, and formed the Gando Special Force. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist guerillas in the region of Jiandao. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and included such notable Koreans as General Paik Sun - yup, who served in the Korean War. Historian Philip Jowett noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force "earned a reputation for brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule. ''
Starting in 1944, Japan started the conscription of Koreans into the armed forces. All Korean males were drafted to either join the Imperial Japanese Army, as of April 1944, or work in the military industrial sector, as of September 1944. Before 1944, 18,000 Koreans passed the examination for induction into the army. Koreans provided workers to mines and construction sites around Japan. The number of conscripted Koreans reached its peak in 1944 in preparation for war. From 1944, about 200,000 Korean males were inducted into the army.
During World War II, American soldiers frequently encountered Korean soldiers within the ranks of the Imperial Japanese Army. Most notably was in the Battle of Tarawa, which was considered during that time to be one of the bloodiest battles in U.S. military history. A fifth of the Japanese garrison during this battle consisted of Korean laborers who were trained in combat roles. Like their Japanese counterparts, many of them were killed.
The Japanese, however, did not always believe they could rely on Korean laborers to fight alongside them. In Prisoners of the Japanese, author Gaven Daws wrote, "(O) n Tinian there were five thousand Korean laborers and so as not to have hostiles at their back when the Americans invaded, the Japanese killed them. ''
After the war, 148 Koreans were convicted of Class B and C Japanese war crimes, 23 of whom were sentenced to death (compared to 920 Japanese who were sentenced to death), including Korean prison guards who were particularly notorious for their brutality during the war. The figure is relatively high considering that ethnic Koreans made up a very small percentage of the Japanese military. Judge Bert Röling, who represented the Netherlands at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, noted that "many of the commanders and guards in POW camps were Koreans -- the Japanese apparently did not trust them as soldiers -- and it is said that they were sometimes far more cruel than the Japanese. '' In his memoirs, Colonel Eugene C. Jacobs wrote that during the Bataan Death March, "the Korean guards were the most abusive. The Japs did n't trust them in battle, so used them as service troops; the Koreans were anxious to get blood on their bayonets; and then they thought they were veterans. ''
Korean guards were sent to the remote jungles of Burma, where Lt. Col. William A. (Bill) Henderson wrote from his own experience that some of the guards overlooking the construction of the Burma Railway "were moronic and at times almost bestial in their treatment of prisoners. This applied particularly to Korean private soldiers, conscripted only for guard and sentry duties in many parts of the Japanese empire. Regrettably, they were appointed as guards for the prisoners throughout the camps of Burma and Siam. '' The highest - ranking Korean to be prosecuted after the war was Lieutenant General Hong Sa - ik, who was in command of all the Japanese prisoner - of - war camps in the Philippines.
Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the impending overrun of the Korean peninsula by Russian forces, Japan surrendered to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese occupation.
American forces under General John R. Hodge arrived at the southern part of the Korean Peninsula on 8 September 1945, while the Soviet Army and some Korean Communists had stationed themselves in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. U.S. Colonel Dean Rusk proposed to Chischakov, the Soviet military administrator of northern Korea, that Korea should be split at the 38th parallel. This proposal was made at an emergency meeting to determine postwar spheres of influence, which led to the division of Korea.
After the liberation of Korea from Japanese rule, the "Name Restoration Order '' was issued on 23 October 1946 by the United States Army Military Government in Korea south of the 38th parallel, enabling Koreans to restore their names if they wished. Many Koreans in Japan chose to retain their Japanese names, either to avoid discrimination, or later, to meet the requirements for naturalization as Japanese citizens.
Upon Emperor Gojong 's death, anti-Japanese rallies took place nationwide, most notably the March 1st Movement of 1919. A declaration of independence was read in Seoul. It is estimated that 2 million people took part in these rallies. The Japanese violently suppressed the protests: According to Korean records, 46,948 were arrested, 7,509 killed and 15,961 wounded; according to Japanese figures, 8,437 were arrested, 553 killed and 1,409 wounded. About 7,000 people were killed by Japanese police and soldiers during the 12 months of demonstrations.
After suppression of the uprising, some aspects of Japanese rule considered most objectionable to Koreans were removed. The military police were replaced by a civilian force, and freedom of the press was permitted to a limited extent. Two of the three major Korean daily newspapers, the Dong - a Ilbo and the Chosun Ilbo, were established in 1920.
Objection to Japanese rule over Korea continued, and the 1 March Movement was a catalyst for the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea by Korean émigrés in Shanghai on 13 April 1919. The modern South Korean government considers this Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea the de jure representation of the Korean people throughout the period of Japanese rule.
The Japanese occupation of Korea after annexation was largely uncontested militarily by the smaller, poorly armed, and poorly trained Korean army. Many former soldiers and other volunteers left the Korean peninsula for Manchuria and Primorsky Krai in Russia. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Independence Army), which traveled across the Korean - Chinese border, using guerrilla warfare tactics against Japanese forces. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932 and subsequent Pacification of Manchukuo deprived many of these groups of their bases of operation and supplies. Many were forced to either flee to China, or to join the Red Army - backed forces in eastern Russia. One of the guerrilla groups was led by the future leader of communist North Korea, Kim Il - sung, in Japanese controlled Manchuria. Kim Il - Sung 's time as a guerrilla leader was formative upon his political ideology once he came to power.
Within Korea itself, anti-Japanese rallies continued on occasion. Most notably, the Gwangju Students Anti-Japanese Movement on 3 November 1929 led to the strengthening of Japanese military rule in 1931, after which freedom of the press and freedom of expression were curbed. Many witnesses, including Catholic priests, reported that Japanese authorities dealt with insurgency severely. When villagers were suspected of hiding rebels, entire village populations are said to have been herded into public buildings (especially churches) and massacred when the buildings were set on fire. In the village of Jeam - ni, Hwaseong, for example, a group of 29 people were gathered inside a church which was then set afire. Such events deepened the hostility of many Korean civilians towards the Japanese government.
On 10 December 1941, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, under the presidency of Kim Gu, declared war on Japan and Germany. Kim Gu organized many of the exiled Korean resistance groups, forming the "Korean Liberation Army ''. On the other hand, Kim Il - sung led tens of thousands of Koreans who volunteered for the National Revolutionary Army and the People 's Liberation Army. The communist - backed Korean Volunteer Army (KVA, 조선 의용군, 朝鮮 義勇軍) was established in Yenan, China, outside of the Provisional Government 's control, from a core of 1,000 deserters from the Imperial Japanese Army. After the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation, the KVA entered Manchuria, where it recruited from the ethnic Korean population and eventually became the Korean People 's Army of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea.
Economic output in terms of agriculture, fishery, forestry and industry increased by tenfold from 1910 to 1945 as illustrated on the chart to the right. Princeton 's Atul Kohli concluded that the economic development model the Japanese instituted played the crucial role in Korean economic development, a model that was maintained by the Koreans in the post-World War II era.
Randall S. Jones wrote that "economic development during the colonial period can be said to have laid the foundation for future growth in several respects. '' According to Myung Soo Cha of Yeungnam University, "the South Korean developmental state, as symbolized by Park Chung Hee, a former officer of the Japanese Imperial army serving in wartime Manchuria, was closely modeled upon the colonial system of government. In short, South Korea grew on the shoulders of the colonial achievement, rather than emerging out of the ashes left by the Korean War, as is sometimes asserted. ''
A 2017 study found that the gradual removal of trade barriers (almost fully completed by 1923) after Japan 's annexation of Korea "increased population growth rates more in the regions close to the former border between Japan and Korea than in the other regions. Furthermore, after integration, the regions close to Korea that specialized in the fabric industry, whose products were the primary goods exported from Japan to Korea, experienced more population growth than other regions close to Korea did. ''
There were some modernization efforts by the late 19th century prior to annexation. Seoul became the first city in East Asia to have electricity, trolley cars, water, telephone, and telegraph systems all at the same time, but Korea remained a largely backward agricultural economy around the start of the 20th century. "Japan 's initial colonial policy was to increase agricultural production in Korea to meet Japan 's growing need for rice. Japan also began to build large - scale industries in Korea in the 1930s as part of the empire - wide program of economic self - sufficiency and war preparation. '' In terms of exports, "Japanese industry as a whole gained little... and this is certainly true for the most important manufacturing sector, cotton textiles. This export trade had little impact, positive or negative, on the welfare of Japanese consumer. '' Likewise in terms of the profitability of Japanese investors: colonial Korea made no significant impact.
According to scholar Donald S. Macdonald, "for centuries most Koreans lived as subsistence farmers of rice and other grains and satisfied most of their basic needs through their own labor or through barter. The manufactures of traditional Korea -- principally cloth, cooking and eating utensils, furniture, jewelry, and paper -- were produced by artisans in a few population centers. ''
However, under Japanese rule, many Korean resources were only used for Japan. Economist Suh Sang - chul points out that the nature of industrialization during the period was as an "imposed enclave '', so the impact of colonialism was trivial. Another scholar, Song Byung - nak, states that the economic condition of average Koreans was aggravated during the period despite the economic growth. Most Koreans at the time could access only a primary school education under restriction by the Japanese, and this prevented the growth of an indigenous entrepreneurial class. A 1939 statistic shows that among the total capital recorded by factories, about 94 percent was Japanese - owned. While Koreans owned about 61 percent of small - scale firms that had 5 to 49 employees, about 92 percent of large - scale enterprises with more than 200 employees were Japanese - owned.
The Japanese government created a system of colonial mercantilism, requiring construction of significant transportation infrastructure on the Korean Peninsula for the purpose of extracting and exploiting resources such as raw materials (timber), foodstuff (mostly rice and fish), and mineral resources (coal and iron ore). The Japanese developed port facilities and an extensive railway system which included a main trunk railway from the southern port city of Pusan through the capital of Seoul and north to the Chinese border. This infrastructure was intended not only to facilitate a colonial mercantilist economy, but was also viewed as a strategic necessity for the Japanese military to control Korea and to move large numbers of troops and materials to the Chinese border at short notice.
From the late 1920s and into the 1930s, particularly during the tenure of Japanese Governor - General Kazushige Ugaki, concentrated efforts were made to build up the industrial base in Korea. This was especially true in the areas of heavy industry, such as chemical plants and steel mills, and munitions production. The Japanese military felt it would be beneficial to have production closer to the source of raw materials and closer to potential front lines for a future war with China.
Lee Young - hoon, a professor at Seoul National University states that less than 10 % of arable land actually came under Japanese control and rice was normally traded, not robbed. He also insists that Koreans ' knowledge about the era under Japanese rule is mostly made up by later educators. Many of Lee 's arguments, however, have been contested.
In 1907, the Japanese government passed the Newspaper Law which effectively prevented the publication of local papers. Only the Korean - language newspaper Taehan Maeil Sinbo (大韓 每 日 新報) continued its publication, because it was run by a foreigner named Ernest Bethell. For the first decade of colonial rule, therefore, there were no Korean - owned newspapers whatsoever, although books were steadily printed and there were several dozen Korean - owned magazines. In 1920 these laws were relaxed, and in 1932 Japan eliminated a significant double standard which had been making Korean publication significantly more difficult than Japanese publication. Even with these relaxed rules, however, the government still seized newspapers without warning: there are over a thousand recorded seizures between 1920 and 1939. Revocation of publishing rights was relatively rare, and only three magazines had their rights revoked over the entire colonial period. In 1940, as the Pacific War increased in intensity, Japan shut down all Korean language newspapers again.
Following the annexation of Korea, the Japanese administration introduced a free public education system modeled after the Japanese school system with a pyramidal hierarchy of elementary, middle and high schools, culminating at the Keijō Imperial University in Seoul. As in Japan itself, education was viewed primarily as an instrument of "the Formation of the Imperial Citizen '' (황민 화; 皇 民 化; Hwangminhwa) with a heavy emphasis on moral and political instruction. Japanese religious groups such as Protestant Christians willingly supported the Japanese authorities in their effort to assimilate Koreans through education.
During colonial times, elementary schools were known as "Citizen Schools '' (국민학교; 國民 學校; gungmin hakgyo) as in Japan, as a means of forming proper "Imperial Citizens '' (황 국민; 皇 國民; Hwanggungmin) from early childhood. Elementary schools in South Korea today are known by the name chodeung hakgyo (초등학교; 初等 學校) ("elementary school '') as the term gungmin hakgyo has recently become a politically incorrect term.
The public curriculum for most of the period was taught by Korean educators under a hybrid system focused on assimilating Koreans into the Japanese empire while emphasizing Korean cultural education. This focused on the history of the Japanese Empire as well as inculcating reverence for the Imperial House of Japan and instruction in the Imperial Rescript on Education.
Integration of Korean students in Japanese language schools and Japanese students in Korean language schools was discouraged but steadily increased over time. While official policy promoted equality between ethnic Koreans and ethnic Japanese, in practice this was rarely the case. Korean history and language studies would be taught side by side with Japanese history and language studies until the early 1940s under a new education ordinance that saw wartime efforts increased and the hybrid system slowly weakened.
One point of view is that, although the Japanese education system in Korea was detrimental towards the colony 's cultural identity, its introduction of public education as universal was a step in the right direction to improve Korea 's human capital. Towards the end of Japanese rule, Korea saw elementary school attendance at 38 percent. Children of elite families were able to advance to higher education, while others were able to attend technical schools, allowing for "the emergence of a small but important class of well - educated white collar and technical workers... who possessed skills required to run a modern industrial economy. '' The Japanese education system ultimately produced hundreds of thousands of educated South Koreans who later became "the core of the postwar political and economic elite. ''
Another point of view is that it was only after the end of Japanese rule with World War II that Korea saw true, democratic rise in public education as evidenced by the rise of adult literacy rate from 22 percent in 1945 to 87.6 percent by 1970 and 93 % by the late 1980s. Though free public education was made available for elementary schools during Japanese rule, Korea as a country did not experience secondary - school enrollment rates comparable to those of Japan prior to the end of World War II.
In the initial phase of Japanese rule, students were taught in Korean in public schools established by ethnic Korean officials who worked for the colonial government. While prior to this schools in Korea had used mostly Hanja, during this time Korean came to be written in a mixed Hanja -- Korean script, where most lexical roots were written in Hanja and grammatical forms in Korean script. Korean textbooks from this era included excerpts from traditional Korean stories such as Heungbujeon (흥부전).
In 1921, government efforts were strengthened to promote Korean media and literature throughout Korea and also in Japan. The Japanese government also created incentives to educate ethnic Japanese students in the Korean language. As a response, the Korean Language Society was created by ethnic Koreans. In 1928, as the assimilation policy began to ramp up, the first Hangul Day (9 October) was celebrated to commemorate the Korean alphabet.
The Japanese administrative policy shifted more aggressively towards cultural assimilation in 1938 (Naisen ittai) with a new government report advising reform to strengthen the war effort. This left less room for Korean language studies and by 1943 all Korean language courses had been phased out. Teaching and speaking of Korean was prohibited. Although the government report advised further, more radical reform, the 10 - year plan would never fully go into effect.
The Japanese rule of Korea also resulted in the theft of tens of thousands of cultural artifacts to Japan. The issue over where these articles should be located began during the U.S. occupation of Japan. In 1965, as part of the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea, Japan returned roughly 1,400 artifacts to Korea, and considered the diplomatic matter to have been resolved. Korean artifacts are retained in the Tokyo National Museum and in the hands of many private collectors.
According to the South Korean government, there are 75,311 cultural artifacts that were taken from Korea. Japan has 34,369, the United States has 17,803, and France had several hundred, which were seized in the French campaign against Korea and loaned back to Korea in 2010 without an apology. In 2010, Prime Minister of Japan Naoto Kan expressed "deep remorse '' for the removal of artifacts, and arranged an initial plan to return the Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty and over 1,200 other books, which was carried out in 2011.
Japan sent anthropologists to Korea who took photos of the traditional state of Korean villages, serving as evidence that Korea was "backwards '' and needed to be modernized.
As Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo, Korea became more vital to the internal communications and defense of the Japanese empire against the Soviet Union. Japan decided in the 1930s to make the Koreans become more loyal to the Emperor by requiring Korean participation in the State Shinto devotions, and by weakening the influences of both Christianity and traditional religion.
The primary building of Gyeongbokgung palace was demolished and the Japanese General Government Building was built in its exact location. The Japanese colonial authorities destroyed 85 percent of all the buildings in Gyeongbokgung. Sungnyemun, the gate in Seoul that was an iconic symbol of Korea, was altered by the addition of large, Shinto - style golden horns near the roofs (later removed by the South Korean government after independence).
Protestant missionary efforts in Asia were nowhere more successful than in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. In the days Korea was under Japanese control, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan 's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. The Catholics tolerated Shinto rites. The Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian - based and Christian death and funerary rituals.
Missionaries, however, were alarmed at the rise in communist activity during the 1920s. Communist literature was effectively banned in Korea at this time, but it was sometimes smuggled into the country disguised as Christian literature, often addressed to missionaries to further avoid suspicion. Communist concepts, such as class struggle, and its partner nationalist movement were resonating well with some of the peasants and lower - class citizens of colonial - era Korea; this was worrying to some missionaries because of communism 's atheist components. At one point, communist students in Seoul held an "anti-Sunday School conference '' and loudly protested religion in front of churches. This protest renewed Japanese governmental interest in censorship of communist ideas and language.
Many Koreans became victims of Japanese brutalities during the colonial period. Korean villagers hiding resistance fighters were dealt with harshly, often with summary execution, rape, forced labour, and looting. Starting on 1 March 1919, an anti-Japanese demonstration continued to spread, and as the Japanese national and military police could not contain the crowds, the army and even the navy were also called in. There were several reports of atrocities. In one instance, Japanese police in the village of Jeam - ri, Hwaseong herded everyone into a church, locked it, and burned it to the ground. They also shot through the burning windows of the church to ensure that no one made it out alive. Many participants of the 1 March Movement were subjected to torture and execution.
Although officially voluntary, and initially resisted by the Japanese Colonial government, convinced by the Pro-Japanese elites of their society, 80 % of Koreans voluntarily changed their name to Japanese in 1940. Many community leaders urged the adoption of Japanese names to make it easy for their children to succeed in society and overcome discrimination.
A study conducted by the United States Library of Congress states that "the Korean culture was quashed, and Koreans were required to speak Japanese and take Japanese names ''. This name change policy, called Changssi - gaemyeong (창씨 개명; 創 氏 改名), was part of Japan 's assimilation efforts. This was heavily resisted by the Korean people. Those Koreans who retained their Korean names were not allowed to enroll at school, were refused service at government offices, and were excluded from the lists for food rations and other supplies. Faced with such compulsion, many Koreans ended up complying with the Name Change Order. Such a radical policy was deemed to be symbolically significant in the war effort, binding the fate of the colony with that of the empire. A number of prominent ethnic Koreans working for the Japanese government, including General Hong Sa - ik, insisted on keeping their Korean names. Another ethnic Korean, Park Chun - Geum (박춘금, 朴 春琴), was elected as a member of the Lower House from the Tokyo Third District in the general election in 1932 and served two terms without changing his Korean name, but has been registered as chinilpa by the current Republic of Korea government.
During World War II, about 450,000 Korean male laborers were involuntarily sent to Japan. Comfort women, who served in Japanese military brothels as a form of sexual slavery, came from all over the Japanese empire. They numbered somewhere from 10,000 to 200,000, and they included an unknown number of Koreans. However, 200,000 is considered to be a conservative number by modern historians, and up to 500,000 comfort women are estimated to be taken. These women faced an average of 29 men and up to 40 men per day, according to one surviving comfort woman. However, of the 500,000, less than 50 are alive today. Comfort women were often recruited from rural locales with the promise of factory employment; business records, often from Korean subcontractees of Japanese companies, showed them falsely classified as nurses or secretaries. There is evidence that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed official records regarding comfort women.
In 2002, South Korea started an investigation of Japanese collaborators. Part of the investigation was completed in 2006 and a list of names of individuals who profited from exploitation of fellow Koreans were posted. The collaborators not only benefited from exploiting their countrymen, but the children of these collaborators benefited further by acquiring higher education with the exploitation money they had amassed.
The "Truth Commission on Forced Mobilization under the Japanese Imperialism Republic of Korea '' investigated the received reports for damage from 86 people among the 148 Koreans who were accused of being the level B and C war criminals while serving as prison guards for the Japanese military during World War II. The commission, which was organized by the South Korean government, announced that they acknowledge 83 people among them as victims. The commission said that although the people reluctantly served as guards to avoid the draft, they took responsibility for mistreatment by the Japanese against prisoners of war. Lee Se - il, leader of the investigation, said that examination of the military prosecution reports for 15 Korean prison guards, obtained from The National Archives of the United Kingdom, confirmed that they were convicted without explicit evidence.
Koreans, along with many other Asians, were experimented on in Unit 731, a secret military medical experimentation unit in World War II. The victims who died in the camp included at least 25 victims from the former Soviet Union and Korea. General Shiro Ishii, the head of Unit 731, revealed during the Tokyo War Crime Trials that 254 Koreans were killed in Unit 731. Some historians estimate up to 250,000 total people were subjected to human experiments. A Unit 731 veteran attested that most that were experimented on were Chinese, Koreans and Mongolians.
Colonial Korea was subject to the same Leprosy Prevention Laws of 1907 and 1931 as the Japanese home islands. These laws directly and indirectly permitted the segregation of patients in sanitariums, where forced abortions and sterilization were common. The laws authorized punishment of patients "disturbing the peace '', as most Japanese leprologists believed that vulnerability to the disease was inheritable. In Korea, many leprosy patients were also subjected to hard labor.
Many Koreans were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. According to the secretary - general of a group named Peace Project Network, "there were a total of 70,000 Korean victims in both cities ''. Japan paid South Korea 4 billion yen and built a welfare center in the name of humanitarian assistance, not as compensation to the victims.
Collaborators of the Imperial Japanese Army were prosecuted in the postwar period as Chinilpa, or "friendly to Japanese ''. In 2006 South Korean president Roh Moo - hyun appointed an investigation commission into the issue of locating descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators from the times of the 1890s until the collapse of Japanese rule in 1945.
In 2010, the commission concluded its five - volume report. As a result, the land property of 168 South Korean citizens has been confiscated by the government, these citizens being descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators.
Below is a list of Governors - General of Korea under Japanese rule:
Coordinates: 37 ° 35 ′ N 127 ° 00 ′ E / 37.583 ° N 127.000 ° E / 37.583; 127.000
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who has 5 stars on the hollywood walk of fame | Hollywood Walk of Fame - wikipedia
The Hollywood Walk of Fame comprises more than 2,600 five - pointed terrazzo and brass stars embedded in the sidewalks along 15 blocks of Hollywood Boulevard and three blocks of Vine Street in Hollywood, California. The stars are permanent public monuments to achievement in the entertainment industry, bearing the names of a mix of actors, musicians, directors, producers, musical and theatrical groups, fictional characters, and others. The Walk of Fame is administered by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and maintained by the self - financing Hollywood Historic Trust. It is a popular tourist destination, with a reported 10 million visitors in 2003.
The Walk of Fame runs 1.3 miles (2.1 km) east to west on Hollywood Boulevard from Gower Street to La Brea Avenue, plus a short segment of Marshfield Way that runs diagonally between Hollywood and La Brea; and 0.4 miles (0.64 km) north to south on Vine Street between Yucca Street and Sunset Boulevard. According to a 2003 report by the market research firm NPO Plog Research, the Walk attracts about 10 million visitors annually -- more than Sunset Strip, TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman 's), the Queen Mary, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art -- and has played an important role in making tourism the largest industry in Los Angeles County.
As of 2017, the Walk of Fame comprises over 2,600 stars, spaced at 6 - foot (1.8 m) intervals. The monuments are coral - pink terrazzo five - point stars rimmed with brass (not bronze, an oft - repeated inaccuracy) inlaid into a charcoal - colored terrazzo background. In the upper portion of each star field the name of the honoree is inlaid in brass block letters. Below the inscription, in the lower half of the star field, a round inlaid brass emblem indicates the category of the honoree 's contributions. The emblems symbolize five categories within the entertainment industry:
Of all the stars on the Walk to date, 47 % have been awarded in the motion pictures category, 24 % in television, 17 % in audio recording, 10 % in radio, and less than 2 % in the live performance category. Approximately 20 new stars are added to the Walk each year.
Special category stars recognize various contributions by corporate entities, service organizations, and special honorees, and display emblems unique to those honorees. For example, former Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley 's star displays the Seal of the City of Los Angeles; the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) star emblem is a replica of a Hollywood Division badge; and stars representing corporations, such as Victoria 's Secret and the Los Angeles Dodgers, display the honoree 's corporate logo. The "Friends of the Walk of Fame '' monuments are charcoal terrazzo squares rimmed by miniature pink terrazzo stars displaying the five standard category emblems, along with the sponsor 's corporate logo, with the sponsor 's name and contribution in inlaid brass block lettering. Special stars and Friends monuments are granted by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce or the Hollywood Historic Trust, but are not part of the Walk of Fame proper and are located nearby on private property.
The monuments for the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon are uniquely shaped: Four identical circular moons, bearing the names of the three astronauts (Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., Michael Collins) the date of the first Moon landing ("7 / 20 / 69 ''), and the words "Apollo XI '', are set on each of the four corners of the intersection of Hollywood and Vine. The moons are silver and grey terrazzo circles rimmed in brass on a square pink terrazzo background, with the television emblem inlaid at the top of each circle.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce credits E.M. Stuart, its volunteer president in 1953, with the original idea for creating a Walk of Fame. Stuart reportedly proposed the Walk as a means to "maintain the glory of a community whose name means glamour and excitement in the four corners of the world. '' Harry Sugarman, another Chamber member and president of the Hollywood Improvement Association, receives credit in an independent account. A committee was formed to flesh out the idea, and an architectural firm was retained to develop specific proposals. By 1955 the basic concept and general design had been agreed upon, and plans were submitted to the Los Angeles City Council.
Multiple accounts exist for the origin of the star concept. According to one, the historic Hollywood Hotel -- which stood for more than 50 years on Hollywood Boulevard at the site now occupied by the Hollywood and Highland complex and the Dolby (formerly Kodak) Theatre -- displayed stars on its dining room ceiling above the tables favored by its most famous celebrity patrons, and that may have served as an early inspiration. By another account, the stars were "inspired... by Sugarman 's (Tropics Restaurant) drinks menu, which featured celebrity photos framed in gold stars. ''
In February 1956 a prototype was unveiled featuring a caricature of an example honoree (John Wayne, by some accounts) inside a blue star on a brown background. However, caricatures proved too expensive and difficult to execute in brass with the technology available at the time; and the brown and blue motif was vetoed by Charles E. Toberman, the legendary real estate developer known as "Mr. Hollywood '', because the colors clashed with a new building he was erecting on Hollywood Boulevard.
By March 1956 the final design and coral - and - charcoal color scheme had been approved, and between the spring of 1956 and the fall of 1957, 1,558 honorees were selected by committees representing the four major branches of the entertainment industry at that time: motion pictures, television, audio recording, and radio. The committees met at the Brown Derby restaurant, and included such prominent names as Cecil B. DeMille, Samuel Goldwyn, Jesse L. Lasky, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, Mack Sennett, and Walter Lantz.
A requirement stipulated by the original audio recording committee (and later rescinded) specified minimum sales of one million records or 250,000 albums for all music category nominees. The committee soon realized that many important recording artists would be excluded from the Walk by that requirement. As a result, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences was formed for the purpose of creating a separate award system for the music business. The first Grammy Awards were presented in Beverly Hills in 1959.
Construction of the Walk began in 1958 but two lawsuits delayed completion. The first was filed by local property owners challenging the legality of the $ 1.25 million tax assessment levied upon them to pay for the Walk, along with new street lighting and trees. In October 1959 the assessment was ruled legal. The second lawsuit, filed by Charles Chaplin, Jr., sought damages for the exclusion of his father, whose nomination had been withdrawn due to pressure from multiple quarters (see Controversial additions). Chaplin 's suit was dismissed in 1960, paving the way for completion of the project.
While Joanne Woodward is often singled out as the first to receive a star on the Walk of Fame, in fact there was no "first '' recipient; the original stars were installed as a continuous project, with no individual ceremonies. Woodward 's name was one of eight drawn at random from the original 1,558 and inscribed on eight prototype stars that were built while litigation was still holding up permanent construction. The eight prototypes were installed temporarily on the northwest corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Highland Avenue in August 1958 to generate publicity and to demonstrate how the Walk would eventually look. The other seven names were Olive Borden, Ronald Colman, Louise Fazenda, Preston Foster, Burt Lancaster, Edward Sedgwick, and Ernest Torrence. Official groundbreaking took place on February 8, 1960. On March 28, 1960, the first permanent star, director Stanley Kramer 's, was completed on the easternmost end of the new Walk near the intersection of Hollywood and Gower. The Joanne Woodward legend may have originated, according to one source, because she was the first to pose with her star for photographers.
Though the Walk was originally conceived in part to encourage redevelopment of Hollywood Boulevard, the 1960s and 1970s were periods of protracted urban decay in the Hollywood area as residents moved to suburbs. After the initial installation of approximately 1,500 stars in 1960 and 1961, eight years passed without the addition of a new star. In 1962 the Los Angeles City Council passed an ordinance naming the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce "the agent to advise the City '' about adding names to the Walk, and the Chamber, over the following six years, devised rules, procedures, and financing methods to do so. In December 1968, Richard D. Zanuck was awarded the first star in eight years in a presentation ceremony hosted by Danny Thomas. In July 1978 the City of Los Angeles designated the Hollywood Walk of Fame a Los Angeles Historic - Cultural Monument.
Radio personality, television producer and Chamber member Johnny Grant is generally credited with implementing the changes that resuscitated the Walk and established it as a significant tourist attraction. Beginning in 1968, he stimulated publicity and encouraged international press coverage by requiring that each recipient personally attend his or her star 's unveiling ceremony. Grant later recalled that "it was tough to get people to come accept a star '' until the neighborhood finally began its recovery in the 1980s. In 1980 he instituted a fee of $2,500, payable by the person or entity nominating the recipient, to fund the Walk of Fame 's upkeep and minimize further taxpayer burden. The fee has increased incrementally over time; by 2002 it had reached $15,000, and stood at $30,000 in 2012. The current (2017) fee is $40,000.
Grant was awarded a star in 1980 for his television work. In 2002, he received a second star in the "special '' category to acknowledge his pivotal role in improving and popularizing the Walk. He was also named chairman of the Selection Committee and Honorary Mayor of Hollywood (a ceremonial position previously held by Art Linkletter and Monty Hall, among others). He remained in both offices from 1980 until his death in 2008 and hosted the great majority of unveiling ceremonies during that period. His unique special - category star, with its emblem depicting a stylized "Great Seal of the City of Hollywood '', is located at the entrance to the Dolby Theatre adjacent to Johnny Grant Way.
In 1984 a fifth category, Live Theatre, was added to permit acknowledgment of contributions from the live performance branch of the entertainment industry, and a second row of stars was created on each sidewalk to alternate with the existing stars.
In 1994 the Walk of Fame was extended one block to the west on Hollywood Boulevard, from Sycamore Avenue to North LaBrea Avenue (plus the short segment of Marshfield Way that connects Hollywood and La Brea), where it now ends at the silver "Four Ladies of Hollywood '' gazebo and the special "Walk of Fame '' star. At the same time, Sophia Loren was honored with the 2,000 th star on the Walk.
During construction of tunnels for the Los Angeles subway system in 1996 the Metropolitan Transportation Authority removed and stored more than 300 stars. Controversy arose when the MTA proposed a money - saving measure of jackhammering the 3 - by - 3 - foot terrazzo pads, preserving only the brass lettering, surrounds, and medallions, then pouring new terrazzo after the tunnels were completed; but the Cultural Heritage Commission ruled that the star pads were to be removed intact.
In 2008 a long - term restoration project began with an evaluation of all 2,365 stars on the Walk at the time, each receiving a letter grade of A, B, C, D, or F. Honorees whose stars received F grades, indicating the most severe damage, were Joan Collins, Peter Frampton, Dick Van Patten, Paul Douglas, Andrew L. Stone, Willard Waterman, Richard Boleslavsky, Ellen Drew, Frank Crumit, and Bobby Sherwood. Fifty celebrities ' stars received "D '' grades. The damage ranged from minor cosmetic flaws caused by normal weathering to holes and fissures severe enough to constitute a walking hazard. At least 778 stars will eventually be repaired or replaced during the ongoing project at an estimated cost of $4 million to $4.2 million.
The restoration is a collaboration among the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and various Los Angeles city and county governmental offices, along with the MTA, which operates the Metro Red Line that runs beneath the Walk, since earth movement due to the presence of the subway line is thought to be partly responsible for the damage.
To encourage supplemental funding for the project by corporate sponsors, the "Friends of Walk of Fame '' program was inaugurated. Absolut Vodka became the first Friend with a donation of $1 million, followed by L'Oréal. Friends are recognized with honorary plaques adjacent to the Walk of Fame in front of the Dolby Theatre. The program received some criticism. Alana Semuels of the Los Angeles Times described it as "just the latest corporate attempt to buy some good buzz, '' and, quoting an area brand strategist, "I think Johnny Grant would roll over in his grave. '' Karen Fondu, President of L'Oréal Paris, countered that the association was "a natural affinity. ''
The original selection committees chose to recognize some entertainers ' contributions in multiple categories with multiple stars. Gene Autry is the only honoree with stars in all five categories. Bob Hope, Mickey Rooney, Roy Rogers, and Tony Martin each have stars in four categories -- Rooney has three of his own and a fourth with his eighth and final wife, Jan, while Rogers also has three of his own, and a fourth with his band, Sons of the Pioneers. Thirty - three people, including Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Jo Stafford, Dean Martin, Dinah Shore, Gale Storm, Danny Kaye, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Jack Benny, have stars in three categories.
Seven recording artists have two stars in the same category for distinct achievements: Michael Jackson, as a soloist and as a member of The Jackson 5; Diana Ross, as a member of The Supremes and for her solo work; Smokey Robinson, as a solo artist and as a member of The Miracles; and John Lennon, Ringo Starr, George Harrison, and Paul McCartney as individuals and as members of The Beatles. Cher forfeited her opportunity by declining to schedule the mandatory personal appearance when she was selected in 1983. She did attend the unveiling of the Sonny & Cher star in 1998 as a tribute to her recently deceased ex-husband, Sonny Bono.
George Eastman is the only honoree with two stars in the same category for the same achievement, the invention of roll film.
In 1977, country singer Loretta Lynn was the first of her genre to receive a star on the Walk of Fame.
Charlie Chaplin is the only honoree to be selected twice for the same star on the Walk. He was unanimously voted into the initial group of 500 in 1956 but the Selection Committee ultimately excluded him, ostensibly due to questions regarding his morals (he had been charged with violating the Mann Act -- and exonerated -- during the White Slavery hysteria of the 1940s), but more likely due to his left - leaning political views. The rebuke prompted an unsuccessful lawsuit by his son, Charles Chaplin Jr. His star was finally added to the Walk in 1972, the same year he received his Academy Award; but even then, 16 years later, the Chamber of Commerce received angry letters from across the country protesting its decision to include him.
The committee 's Chaplin difficulties reportedly contributed to its decision in 1978 against awarding a star to Paul Robeson, a controversial opera singer, actor, athlete, writer, lawyer, and social activist. The resulting outcry from the entertainment industry, civic circles, local and national politicians, and many other quarters was so intense that the decision was reversed and Robeson was awarded a star in 1979.
Following sexual assault allegations involving comedian Bill Cosby, actor Kevin Spacey and producer - director Brett Ratner, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce released a statement regarding inquiries as to the removal of stars:
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has received inquiries asking whether we are planning to remove the stars of Walk of Famers because of alleged misconduct. The answer is no... The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a registered historic landmark. Once a star has been added to the Walk, it is considered a part of the historic fabric of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Because of this, we have never removed a star from the Walk.
As of 2015, this has been the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce 's only statement regarding the removal of stars.
Two pairs of stars share identical names representing different people. There are two Harrison Ford stars, honoring the silent film actor (at 6665 Hollywood Boulevard), and the present - day actor (in front of the Dolby Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard). Two Michael Jackson stars represent the singer / dancer / songwriter (at 6927 Hollywood Boulevard), and the radio personality (at 1597 Vine Street). When the recording artist Jackson died in 2009, fans mistakenly began leaving flowers, candles, and other tributes at the Vine Street star. Upon learning of this, the radio host wrote on his website, "I am willingly loan (ing) it to him and, if it would bring him back, he can have it. ''
The most common surname, with sixteen stars, is Williams: Andy Williams, Bill Williams, Billy Dee Williams, Cindy Williams, Earle Williams, Esther Williams, Guy Williams, Hank Williams, Joe Williams, Kathlyn Williams, Paul Williams, Pharrell Williams, Robin Williams, Roger Williams, Tex Williams and Vanessa Williams. There are fourteen stars with the surname Moore, twelve with Jones, and seven with Smith.
The largest collection of stars honoring one group of blood relatives is the widely scattered set of seven representing the Barrymore family: John Barrymore, his brother Lionel (who has two), and sister Ethel, their uncle Sidney Drew, John 's son John Drew Barrymore, and John Drew 's daughter Drew Barrymore.
Walk of Fame rules prohibit consideration of nominees whose contributions fall outside the five major entertainment categories, but the selection committee has been known to conjure some interesting rule interpretations to justify a selection. The Walk 's four round Moon landing monuments at the corners of Hollywood and Vine, for example, officially recognize the Apollo 11 astronauts for "contributions to the television industry ''. Johnny Grant acknowledged, in 2005, that classifying the first Moon landing as a television entertainment event was "a bit of a stretch ''. Magic Johnson 's considerable basketball skills had no direct connection to movies, music, TV, radio, or theater, but the committee added him to the motion picture category, based on his ownership of the Magic Johnson Theatre chain, citing as precedent Sid Grauman, builder of Grauman 's (now TCL) Chinese Theatre. "(Now) people want Orville Redenbacher, '' Grant quipped in the 2005 interview, "because his popcorn is in all the theaters. ''
Muhammad Ali 's star was granted after the committee decided that boxing could be considered a form of "live performance ''. Its placement, on a wall of the Dolby Theatre, makes it the only star mounted on a vertical surface, acceding to Ali 's request that his name not be walked upon.
All living honorees have been required since 1968 to personally attend their star 's unveiling, and approximately 40 have declined the honor due to this condition. The only recipient to date who failed to appear after agreeing to do so was Barbra Streisand, in 1976. Her star was unveiled anyway, near the intersection of Hollywood and Highland. Streisand did attend when her husband, James Brolin, unveiled his star in 1998 two blocks to the east.
Fifteen stars are identified with a one - word stage name: Cantinflas, Houdini, Liberace, Mako, Meiklejohn, Paderewski, Parkyakarkus, Roseanne, RuPaul, Sabu, Shakira, Slash, Sting, Thalía, and Usher.
The largest group of individuals represented by a single star is the estimated 122 adults and 12 children collectively known as the Munchkins, from the landmark 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.
Clayton Moore is so inextricably linked with his Lone Ranger character, even though he played other roles during his career, that he is one of only two actors to have his character 's name alongside his own on his star. The other is Tommy Riggs, whose star reads, "Tommy Riggs & Betty Lou. ''
For more than 40 years, singer Jimmy Boyd was the youngest star recipient at age 20, but he lost that distinction in 2004 to 18 - year - old twins Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen. Their joint star (the only one shared by twins) is outside the Dolby Theatre, near the Hollywood and Highland Center.
The Westmores received the first star honoring contributions in theatrical make - up. Other make - up artists on the walk are Max Factor, John Chambers and Rick Baker. Three stars recognize experts in special effects: Ray Harryhausen, Dennis Muren, and Stan Winston. Only one costume designer has received a star, eight - time Academy Award winner Edith Head.
Sidney Sheldon is one of two novelists with a star, which he earned for writing screenplays such as The Bachelor and the Bobby - Soxer before turning to novels. The other is Ray Bradbury, whose books and stories have formed the basis of dozens of movies and television programs over a nearly 60 - year period.
Ten inventors have stars on the Walk: George Eastman (as mentioned); Thomas Edison, inventor of the first true film projector and holder of numerous patents related to motion - picture technology; Lee de Forest, inventor of the vacuum tube, which made radio and TV possible, and Phonofilm, which made sound movies possible; Merian C. Cooper, co-inventor of the Cinerama process; Herbert Kalmus, inventor of Technicolor; Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors of important components of the motion picture camera; Mark Serrurier, inventor of the technology used for film editing; Hedy Lamarr, co-inventor of a frequency - hopping radio guidance system that was a precursor to Wi - Fi networks and cellular telephone systems; and Ray Dolby, co-developer of the video tape recorder and inventor of the Dolby noise reduction system.
A few star recipients moved on after their entertainment careers to political notability. Two US presidents, Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump, have stars on the Walk. Reagan is also one of two Governors of California with a star; the other is Arnold Schwarzenegger. One U.S. senator (George Murphy) and two members of the U.S. House of Representatives (Helen Gahagan and Sonny Bono) have stars. Ignacy Paderewski, who served as Prime Minister of Poland between the World Wars, is the only European head of government represented. Film and stage actor Albert Dekker served one term in the California State Assembly during the 1940s, which was notable for his outspoken public criticism of Senator Joseph McCarthy 's anti-communism demagoguery, leading to his blacklisting.
On its 50th anniversary in 2005, Disneyland received a star adjacent to the Walk of Fame near Disney 's Soda Fountain on Hollywood Boulevard. While not technically part of the Hollywood Walk of Fame (a city ordinance prohibits putting corporate names on sidewalks), the star was installed adjacent to the Walk of Fame, and was thought of by Johnny Grant, the proverbial "Mayor of Hollywood. '' Roger Ebert said of the star "If you stop to think about what Disneyland has achieved and what a revolutionary idea it was to begin with, of course it deserve (s) a star. '' In lieu of the traditional icon indicating the specific achievement (s) of the honoree, Disneyland 's star has an icon of Sleeping Beauty Castle, and a plaque beneath the star reading: "Award of Excellence Special achievement for 50 years of magical entertainment Hollywood Historic Trust July 14, 2005. Johnny Grant, Chairman. ''
In 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey Mouse became the first animated character to receive a star. Other animated recipients are Bugs Bunny, Donald Duck, Minnie Mouse, Woody Woodpecker, Snow White, Tinker Bell, Winnie the Pooh, Shrek, The Simpsons, the Rugrats, and Snoopy. The star inscribed Charlie Tuna honors not the animated advertising mascot, but Art Ferguson, the long - time radio personality and game show announcer.
Other fictional characters on the Walk include the Munchkins (as mentioned), two individual Muppets (Kermit the Frog and Big Bird) and the Muppets as a group, one monster (Godzilla), and three non-animated canine characters (Strongheart, Lassie, and Rin Tin Tin).
Ten stars recognize cartoonists and animators: Walt Disney, Chuck Jones, Friz Freleng, Walter Lantz, Hanna -- Barbera, Charles M. Schulz, Jay Ward, Dr. Seuss, Matt Groening and John Lasseter. Two puppeteers have stars: Jim Henson and Shari Lewis, as does Fran Allison, who appeared with Burr Tillstrom 's puppets on the TV show Kukla, Fran and Ollie.
Locations of individual stars are not necessarily random or arbitrary. Stars of most legendary and world - famous celebrities -- the so - called "show business royalty '' -- are found in front of TCL (formerly Grauman 's) Chinese Theatre. Oscar - winners ' stars are usually placed near the Dolby Theatre, site of the annual Academy Awards presentations. Decisions are occasionally made with a dollop of whimsy: Mike Myers 's star, for example, lies in front of an adult store called the International Love Boutique, an association with his Austin Powers roles; Roger Moore 's star is located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard in recognition of his seven James Bond 007 films; Ed O'Neill 's star is located outside a shoe store in reference to his character 's occupation on the TV show Married... with Children; and the last star, at the very end of the westernmost portion of the Walk, belongs to The Dead End Kids.
Honorees may request a specific location for their star, although final decisions remain with the Chamber. Jay Leno, for example, requested a spot near the corner of Hollywood Blvd. and Highland Ave. because he was twice picked up at that location by police for vagrancy (though never actually charged) shortly after his arrival in Hollywood. George Carlin chose to have his star placed in front of the KDAY radio station near the corner of Sunset Blvd. and Vine St., where he first gained national recognition. Carol Burnett explained her choice in her 1986 memoir: While working as an usherette at the historic Warner Brothers Theatre (now the Hollywood Pacific Theatre) during the 1951 run of Alfred Hitchcock 's film Strangers on a Train, she took it upon herself to advise a couple arriving during the final few minutes of a showing to wait for the next showing, to avoid seeing (and spoiling) the ending. The theater manager fired her on the spot for "insubordination '' and humiliated her by stripping the epaulets from her uniform in the theater lobby. Twenty - six years later, at her request, Burnett 's star was placed at the corner of Hollywood and Wilcox -- in front of the theater.
In 2010, Julia Louis - Dreyfus 's star was constructed with the name "Julia Luis Dreyfus ''. The actress was reportedly amused, and the error was corrected. A similar mistake was made on Dick Van Dyke 's star in 1993 ("Vandyke ''), and rectified.
Film and television actor Don Haggerty 's star originally displayed the first name "Dan ''. The mistake was fixed, but years later the television actor Dan Haggerty (of Grizzly Adams fame, no relation to Don) also received a star. The confusion eventually sprouted an urban legend that Dan Haggerty was the only honoree to have a star removed from the Walk of Fame.
For 28 years, the star intended to honor Mauritz Stiller, the Helsinki - born pioneer of Swedish film who brought Greta Garbo to the United States, read "Maurice Diller '', possibly due to mistranscription of verbal dictation. The star was finally remade with the correct name in 1988.
Three stars remain misspelled: opera diva Lotte Lehmann 's first name is spelled "Lottie ''; Cinerama co-inventor and King Kong creator, director, and producer Merian C. Cooper 's first name is spelled "Meriam ''; and cinematography pioneer Auguste Lumière 's first name is listed as "August ''.
Monty Woolley, the veteran film and stage actor best known for The Man Who Came to Dinner (1942) and the classic line "Time flies when you 're having fun '', is officially listed in the motion picture category, but his star on the Walk of Fame bears the television emblem. Woolley did appear on the small screen late in his career, but his TV contributions were eclipsed by his extensive stage, film, and radio work. Similarly, the star of film actress Carmen Miranda bears the TV emblem, although her official category is motion pictures. Radio and television talk show host Larry King is officially a television honoree, but his star displays a film camera.
The Los Angeles Times, which documented and photographed the Walk as part of its Hollywood Star Walk project, reported that it could not find two stars, honoring Richard Crooks and the film career of Geraldine Farrar. (Farrar 's music star is located on the 1700 block of Vine Street.)
Acts of vandalism occur on the Walk on a regular basis, ranging from profanity and political statements written on stars with markers to attempted removal of brass emblems with chisels. Closed circuit surveillance cameras have been installed on the stretch of Hollywood Boulevard between La Brea Avenue and Vine Street in an effort to discourage mischievous activities.
Four of the stars, which weigh about 300 pounds (140 kg) each, have been stolen from the Walk of Fame. In 2000, James Stewart 's and Kirk Douglas 's stars disappeared from their locations near the intersection of Hollywood and Vine, where they had been temporarily removed for a construction project. Police recovered them in the suburban community of South Gate when they arrested a man involved in an incident there and searched his house. The suspect was a construction worker employed on the Hollywood and Vine project. The stars had been badly damaged, and had to be remade. One of Gene Autry 's five stars (it is not clear which one) was also stolen from a construction area. Johnny Grant later received an anonymous phone tip that the missing star was in Iowa, but it was never found. "Someday, it will end up on eBay, '' Grant once joked. The most brazen and ambitious theft occurred in 2005 when thieves used a concrete saw to remove Gregory Peck 's star from its Hollywood Boulevard site at the intersection of North El Centro Avenue, near North Gower. The star was replaced almost immediately, but the original was never recovered and the perpetrators never caught.
In late 2009, rumors circulated widely on media outlets and the Internet that John Lennon 's star had been stolen, but it was merely being relocated farther south on Vine Street to an area near the circular Capitol Records Building, adjacent to the stars of bandmates George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Paul McCartney 's star was installed in the same location in 2012.
Donald Trump 's star -- received as host of The Apprentice television series -- was repeatedly defaced during the 2016 presidential campaign. In late October, near the end of the race, a man named Jamie Otis (who claimed to be an heir to the Otis Elevator fortune) used a sledge hammer and a pickaxe to destroy all of the star 's brass inlays. He readily admitted to the vandalism, which he described as "civil disobedience '' and "freedom of expression '', and told reporters that he originally planned to remove the entire star and auction it to raise money for the women who accused Trump of sexually assaulting them. Otis was arrested three weeks after the incident, charged with one count of felony vandalism, and sentenced to three years ' probation plus $3400 in restitution payments. The star itself was repaired, and has since been the site of pro-Trump demonstrations.
The Four Ladies of Hollywood gazebo -- known officially as the Hollywood and La Brea Gateway -- stands upon a small triangular island formed by the confluence of Hollywood Boulevard, Marshfield Way, and North La Brea Avenue at the westernmost extension of the Walk of Fame. It was commissioned in 1993 by the Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency Art Program and created by the architect, production designer, and film director Catherine Hardwicke as a tribute to the multi-ethnic women of Hollywood. The gazebo is a stainless steel stylized Art Deco lattice structure. The roof is an arched square supporting a circular dome, which is topped by a central obelisk with descending neon block letters spelling "Hollywood '' on each of its four sides. Atop the obelisk is a small gilded weathervane - style sculpture of Marilyn Monroe in her iconic billowing skirt pose from The Seven Year Itch. The domed structure is held aloft by four caryatids sculpted by Harl West to represent the African - American actress Dorothy Dandridge, Asian - American actress Anna May Wong, Mexican actress Dolores del Río, and the multi-ethnic, Brooklyn - born actress Mae West.
The gazebo was dedicated on February 1, 1994, to a mixed reception. Los Angeles Times art critic Christopher Knight called it "the most depressingly awful work of public art in recent years '', representing the opposite of Hardwicke 's intended tribute to women. "Sex, as a woman 's historic gateway to Hollywood '', he wrote, "could n't be more explicitly described ''. Independent writer and film producer Gail Choice called it a fitting tribute to a group of pioneering and courageous women who "carried a tremendous burden on their feminine shoulders. Never in my wildest dreams did I believe I 'd ever see women of color immortalized in such a creative and wonderful fashion. '' Hardwicke contended that critics had missed the "humor and symbolism '' of the structure, which "embraces and pokes fun at the glamour, the polished metallic male form of the Oscar, and the pastiche of styles and dreams that pervades Tinseltown. ''
Each year an average of 200 nominations are submitted to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce Walk of Fame Selection Committee. Anyone, including fans, can nominate anyone active in the field of entertainment as long as the nominee or his or her management approves the nomination (a letter of agreement from the nominated celebrity or representative must accompany the application). Nominees must have a minimum of five years ' experience in the category for which they are nominated and a history of "charitable contributions ''. Posthumous nominees must have been deceased at least five years. At a meeting each June, the committee selects approximately 20 celebrities to receive stars on the Walk of Fame during the following year. One posthumous award is given each year as well. The nominations of those not selected are rolled over to the following year for reconsideration; those not selected two years in a row are dropped, and must be renominated to receive further consideration. Living recipients must agree to personally attend a presentation ceremony within five years of selection. A relative of deceased recipients must attend posthumous presentations. Presentation ceremonies are open to the public.
A fee of $40,000 (as of 2018), payable at time of selection, is collected to pay for the creation and installation of the star, as well as general maintenance of the Walk of Fame. The fee is usually paid by the nominating organization, which may be a fan club, or a film studio, record company, broadcaster, or other sponsor involved with the prospective honoree. The Starz cable network, for example, paid for Dennis Hopper 's star as part of the promotion for its series Crash. It was unveiled in March 2010 shortly before Hopper 's death.
Numerous major entertainment figures and legendary show business acts are not included on the Walk of Fame for a variety of reasons. Some, such as Julia Roberts and Clint Eastwood, have declined to participate; nominations can not proceed without the nominee 's consent. Others, such as George Clooney and John Denver, were nominated, but would not agree to the mandatory personal appearance at the unveiling ceremony; however, Denver received a posthumous star in late 2014. Others have simply never been nominated, or do not have a nominator willing or able to pay the selection fee, or have less than the required five years ' minimum involvement in their designated field. Others are merely victims of selection constraints and probability; only about 10 % of nominees are selected each year.
Traditionally, the identities of selection committee members, other than its chairman, have not been made public in order to minimize conflicts of interest and to discourage lobbying by celebrities and their representatives (a significant problem during the original selections in the late 1950s). However, in 1999, in response to intensifying charges of secrecy in the selection process, the Chamber disclosed the members ' names: Johnny Grant, the longtime chair and representative of the television category; Earl Lestz, president of Paramount Studio Group (motion pictures); Stan Spero, retired manager with broadcast stations KMPC and KABC (radio); Kate Nelson, owner of the Palace Theatre (live performance); and Mary Lou Dudas, vice president of A&M Records (recording industry). Since that 1999 announcement the Chamber has revealed only that Lestz (who received his own star in 2004) became chairman after Grant died in 2008. Their current official position is that "each of the five categories is represented by someone with expertise in that field ''.
In 2010, Lestz was replaced as chairman by John Pavlik, former Director of Communications for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. While no public announcement was made to that effect, he was identified as chairman in the Chamber 's press release announcing the 2011 star recipients. The current chair, according to the Chamber 's 2016 selection announcement, is film producer Maureen Schultz.
Some fans show respect for star recipients both living and dead by laying flowers or other symbolic tributes at their stars. Others show their support in other ways; the star awarded to Julio Iglesias, for example, is kept in "pristine condition (by) a devoted band of elderly women (who) scrub and polish it once a month ''.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has adopted the tradition of placing flower wreaths at the stars of newly deceased awardees; for example Bette Davis in 1989, Katharine Hepburn in 2003, and Jackie Cooper in 2011. The stars of other deceased celebrities, such as Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Pryor, Ricardo Montalbán, James Doohan, Frank Sinatra, Robin Williams, Joan Rivers and George Harrison have become impromptu memorial and vigil sites as well, and some continue to receive anniversary remembrances.
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how long does it take to drive to delaware | Delaware - wikipedia
Delaware (/ ˈdɛləwɛər / (listen)) is one of the 50 states of the United States, located in the Mid-Atlantic or Northeastern region. It is bordered to the south and west by Maryland, to the north by Pennsylvania, and to the east by New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean. The state takes its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and Virginia 's first colonial governor.
Delaware occupies the northeastern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula. It is the second smallest and sixth least populous state, but the sixth most densely populated. Delaware is divided into three counties, the lowest number of any state. From north to south, they are New Castle County, Kent County, and Sussex County. While the southern two counties have historically been predominantly agricultural, New Castle County is more industrialized.
Before its coastline was explored by Europeans in the 16th century, Delaware was inhabited by several groups of Native Americans, including the Lenape in the north and Nanticoke in the south. It was initially colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, near the present town of Lewes, in 1631. Delaware was one of the 13 colonies participating in the American Revolution. On December 7, 1787, Delaware became the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, and has since been known as "The First State ''.
The state was named after the Delaware River, which in turn derived its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (1577 -- 1618) who was the ruling governor of the Colony of Virginia at the time Europeans first explored the river. The Delaware Indians, a name used by Europeans for Lenape people indigenous to the Delaware Valley, also derive their name from the same source.
The surname de La Warr comes from Sussex and is of Anglo - Norman origin. It came probably from a Norman lieu - dit La Guerre. This toponymic could derive from the Latin word ager, from the Breton gwern or from the Late Latin varectum (fallow). The toponyms Gara, Gare, Gaire (the sound (ä) often mutated in (æ)) also appear in old texts cited by Lucien Musset, where the word ga (i) ra means gore. It could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse verr.
Delaware is 96 miles (154 km) long and ranges from 9 miles (14 km) to 35 miles (56 km) across, totaling 1,954 square miles (5,060 km), making it the second - smallest state in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania; to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and south by Maryland. Small portions of Delaware are also situated on the eastern side of the Delaware River sharing land boundaries with New Jersey. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and two counties of Virginia, form the Delmarva Peninsula, which stretches down the Mid-Atlantic Coast.
The definition of the northern boundary of the state is unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania was originally defined by an arc extending 12 miles (19.3 km) from the cupola of the courthouse in the city of New Castle. This boundary is often referred to as the Twelve - Mile Circle. This is the only nominally circular state boundary in the United States.
This border extends all the way east to the low - tide mark on the New Jersey shore, then continues south along the shoreline until it again reaches the 12 - mile (19 km) arc in the south; then the boundary continues in a more conventional way in the middle of the main channel (thalweg) of the Delaware River. To the west, a portion of the arc extends past the easternmost edge of Maryland. The remaining western border runs slightly east of due south from its intersection with the arc. The Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delaware 's claim was confirmed.
Delaware is on a level plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, is less than 450 feet (140 m) above sea level. The northernmost part of the state is part of the Piedmont Plateau with hills and rolling surfaces. The Atlantic Seaboard fall line approximately follows the Robert Kirkwood Highway between Newark and Wilmington; south of this road is the Atlantic Coastal Plain with flat, sandy, and, in some parts, swampy ground. A ridge about 75 to 80 feet (23 to 24 m) in elevation extends along the western boundary of the state and separates the watersheds that feed Delaware River and Bay to the east and the Chesapeake Bay to the west.
Since almost all of Delaware is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain, the effects of the ocean moderate its climate. The state lies in the humid subtropical climate zone. Despite its small size (roughly 100 miles (160 km) from its northernmost to southernmost points), there is significant variation in mean temperature and amount of snowfall between Sussex County and New Castle County. Moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay, the southern portion of the state has a milder climate and a longer growing season than the northern portion of the state. Delaware 's all - time record high of 110 ° F (43 ° C) was recorded at Millsboro on July 21, 1930. The all - time record low of − 17 ° F (− 27 ° C) was also recorded at Millsboro on January 17, 1893.
The transitional climate of Delaware supports a wide variety of vegetation. In the northern third of the state are found Northeastern coastal forests and mixed oak forests typical of the northeastern United States. In the southern two - thirds of the state are found Middle Atlantic coastal forests. Trap Pond State Park, along with areas in other parts of Sussex County, for example, support the northernmost stands of bald cypress trees in North America.
Delaware provides government subsidy support for the clean - up of property "lightly contaminated '' by hazardous waste, the proceeds for which come from a tax on wholesale petroleum sales.
Before Delaware was settled by European colonists, the area was home to the Eastern Algonquian tribes known as the Unami Lenape, or Delaware, who lived mostly along the coast, and the Nanticoke who occupied much of the southern Delmarva Peninsula. John Smith also shows two Iroquoian tribes, the Kuskarawock & Tockwogh, living north of the Nanticoke & they may have held small portions of land in the western part of the state before migrating across the Chesapeake Bay. The Kuskarawocks were most likely the Tuscarora.
The Unami Lenape in the Delaware Valley were closely related to Munsee Lenape tribes along the Hudson River. They had a settled hunting and agricultural society, and they rapidly became middlemen in an increasingly frantic fur trade with their ancient enemy, the Minqua or Susquehannock. With the loss of their lands on the Delaware River and the destruction of the Minqua by the Iroquois of the Five Nations in the 1670s, the remnants of the Lenape who wished to remain identified as such left the region and moved over the Alleghany Mountains by the mid-18th century. Generally, those who did not relocate out of the state of Delaware were baptized, became Christian and were grouped together with other persons of color in official records and in the minds of their non-Native American neighbors.
The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle in present - day Delaware in the middle region by establishing a trading post at Zwaanendael, near the site of Lewes in 1631. Within a year all the settlers were killed in a dispute with area Native American tribes. In 1638 New Sweden, a Swedish trading post and colony, was established at Fort Christina (now in Wilmington) by Peter Minuit at the head of a group of Swedes, Finns and Dutch. The colony of New Sweden lasted for 17 years. In 1651 the Dutch, reinvigorated by the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, established a fort at present - day New Castle, and in 1655 they conquered the New Sweden colony, annexing it into the Dutch New Netherland. Only nine years later, in 1664, the Dutch were conquered by a fleet of English ships by Sir Robert Carr under the direction of James, the Duke of York. Fighting off a prior claim by Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, Proprietor of Maryland, the Duke passed his somewhat dubious ownership on to William Penn in 1682. Penn strongly desired access to the sea for his Pennsylvania province and leased what then came to be known as the "Lower Counties on the Delaware '' from the Duke.
Penn established representative government and briefly combined his two possessions under one General Assembly in 1682. However, by 1704 the Province of Pennsylvania had grown so large that their representatives wanted to make decisions without the assent of the Lower Counties and the two groups of representatives began meeting on their own, one at Philadelphia, and the other at New Castle. Penn and his heirs remained proprietors of both and always appointed the same person Governor for their Province of Pennsylvania and their territory of the Lower Counties. The fact that Delaware and Pennsylvania shared the same governor was not unique. From 1703 to 1738 New York and New Jersey shared a governor. Massachusetts and New Hampshire also shared a governor for some time.
Dependent in early years on indentured labor, Delaware imported more slaves as the number of English immigrants decreased with better economic conditions in England. The colony became a slave society and cultivated tobacco as a cash crop, although English immigrants continued to arrive.
Like the other middle colonies, the Lower Counties on the Delaware initially showed little enthusiasm for a break with Britain. The citizenry had a good relationship with the Proprietary government, and generally were allowed more independence of action in their Colonial Assembly than in other colonies. Merchants at the port of Wilmington had trading ties with the British.
So it was that New Castle lawyer Thomas McKean denounced the Stamp Act in the strongest terms, and Kent County native John Dickinson became the "Penman of the Revolution. '' Anticipating the Declaration of Independence, Patriot leaders Thomas McKean and Caesar Rodney convinced the Colonial Assembly to declare itself separated from British and Pennsylvania rule on June 15, 1776. The person best representing Delaware 's majority, George Read, could not bring himself to vote for a Declaration of Independence. Only the dramatic overnight ride of Caesar Rodney gave the delegation the votes needed to cast Delaware 's vote for independence.
Initially led by John Haslet, Delaware provided one of the premier regiments in the Continental Army, known as the "Delaware Blues '' and nicknamed the "Blue Hen 's Chicks. '' In August 1777 General Sir William Howe led a British army through Delaware on his way to a victory at the Battle of Brandywine and capture of the city of Philadelphia. The only real engagement on Delaware soil was the Battle of Cooch 's Bridge, fought on September 3, 1777, at Cooch 's Bridge in New Castle County.
Following the Battle of Brandywine, Wilmington was occupied by the British, and State President John McKinly was taken prisoner. The British remained in control of the Delaware River for much of the rest of the war, disrupting commerce and providing encouragement to an active Loyalist portion of the population, particularly in Sussex County. Because the British promised slaves of rebels freedom for fighting with them, escaped slaves flocked north to join their lines.
Following the American Revolution, statesmen from Delaware were among the leading proponents of a strong central United States with equal representation for each state.
Many colonial settlers came to Delaware from Maryland and Virginia, which had been experiencing a population boom. The economies of these colonies were chiefly based on tobacco culture and were increasingly dependent on slave labor for its intensive cultivation. Most of the English colonists arrived as indentured servants, under contracts to work as laborers for a fixed period to pay for their passage. In the early years the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid, and the working classes often lived closely together. Most of the free African - American families in Delaware before the Revolution had migrated from Maryland to find more affordable land. They were descendants chiefly of relationships or marriages between white servant women and enslaved, servant or free African or African - American men. As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, more slaves were imported for labor and the caste lines hardened.
At the end of the colonial period, the number of enslaved people in Delaware began to decline. Shifts in the agriculture economy from tobacco to mixed farming created less need for slaves ' labor. Local Methodists and Quakers encouraged slaveholders to free their slaves following the American Revolution, and many did so in a surge of individual manumissions for idealistic reasons. By 1810 three - quarters of all blacks in Delaware were free. When John Dickinson freed his slaves in 1777, he was Delaware 's largest slave owner with 37 slaves. By 1860, the largest slaveholder owned 16 slaves.
Although attempts to abolish slavery failed by narrow margins in the legislature, in practical terms, the state had mostly ended the practice. By the 1860 census on the verge of the Civil War, 91.7 % of the black population were free; 1,798 were slaves, as compared to 19,829 "free colored persons ''.
The independent black denomination was chartered by freed slave Peter Spencer in 1813 as the "Union Church of Africans ''. This followed the 1793 establishment of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, which had ties to the Methodist Episcopal Church until 1816. Spencer built a church in Wilmington for the new denomination.
This was renamed the African Union First Colored Methodist Protestant Church and Connection, more commonly known as the A.U.M.P. Church. Begun by Spencer in 1814, the annual gathering of the Big August Quarterly still draws people together in a religious and cultural festival, the oldest such cultural festival in the nation.
Delaware voted against secession on January 3, 1861, and so remained in the Union. While most Delaware citizens who fought in the war served in the regiments of the state, some served in companies on the Confederate side in Maryland and Virginia Regiments. Delaware is notable for being the only slave state from which no Confederate regiments or militia groups were assembled. Delaware essentially freed the few slaves that were still in bondage shortly after the Civil War, but rejected the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution; the 13th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1865, the 14th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1867, and the 15th Amendment was rejected on March 18, 1869. Delaware officially ratified the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments on February 12, 1901.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Delaware was 952,065 people on July 1, 2016, a 6.0 % increase since the 2010 United States Census.
According to the 2010 United States Census, Delaware had a population of 897,934 people. The racial composition of the state was:
Ethnically, Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 8.2 % of the population.
Delaware is the sixth most densely populated state, with a population density of 442.6 people per square mile, 356.4 per square mile more than the national average, and ranking 45th in population. Delaware is one of five states that do not have a single city with a population over 100,000 as of the 2010 census, the other four being West Virginia, Vermont, Maine and Wyoming. The center of population of Delaware is located in New Castle County, in the town of Townsend.
As of 2011, 49.7 % of Delaware 's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry). In 2000 approximately 19 % of the population were African - American and 5 % of the population is Hispanic (mostly of Puerto Rican or Mexican ancestry).
The largest European ancestry groups in Delaware are, according to 2012 Census Bureau estimates:
Note: Births in table do n't add up because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
As of 2000 91 % of Delaware residents age 5 and older speak only English at home; 5 % speak Spanish. French is the third most spoken language at 0.7 %, followed by Chinese at 0.5 % and German at 0.5 %.
Legislation had been proposed in both the House and the Senate in Delaware to designate English as the official language. Neither bill was passed in the legislature.
As of the year 2010, The Association of Religion Data Archives reported that the three largest denominational groups in Delaware by number of adherents are the Catholic Church at 182,532 adherents, the United Methodist Church with 53,656 members reported, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 22,973 adherents reported. The religious body with the largest number of congregations is the United Methodist Church (with 158 congregations) followed by non-denominational Evangelical Protestant (with 106 congregations), then the Catholic Church (with 45 congregations).
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington and the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware oversee the parishes within their denominations. The A.U.M.P. Church, the oldest African - American denomination in the nation, was founded in Wilmington. It still has a substantial presence in the state. Reflecting new immigrant populations, an Islamic mosque has been built in the Ogletown area, and a Hindu temple in Hockessin.
Delaware is home to an Amish community that resides to the west of Dover in Kent County, consisting of 9 church districts and between 1,200 and 1,500 people. The Amish first settled in Kent County in 1915. In recent years, increasing development has led to the decline in the number of Amish living in the community.
A 2012 survey of religious attitudes in the United States found that 34 % of Delaware residents considered themselves "moderately religious, '' 33 % "very religious, '' and 33 % as "non-religious. ''
A 2012 Gallup poll found that Delaware 's proportion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults stood at 3.4 percent of the population. This constitutes a total LGBT adult population estimate of 23,698 people. The number of same - sex couple households in 2010 stood at 2,646. This grew by 41.65 % from a decade earlier. On July 1, 2013, same - sex marriage was legalized, and all civil unions would be converted into marriages.
According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Delaware had the ninth - largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.20 percent.
Delaware 's agricultural output consists of poultry, nursery stock, soybeans, dairy products and corn.
As of October 2015, the state 's unemployment rate was 5.1 %.
The state 's largest employers are:
Dover Air Force Base, located next to the state capital of Dover, is one of the largest Air Force bases in the country and is a major employer in Delaware. In addition to its other responsibilities in the United States Air Force Air Mobility Command, this air base serves as the entry point and mortuary for American military personnel and some U.S. government civilians who die overseas.
The recent merger of E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. and Dow Chemical Company into DowDuPont on September 1, 2017 has caused many to question the viability of the remaining operations of the merged company in Delaware. DuPont employed over 8,000 at its peak as the state 's second largest private employer. The stability of the state 's economic future is of concern. In late 2015, DuPont announced that 1,700 employees, nearly a third of its footprint in Delaware, would be laid off in early 2016.
Since the mid-2000s, Delaware has suffered an onslaught of economic downfalls affecting stable middle class jobs including the departure of the state 's automotive manufacturing industry (General Motors Wilmington Assembly and Chrysler Newark Assembly), the corporate buyout of a major bank holding company (MBNA), the departure of the state 's steel industry (Evraz Claymont Steel), the bankruptcy of a fiber mill (National Vulcanized Fibre), and the diminishing presence of Astra Zeneca in Wilmington.
More than 50 % of all U.S. publicly traded companies and 63 % of the Fortune 500 are incorporated in Delaware. The state 's attractiveness as a corporate haven is largely because of its business - friendly corporation law. Franchise taxes on Delaware corporations supply about one - fifth of its state revenue. Although "USA (Delaware) '' ranked as the world 's most opaque jurisdiction on the Tax Justice Network 's 2009 Financial Secrecy Index, the same group 's 2011 Index ranks the USA fifth and does not specify Delaware. In Delaware, there are more than a million registered corporations, meaning there are more corporations than people.
Title 4, chapter 7 of the Delaware Code stipulates that alcoholic liquor only be sold in specifically licensed establishments, and only between 9: 00 am and 1: 00 am. Until 2003, Delaware was among the several states enforcing blue laws and banned the sale of liquor on Sunday.
The transportation system in Delaware is under the governance and supervision of the Delaware Department of Transportation, also known as "DelDOT ''. Funding for DelDOT projects is drawn, in part, from the Delaware Transportation Trust Fund, established in 1987 to help stabilize transportation funding; the availability of the Trust led to a gradual separation of DelDOT operations from other Delaware state operations. DelDOT manages programs such as a Delaware Adopt - a-Highway program, major road route snow removal, traffic control infrastructure (signs and signals), toll road management, Delaware Division of Motor Vehicles, the Delaware Transit Corporation (branded as "DART First State '', the state government public transportation organization), among others. In 2009, DelDOT maintained 13,507 lane miles of roads, totaling 89 percent of the state 's public roadway system; the remaining public road miles are under the supervision of individual municipalities. This far exceeds the United States national average of 20 percent for state department of transportation maintenance responsibility.
The "DART First State '' public transportation system was named "Most Outstanding Public Transportation System '' in 2003 by the American Public Transportation Association. Coverage of the system is broad within northern New Castle County with close association to major highways in Kent and Sussex counties. The system includes bus, subsidized passenger rail operated by Philadelphia transit agency SEPTA, and subsidized taxi and paratransit modes. The paratransit system, consisting of a statewide door - to - door bus service for the elderly and disabled, has been described by a Delaware state report as "the most generous paratransit system in the United States. '' As of 2012, fees for the paratransit service have not changed since 1988.
One major branch of the U.S. Interstate Highway System, Interstate 95 (I - 95), crosses Delaware southwest - to - northeast across New Castle County. In addition to I - 95, there are six U.S. highways that serve Delaware: U.S. Route 9 (US 9), US 13, US 40, US 113, US 202, and US 301. There are also several state highways that cross the state of Delaware; a few of them include Delaware Route 1 (DE 1), DE 9, and DE 404. US 13 and DE 1 are primary north - south highways connecting Wilmington and Pennsylvania with Maryland, with DE 1 serving as the main route between Wilmington and the Delaware beaches. DE 9 is a north - south highway connecting Dover and Wilmington via a scenic route along the Delaware Bay. US 40, is a primary east - west route, connecting Maryland with New Jersey. DE 404 is another primary east - west highway connecting the Chesapeake Bay Bridge in Maryland with the Delaware beaches. The state also operates two toll highways, the Delaware Turnpike, which is I - 95, between Maryland and New Castle and the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway, which is DE 1, between Wilmington and Dover.
A bicycle route, Delaware Bicycle Route 1, spans the north - south length of the state from the Maryland border in Fenwick Island to the Pennsylvania border north of Montchanin. It is the first of several signed bike routes planned in Delaware.
Delaware has around 1,450 bridges, 95 percent of which are under the supervision of DelDOT. About 30 percent of all Delaware bridges were built before 1950, and about 60 percent of the number are included in the National Bridge Inventory. Some bridges not under DelDOT supervision includes the four bridges on the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Delaware Memorial Bridge, which is under the bi-state Delaware River and Bay Authority.
It has been noted that the tar and chip composition of secondary roads in Sussex County make them more prone to deterioration than asphalt roadways found in almost the rest of the state. Among these roads, Sussex (county road) 236 is among the most problematic.
There are three ferries that operate in the state of Delaware:
Amtrak has two stations in Delaware along the Northeast Corridor; the relatively quiet Newark Rail Station in Newark, and the busier Wilmington Rail Station in Wilmington. The Northeast Corridor is also served by SEPTA 's Wilmington / Newark Line of Regional Rail, which serves Claymont, Wilmington, Churchmans Crossing, and Newark.
Two Class I railroads, Norfolk Southern and CSX, provide freight rail service in northern New Castle County. Norfolk Southern provides freight service along the Northeast Corridor and to industrial areas in Edgemoor, New Castle, and Delaware City. CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision passes through northern New Castle County parallel to the Amtrak Northeast Corridor. Multiple short - line railroads provide freight service in Delaware. The Delmarva Central Railroad operates the most trackage of the short - line railroads, running from an interchange with Norfolk Southern in Porter south through Dover, Harrington, and Seaford to Delmar, with another line running from Harrington to Frankford. The Delmarva Central Railroad connects with two shortline railroads, the Delaware Coast Line Railroad and the Maryland and Delaware Railroad, which serve local customers in Sussex County. CSX connects with the freight / heritage operation, the Wilmington and Western Railroad, based in Wilmington and the East Penn Railroad, which operates a line from Wilmington to Coatesville, Pennsylvania.
The last north - south passenger train through the main part of Delaware was the Pennsylvania Railroad 's The Cavalier, which ended service from Philadelphia through the state 's interior in 1951.
As of 2016, there is no scheduled air service from any Delaware airport, as has been the case in various years since 1991. Various airlines had served Wilmington Airport, with the latest departure being Frontier Airlines in April 2015.
Delaware is centrally situated in the Northeast megalopolis region of cities along I - 95. Therefore, Delaware commercial airline passengers most frequently use Philadelphia International Airport (PHL), Baltimore - Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (BWI) and Washington Dulles International Airport (IAD) for domestic and international transit. Residents of Sussex County will also use Wicomico Regional Airport (SBY), as it is located less than 10 miles (16 km) from the Delaware border. Atlantic City International Airport (ACY), Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR), and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (DCA) are also within a 100 - mile (160 km) radius of New Castle County.
The Dover Air Force Base of the Air Mobility Command is located in the central part of the state, and it is the home of the 436th Airlift Wing and the 512th Airlift Wing.
Other general aviation airports in Delaware include Summit Airport near Middletown, Delaware Airpark near Cheswold, and Delaware Coastal Airport near Georgetown.
Delaware 's fourth and current constitution, adopted in 1897, provides for executive, judicial and legislative branches.
The Delaware General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives with 41 members and a Senate with 21 members. It sits in Dover, the state capital. Representatives are elected to two - year terms, while senators are elected to four - year terms. The Senate confirms judicial and other nominees appointed by the governor.
Delaware 's U.S. Senators are Tom Carper (Democrat) and Chris Coons (Democrat). Delaware 's single U.S. Representative is Lisa Blunt Rochester (Democrat).
The Delaware Constitution establishes a number of courts:
Minor non-constitutional courts include the Justice of the Peace Courts and Aldermen 's Courts.
Significantly, Delaware has one of the few remaining Courts of Chancery in the nation, which has jurisdiction over equity cases, the vast majority of which are corporate disputes, many relating to mergers and acquisitions. The Court of Chancery and the Delaware Supreme Court have developed a worldwide reputation for rendering concise opinions concerning corporate law which generally (but not always) grant broad discretion to corporate boards of directors and officers. In addition, the Delaware General Corporation Law, which forms the basis of the Courts ' opinions, is widely regarded as giving great flexibility to corporations to manage their affairs. For these reasons, Delaware is considered to have the most business - friendly legal system in the United States; therefore a great number of companies are incorporated in Delaware, including 60 % of the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Delaware was the last U.S. state to use judicial corporal punishment, in 1952.
The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Delaware. The present governor is John Carney (Democrat), who took office January 17, 2017. The lieutenant governor is Bethany Hall - Long. The governor presents a "State of the State '' speech to a joint session of the Delaware legislature annually.
Delaware is subdivided into three counties; from north to south they are New Castle, Kent and Sussex. This is the fewest among all states. Each county elects its own legislative body (known in New Castle and Sussex counties as County Council, and in Kent County as Levy Court), which deal primarily in zoning and development issues. Most functions which are handled on a county - by - county basis in other states -- such as court and law enforcement -- have been centralized in Delaware, leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government. The counties were historically divided into hundreds, which were used as tax reporting and voting districts until the 1960s, but now serve no administrative role, their only current official legal use being in real - estate title descriptions.
The Democratic Party holds a plurality of registrations in Delaware. Until the 2000 presidential election, the state tended to be a Presidential bellwether, sending its three electoral votes to the winning candidate since 1952. This trend ended in 2000 when Delaware 's electoral votes went to Al Gore. In 2004 John Kerry won Delaware by eight percentage points. In 2008 Democrat Barack Obama defeated Republican John McCain in Delaware 62.63 % to 37.37 %. Obama 's running mate was Joe Biden, who had represented Delaware in the United States Senate since 1973. Obama carried Delaware again in 2012. In 2016, Delaware 's electoral votes went to Hillary Clinton.
Delaware 's swing to the Democrats is in part due to a strong Democratic trend in New Castle County, home to 55 percent of Delaware 's population (the two smaller counties have only 359,000 people between them to New Castle 's 535,000). New Castle has not voted Republican in a presidential election since 1988. In 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2016, the Republican presidential candidate carried both Kent and Sussex but lost by double - digits each time in New Castle, which was a large enough margin to swing the state to the Democrats. New Castle also elects a substantial majority of the legislature; 27 of the 41 state house districts and 14 of the 21 state senate districts are based in New Castle.
The Democrats have held the governorship since 1993, having won the last six gubernatorial elections in a row. Democrats presently hold seven of the nine statewide elected offices, while the Republicans hold only two statewide offices, State Auditor and State Treasurer.
Each of the 50 states of the United States has passed some form of freedom of information legislation, which provides a mechanism for the general public to request information of the government. In 2011 Delaware passed legislation placing a 15 business day time limit on addressing freedom - of - information requests, to either produce information or an explanation of why such information would take longer than this time to produce.
Delaware has six different income tax brackets, ranging from 2.2 % to 5.95 %. The state does not assess sales tax on consumers. The state does, however, impose a tax on the gross receipts of most businesses. Business and occupational license tax rates range from 0.096 % to 1.92 %, depending on the category of business activity.
Delaware does not assess a state - level tax on real or personal property. Real estate is subject to county property taxes, school district property taxes, vocational school district taxes, and, if located within an incorporated area, municipal property taxes.
Gambling provides significant revenue to the state. For instance, the casino at Delaware Park Racetrack provided more than $100 million USD to the state in 2010.
Wilmington is the state 's largest city and its economic hub. It is located within commuting distance of both Philadelphia and Baltimore. All regions of Delaware are enjoying phenomenal growth, with Dover and the beach resorts expanding at a rapid rate.
Ranked by per capita income
Delaware was the origin of Belton v. Gebhart, one of the four cases which was combined into Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States decision that led to the end of segregated public schools. Significantly, Belton was the only case in which the state court found for the plaintiffs, thereby ruling that segregation was unconstitutional.
Unlike many states, Delaware 's educational system is centralized in a state Superintendent of Education, with local school boards retaining control over taxation and some curriculum decisions.
As of 2011, the Delaware Department of Education had authorized the founding of 25 charter schools in the state, one of them being all - girls.
All teachers in the State 's public school districts are unionized. As of January 2012, none of the State 's charter schools are members of a teachers union. One of the State 's teachers ' unions is Delaware State Education Association (DSEA), whose President as of January 2012 is Frederika Jenner.
Delaware 's sister state in Japan is Miyagi Prefecture.
The northern part of the state is served by network stations in Philadelphia and the southern part by network stations in Baltimore and Salisbury, Maryland. Philadelphia 's ABC affiliate, WPVI - TV, maintains a news bureau in downtown Wilmington. Salisbury 's ABC affiliate, WMDT covers Sussex and lower Kent County; while CBS affiliate, WBOC - TV, maintains bureaus in Dover and Milton.
Few television stations are based solely in Delaware; the local PBS station from Philadelphia (but licensed to Wilmington), WHYY - TV, maintains a studio and broadcasting facility in Wilmington and Dover, Ion Television affiliate WPPX is licensed to Wilmington but maintains their offices in Philadelphia and their digital transmitter outside of that city and an analog tower in New Jersey, and MeTV affiliate KJWP is licensed to Wilmington but maintains their offices in New Jersey and their transmitter is located at the antenna farm in Philadelphia.
In April 2014, it was revealed that Rehoboth Beach 's WRDE - LD would affiliate with NBC, becoming the first major network - affiliated station in Delaware.
In addition to First State National Historical Park, Delaware has several museums, wildlife refuges, parks, houses, lighthouses, and other historic places.
Rehoboth Beach, together with the towns of Lewes, Dewey Beach, Bethany Beach, South Bethany, and Fenwick Island, comprise Delaware 's beach resorts. Rehoboth Beach often bills itself as "The Nation 's Summer Capital '' because it is a frequent summer vacation destination for Washington, D.C. residents as well as visitors from Maryland, Virginia, and in lesser numbers, Pennsylvania. Vacationers are drawn for many reasons, including the town 's charm, artistic appeal, nightlife, and tax free shopping. According to SeaGrant Delaware, the Delaware Beaches generate $6.9 billion annually and over $711 million in tax revenue.
Delaware is home to several festivals, fairs, and events. Some of the more notable festivals are the Riverfest held in Seaford, the World Championship Punkin Chunkin formerly held at various locations throughout the state since 1986, the Rehoboth Beach Chocolate Festival, the Bethany Beach Jazz Funeral to mark the end of summer, the Apple Scrapple Festival held in Bridgeville, the Clifford Brown Jazz Festival in Wilmington, the Rehoboth Beach Jazz Festival, the Sea Witch Halloween Festival and Parade in Rehoboth Beach, the Rehoboth Beach Independent Film Festival, the Nanticoke Indian Pow Wow in Oak Orchard, Firefly Music Festival, and the Return Day Parade held after every election in Georgetown.
In 2015, tourism in Delaware generated $3.1 billion, which makes up of 5 percent of the state 's GDP. Delaware saw 8.5 million visitors in 2015, with the tourism industry employing 41,730 people, making it the 4th largest private employer in the state. Major origin markets for Delaware tourists include Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York City, Washington, D.C., and Harrisburg, with 97 % of tourists arriving to the state by car and 75 % of tourists coming from 200 miles (320 km) or less.
As Delaware has no franchises in the major American professional sports leagues, many Delawareans follow either Philadelphia or Baltimore teams. The University of Delaware 's football team has a large following throughout the state with the Delaware State University and Wesley College teams also enjoying a smaller degree of support.
Delaware is home to Dover International Speedway and Dover Downs. DIS, also known as the Monster Mile, hosts two NASCAR race weekends each year, one in the late spring and one in the early fall. Dover Downs is a popular harness racing facility. It is the only co-located horse and car - racing facility in the nation, with the Dover Downs track located inside the DIS track.
Delaware is represented in USA Rugby League by 2015 expansion club, the Delaware Black Foxes.
Delaware has been home to professional wrestling outfit Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW). CZW has been affiliated with the annual Tournament of Death and ECWA with its annual Super 8 Tournament.
Delaware 's official state sport is bicycling.
Delaware is also the name of a Native American group (called in their own language Lenni Lenape) that was influential in the colonial period of the United States and is today headquartered in Cheswold, Kent County, Delaware. A band of the Nanticoke tribe of American Indians today resides in Sussex County and is headquartered in Millsboro, Sussex County, Delaware.
History
General
Coordinates: 39 ° 00 ′ N 75 ° 30 ′ W / 39 ° N 75.5 ° W / 39; - 75.5
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countries to visit with a south african passport | Visa requirements for South African citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for South African citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of South Africa. As of February 2018, South African citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 102 countries and territories, ranking the South African passport 53rd in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index.
Where visa - free access is permitted, such access is not necessarily a right, and admission is at the discretion of border enforcement officers. Visitors engaging in activities other than tourism, including unpaid work, may require a visa or work permit.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Many countries require passport validity of no less than 6 months and one or two blank pages.
List of Changes
In some instances, a Visa Exemption permits entry in lieu of obtaining a Visa / Entry Visa if in possession of the following Visas or Permanent Relationships:
United States of America - South African Citizens in possession of a valid United States Multiple Entry Visa in their passport may enter the following country (ies) visa - free for the time indicated beside, this also includes the countries consisting of the former Yugoslavia:
Canadian - South African Citizens in possession of a valid Canadian Multiple Entry Visa in their passport may enter the following country (ies) visa - free for the time indicated adjacent:
Right of Abode in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland - South African Citizens in possession of a Valid Certificate of Entitlement substantiating their claim to the Right of Abode in the United Kingdom may enter the following Commonwealth Realms for the same period as a South African Citizen who requires a Visa without the Right of Abode in the United Kingdom would (+ except the United Kingdom):
Permanent Residence in the Commonwealth of Australia - South African Citizens with any type of a Valid Australian Permanent Resident Visa electronically granted or as a label may enter the following country:
European Union Family Member - South African Citizens who are travelling with or joining their family members in the European Union in a Country other than where their family member is a citizen of does not require a Visa to enter, however this would be difficult to prove and as a result, entry could be refused. Visa should be applied for in advance usually which is usually with minimal requirements to meet if the applicant is a family member of an EU Citizen. For instance, a person who wants to travel with their spouse to France where their spouse is a Citizen of the Republic of Lithuania should apply for a Visa in advance or where a person wants to join their Lithuanian spouse who resides in France should also apply for a Visa.
United Kingdom Leave to Remain or Enter (whether permanent or temporary) / Ireland Biometric Visa / Permanent Residency - Holder 's of a valid Entry Permit / Visa who arrive in the U.K. and apply for a Biometric Residence Permit within the required time after arriving may travel within the EU whilst their Biometric Residnce Permit is still valid.
EU Country - Holder 's of a Valid Long Stay Category D Visa who arrive in the European Union country of their Visa and apply for a Residence Card shortly after arriving will be able to use their EU residence permit valid for travel within the EU, if granted.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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when did the song dream weaver come out | Dream Weaver - wikipedia
"Dream Weaver '' is a song by the American singer Gary Wright, released as the first single from his third studio album The Dream Weaver (1975) in December 1975. The song became a hit in the US: # 2 on the Billboard chart and # 1 on Cashbox in 1976.
The song features Wright on vocals and keyboards and Jim Keltner on drums. According to Gary Wright, the song was inspired by Autobiography of a Yogi, which was given to him by George Harrison. Paramhansa Yogananda 's poem "God! God! God! '' made reference to "the idea of the mind weaving dreams. '' The expression "Dream Weaver '' was popularized by John Lennon in 1970 in his song "God '', taken from his solo album John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band. This song depicts Lennon 's declaration that he was the dream weaver of the 1960s, breaking away from the influences and dogmas that influenced his life.
All instrumentation was created using a synthesizer, except for Keltner 's percussion. In 1992, Gary Wright re-recorded a longer version of "Dream Weaver '' for the Wayne 's World movie soundtrack.
"Dream Weaver '' and "Love Is Alive '' are sampled in "Wordz of Wisdom '', a single from 3rd Bass 's release, The Cactus Album (1989).
Dance artist Erin Hamilton covered it for her album One World (1999).
It was featured prominently in the gay love story film Trick (1999).
Crowbar recorded a doom metal version of "Dream Weaver '' for their album Equilibrium (2000).
Electronic rock artist JES covered it as a single release (2015).
Canadian singer - songwriter Kevin Quain released a version of it in October 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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list of cities per region in the philippines | List of cities in the Philippines - wikipedia
The following is a list of chartered cities in the Philippines. Philippine cities are classified into three groups: Highly Urbanized Cities (HUC), Independent Component Cities (ICC), and Component Cities (CC).
Highly Urbanized Cities are local government units autonomous from provinces that have a minimum population of 200,000 and an annual income of at least ₱ 50 million (in 1991 constant prices). Independent Component Cities are cities outside of provincial jurisdiction (although some are allowed to participate in the election of provincial officials) that have not yet attained the ' highly urbanized ' status, while Component Cities are those under a province 's jurisdiction. In addition, each city is classified into six income brackets according to income in a four - year period. For instance, First Class cities have an income of ₱ 400 Million or more, while Sixth Class cities earn less than ₱ 80 Million in a four - year period.
Each city is governed by both the Local Government Code of 1991 and the city 's own municipal charter, under the laws of the Republic of the Philippines.
There are 145 cities of the Philippines as of September 30, 2016. Thirty - three of these are Highly Urbanized (HUC), five are Independent Component (ICC), with the rest being components (CC) of their respective provinces. City charter documents, if available, could be accessed by clicking on the related external link (CA indicates Commonwealth Act, RA for Republic Act).
Many pre-1987 cities had set dates of inauguration (where the president or a high - ranking government official participates in ceremonies marking the attainment of cityhood) or had set dates of organization (where the newly converted city officially starts to fully function as expected). These dates may be set by the President, city officials or Congress.
Media related to Cities and municipalities in the Philippines at Wikimedia Commons
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the ceiling of the sistine chapel contains over ____ biblical figures | Sistine Chapel ceiling - wikipedia
The Sistine Chapel ceiling, painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art.
The ceiling is that of the Sistine Chapel, the large papal chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV, for whom the chapel is named. It was painted at the commission of Pope Julius II. The chapel is the location for papal conclaves and many other important services.
The ceiling 's various painted elements form part of a larger scheme of decoration within the Chapel, which includes the large fresco The Last Judgment on the sanctuary wall, also by Michelangelo, wall paintings by several leading painters of the late 15th century including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Pietro Perugino, and a set of large tapestries by Raphael, the whole illustrating much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church.
Central to the ceiling decoration are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis of which The Creation of Adam is the best known, having an iconic standing equaled only by Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa, the hands of God and Adam being reproduced in countless imitations. The complex design includes several sets of individual figures, both clothed and nude, which allowed Michelangelo to fully demonstrate his skill in creating a huge variety of poses for the human figure and which have provided an enormously influential pattern book of models for other artists ever since.
Pope Julius II was a "warrior pope '' who in his papacy undertook an aggressive campaign for political control, to unite and empower Italy under the leadership of the Church. He invested in symbolism to display his temporal power, such as his procession, in the Classical manner, through a triumphal arch in a chariot after one of his many military victories. It was Julius who began the rebuilding of St. Peter 's Basilica in 1506, as the most potent symbol of the source of papal power.
In the same year 1506, Pope Julius conceived a program to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The walls of the chapel had been decorated twenty years earlier. The lowest of three levels is painted to resemble draped hangings and was (and sometimes still is) hung on special occasions with the set of tapestries designed by Raphael. The middle level contains a complex scheme of frescoes illustrating the Life of Christ on the right side and the Life of Moses on the left side. It was carried out by some of the most renowned Renaissance painters: Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Signorelli and Cosimo Rosselli. The upper level of the walls contains the windows, between which are painted pairs of illusionistic niches with representations of the first thirty - two popes. A draft by Matteo d'Amelia indicates that the ceiling was painted blue like that of the Arena Chapel and decorated with gold stars, possibly representing the zodiacal constellations. It is probable that, because the chapel was the site of regular meetings and Masses of an elite body of officials known as the Papal Chapel who would observe the decorations and interpret their theological and temporal significance, it was Pope Julius ' intention and expectation that the iconography of the ceiling was to be read with many layers of meaning.
Michelangelo, who was not primarily a painter but a sculptor, was reluctant to take on the work. Also, he was occupied with a very large sculptural commission for the pope 's own tomb. The pope was adamant, leaving Michelangelo no choice but to accept. But a war with the French broke out, diverting the attention of the pope, and Michelangelo fled from Rome to continue sculpting. The tomb sculptures, however, were never to be finished because in 1508 the pope returned to Rome victorious and summoned Michelangelo to begin work on the ceiling. The contract was signed on 10 May 1508.
The scheme proposed by the pope was for twelve large figures of the Apostles to occupy the pendentives. However, Michelangelo negotiated for a grander, much more complex scheme and was finally permitted, in his own words, "to do as I liked ''. His scheme for the ceiling eventually comprised some three hundred figures and took four years to execute, being completed and shown to the public on All Saints Day in 1512 after a preliminary showing and papal Mass on August 14, 1511. It is unknown and is the subject of much speculation among art historians whether Michelangelo was really able to "do as he liked ''. It has been suggested that the Augustinian friar and cardinal, Giles of Viterbo, was a consultant for the theological aspect of the work. Many writers consider that Michelangelo had the intellect, the Biblical knowledge, and the powers of invention to have devised the scheme himself. This is supported by Ascanio Condivi 's statement that Michelangelo read and reread the Old Testament while he was painting the ceiling, drawing his inspiration from the words of the scripture, rather than from the established traditions of sacral art. A total of 343 figures were painted on the ceiling.
To reach the chapel 's ceiling, Michelangelo designed his own scaffold, a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall near the top of the windows, rather than being built up from the floor. Mancinelli speculates that this was in order to cut the cost of timber. According to Michelangelo 's pupil and biographer Ascanio Condivi, the brackets and frame that supported the steps and flooring were all put in place at the beginning of the work and a lightweight screen, possibly cloth, was suspended beneath them to catch plaster drips, dust, and splashes of paint. Only half the building was scaffolded at a time and the platform was moved as the painting was done in stages. The areas of the wall covered by the scaffolding still appear as unpainted areas across the bottom of the lunettes. The holes were re-used to hold scaffolding in the latest restoration.
Contrary to popular belief, he painted in a standing position, not lying on his back. According to Vasari, "The work was carried out in extremely uncomfortable conditions, from his having to work with his head tilted upwards ''. Michelangelo described his physical discomfort in a humorous sonnet accompanied by a little sketch.
The painting technique employed was fresco, in which the paint is applied to damp plaster. Michelangelo had been an apprentice in the workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio, one of the most competent and prolific of Florentine fresco painters, at the time that the latter was employed on a fresco cycle at Santa Maria Novella and whose work was represented on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. At the outset, the plaster, intonaco, began to grow mold because it was too wet. Michelangelo had to remove it and start again. He then tried a new formula created by one of his assistants, Jacopo l'Indaco, which resisted mold and entered the Italian building tradition.
Because he was painting fresco, the plaster was laid in a new section every day, called a giornata. At the beginning of each session, the edges would be scraped away and a new area laid down. The edges between giornate remain slightly visible; thus, they give a good idea of how the work progressed. It was customary for fresco painters to use a full - sized detailed drawing, a cartoon, to transfer a design onto a plaster surface -- many frescoes show little holes made with a stiletto, outlining the figures. Here Michelangelo broke with convention; once confident the intonaco had been well applied, he drew directly onto the ceiling. His energetic sweeping outlines can be seen scraped into some of the surfaces, while on others a grid is evident, indicating that he enlarged directly onto the ceiling from a small drawing.
Michelangelo painted onto the damp plaster using a wash technique to apply broad areas of colour, then as the surface became drier, he revisited these areas with a more linear approach, adding shade and detail with a variety of brushes. For some textured surfaces, such as facial hair and woodgrain, he used a broad brush with bristles as sparse as a comb. He employed all the finest workshop methods and best innovations, combining them with a diversity of brushwork and breadth of skill far exceeding that of the meticulous Ghirlandaio.
The work commenced at the end of the building furthest from the altar, with the latest of the narrative scenes, and progressed towards the altar with the scenes of the Creation. The first three scenes, from the story of Noah, contain a much larger number of small figures than the later panels. This is partly because of the subject matter, which deals with the fate of Humanity, but also because all the figures at that end of the ceiling, including the prophets and Ignudi, are smaller than in the central section. As the scale got larger, Michelangelo 's style became broader, the final narrative scene of God in the act of Creation was painted in a single day.
The bright colours and broad, cleanly defined outlines make each subject easily visible from the floor. Despite the height of the ceiling, the proportions of the Creation of Adam are such that when standing beneath it, "it appears as if the viewer could simply raise a finger and meet those of God and Adam ''. Vasari tells us that the ceiling is "unfinished '', that its unveiling occurred before it could be reworked with gold leaf and vivid blue lapis lazuli as was customary with frescoes and in order to better link the ceiling with the walls below it which were highlighted with a great deal of gold. But this never took place, in part because Michelangelo was reluctant to set up the scaffolding again, and probably also because the gold and particularly the intense blue would have distracted from his painterly conception.
Some areas were, in fact, decorated with gold: the shields between the Ignudi and the columns between the Prophets and Sibyls. It seems very likely that the gilding of the shields was part of Michelangelo 's original scheme, since they are painted to resemble a certain type of parade shield, a number of which still exist and are decorated in a similar style with gold.
Section reference.
Michelangelo wrote a poem describing the arduous conditions under which he worked
The overt subject matter of the ceiling is the doctrine of humanity 's need for Salvation as offered by God through Jesus. It is a visual metaphor of Humankind 's need for a covenant with God. The Old Covenant of the Children of Israel through Moses and the New Covenant through Christ had already been represented around the walls of the chapel. Some experts, including Benjamin Blech and Vatican art historian Enrico Bruschini, have also noted less overt subject matter, which they describe as being "concealed '' and "forbidden. ''
The main components of the design are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis, of which five smaller ones are each framed and supported by four naked youths or Ignudi. At either end, and beneath the scenes are the figures of twelve men and women who prophesied the birth of Jesus. On the crescent - shaped areas, or lunettes, above each of the chapel 's windows are tablets listing the Ancestors of Christ and accompanying figures. Above them, in the triangular spandrels, a further eight groups of figures are shown, but these have not been identified with specific Biblical characters. The scheme is completed by four large corner pendentives, each illustrating a dramatic Biblical story.
The narrative elements of the ceiling illustrate that God made the World as a perfect creation and put humanity into it, that humanity fell into disgrace and was punished by death and by separation from God. Humanity then sank further into sin and disgrace, and was punished by the Great Flood. Through a lineage of Ancestors -- from Abraham to Joseph -- God sent the saviour of humanity, Christ Jesus. The coming of the Saviour was prophesied by Prophets of Israel and Sibyls of the Classical world. The various components of the ceiling are linked to this Christian doctrine. Traditionally, the Old Testament was perceived as a prefiguring of the New Testament. Many incidents and characters of the Old Testament were commonly understood as having a direct symbolic link to some particular aspect of the life of Jesus or to an important element of Christian doctrine or to a sacrament such as Baptism or the Eucharist. Jonah, for example, was readily recognisable by his attribute of the large fish and was commonly seen to symbolise Jesus ' death and resurrection.
While much of the symbolism of the ceiling dates from the early church, the ceiling also has elements that express the specifically Renaissance thinking that sought to reconcile Christian theology with the philosophy of Renaissance Humanism. During the 15th century in Italy, and in Florence in particular, there was a strong interest in Classical literature and the philosophies of Plato, Socrates and other Classical writers. Michelangelo, as a young man, had spent time at the Humanist academy established by the Medici family in Florence. He was familiar with early Humanist - inspired sculptural works such as Donatello 's bronze David and had himself responded by carving the enormous nude marble David, which was placed in the piazza near the Palazzo Vecchio, the home of Florence 's council. The Humanist vision of humanity was one in which people responded to other people, to social responsibility, and to God in a direct way, not through intermediaries, such as the Church. This conflicted with the Church 's emphasis. While the Church emphasized humanity as essentially sinful and flawed, Humanism emphasized humanity as potentially noble and beautiful. These two views were not necessarily irreconcilable to the Church, but only through a recognition that the unique way to achieve this "elevation of spirit, mind and body '' was through the Church as the agent of God. To be outside the Church was to be beyond Salvation. In the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo presented both Catholic and Humanist elements in a way that does not appear visually conflicting. The inclusion of "non-biblical '' figures such as the Sibyls or Ignudi is consistent with the rationalising of Humanist and Christian thought of the Renaissance. This rationalisation was to become a target of the Counter Reformation.
The iconography of the ceiling has had various interpretations in the past, some elements of which have been contradicted by modern scholarship. Others, such as the identity of the figures in the lunettes and spandrels, continue to defy interpretation. Modern scholars have sought, as yet unsuccessfully, to determine a written source of the theological program of the ceiling and have questioned whether or not it was entirely devised by the artist himself, who was both an avid reader of the Bible and a genius. Also of interest to some modern scholars is the question of how Michelangelo 's own spiritual and psychological state is reflected in the iconography and the expression of the ceiling. One such speculation is that Michelangelo was tormented by conflict between homosexual desires and passionate Christian beliefs.
The Sistine Chapel is 40.9 metres long and 14 metres wide. The ceiling rises to 13.4 metres above the main floor of the chapel. The vault is of quite a complex design and it is unlikely that it was originally intended to have such elaborate decoration. Pier Matteo d'Amelia provided a plan for its decoration with the architectural elements picked out and the ceiling painted blue and dotted with gold stars, similar to that of the Arena Chapel decorated by Giotto at Padua.
The chapel walls have three horizontal tiers with six windows in the upper tier down each side. There were also two windows at each end, but these have been closed up above the altar when Michelangelo 's Last Judgement was painted, obliterating two lunettes. Between the windows are large pendentives which support the vault. Between the pendentives are triangularly shaped arches or spandrels cut into the vault above each window. Above the height of the pendentives, the ceiling slopes gently without much deviation from the horizontal. This is the real architecture. Michelangelo has elaborated it with illusionary or fictive architecture.
The first element in the scheme of painted architecture is a definition of the real architectural elements by accentuating the lines where spandrels and pendentives intersect with the curving vault. Michelangelo painted these as decorative courses that look like sculpted stone moldings. These have two repeating motifs, a formula common in Classical architecture. Here, one motif is the acorn, the symbol of the family of both Pope Sixtus IV, who built the chapel, and Pope Julius II, who commissioned Michelangelo 's work. The other motif is the scallop shell, one of the symbols of the Madonna, to whose assumption the chapel was dedicated in 1483. The crown of the wall then rises above the spandrels, to a strongly projecting painted cornice that runs right around the ceiling, separating the pictorial areas of the biblical scenes from the figures of Prophets, Sibyls, and Ancestors, who literally and figuratively support the narratives. Ten broad painted crossribs of travertine cross the ceiling and divide it into alternately wide and narrow pictorial spaces, a grid that gives all the figures their defined place.
A great number of small figures are integrated with the painted architecture, their purpose apparently purely decorative. These include two faux marble putti below the cornice on each rib, each one a male and female pair; stone rams - heads are placed at the apex of each spandrel; copper - skinned nude figures in varying poses, hiding in the shadows, propped between the spandrels and the ribs like animated bookends; and more putti, both clothed and unclothed strike a variety of poses as they support the nameplates of the Prophets and Sibyls. Above the cornice and to either side of the smaller scenes are an array of round shields, or medaillons. They are framed by a total of twenty more figures, the so - called Ignudi, which are not part of the architecture but sit on inlaid plinths, their feet planted convincingly on the fictive cornice. Pictorially, the Ignudi appear to occupy a space between the narrative spaces and the space of the chapel itself. (see below)
Along the central section of the ceiling, Michelangelo depicted nine scenes from the Book of Genesis, the first book of the Bible. The pictures are organized into three groups of three alternating large and small panels.
The first group shows God creating the Heavens and the Earth. The second group shows God creating the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, and their disobedience of God and consequent expulsion from the Garden of Eden where they have lived and where they walked with God. The third group of three pictures shows the plight of Humanity and in particular the family of Noah.
The pictures are not in strictly chronological order. If they are perceived as three groups, then the pictures in each of the three units inform upon each other, in the same way as was usual in Medieval paintings and stained glass. The three sections of Creation, Downfall, and Fate of Humanity appear in reverse order, when read from the entrance of the chapel. However, each individual scene is painted to be viewed when looking toward the altar. This is not easily apparent when viewing a reproduced image of the ceiling but becomes clear when the viewer looks upward at the vault. Paoletti and Radke suggest that this reversed progression symbolises a return to a state of grace. However, the three sections are generally described in the order of Biblical chronology.
The scenes, from the altar toward the main door, are ordered as follows:
The three Creation pictures show scenes from the first chapter of Genesis, which relates that God created the Earth and all that is in it in six days, resting on the seventh day. In the first scene, the First Day of Creation, God creates light and separates light from darkness. Chronologically, the next scene takes place in the third panel, in which, on the Second Day, God divides the waters from the heavens. In the central panel, the largest of the three, there are two representations of God. On the Third Day, God creates the Earth and makes it sprout plants. On the Fourth Day, God puts the Sun and the Moon in place to govern the night and the day, the time and the seasons of the year. According to Genesis, on the Fifth Day, God created the birds of the air and fish and creatures of the deep, but we are not shown this. Neither do we see God 's creation of the creatures of the earth on the Sixth Day.
These three scenes, completed in the third stage of painting, are the most broadly conceived, the most broadly painted and the most dynamic of all the pictures. Of the first scene Vasari says "... Michelangelo depicted God dividing Light from Darkness, showing him in all his majesty as he rests self - sustained with arms outstretched, in a revelation of love and creative power. ''
For the central section of the ceiling, Michelangelo has taken four episodes from the story of Adam and Eve as told in the first, second and third chapters of Genesis. In this sequence of three, two of the panels are large and one small.
In the first of the pictures, and one of the most widely recognised images in the history of painting, Michelangelo shows God reaching out to touch Adam, who, in the words of Vasari, is "a figure whose beauty, pose and contours are such that it seems to have been fashioned that very moment by the first and supreme creator rather than by the drawing and brush of a mortal man. '' From beneath the sheltering arm of God, Eve looks out, a little apprehensively. The "glory '' of God, represented by a dark shaded area around him, has the same anatomical geometry as a human brain.
The central scene, of God creating Eve from the side of the sleeping Adam has been taken in its composition directly from another Creation sequence, the relief panels that surround the door of the Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna by Jacopo della Quercia whose work Michelangelo had studied in his youth.
In the final panel of this sequence Michelangelo combines two contrasting scenes into one panel, that of Adam and Eve taking fruit from the forbidden tree, Eve trustingly taking it from the hand of the Serpent and Adam eagerly picking it for himself; and their banishment from the Garden of Eden, where they have lived in the company of God, to the world outside where they have to fend for themselves and experience death.
As with the first sequence of pictures, the three panels concerning Noah, taken from the sixth to ninth chapters of Genesis are thematic rather than chronological. In the first scene is shown the sacrifice of a sheep. Vasari, in writing about this scene mistakes it for the sacrifices by Cain and Abel, in which Abel 's sacrifice was acceptable to God and Cain 's was not. What this image almost certainly depicts is the sacrifice made by the family of Noah, after their safe deliverance from the Great Flood which destroyed the rest of Humankind.
The central, larger, scene shows the Great Flood. The Ark in which Noah 's family escaped floats at the rear of the picture while the rest of humanity tries frantically to scramble to some point of safety. This picture, which has a large number of figures, conforms the most closely to the format of the paintings that had been done around the walls.
The final scene is the story of Noah 's drunkenness. After the Flood, Noah tills the soil and grows vines. He is shown doing so, in the background of the picture. He becomes drunk and inadvertently exposes himself. His youngest son, Ham, brings his two brothers Shem and Japheth to see the sight but they discreetly cover their father with a cloak. Ham is later cursed by Noah and told that the descendants of Ham 's son Canaan will serve Shem and Japheth 's descendants forever. Taken together, these three pictures serve to show that Humankind had moved a long way from God 's perfect creation. However, it is through Shem and his descendants, the Israelites, that Salvation will come to the world.
Since Michelangelo executed the nine Biblical scenes in reverse chronological order, some analyses of the frescoes of the vault commence with the Drunkenness of Noah. Tolnay 's Neoplatonic interpretation sees the story of Noah at the beginning and the act of Creation by God as the conclusion of the process of deificatio and the return from physical to spiritual being.
Adjacent to the smaller Biblical scenes and supported by the Ignudi are ten circular parade shields, sometimes described as being painted to resemble bronze. Known examples are actually of lacquered and gilt wood. Each is decorated with a picture drawn from the Old Testament or the Book of Maccabees from the Apocrypha.
The subjects are the more gruesome or shameful of Biblical episodes, the only exception seeming to be that of Elijah being swept up to Heaven in a Chariot of Fire, leaving his mantel to fall on Elisha. However, Elijah 's role as a prophet was one marked by accusation and warnings to repent, and the purpose of his translation into Heaven was traditionally seen as so that he might stand before God to condemn Israel for its sins. In four of the five most highly finished "medallions '' the space is crowded with figures in violent action, similar to Michelangelo 's cartoon for the Battle of Cascina.
The application of gold on the shields, in contrast to its absence on the rest of the ceiling, serves to link the ceiling to some extent with the frescoes around the walls. In the latter, gold leaf has been applied lavishly to many details and in some of the frescoes, notably those by Perugino, has been most expertly used not just to detail the robes but to highlight the folds by subtle graduation in the density of golden flecks. It is this technique that Michelangelo has picked up on and carried a step further, inspired also perhaps by the medallions that appear on a Roman triumphal arch in Botticelli 's episode from the Life of Moses, showing the Punishment of the Rebels.
The medallions represent:
Section references
On the five pendentives along each side and the two at either end, Michelangelo painted the largest figures on the ceiling: twelve people who prophesied or represented some aspect of the Coming of Christ. Of those twelve, seven were Prophets of Israel and were male. The remaining five were prophets of the Classical World, called Sibyls and were female. The prophet Jonah is placed above the altar and Zechariah at the further end. The other male and female figures alternate down each side, each being identified by an inscription on a painted marble panel supported by a putto.
The seven prophets of Israel chosen for depiction on the ceiling include the four so - called Major Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. Of the remaining twelve possibilities among the Minor Prophets, the three represented are Joel, Zechariah and Jonah. Although the prophets Joel and Zechariah are considered "minor '' because of the comparatively small number of pages that their prophecy occupies in the Bible, each one produced prophesies of profound significance.
They are often quoted, Joel for his "Your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your elderly shall dream dreams and your youth shall see visions ''. These words are significant for Michelangelo 's decorative scheme, where women take their place among men and the youthful Daniel sits across from the brooding Jeremiah with his long white beard.
Zechariah prophesied, "Behold! Your King comes to you, humble and riding on a donkey ''. His place in the chapel is directly above the door through which the Pope is carried in procession on Palm Sunday, the day on which Jesus fulfilled the prophecy by riding into Jerusalem on a donkey and being proclaimed King.
Jonah is of symbolic and prophetic significance, which was commonly perceived and had been represented in countless works of art including manuscripts and stained glass windows. Through his reluctance to obey God, he was swallowed by a "mighty fish ''. He spent three days in its belly and was eventually spewed up on dry land where he went about God 's business. Jonah was thus seen as presaging Jesus, who having died by crucifixion, spent part of three days in a tomb and was raised on the third day. So, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Jonah, with the "great fish '' beside him and his eyes turned towards God the Creator, represents a "portent '' of the Passion and Resurrection of Christ. The Jonah figure placed right over the altar activated the Passion motif. "When Perugino 's altar painting was removed and... Last Judgement fresco came to cover the altar wall '', after at least twenty five years Michelangelo depicted Christ just below Jonah: not only for his role as precursor of Christ, Christianity and Christocentrism, but also because his powerful torsion of the body, bent backwards from the bust to the eyes and with his forefingers that now point the glorious Jesus to the characters of the ceiling, assumes a function of link between the Old and New Testament.
In Vasari 's description of the Prophets and Sibyls he is particularly high in his praise of the portrayal of Isaiah: "Anyone who studies this figure, copied so faithfully from nature, the true mother of the art of painting, will find a beautifully composed work capable of teaching in full measure all the precepts to be followed by a good painter. ''
The Sibyls were prophetic women who were resident at shrines or temples throughout the Classical World. The five depicted here are each said to have prophesied the birth of Christ. The Cumaean Sibyl, for example, is quoted by Virgil in his Fourth Eclogue as declaring that "a new progeny of Heaven '' would bring about a return of the "Golden Age ''. This was interpreted as referring to Jesus.
In Christian doctrine, Christ came not just to the Jews but also to the Gentiles. It was understood that, prior to the Birth of Christ, God prepared the world for his coming. To this purpose, God used Jews and Gentiles alike. Jesus would not have been born in Bethlehem (where it had been prophesied that his birth would take place), except for the fact that the pagan Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that there should be a census. Likewise, when Jesus was born, the announcement of his birth was made to rich and to poor, to mighty and to humble, to Jew and to Gentile. The Three Wise Men (the "Magi '' of the Bible) who sought out the infant King with precious gifts were pagan foreigners.
In the Roman Catholic Church, where there was an increasing interest in the remains of the city 's pagan past, where scholars turned from reading Medieval Church Latin to Classical Latin and the philosophies of the Classical world were studied along with the writings of St Augustine, the presence, in the Sistine Chapel of five pagan prophets is not surprising.
It is not known why Michelangelo selected the five particular Sibyls that were depicted, given that, as with the Minor Prophets, there were ten or twelve possibilities. It is suggested by John O'Malley that the choice was made for a wide geographic coverage, with the Sibyls coming from Africa, Asia, Greece and Ionia.
Vasari says of the Erythraean Sibyl "Many aspects of this figure are of exceptional loveliness: the expression of her face, her headdress and the arrangement of her draperies: and her arms, which are bared, are as beautiful as the rest. ''
In each corner of the chapel is a triangular pendentive filling the space between the walls and the arch of the vault and forming the spandrel above the windows nearest the corners. On these curving shapes Michelangelo has painted four scenes from Biblical stories that are associated with the salvation of Israel by four great male and female heroes of the Jews: Moses, Esther, David and Judith.
The first two stories were both seen in Medieval - and Renaissance theology as prefiguring the Crucifixion of Jesus. In the story of the Brazen Serpent, the people of Israel become dissatisfied and grumble at God. As punishment they receive a plague of venonous snakes. God offers the people relief by instructing Moses to make a snake of brass and set it up on a pole, the sight of which gives miraculous healing. Michelangelo chooses a crowded composition, depicting a dramatic mass of suffering men, women, and writhing snakes, separated from redeemed worshipers by the snake before an epiphanic light.
In the Book of Esther it is related that Haman, a public servant, plots to get Esther 's husband, the King of Persia, to slay all the Jewish people in his land. The King, who is going over his books during a sleepless night, realises something is amiss. Esther, discovering the plot, denounces Haman, and her husband orders his execution on a scaffold he has built. The King 's eunuchs promptly carry this out. Michelangelo shows Haman crucified with Esther looking at him from a doorway, the King giving orders in the background.
The other two stories, those of David and Judith, were often linked in Renaissance art, particularly by Florentine artists as they demonstrated the overthrow of tyrants, a popular subject in the Republic. In this image, the shepherd boy, David, has brought down the towering Goliath with his sling, but the giant is alive and is trying to rise as David forces his head down to chop it off.
The depiction of Judith and Holofernes has an equally gruesome detail. As Judith loads the enemy 's head onto a basket carried by her maid and covers it with a cloth, she looks towards the tent, apparently distracted by the limbs of the decapitated corpse flailing about.
There are obvious connections in the design of the Slaying of Holofernes and the Slaying of Haman at the opposite end of the chapel. Although in the Holofernes picture the figures are smaller and the space less filled, both have the triangular space divided into two zones by a vertical wall, allowing us to see what is happening on both sides of it. There are actually three scenes in the Haman picture because as well as seeing Haman punished, we see him at the table with Esther and the King and get a view of the King on his bed. Mordechai sits on the steps, making a link between the scenes.
While the Slaying of Goliath is a relatively simple composition with the two protagonists centrally placed and the only other figures being dimly seen observers, the Brazen Serpent picture is crowded with figures and separate incidents as the various individuals who have been attacked by snakes struggle and die or turn toward the icon that will save them. This is the most Mannerist of Michelangelo 's earlier compositions at the Sistine Chapel, picking up the theme of human distress begun in the Great Flood scene and carrying it forward into the torment of lost souls in the Last Judgement, which was later painted below.
Between the large pendentives that support the vault are windows, six on each side of the chapel. There were two more windows in each end of the chapel, now closed, and those above the High Altar covered by the Last Judgement. Above each window is an arched shape, referred to as a lunette and above eight of the lunettes at the sides of the chapel are triangular spandrels filling the spaces between the side pendentives and the vault, the other eight lunettes each being below one of the corner pendentives.
Michelangelo was commissioned to paint these areas as part of the work on the ceiling. The structures form visual bridges between the walls and the ceiling, and the figures which are painted on them are midway in size (approximately 2 metres high) between the very large prophets and the much smaller figures of Popes which had been painted to either side of each window in the 15th century. Michelangelo chose the Ancestors of Christ as the subject of these images, thus portraying Jesus ' physical lineage, while the papal portraits are his spiritual successors, according to Church doctrine. (see gallery)
Centrally placed above each window is a faux marble tablet with a decorative frame. On each is painted the names of the male line by which Jesus, through his Earthly father, Joseph, is descended from Abraham, according to the Gospel of Matthew. However, the genealogy is now incomplete, since the two lunettes of the windows in the Altar wall were destroyed by Michelangelo when he returned to the Sistine Chapel in 1537 to paint The Last Judgment. Only engravings, based on a drawing that has since been lost, remain of them. The sequence of tablets seems a little erratic as one plaque has four names, most have three or two, and two plaques have only one. Moreover, the progression moves from one side of the building to the other, but not consistently, and the figures the lunettes contain do not coincide closely with the listed names. These figures vaguely suggest various family relationships; most lunettes contain one or more infants, and many depict a man and a woman, often sitting on opposing sides of the painted plaque that separates them. O'Malley describes them as "simply representative figures, almost ciphers ''.
There is also an indeterminate relationship between the figures in the spandrels and the lunettes beneath them. Because of the constraints of the triangular shape, in each spandrel the figures are seated on the ground. In six of the eight spandrels the compositions resemble traditional depictions of the Flight into Egypt. Of the two remaining, one shows a woman with shears trimming the neck of a garment she is making while her toddler looks on. The Biblical woman who is recorded as making a new garment for her child is Hannah, the mother of Samuel, whose child went to live in the temple, and indeed, the male figure in the background is wearing a distinctive hat that might suggest that of a priest. The other figure who differs from the rest is a young woman who sits staring out of the picture with prophetic intensity. Her open eyes have been closed in the restoration.
Section References
Michelangelo 's depiction of the Genealogy of Jesus departs from an artistic tradition for this topic that was common in medieval times, especially in stained - glass windows. This so - called Jesse Tree shows Jesse lying prone and a tree growing from his side with the ancestors on each branch, in a visual treatment of a biblical verse.
The figures in the lunettes appear to be families, but in every case they are families that are divided. The figures in them are physically divided by the name tablet but they are also divided by a range of human emotions that turn them outward or in on themselves and sometimes towards their partner with jealousy, suspicion, rage or simply boredom. In them Michelangelo has portrayed the anger and unhappiness of the human condition, painting "the daily round of merely domestic life as if it were a curse ''. In their constraining niches, the ancestors "sit, squat and wait ''. Of the fourteen lunettes, the two that were probably painted first, the families of Eleazar and Mathan and of Jacob and Joseph are the most detailed. They become progressively broader towards the altar end, one of the last being painted in only two days.
The Eleazar and Mathan picture contains two figures with a wealth of costume detail that is not present in any other lunette. The female to the left has had as much care taken with her clothing as any of the Sibyls. Her skirt is turned back showing her linen petticoat and the garter that holds up her mauve stockings and cuts into the flesh. She has a reticule and her dress is laced up under the arms. On the other side of the tablet sits the only male figure among those on the lunettes who is intrinsically beautiful. This blonde young man, elegantly dressed in white shirt and pale green hose, with no jerkin but a red cloak, postures with an insipid and vain gesture, in contrast to the Ignudi which he closely resembles.
Prior to restoration, of all the paintings in the Sistine Chapel, the lunettes and spandrels were the dirtiest. Added to this, there has always been a problem of poor daytime visibility of the panels nearest the windows because of halination. Consequently, they were the least well known of all Michelangelo 's publicly accessible works. The recent restoration has made these masterly studies of human nature and inventive depiction of the human form known once more.
Section References
(For images, see gallery)
The Ignudi are the 20 athletic, nude males that Michelangelo painted as supporting figures at each corner of the five smaller narrative scenes that run along the centre of the ceiling. The figures hold or are draped with or lean on a variety of items which include pink ribbons, green bolsters and enormous garlands of acorns.
The Ignudi, although all seated, are less physically constrained than the Ancestors of Christ. While the pairs of the monochrome male and female figures above the spandrels are mirrors of each other, these Ignudi are all different. In the earliest paintings, they are paired, their poses being similar but with variation. These variations become greater with each pair until the postures of the final four bear no relation to each other whatsoever.
The meaning of these figures has never been clear. They are certainly in keeping with the Humanist acceptance of the classical Greek view that "the man is the measure of all things ''. But Michelangelo knew the Bible well. He would have been well aware of the fact that although seraphim and cherubim are described as being winged creatures, they are described as looking like men. When Michelangelo later painted the altar wall of the chapel, he included a great number of angels, particularly in the lunettes which are decorated with scenes of angels carrying the symbols of the Passion. Other angels are employed sounding the trumpets which call forth the dead, displaying books in which the names of the saved and the damned are written and casting sinners down to Hell. In all, the Last Judgement contains more than forty angels, all closely resembling the Ignudi. It is reasonable to conclude that the Ignudi represent angels. If the Ignudi are indeed angels, they are the ever - present attendants and messengers of God, impassively watching and waiting on the fate of Humankind.
Their painting demonstrates, more than any other figures on the ceiling, Michelangelo 's mastery of anatomy and foreshortening and his enormous powers of invention. In their reflection of classical antiquity they resonate with Pope Julius ' aspirations to lead Italy towards a new ' age of gold '; at the same time, they staked Michelangelo 's claim to greatness. However, a number of critics were angered by their presence and nudity, including Pope Adrian VI who wanted the ceiling stripped.
Michelangelo was the artistic heir to the great 15th - century sculptors and painters of Florence. He learned his trade first under the direction of a masterly fresco painter, Domenico Ghirlandaio, known for two great fresco cycles in the Sassetti Chapel and Tornabuoni Chapel, and for his contribution to the cycle of paintings on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. As a student Michelangelo studied and drew from the works of the two most renowned Florentine fresco painters of the early Renaissance, Giotto and Masaccio. Masaccio 's figures of Adam and Eve being expelled from the Garden of Eden had a profound effect on the depiction of the nude in general, and in particular on the use of the nude figure to convey human emotion. Helen Gardner says that in the hands of Michelangelo "the body is simply the manifestation of the soul, or of a state of mind and character ''.
Michelangelo was also almost certainly influenced by the paintings of Luca Signorelli whose paintings, particularly the Death and Resurrection Cycle in Orvieto Cathedral contain a great number of nudes and inventive figurative compositions. In Bologna, Michelangelo saw the relief sculptures of Jacopo della Quercia around the doors of the cathedral. In Michelangelo 's depiction of the Creation of Eve the whole composition, the form of the figures and the relatively conservative concept of the relationship between Eve and her Creator adheres closely to Jacopo 's design. Other panels on the ceiling, most particularly the iconic Creation of Adam show "... unprecedented invention ''.
The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was to have a profound effect upon other artists, even before it was completed. Vasari, in his Life of Raphael, tells us that Bramante, who had the keys to the chapel, let Raphael in to examine the paintings in Michelangelo 's absence. On seeing Michelangelo 's prophets, Raphael went back to the picture of the Prophet Isaiah that he was painting on a column in the Church of Sant'Agostino and, according to Vasari, although it was finished, he scraped it off the wall and repainted it in a much more powerful manner, in imitation of Michelangelo. John O'Malley points out that even earlier than the Isaiah is Raphael 's inclusion of the figure of Heraclitus in the School of Athens, a brooding figure similar to Michelangelo 's Jeremiah, but with the countenace of Michelangelo himself, and leaning on a block of marble.
There was hardly a design element on the ceiling that was not subsequently imitated: the fictive architecture, the muscular anatomy, the foreshortening, the dynamic motion, the luminous colouration, the haunting expressions of the figures in the lunettes, the abundance of putti. Gabriele Bartz and Eberhard König have said of the Ignudi, "There is no image that has had a more lasting effect on following generations than this. Henceforth similar figures disported themselves in innumerable decorative works, be they painted, formed in stucco or even sculpted. ''
Within Michelangelo 's own work, the chapel ceiling led to the later and more Mannerist painting of the Last Judgement in which the crowded compositions gave full rein to his inventiveness in painting contorted and foreshortened figures expressing despair or jubilation. Among the artists in whose work can be seen the direct influence of Michelangelo are Pontormo, Andrea del Sarto, Correggio, Tintoretto, Annibale Carracci, Paolo Veronese and El Greco.
In January 2007, it was claimed that as many as 10,000 visitors passed through the Vatican Museums in a day and that the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is the biggest attraction. The Vatican, anxious at the possibility that the newly restored frescoes will suffer damage, announced plans to reduce visiting hours and raise the price in an attempt to discourage visitors.
Five hundred years earlier Vasari had said "The whole world came running when the vault was revealed, and the sight of it was enough to reduce them to stunned silence. ''
The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel were restored between June 1980 and December 1999, with preliminary tests taking place in 1979.
The first stage of restoration, the work upon Michelangelo 's lunettes, was achieved in October 1984. The work then proceeded on the ceiling, completed December 1989 and from there to the Last Judgement. The restoration was unveiled by Pope John Paul II on 8 April 1994. The restoration team comprised Gianluigi Colalucci, Maurizio Rossi, Piergiorgio Bonetti, Bruno Baratti and others. The final stage was the restoration of the wall frescoes by Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others, This was unveiled on 11 December 1999.
The colours, which now appear so fresh and spring - like with pale pink, apple green, vivid yellow and sky blue against a background of warm pearly grey, were so discoloured by candle smoke as to make the pictures seem almost monochrome. The restoration has removed the filter of grime to reveal the colours again. However, the restoration was met with both praise and criticism. Critics assert that much original work by Michelangelo -- in particular pentimenti, highlights and shadows, and other detailing painted a secco -- was lost in the removal of various accretions.
Vasari
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
Waldemar Januszczak The art critic and television producer Waldemar Januszczak wrote that when the Sistine Chapel ceiling was recently cleaned, he "was able to persuade the man at the Vatican who was in charge of Japanese TV access to let me climb the scaffold while the cleaning was in progress. ''
Gabriele Bartz and Eberhard König
Pope John Paul II
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what part of the constitution talks about the electoral college | Twelfth Amendment to the United states Constitution - wikipedia
The Twelfth Amendment (Amendment XII) to the United States Constitution provides the procedure for electing the President and Vice President. It replaced the procedure provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, by which the Electoral College originally functioned. Problems with the original procedure arose in the elections of 1796 and 1800. The Twelfth Amendment refined the process whereby a President and a Vice President are elected by the Electoral College. The amendment was proposed by the Congress on December 9, 1803, and was ratified by the requisite three - fourths of state legislatures on June 15, 1804.
The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;
The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;
The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two - thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two - thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
Under the original procedure for the Electoral College, as provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, each elector could vote for two persons. The two people chosen by the elector could not both inhabit the same state as that elector. This prohibition was designed to keep electors from voting for two "favorite sons '' of their respective states. The person receiving the greatest number of votes, provided that number equaled a majority of the electors, was elected President.
If there were more than one individual who received the same number of votes, and such number equaled a majority of the electors, the House of Representatives would choose one of them to be President. If no individual had a majority, then the House of Representatives would choose from the five individuals with the greatest number of electoral votes. In either case, a majority of state delegations in the House was necessary for a candidate to be chosen to be President.
Selecting the Vice President was a simpler process. Whichever candidate received the second greatest number of votes became Vice President. The Vice President, unlike the President, was not required to receive votes from a majority of the electors. In the event of a tie for second place, the Senate would choose who would be Vice President from those tied, with each Senator casting one vote. It was not specified in the Constitution whether the sitting Vice President could cast a tie - breaking vote for Vice President under the original formula.
The original electoral system worked adequately for the first two presidential elections because on both occasions George Washington was the unanimous choice of the electors for President - the only real contest was the election for Vice President for which an overall majority was not required. George Washington 's decision not to seek a third term and the emergence of partisan political activity exposed problems with the original procedure.
In the 1796 election, John Adams, the Federalist Party presidential candidate, received a majority of the electoral votes. However, the Federalist electors scattered their second votes, resulting in the Democratic - Republican Party presidential candidate, Thomas Jefferson, receiving the second highest number of electoral votes and thus being elected Vice President. It soon became apparent that having a Vice President and a President unwilling to work together effectively was going to be a more significant problem than was originally realized. The most significant problem was that with the French Revolutionary Wars raging in Europe, it was immediately apparent that President Adams was going to pursue a pro-British foreign policy, much to the disgust of the strongly pro-French Vice President Jefferson.
Both major parties decided to attempt an extra-constitutional remedy to the situation, specifically, by having the President and Vice President elected on a party ticket. This solution significantly enhanced the likelihood of having political allies serving as President and Vice President, but raised a different flaw in the arrangements.
On January 6, 1797, Federalist Representative William L. Smith of South Carolina responded to the 1796 result by presenting a resolution on the floor of the House of Representatives for an amendment to the Constitution requiring each elector to cast one vote for President and another for Vice President. However, no action was taken on his proposal, setting the stage for the deadlocked election of 1800.
The 1800 election exposed a defect in the original formula in that if each member of the Electoral College followed party tickets, there could be a tie between the two candidates from the most popular ticket. Both parties planned to prevent this by having one of their electors abstain from voting for the vice presidential candidate to ensure a clear result. Jefferson managed to secure a majority of pledged electors, but the margin like in 1796 was so slim that there was little margin for error if the Democratic - Republicans were to avoid repeating the Federalists ' miscues of 1796. Given the technical limitations of 18th century communications, Democratic - Republicans electors in all states were left to assume that an elector in another state was the one responsible for casting the one abstention necessary to ensure the election of unofficial Vice Presidential nominee Aaron Burr to that office. All Democratic - Republicans electors in each state were so reluctant to be seen that the one responsible for causing outgoing President Adams to be re-elected as Vice President that every Democratic - Republican elector cast a vote for both Jefferson and Burr, resulting in a tie.
The Federalist - controlled state delegations in the House of Representatives decided to give their votes to Aaron Burr for President. Their aim was to prevent Jefferson, who in addition to being pro-French was influential and rich in new visions, from becoming President at any cost. With help from Alexander Hamilton, the gridlock was finally broken on the thirty - sixth vote and Jefferson was elected President on February 17, 1801. The events in the House, combined with the increasing Democratic - Republican majorities in the House and Senate, prompted the Democratic - Republicans to call for a Constitutional amendment requiring separate votes for President and Vice President in the Electoral College. By doing this, the Democratic - Republicans could dash the Federalists ' hopes of having any impact on the Presidential election of 1804.
In March 1801, weeks after the election of 1800 was resolved, two amendments were proposed in the New York state legislature that would form the skeleton of the Twelfth Amendment. Governor John Jay submitted an amendment to the state legislature that would require a district election of electors in each state. Assemblyman Jedediah Peck submitted an amendment to adopt designations for the votes for President and Vice President. The two amendments were not considered until early 1802 because the state legislature took a break for the summer and winter. New York state senator DeWitt Clinton moved for the adoption of the amendment in January 1802. Shortly thereafter, Clinton won a vacant seat in the U.S. Senate, where he was instrumental in bringing the designation amendment to Congress. The process continued in New York on February 15 when Representative Benjamin Walker of New York proposed the designation and district election amendments to the House. Debate on the amendments began in May. The Republicans wanted to decide on the amendment quickly, but the Federalists argued that the ideas needed more time than the current session allowed. Federalist Samuel W. Dana of Connecticut wanted to examine the necessity of a Vice President. The amendment ultimately failed in the New York State Senate, but DeWitt Clinton brought the amendment discussion to the House of Representatives.
Congress was ready to debate the presented amendment, but the Democratic - Republicans decided to wait for the 8th Congress. The 8th Congress would allow the Democratic - Republicans a better chance of meeting the two - third vote requirement for submitting a proposed Constitutional amendment.
On its first day, the 8th Congress considered the designation amendment. The first formulation of the amendment had the five highest electoral vote earners on the ballot in the House if no one candidate had a majority of the electoral votes. Republican John Clopton of Virginia, the largest state in the Union, argued that having five names on the list for a contingency election took the power from the people, so he proposed that there be only two names on the list. On October 20, the House appointed a seventeen - member committee (one Representative from each state) to fine - tune the amendment.
The original proposal starting in the New York state legislature was a dual - amendment that, along with designation, put forward the idea of district election of electors that Treasury Secretary Gallatin had supported. Shortly after the committee was formed, Federalist Benjamin Huger attempted to add a provision regarding district elections to the proposed amendment. The committee ignored him and district election disappeared.
The committee then submitted an updated version of the designation amendment to the House on October 23 that changed the number of candidates in a contingency election from five to three and allowed the Senate to choose the Vice President if there were a tie in that race. Small Federalist states disliked the change from five to three, because it made it far less likely that a small - state candidate would make it to a contingency election. Huger and New York Federalist Gaylord Griswold argued that the Constitution was a compromise between large and small states and the method chosen by the Framers is supposed to check the influence of the larger states. Huger even asserted that the Constitution itself was not a union of people, but a union of large and small states in order to justify the original framework for electing the President. Designation, argued Griswold and Huger, would violate the spirit of the Constitution by taking away a check on the power of the large states.
Next up for the Federalists was Seth Hastings of Massachusetts, who submitted the argument that the designation amendment rendered the Vice Presidency useless and advocated for the elimination of the three - fifths clause. John C. Smith asked the inflammatory question of whether or not the proposed amendment was to help the reelection of Jefferson. Speaker Nathaniel Macon called this inappropriate. After Matthew Lyon of Kentucky denounced any reference to the three - fifths clause as mere provocation, the House easily passed the resolution 88 - 39 on October 28.
By October 28, the Senate had already been discussing the designation amendment. Republican DeWitt Clinton expected that the Senate, with a 24 - 9 Republican majority would quickly passing the amendment. Federalist Jonathan Dayton proposed that the office of the Vice President should be eliminated and his colleague, Uriah Tracy, seconded it. On the other side, Wilson Cary Nicholas was simply worried that Congress would not submit the amendment in time for the states to ratify it before the 1804 election. Despite Nicholas ' concern, the Senate would not seriously deal with the amendment again until November 23.
Much as it had in the House, debate centered around the number of candidates in a contingency election and the philosophical underpinnings of the Constitution. Again, small Federalist states vehemently argued that three candidates gave too much power to large states to pick presidents. Senator Pierce Butler of South Carolina argued that the issues with the election of 1800 were unlikely to happen again and he would not advocate changing the Constitution simply to stop a Federalist Vice President. John Quincy Adams argued that the change from five to three gave an advantage to the people that violated the federative principle of the Constitution. Rather than have the office of the President balanced between the states and the people, Adams felt designation of President and Vice President would tip that scale in favor of the people.
Federalist Senators argued for retaining the original procedure for the Electoral College. Senator Samuel White of Delaware claimed that the original procedure had not been given "a fair experiment '' and criticized the proposed amendment for entrenching the two - party system that had taken over presidential elections.
In response, the Republicans appealed to democratic principles. Samuel Smith of Maryland argued that the presidency ought to be as closely accountable to the people as possible. As such, having three candidates in a contingency election is far better than having five, because it is possible to have the fifth best candidate become President otherwise. Also, designation itself would drastically cut down the number of elections that would reach the house, and the President is then much more likely to be the people 's choice. Another of Smith 's arguments was simply the election of 1800. William Cocke of Tennessee took a different approach when he argued that the entire small state argument of the Federalists was simply out of self - interest.
One last order of business for the amendment was to deal with the possibility that the House would fail to choose a President by March 4. It was the least controversial portion of the Twelfth Amendment and John Taylor proposed that the Vice President would take over as President in that peculiar occurrence, "as in case of the death or other Constitutional disability of the President. ''
It seemed clear all along that the Republican dominance would render this a no - contest and the Republicans were just waiting for all of their votes to be present, but the Federalists had one last defense. A marathon session of debate, lasting from 11 A.M. to 10 P.M., was the order of the day on December 2, 1803. Most notably, Uriah Tracy of Connecticut argued in a similar vein as Adams when he invoked the federative principle of the Constitution. Tracy claimed the original procedure was formulated to give the small states a chance to elect the Vice President, who would be a check on the President 's powers. In essence, the states balanced the power of the people. However, this only works if you make it partisan, as Georgia (for example) was a Republican small state.
The Twelfth Amendment was proposed by the 8th Congress on December 9, 1803, when it was approved by the House of Representatives by vote of 83 -- 42, having been previously passed by the Senate, 22 -- 10, on December 2. The amendment was officially submitted to the states on December 12, 1803, and was ratified by the legislatures of the following states:
Having been ratified by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 17 states in the Union at the time, the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment was completed. It was subsequently ratified by:
The amendment was rejected by:
On September 25, 1804, in a circular letter to the governors of the states, Secretary of State Madison declared the amendment ratified by three - fourths of the states.
While the Twelfth Amendment did not change the composition of the Electoral College or the duties of the electors, it did change the process whereby a President and a Vice President are elected. The new electoral process was first used for the 1804 election. Each presidential election since has been conducted under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment.
The Twelfth Amendment stipulates that each elector must cast distinct votes for President and Vice President, instead of two votes for President. Additionally, electors may not vote for presidential and vice-presidential candidates who both reside in the elector 's state -- at least one of them must be an inhabitant of another state.
If no candidate for President has a majority of the total votes, the House of Representatives, voting by states and with the same quorum requirements as under the original procedure, chooses the President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three highest receivers of electoral votes, compared to five under the original procedure.
The Twelfth Amendment requires a person to receive a majority of the electoral votes for Vice President for that person to be elected Vice President by the Electoral College. If no candidate for Vice President has a majority of the total votes, the Senate, with each Senator having one vote, chooses the Vice President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose between the candidates with the "two highest numbers '' of electoral votes. If multiple individuals are tied for second place, the Senate may consider all of them, in addition to the individual with the greatest number of votes. The Twelfth Amendment introduced a quorum requirement of two - thirds of the whole number of Senators for the conduct of balloting. Furthermore, the Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose a Vice President by way of the affirmative votes of "a majority of the whole number '' of Senators.
To prevent deadlocks from keeping the nation leaderless, the Twelfth Amendment provided that if the House did not choose a President before March 4 (then the first day of a Presidential term), the individual elected Vice President would "act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. '' The Twelfth Amendment did not state for how long the Vice President would act as President or if the House could still choose a President after March 4. Section 3 of the Twentieth Amendment, adopted in 1933, supersedes that provision of the Twelfth Amendment by changing the date upon which a new presidential term commences to January 20, clarifying that the Vice President - elect would only "act as President '' if the House has not chosen a President by January 20, and permitting Congress to statutorily provide "who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected '' if there is no President - elect or Vice President - elect by January 20. It also clarifies that if there is no President - elect on January 20, whoever acts as President does so until a person "qualified '' to occupy the Presidency is elected to be President.
The Twelfth Amendment explicitly states the constitutional requirements as provided for the President also apply to being Vice President. It is unclear whether a two - term president could later serve as Vice President. Some argue that the Twenty - second Amendment and Twelfth Amendment both bar any two - term president from later serving as Vice President as well as from succeeding to the presidency from any point in the United States presidential line of succession. Others contend that the Twelfth Amendment concerns qualification for service, while the Twenty - second Amendment concerns qualifications for election, and thus a former two - term president is still eligible to serve as Vice President. The applicability of this distinction has not been tested, as no former president has ever sought the vice presidency, and thus the courts have never been required to make a judgment regarding the matter. During Hillary Clinton 's 2016 candidacy, she said that she had considered naming Bill Clinton as her Vice President, but was advised it would be unconstitutional.
Starting with the election of 1804, each Presidential election has been conducted under the Twelfth Amendment.
Only once since then has the House of Representatives chosen the President: In 1824, Andrew Jackson received 99 electoral votes, John Quincy Adams (son of John Adams) 84, William H. Crawford 41 and Henry Clay 37. All of the candidates were members of the Democratic - Republican Party (though there were significant political differences among them), and each had fallen short of the 131 votes necessary to win. Because the House could only consider the top three candidates, Clay could not become President. Crawford 's poor health following a stroke made his election by the House unlikely. Andrew Jackson expected the House to vote for him, as he had won a plurality of the popular and electoral votes. Instead, the House elected Adams on the first ballot with thirteen states, followed by Jackson with seven and Crawford with four. Clay had endorsed Adams for the Presidency; the endorsement carried additional weight because Clay was the Speaker of the House. When Adams later appointed Clay his Secretary of State, many -- particularly Jackson and his supporters -- accused the pair of making a "Corrupt Bargain ''. In the less contested election for vice president, John C. Calhoun received 182 electoral votes and was elected outright.
In 1836, the Whig Party nominated different candidates in different regions in the hopes of splintering the electoral vote and denying Martin Van Buren, the Democratic candidate, a majority in the Electoral College, thereby throwing the election into the Whig - controlled House. However, this strategy failed with Van Buren winning majorities of both the popular and electoral vote. In that same election no candidate for Vice President secured a majority in the electoral college as Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Richard Mentor Johnson did not receive the electoral votes of Democratic electors from Virginia, because of his relationship with a former slave. As a result, Johnson received 147 electoral votes, one vote short of a majority; to be followed by Francis Granger with 77, John Tyler with 47 and William Smith with 23. This caused the Senate to choose whether Johnson or Granger would be the new Vice President. Johnson won with 33 votes, with Granger receiving 16.
Since 1836, no major U.S. party has nominated multiple regional presidential or vice presidential candidates in an election. However, since the Civil War there have been two serious attempts by Southern - based parties to run regional candidates in hopes of denying either of the two major candidates an electoral college majority. Both attempts (in 1948 and 1968) failed, but not by much -- in both cases a shift in the result of two close states would have forced the respective elections into the House.
In modern elections, a running mate is often selected in order to appeal to a different set of voters. A Habitation Clause issue arose during the 2000 presidential election contested by George W. Bush (running - mate Dick Cheney) and Al Gore (running - mate Joe Lieberman), because it was alleged that Bush and Cheney were both inhabitants of Texas and that the Texas electors therefore violated the Twelfth Amendment in casting their ballots for both. Bush 's residency was unquestioned, as he was Governor of Texas at the time. Cheney and his wife had moved to Dallas five years earlier when he assumed the role of chief executive at Halliburton. Cheney grew up in Wyoming and had represented it in Congress. A few months before the election, he switched his voter registration and driver 's license to Wyoming and put his home in Dallas up for sale. Three Texas voters challenged the election in a federal court in Dallas and then appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, where it was dismissed.
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who does tom hanks play in toy story | Toy Story - wikipedia
Toy Story is a 1995 American computer - animated buddy comedy adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios for Walt Disney Pictures. The directorial debut of John Lasseter, Toy Story was the first feature - length computer - animated film and the first feature film produced by Pixar. Taking place in a world where anthropomorphic toys pretend to be lifeless when humans are present, the film 's plot focuses on the relationship between Woody, an old - fashioned pullstring cowboy doll (voiced by Tom Hanks), and Buzz Lightyear, an astronaut action figure (voiced by Tim Allen), as they evolve from rivals competing for the affections of Andy, their owner, to friends who work together to be reunited with Andy as his family prepares to move to a new home. The screenplay was written by Joss Whedon, Andrew Stanton, Joel Cohen and Alec Sokolow, based on a story by Lasseter, Pete Docter, Stanton and Joe Ranft. The film features music by Randy Newman, and was executive - produced by Steve Jobs and Edwin Catmull.
Pixar, which produced short animated films to promote their computers, was approached by Disney to produce a computer - animated feature after the success of their short film Tin Toy (1988), which is told from a small toy 's perspective. Lasseter, Stanton and Docter wrote early story treatments which were thrown out by Disney, as they wanted the film to be edgier. After disastrous story reels, production was halted and the script was re-written, better reflecting the tone and theme Pixar desired: that "toys deeply want children to play with them, and that this desire drives their hopes, fears, and actions ''. The studio, then consisting of a relatively small number of employees, produced the film under minor financial constraints.
Toy Story was released in theaters on November 22, 1995, and was the highest - grossing film on its opening weekend, earning over $373 million at the worldwide box office. The film was positively reviewed by critics and audiences, who praised the animation 's technical innovation, the wit and thematic sophistication of the screenplay, and the vocal performances of Hanks and Allen. It is considered by many critics to be one of the best animated films ever made.
Toy Story received three Academy Award nominations, including Best Original Screenplay, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song for "You 've Got a Friend in Me '', as well as winning a Special Achievement Academy Award. It was inducted into the National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' in 2005, its first year of eligibility. In addition to home media releases and theatrical re-releases, Toy Story - inspired material includes toys, video games, theme park attractions, spin - offs, merchandise, and two sequels -- Toy Story 2 (1999) and Toy Story 3 (2010) -- both of which also garnered massive commercial success and critical acclaim, with a third sequel, Toy Story 4, slated for a 2019 release.
In a world where toys are living things who pretend to be lifeless when humans are present, a group of toys, owned by six - year - old Andy Davis, are caught off - guard when Andy 's birthday party is moved up a week, as Andy, his mother, and infant sister Molly, are preparing to move the following week. The toys ' leader and Andy 's favorite toy, a pull - string cowboy doll named Sheriff Woody, organizes the other toys, including Bo Peep the shepherdess, Mr. Potato Head, Rex the Dinosaur, Hamm the Piggy Bank, and Slinky Dog, into a scouting mission. Green army men, led by Sarge, spy on the party, and report the results to the others via baby monitors. The toys are relieved when the party appears to end with none of them having been replaced, but then Andy receives a surprise gift -- a Buzz Lightyear action figure, who thinks he is an actual space ranger.
Buzz impresses the other toys with his various features, and Andy begins to favor him, making Woody feel left out. As Andy prepares for a family outing at Pizza Planet, his mother allows him to bring one toy. Fearing Andy will choose Buzz, Woody attempts to trap Buzz behind a desk, but ends up accidentally knocking him out a window, and the other toys rebel against Woody by accusing him of knocking Buzz out of jealousy. Before they can exact revenge, Andy takes Woody instead and leaves for Pizza Planet. When the family stops for gas, Woody finds that Buzz has hitched a ride on the car as well, and fight, only to find the family has left without them. They manage to make their way to the restaurant by stowing away on a pizza delivery truck, where Buzz, still thinking he is a real space ranger, despite Woody 's attempts to convince him otherwise, gets them stuck in a crane game, where they are salvaged by Andy 's mischievous neighbor, Sid Phillips.
Woody attempts to escape from Sid 's house, but Buzz, finally realizing he is a toy after watching a Buzz Lightyear TV ad, sinks into despondency. Sid plans to launch Buzz on a firework rocket, but his plans are delayed by a thunderstorm. Woody tells Buzz about the joy he can bring to Andy as a toy, restoring his confidence. The next day, Woody and Sid 's mutant toy creations rescue Buzz just as Sid is about to launch the rocket and scare Sid into no longer abusing toys by coming to life in front of him, and he runs into his house screaming in horror. Woody and Buzz then leave Sid 's house just as Andy and his family drive away toward their new home.
The duo tries to make it to the moving truck, but Sid 's dog, Scud, sees them, and gives chase. Buzz gets left behind while saving Woody from Scud, and Woody tries rescuing him with Andy 's RC car, but the other toys, thinking Woody eliminated RC as well, attack and toss him off the truck. Having evaded Scud, Buzz and RC retrieve Woody, and continue after the truck. Upon seeing Woody and Buzz together on RC, the other toys realize their mistake, and try to help them get back aboard, but RC 's batteries become depleted, stranding them. Woody ignites the rocket on Buzz 's back, and manages to throw RC into the truck before they soar into the air. Buzz opens his wings to free himself from the rocket before it explodes, gliding with Woody to land safely into a box in the car, right next to Andy.
On Christmas Day, at their new house, Woody and Buzz stage another reconnaissance mission to prepare for the new toy arrivals. As Woody jokingly asks what might be worse than Buzz, they discover Andy 's new gift is a puppy, and the two share a worried smile.
Director John Lasseter 's first experience with computer animation was during his work as an animator at Walt Disney Feature Animation, when two of his friends showed him the lightcycle scene from Tron. It was an eye - opening experience which awakened Lasseter to the possibilities offered by the new medium of computer - generated animation. Lasseter tried to pitch The Brave Little Toaster as a fully computer - animated film to Disney, but the idea was rejected and Lasseter was fired. He then went on to work at Lucasfilm and later as a founding member of Pixar, which was purchased by entrepreneur and Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs in 1986. At Pixar, Lasseter created short, computer - animated films to show off the Pixar Image Computer 's capabilities, and Tin Toy (1988) -- a short story told from the perspective of a toy, referencing Lasseter 's love of classic toys -- would go on to claim the 1988 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, the first computer - generated film to do so.
Tin Toy gained Disney 's attention, and the new team at The Walt Disney Company -- CEO Michael Eisner and chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg in the film division -- began a quest to get Lasseter to come back. Lasseter, grateful for Jobs ' faith in him, felt compelled to stay with Pixar, telling co-founder Ed Catmull, "I can go to Disney and be a director, or I can stay here and make history. '' Katzenberg realized he could not lure Lasseter back to Disney and therefore set plans into motion to ink a production deal with Pixar to produce a film. Disney had always made all their movies in - house and refused to change this. But when Tim Burton, who used to work at Disney, wanted to buy back the rights to The Nightmare Before Christmas, Disney struck a deal allowing him to make it as a Disney movie outside the studio. This opened the door for Pixar to make their movies outside Disney.
Both sides were willing. Catmull and fellow Pixar co-founder Alvy Ray Smith had long wanted to produce a computer - animated feature. In addition, Disney had licensed Pixar 's Computer Animation Production System (CAPS), and that made it the largest customer for Pixar 's computers. Jobs made it apparent to Katzenberg that although Disney was happy with Pixar, it was not the other way around: "We want to do a film with you, '' said Jobs. "That would make us happy. '' At this same time, Peter Schneider, president of Walt Disney Feature Animation, was potentially interested in making a feature film with Pixar. When Catmull, Smith and head of animation Ralph Guggenheim met with Schneider in the summer of 1990, they found the atmosphere to be puzzling and contentious. They later learned that Katzenberg intended that if Disney were to make a film with Pixar, it would be outside Schneider 's purview, which aggravated Schneider. After that first meeting, the Pixar contingent went home with low expectations and was surprised when Katzenberg called for another conference. Catmull, Smith, and Guggenheim were joined by Bill Reeves (head of animation research and development), Jobs, and Lasseter. They brought with them an idea for a half - hour television special called A Tin Toy Christmas. They reasoned that a television program would be a sensible way to gain experience before tackling a feature film.
They met with Katzenberg at a conference table in the Team Disney building at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank. Catmull and Smith considered it would be difficult to keep Katzenberg interested in working with the company over time. They considered it even more difficult to sell Lasseter and the junior animators on the idea of working with Disney, who had a bad reputation for how they treated their animators, and Katzenberg, who had built a reputation as a micromanaging tyrant. Katzenberg asserted this himself in the meeting: "Everybody thinks I 'm a tyrant. I am a tyrant. But I 'm usually right. '' He threw out the idea of a half - hour special and eyed Lasseter as the key talent in the room: "John, since you wo n't come work for me, I 'm going to make it work this way. '' He invited the six visitors to mingle with the animators -- "ask them anything at all '' -- and the men did so, finding they all backed up Katzenberg 's statements. Lasseter felt he would be able to work with Disney and the two companies began negotiations. Pixar at this time was on the verge of bankruptcy and needed a deal with Disney. Katzenberg insisted that Disney be given the rights to Pixar 's proprietary technology for making 3 - D animation, but Jobs refused. In another case, Jobs demanded Pixar would have part ownership of the film and its characters, sharing control of both video rights and sequels, but Katzenberg refused. Disney and Pixar reached accord on contract terms in an agreement dated May 3, 1991, and signed on in early July. Eventually, the deal specified that Disney would own the picture and its characters outright, have creative control, and pay Pixar about 12.5 % of the ticket revenues. It had the option (but not the obligation) to do Pixar 's next two films and the right to make (with or without Pixar) sequels using the characters in the film. Disney could also kill the film at any time with only a small penalty. These early negotiations would become a point of contention between Jobs and Eisner for many years.
An agreement to produce a feature film based on Tin Toy with a working title of Toy Story was finalized and production began soon thereafter.
The original treatment for Toy Story, drafted by Lasseter, Andrew Stanton, and Pete Docter, had little in common with the eventually finished film. It paired Tinny, the one - man band from Tin Toy with a ventriloquist 's dummy and sent them on a sprawling odyssey. Under studio head Jeffrey Katzenberg, Woody was the main villain, abusing the other toys until they rallied against him; however, after Disney executives saw the storyboards they relinquished creative control to Pixar. The core idea of Toy Story was present from the treatment onward, however: that "toys deeply want children to play with them, and that this desire drives their hopes, fears, and actions. '' Katzenberg felt the original treatment was problematic and told Lasseter to reshape Toy Story as more of an odd - couple buddy picture, and suggested they watch some classic buddy movies, such as The Defiant Ones and 48 Hrs., in which two characters with different attitudes are thrown together and have to bond. Lasseter, Stanton, and Docter emerged in early September 1991 with the second treatment, and although the lead characters were still Tinny and the dummy, the outline of the final film was beginning to take shape.
The script went through many changes before the final version. Lasseter decided Tinny was "too antiquated '', and the character was changed to a military action figure, and then given a space theme. Tinny 's name changed to Lunar Larry, then Tempus from Morph, and eventually Buzz Lightyear (after astronaut Buzz Aldrin). Lightyear 's design was modeled on the suits worn by Apollo astronauts as well as G.I. Joe action figures. In addition, the green and purple color scheme on Lightyear 's suit was inspired by Lasseter and his wife, Nancy, whose favorite colors were green and purple respectively. Woody, the second character, was inspired by a Casper the Friendly Ghost doll that Lasseter had when he was a child. Originally, Woody was a ventriloquist 's dummy with a pull - string (hence the name Woody). However, character designer Bud Luckey suggested that Woody could be changed to a cowboy ventriloquist dummy. John Lasseter liked the contrast between the Western and the science fiction genres and the character immediately changed. Eventually, all the ventriloquist dummy aspects of the character were deleted, because the dummy was designed to look "sneaky and mean. '' However they kept the name Woody to pay homage to the Western actor Woody Strode. The story department drew inspiration from films such as Midnight Run and The Odd Couple, and Lasseter screened Hayao Miyazaki 's Castle in the Sky (1986) for further influence.
Toy Story 's script was strongly influenced by the ideas of screenwriter Robert McKee. The members of Pixar 's story team -- Lasseter, Stanton, Docter and Joe Ranft -- were aware that most of them were beginners at writing for feature films. None of them had any feature story or writing credits to their name besides Ranft, who had taught a story class at CalArts and did some storyboard work prior. Seeking insight, Lasseter and Docter attended a three - day seminar in Los Angeles given by McKee. His principles, grounded in Aristotle 's Poetics, dictated that a character emerges most realistically and compellingly from the choices that the protagonist makes in reaction to his problems. Disney also appointed Joel Cohen, Alec Sokolow and, later, Joss Whedon to help develop the script. Whedon found that the script was n't working but had a great structure, and added the character of Rex and sought a pivotal role for Barbie. The story team continued to touch up the script as production was underway. Among the late additions was the encounter between Buzz and the alien squeaky toys at Pizza Planet, which emerged from a brainstorming session with a dozen directors, story artists, and animators from Disney.
Katzenberg gave approval for the script on January 19, 1993, at which point voice casting could begin. Lasseter always wanted Tom Hanks to play the character of Woody. Lasseter claimed Hanks "has the ability to take emotions and make them appealing. Even if the character, like the one in A League of Their Own, is down - and - out and despicable. '' Paul Newman, who subsequently accepted the role of Doc Hudson in another Pixar success, Cars, was considered for the role of Woody. Billy Crystal was approached to play Buzz, but turned down the role, which he later regretted, and subsequently accepted the role of Mike Wazowski in another Pixar success, Monsters, Inc... In addition to Crystal, Bill Murray, Chevy Chase and Jim Carrey were also considered for Buzz. Lasseter took the role to Tim Allen, who was appearing in Disney 's Home Improvement, and he accepted.
To gauge how an actor 's voice would fit with a character, Lasseter borrowed a common Disney technique: animate a vocal monologue from a well - established actor to meld the actor 's voice with the appearance or actions of the animated character. This early test footage, using Hanks ' voice from Turner & Hooch, convinced Hanks to sign on to the film. Toy Story was both Hanks ' and Allen 's first animated film role.
Every couple of weeks, Lasseter and his team would put together their latest set of storyboards or footage to show Disney. In early screen tests, Pixar impressed Disney with the technical innovation but convincing Disney of the plot was more difficult. At each presentation by Pixar, Katzenberg would tear much of it up, giving out detailed comments and notes. Katzenberg 's big push was to add more edginess to the two main characters. Disney wanted the film to appeal to both children and adults, and asked for adult references to be added to the film. After many rounds of notes from Katzenberg and other Disney executives, the general consensus was that Woody had been stripped of almost all charm. Tom Hanks, while recording the dialogue for the story reels, exclaimed at one point that the character was a jerk. Lasseter and his Pixar team had the first half of the movie ready to screen, so they brought it down to Burbank to show to Katzenberg and other Disney executives on November 19, 1993, an event they later dubbed "The Black Friday Incident. '' The results were disastrous, and Schneider, who was never particularly enamored of Katzenberg 's idea of having outsiders make animation for Disney, declared it a mess and ordered that production be stopped immediately. Katzenberg asked colleague Thomas Schumacher why the reels were bad. Schumacher replied bluntly: "Because it 's not their movie anymore, it 's completely not the movie that John set out to make. ''
Lasseter was embarrassed with what was on the screen, later recalling, "It was a story filled with the most unhappy, mean characters that I 've ever seen. '' He asked Disney for the chance to retreat back to Pixar and rework the script in two weeks, and Katzenberg was supportive. Lasseter, Stanton, Docter and Ranft delivered the news of the production shutdown to the production crew, many of whom had left other jobs to work on the project. In the meantime, the crew would shift to television commercials while the head writers worked out a new script. Although Lasseter kept morale high by remaining outwardly buoyant, the production shutdown was "a very scary time, '' recalled story department manager BZ Petroff. Schneider had initially wanted to shut down production altogether and fire all recently hired animators. Katzenberg put the film under the wing of Walt Disney Feature Animation. The Pixar team was pleased that the move would give them an open door to counseling from Disney 's animation veterans. Schneider, however, continued to take a dim view of the project and would later go over Katzenberg 's head to urge Eisner to cancel it. Stanton retreated into a small, dark, windowless office, emerging periodically with new script pages. He and the other story artists would then draw the shots on storyboards. Whedon came back to Pixar for part of the shutdown to help with revising, and the script was revised in two weeks as promised. When Katzenberg and Schneider halted production on Toy Story, Steve Jobs kept the work going with his own personal funding. Jobs did not insert himself much into the creative process, respecting the artists at Pixar and instead managing the relationship with Disney.
The Pixar team came back with a new script three months later, with the character of Woody morphed from being a tyrannical boss of Andy 's other toys to being their wise and caring leader. It also included a more adult - oriented staff meeting amongst the toys rather than a juvenile group discussion that had existed in earlier drafts. Buzz Lightyear 's character was also changed slightly "to make it more clear to the audience that he really does n't realize he 's a toy. '' Katzenberg and Schneider approved the new approach, and by February 1994 the film was back in production. The voice actors returned in March 1994 to record their new lines. When production was greenlit, the crew quickly grew from its original size of 24 to 110, including 27 animators, 22 technical directors, and 61 other artists and engineers. In comparison, The Lion King, released in 1994, required a budget of $45 million and a staff of 800. In the early budgeting process, Jobs was eager to produce the film as efficiently as possible, impressing Katzenberg with his focus on cost - cutting. Despite this, the $17 million production budget was proving inadequate, especially given the major revision that was necessary after Katzenberg had pushed them to make Woody too edgy. Jobs demanded more funds to complete the film right and insisted that Disney was liable for the cost overruns. Katzenberg was not willing, and Ed Catmull was able to reach a compromise.
-- Tom Schumacher, Vice President of Walt Disney Feature Animation
Recruiting animators for Toy Story was brisk; the magnet for talent was not the pay, generally mediocre, but rather the allure of taking part in the first computer - animated feature. Lasseter said that on the challenges of the computer animation in the film "We had to make things look more organic. Every leaf and blade of grass had to be created. We had to give the world a sense of history. So the doors are banged up, the floors have scuffs. '' The film began with animated storyboards to guide the animators in developing the characters. 27 animators worked on the film, using 400 computer models to animate the characters. Each character was either created out of clay or was first modeled off of a computer - drawn diagram before reaching the computer animated design. Once the animators had a model, articulation and motion controls were coded; this would allow each character to move in a variety of ways, such as talking, walking, or jumping. Out of all the characters, Woody was the most complex, as he required 723 motion controls, including 212 for his face and 58 for his mouth. The first piece of animation, a 30 - second test, was delivered to Disney in June 1992, when the company requested a sample of what the film would look like. Lasseter wanted to impress Disney with a number of things in the test that could not be done in traditional, hand - drawn animation, such as Woody 's yellow plaid shirt with red stripes, the reflections in Buzz 's helmet and the decals on his space suit, or Venetian blind shadows falling across Andy 's room.
Every shot in the film passed through the hands of eight different teams. The art department gave each shot its color scheme and general lighting. Under Craig Good, the layout department then placed the models in the shot, framed it by setting the location of the virtual camera, and programmed any camera movement. To make the medium feel as familiar as possible, they sought to stay within the limits of what might be done in a live - action film with real cameras, dollies, tripods, and cranes. Headed by directing animators Rich Quade and Ash Brannon, each shot went to the animation department from the layout. Lasseter opted against Disney 's approach of assigning an animator to work on a character throughout a film, but made certain exceptions in scenes where he thought acting was particularly critical. The animators used the Menv program to set each character in the desired pose. Once a sequence of hand - built poses (or "keyframes '') was created, the software would build poses for the frames in - between. The animators studied videotapes of the actors for inspiration, and Lasseter rejected automatic lip - syncing. To sync the characters ' mouths and facial expressions to the actors ' recorded voices, animators spent a week per 8 seconds of animation.
Afterward, the animators would compile the scenes, and develop a new storyboard with the computer - animated characters. They then added shading, lighting, visual effects, and finally used 300 computer processors to render the film to its final design. Under Tom Porter, the shading team used RenderMan 's shader language to create shader programs for each of a model 's surfaces. A few surfaces in Toy Story came from real objects: a shader for the curtain fabric in Andy 's room used a scan of actual cloth. Under Galyn Susman and Sharon Calahan, the lighting team orchestrated the final lighting of the shot after animation and shading. Each completed shot then went into rendering on a "render farm '' of 117 Sun Microsystems computers that ran 24 hours a day. Finished animation emerged in a steady drip of around three minutes a week. Depending on its complexity, each frame took from 45 minutes up to 30 hours to render. The film required 800,000 machine hours and 114,240 frames of animation in total. There are over 77 minutes of animation spread across 1,561 shots. A camera team, aided by David DiFrancesco, recorded the frames onto film stock. To fit a 1.85: 1 aspect ratio, Toy Story was rendered at a mere 1,536 by 922 pixels, with each of them corresponding to roughly a quarter - inch of screen area on a typical cinema screen. During post-production, the film was sent to Skywalker Sound, where the sound effects were mixed with the music score.
Disney was concerned with Lasseter 's position on the use of music. Unlike other Disney films of the time, Lasseter did not want the film to be a musical, saying it was a buddy film featuring "real toys. '' Joss Whedon agreed, saying, "It would have been a really bad musical, because it 's a buddy movie. It 's about people who wo n't admit what they want, much less sing about it... Buddy movies are about sublimating, punching an arm, ' I hate you. ' It 's not about open emotion. '' However, Disney favored the musical format, claiming "Musicals are our orientation. Characters breaking into song is a great shorthand. It takes some of the onus off what they 're asking for. '' Disney and Pixar reached a compromise: the characters in Toy Story would not break into song, but the film would use non-diegetic songs over the action, as in The Graduate, to convey and amplify the emotions that Buzz and Woody were feeling. Disney and Lasseter tapped Randy Newman to compose the film. The edited Toy Story was due to Newman and Gary Rydstrom in late September 1995 for their final work on the score and sound design, respectively.
Lasseter said, "His songs are touching, witty, and satirical, and he would deliver the emotional underpinning for every scene. '' Newman wrote three original songs for the film; developing the film 's signature song "You 've Got a Friend in Me '' in one day. The soundtrack for Toy Story was produced by Walt Disney Records and was released on November 22, 1995, the week of the film 's release.
It was difficult for crew members to perceive the film 's quality during much of the production process when the finished footage was in scattered pieces and lacked elements like music and sound design. Some animators felt the film would be a significant disappointment commercially, but felt animators and animation fans would find it interesting. According to Lee Unkrich, one of the original editors of Toy Story, a scene was cut out of the original final edit. The scene features Sid, after Pizza Planet, torturing Buzz and Woody violently. Unkrich decided to cut right into the scene where Sid is interrogating the toys because the creators of the movie thought the audience would be loving Buzz and Woody at that point. Another scene, where Woody was trying to get Buzz 's attention when he was stuck in the box crate, was shortened because the creators felt it would lose the energy of the movie. Peter Schneider had grown optimistic about the film as it neared completion, and announced a United States release date of November, coinciding with Thanksgiving weekend and the start of the winter holiday season.
Sources indicate that executive producer Steve Jobs lacked confidence in the film during its production, and he had been talking to various companies, ranging from Hallmark to Microsoft, about selling Pixar. However, as the film progressed, Jobs became ever more excited about it, feeling that he might be on the verge of transforming the movie industry. As scenes from the movie were finished, he watched them repeatedly and had friends come by his home to share his new passion. Jobs decided that the release of Toy Story that November would be the occasion to take Pixar public. A test audience near Anaheim in late July 1995 indicated the need for last - minute tweaks, which added further pressure to the already frenetic final weeks. Response cards from the audience were encouraging, but were not top of the scale, adding further question as to how audiences would respond. The film ended with a shot of Andy 's house and the sound of a new puppy. Michael Eisner, who attended the screening, told Lasseter afterward that the film needed to end with a shot of Woody and Buzz together, reacting to the news of the puppy.
There were two premieres of Toy Story in November 1995. Disney organized one at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, and built a fun house, Totally Toy Story, next door featuring the characters. Jobs did not attend and instead rented the Regency, a similar theater in San Francisco, and held his own premiere the next night. Instead of Tom Hanks and Tim Allen, the guests were Silicon Valley celebrities, such as Larry Ellison and Andy Grove. The dueling premieres highlighted a festering issue between the companies: whether Toy Story was a Disney or a Pixar film. "The audience appeared to be captivated by the film, '' wrote David Price in his 2008 book The Pixar Touch. "Adult - voiced sobs could be heard during the quiet moments after Buzz Lightyear fell and lay broken on the stairway landing. '' Toy Story opened on 2,281 screens in the United States on November 22, 1995 (before later expanding to 2,574 screens). It was paired alongside a reissue of a Roger Rabbit short called Rollercoaster Rabbit, while select prints contained The Adventures of André and Wally B...
The film was also shown at the Berlin International Film Festival out of competition from February 15 to 26, 1996. Elsewhere, the film opened in March 1996.
Marketing for the film included $20 million spent by Disney for advertising as well as advertisers such as Burger King, PepsiCo, Coca - Cola, and Payless ShoeSource paying $125 million in tied promotions for the film. Marketing consultant Al Ries reflected on the promotion: "This will be a killer deal. How can a kid, sitting through a one - and - a-half - hour movie with an army of recognizable toy characters, not want to own one? '' Despite this, Disney Consumer Products was slow to see the potential of Toy Story early on. When the Thanksgiving release date was announced in January 1995, many toy companies were accustomed to having eighteen months to two years of runway time and passed on the project. In February 1995, Disney took the idea to Toy Fair, a toy industry trade show in New York. There, a Toronto - based company with a factory based in China, Thinkway Toys, became interested. Although Thinkway was a small player in the industry, mainly producing toy banks in the form of film characters, it was able to scoop up the worldwide master license for Toy Story toys simply because no one else wanted it. Walt Disney Home Video put a trailer for the film on seven million copies of the VHS re-release of Cinderella; the Disney Channel ran a television special on the making of Toy Story; Walt Disney World in Florida held a daily Toy Story parade at Disney - MGM Studios.
It was screenwriter Joss Whedon 's idea to incorporate Barbie as a character who would rescue Woody and Buzz in the film 's final act. The idea was dropped after Mattel objected and refused to license the toy. Producer Ralph Guggenheim claimed that Mattel did not allow the use of the toy as "They (Mattel) philosophically felt girls who play with Barbie dolls are projecting their personalities onto the doll. If you give the doll a voice and animate it, you 're creating a persona for it that might not be every little girl 's dream and desire. '' Hasbro likewise refused to license G.I. Joe (mainly because Sid was going to blow one up), but they did license Mr. Potato Head. The only toy in the movie that was not in production was Slinky Dog, which was discontinued since the 1970s. When designs for Slinky were sent to Betty James (Richard James 's wife) she said that Pixar had improved the toy and that it was "cuter '' than the original.
On October 2, 2009, the film was re-released in Disney Digital 3 - D. The film was also released with Toy Story 2 as a double feature for a two - week run which was extended due to its success. In addition, the film 's second sequel, Toy Story 3, was also released in the 3 - D format. Lasseter commented on the new 3 - D re-release:
The Toy Story films and characters will always hold a very special place in our hearts and we 're so excited to be bringing this landmark film back for audiences to enjoy in a whole new way thanks to the latest in 3 - D technology. With Toy Story 3 shaping up to be another great adventure for Buzz, Woody and the gang from Andy 's room, we thought it would be great to let audiences experience the first two films all over again and in a brand new way.
Translating the film into 3 - D involved revisiting the original computer data and virtually placing a second camera into each scene, creating left eye and right eye views needed to achieve the perception of depth. Unique to computer animation, Lasseter referred to this process as "digital archaeology. '' The process took four months, as well as an additional six months for the two films to add the 3 - D. The lead stereographer Bob Whitehill oversaw this process and sought to achieve an effect that affected the emotional storytelling of the film:
When I would look at the films as a whole, I would search for story reasons to use 3 - D in different ways. In Toy Story, for instance, when the toys were alone in their world, I wanted it to feel consistent to a safer world. And when they went out to the human world, that 's when I really blew out the 3 - D to make it feel dangerous and deep and overwhelming.
Unlike other countries, the United Kingdom received the films in 3 - D as separate releases. Toy Story was released on October 2, 2009. Toy Story 2 was instead released January 22, 2010. The re-release performed well at the box office, opening with $12,500,000 in its opening weekend, placing at the third position after Zombieland and Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs. The double feature grossed $30.7 million in its five - week release.
Toy Story was released by Walt Disney Home Video on VHS and LaserDisc on October 29, 1996, with no bonus material. In the first week of this release, VHS rentals totaled $5.1 million, debuting Toy Story as the week 's No. 1 video. Over 21.5 million VHS copies were sold the first year. A deluxe edition widescreen LaserDisc 4 - disc box set was released on December 18, 1996. On January 11, 2000, the film was re-released on VHS, but this time as the first video to be part of the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection with the bonus short film Tin Toy. This release sold two million copies.
The film was released for the first time on DVD on October 17, 2000, in a two - pack with its first sequel Toy Story 2. The same day, a 3 - disc "Ultimate Toy Box '' set was released, featuring Toy Story, Toy Story 2, and a third disc of bonus materials with Toy Story in a 35 mm Widescreen print and Toy Story 2 only being in FullScreen. The twin - pack release was later released individually on March 20, 2001 with the film available in both Widescreen and FullScreen. The DVD - pack, U.T.B. set and the original DVD use the 35 mm print of the film to create the copies, rather than using the original files to encode the movie directly to video. The DVD two - pack, the Ultimate Toy Box set, the Gold Classic Collection VHS and DVD, and the original DVD were all put in the Disney Vault on May 1, 2003. On September 6, 2005, a 2 - disc "10th Anniversary Edition '' was released featuring much of the bonus material from the "Ultimate Toy Box '', including a retrospective special with John Lasseter, a home theater mix, as well as a new digital Widescreen picture with the 35 mm Fullscreen version being retained. This DVD went back in the Disney Vault on January 31, 2009 along with Toy Story 2. The 10th Anniversary release was the last version of Toy Story to be released before taken out of the Disney Vault lineup along with Toy Story 2. Also on September 6, 2005, a UMD of Toy Story featuring some deleted scenes, a filmmakers ' reflect and a new "Legacy of Toy Story '' was released for the Sony PlayStation Portable.
The film was available for the first time on Blu - ray in a Special Edition Combo Pack that included two discs, the Blu - ray, and the DVD versions of the film. This combo - edition was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on March 23, 2010, along with its sequel. There was a DVD - only re-release on May 11, 2010. Another "Ultimate Toy Box '', packaging the Combo Pack with those of both sequels, became available on November 2, 2010. On November 1, 2011, the first three Toy Story films were re-released all together, each as a DVD / Blu - ray / Blu - ray 3D / Digital Copy combo pack (four discs each for the first two films, and five for the third film). They were also released on Blu - ray 3D in a complete trilogy box set.
-- John Lasseter, reflecting on the impact of the film
Toy Story received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 100 % based on 79 reviews with an average rating of 9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Entertaining as it is innovative, Toy Story reinvigorated animation while heralding the arrival of Pixar as a family - friendly force to be reckoned with. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 95 out of 100, based on 26 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leonard Klady of Variety commended the animation 's "... razzle - dazzle technique and unusual look '' and that "the camera loops and zooms in a dizzying fashion that fairly takes one 's breath away. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times compared the film 's innovative animation to Disney 's Who Framed Roger Rabbit, saying that "both movies take apart the universe of cinematic visuals and put it back together again, allowing us to see in a new way. '' Due to the film 's creative animation, Richard Corliss of TIME claimed that it was "... the year 's most inventive comedy. ''
The voice cast was also praised by various critics. Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today approved of the selection of Hanks and Allen for the lead roles. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times stated that "Starting with Tom Hanks, who brings an invaluable heft and believability to Woody, Toy Story is one of the best voiced animated features in memory, with all the actors... making their presences strongly felt. '' Several critics also recognized the film 's ability to appeal to various age groups, specifically children and adults. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote "It has the purity, the ecstatic freedom of imagination, that 's the hallmark of the greatest children 's films. It also has the kind of spring - loaded allusive prankishness that, at times, will tickle adults even more than it does kids. ''
In 1995, Toy Story was ranked eighth in TIME ' s list of the "Best 10 films of 1995 ''. In 2011, TIME named it one of the "25 All - TIME Best Animated Films ''. It also ranks at number 99 in Empire magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Films of All Time '' and as the "highest - ranked animated movie ''.
In 2003, the Online Film Critics Society ranked the film as the greatest animated film of all time. In 2007, the Visual Effects Society named the film 22nd in its list of the "Top 50 Most Influential Visual Effects Films of All Time ''. The film is ranked 99th on the AFI 's list of the "100 greatest American Films of All - Time ''. It was one of the only two animated films on that list, the other being Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). It was also the sixth best in the animation genre on AFI 's 10 Top 10.
Director Terry Gilliam would praise the film as "a work of genius. It got people to understand what toys are about. They 're true to their own character. And that 's just brilliant. It 's got a shot that 's always stuck with me, when Buzz Lightyear discovers he 's a toy. He 's sitting on this landing at the top of the staircase and the camera pulls back and he 's this tiny little figure. He was this guy with a massive ego two seconds before... and it 's stunning. I 'd put that as one of my top ten films, period. ''
Before the film 's release, executive producer and Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs stated "If Toy Story is a modest hit -- say $75 million at the box office, we 'll (Pixar and Disney) both break even. If it gets $100 million, we 'll both make money. But if it 's a real blockbuster and earns $200 million or so at the box office, we 'll make good money, and Disney will make a lot of money. '' Upon its release on November 22, 1995, Toy Story managed to gross more than $350 million worldwide. Disney chairman Michael Eisner stated "I do n't think either side thought Toy Story would turn out as well as it has. The technology is brilliant, the casting is inspired, and I think the story will touch a nerve. Believe me, when we first agreed to work together, we never thought their first movie would be our 1995 holiday feature, or that they could go public on the strength of it. '' The film 's first five days of domestic release (on Thanksgiving weekend) earned it $39,071,176. The film placed first in the weekend 's box office with $29.1 million and maintained the No. 1 position at the domestic box office for the next two weekends. Toy Story became the highest - grossing domestic film of 1995, beating Batman Forever, Apollo 13 (also starring Tom Hanks), Pocahontas, Casper, Waterworld, and GoldenEye. At the time of its release, it was the third highest - grossing animated film of all time, after The Lion King (1994) and Aladdin (1992). When not considering inflation, Toy Story is No. 96 on the list of the highest - grossing domestic films of all time. The film had gross receipts of $191.8 million in the U.S. and Canada and $181.8 million in international markets for a total of $373.6 million worldwide. At the time of its release, the film ranked as 17th highest - grossing film (unadjusted) domestically and it was the 21st highest - grossing film worldwide.
The film won and was nominated for various other awards including a Kids ' Choice Award, MTV Movie Award, and a British Academy Film Award, among others. John Lasseter received an Academy Special Achievement Award in 1996 "for the development and inspired application of techniques that have made possible the first feature - length computer - animated film. '' Additionally, the film was nominated for three Academy Awards, two to Randy Newman for Best Music -- Original Song, for "You 've Got a Friend in Me '', and Best Music -- Original Musical or Comedy Score. It was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay for the work by Joel Cohen, Pete Docter, John Lasseter, Joe Ranft, Alec Sokolow, Andrew Stanton and Joss Whedon, making Toy Story the first animated film to be nominated for an Academy Award writing category.
Toy Story won eight Annie Awards, including "Best Animated Feature ''. Animator Pete Docter, director John Lasseter, musician Randy Newman, producers Bonnie Arnold and Ralph Guggenheim, production designer Ralph Eggleston, and writers Joel Cohen, Alec Sokolow, Andrew Stanton, and Joss Whedon all won awards for "Best Individual Achievement '' in their respective fields for their work on the film. The film also won "Best Individual Achievement '' in technical achievement.
Toy Story was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards, one for Best Motion Picture -- Comedy or Musical, and one for Best Original Song -- Motion Picture for Newman 's "You 've Got a Friend in Me ''. At both the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards and the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards, the film won "Best Animated Film ''. Toy Story is also among the top ten in the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14, and the highest - placed (at No. 99) animated film in Empire magazine 's list of "500 Greatest Movie of All Time ''. In 2005, Toy Story, along with Toy Story 2 was voted the 4th greatest cartoon in Channel 4 's 100 Greatest Cartoons poll, behind The Simpsons, Tom and Jerry and South Park.
Toy Story had a large impact on the film industry with its innovative computer animation. After the film 's debut, various industries were interested in the technology used for the film. Graphics chip makers desired to compute imagery similar to the film 's animation for personal computers; game developers wanted to learn how to replicate the animation for video games; and robotics researchers were interested in building artificial intelligence into their machines that compared to the film 's lifelike characters. Various authors have also compared the film to an interpretation of Don Quixote as well as humanism. In addition, Toy Story left an impact with its catchphrase "To Infinity and Beyond '', sequels, and software, among others. In 2005 (10 years after its theatrical release), the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress, one of only six films to be selected in its first year of eligibility.
Buzz Lightyear 's classic line "To Infinity and Beyond '' has seen usage not only on themed merchandise, but among philosophers and mathematical theorists as well. In 2008, during STS - 124 astronauts took an action figure of Buzz Lightyear into space on the Discovery Space Shuttle as part of an educational experience for students while stressing the catchphrase. The action figure was used for experiments in zero - g. It was reported in 2008 that a father and son had continually repeated the phrase to help them keep track of each other while treading water for 15 hours in the Atlantic Ocean. The phrase occurs in the lyrics of Beyoncé 's 2008 song "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) '', during the bridge.
Toy Story has spawned three sequels: Toy Story 2 (1999), Toy Story 3 (2010), and Toy Story 4, to be released in 2019. Initially, the first sequel to Toy Story was going to be a direct - to - video release, with development beginning in 1996. However, after the cast from Toy Story returned and the story was considered to be better than that of a direct - to - video release, it was announced in 1998 that the sequel would see a theatrical release.
Toy Story 's first sequel Toy Story 2 was released in theatres November 24, 1999 and saw the return of the majority of the voice cast from Toy Story, and the film focuses on Buzz leading Andy 's toys on a mission to rescue Woody after he is stolen by a greedy toy collector voiced by Wayne Knight. The film was equally well received by critics, many of whom thought it was even better than the first installment, earning a rare 100 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 163 reviews. At Metacritic, the film earned a favorable rating of 88 / 100 based on 34 reviews. The film 's widest release was 3,257 theaters and it grossed $485 million worldwide, becoming the second-most successful animated film after The Lion King at the time of its release.
The second sequel Toy Story 3 was released in theatres June 18, 2010 and centers on Andy 's mom accidentally donating the toys to a day - care center when Andy, now a teenager, is preparing to go to college. Once there, they must hurry home before Andy leaves. Again, the majority of the cast from the prior two films returned, with Slinky Dog voiced by Blake Clark due to Jim Varney 's death in 2000. It was the first film in the franchise to be released in 3 - D for its first run, though the first two films, which were originally released in 2 - D, were re-released in 3 - D in 2009 as a double feature. Like its predecessors, Toy Story 3 received enormous critical acclaim, earning a 99 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes. It also grossed more than $1 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing animated film until the release of 2013 's Frozen.
A third sequel, Toy Story 4, will be released on June 21, 2019. It will be directed by John Lasseter, and will focus on the toys going to find Bo Peep, who was given away before the third film. Most of the cast of the previous films will again reprise their character roles. However Mr. Potato Head will likely be recast for the film because of Don Rickles ' death in 2017.
In November 1996, the Disney on Ice: Toy Story ice show opened which featured the cast 's voices as well as Randy Newman 's music. In April 2008, the Disney Wonder cruise ship launched Toy Story: The Musical shows on its cruises.
Toy Story also led to a spin - off direct - to - video animated film, Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins, as well as the animated television series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command. The film and series followed Buzz Lightyear and his friends at Star Command as they uphold justice across the galaxy. Although the film was criticized for not using the same animation as in Toy Story and Toy Story 2, it sold three million VHS and DVDs in its first week of release. The television series brought further commercial and critical acclaim, winning a Daytime Emmy in 2001 for Outstanding Sound Editing. The series ran for a total of 65 episodes.
Following the release of Toy Story 3, a series of Toy Story short films have been shown in theaters in front of other Disney features: Hawaiian Vacation (shown before Cars 2), centering on Barbie and Ken on vacation in Bonnie 's room, Small Fry (shown before The Muppets), centering on Buzz being left in a fast - food restaurant, and Partysaurus Rex (shown before the 3D re-release of Finding Nemo), centering on Rex partying with bath toys.
In January 2013, a fan - made live - action version of the film was posted on YouTube that received more than 16 million views before being taken down by Disney for copyright of the audio. In February 2016, the video returned to YouTube.
In October 2013, ABC aired Toy Story of Terror!, promoting it as Pixar 's first television special. In the special, Mr. Potato Head disappears and the other toys have to find him.
On December 2, 2014, ABC aired Toy Story That Time Forgot. In the story, the toys are trapped in room with a group of humanoid dinosaur warrior toys called Battlesaurs who do not know that they are toys and must escape.
Disney 's Animated Storybook: Toy Story and Disney 's Activity Center: Toy Story were released for Windows and Mac OS. Disney 's Animated Storybook: Toy Story was the best selling software title of 1996, selling over 500,000 copies. Two console video games were released for the film: the Toy Story video game, for the Sega Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy, and PC as well as Toy Story Racer, for the PlayStation (which contains elements from Toy Story 2). Pixar created original animations for all of the games, including fully animated sequences for the PC titles.
Toy Story had a large promotion before its release, leading to numerous tie - ins with the film including images on food packaging. A variety of merchandise was released during the film 's theatrical run and its initial VHS release including toys, clothing, and shoes, among other things. When an action figure for Buzz Lightyear and Sheriff Woody was created it was initially ignored by retailers. However, after over 250,000 figures were sold for each character before the film 's release, demand continued to expand, eventually reaching over 25 million units sold by 2007.
Toy Story and its sequels have inspired multiple attractions at the theme parks of Walt Disney World and Disneyland:
Toy Story 's cast of characters forms the basis for the naming of the releases of the Debian computer operating system, from Debian 1.1 Buzz, the first release with a codename, in 1996 to Debian 11 Bullseye, the most - recently announced future release.
In 2013 Pixar designed a "Gromit Lightyear '' sculpture based on the Aardman Animations character Gromit for Gromit Unleashed which sold for £ 65,000.
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what is the name of hong kong metro system | MTR - wikipedia
includes lines under construction
The Mass Transit Railway (MTR; Chinese: 港 鐵; Cantonese Yale: Góngtit) is a major public transport network serving Hong Kong. Operated by the MTR Corporation Limited (MTRCL), it consists of heavy rail, light rail, and feeder bus service centred on an 11 - line rapid transit network serving the urbanised areas of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. The system currently includes 218.2 km (135.6 mi) of rail with 159 stations, including 91 heavy rail stations and 68 light rail stops. The MTR is one of the most profitable metro systems in the world; it had a farebox recovery ratio of 187 % in 2015, the world 's highest.
Under the government 's rail - led transport policy, the MTR system is a common mode of public transport in Hong Kong, with over five million trips made in an average weekday. It consistently achieves a 99.9 % on - time rate on its train journeys. As of 2014, the MTR has a 48.1 % market share of the franchised public transport market, making it the most popular transport option in Hong Kong. The integration of the Octopus smart card fare - payment technology into the MTR system in September 1997 has further enhanced the ease of commuting on the MTR.
Construction of the MTR was prompted by a study, released in 1967, commissioned by the Hong Kong Government in order to find solutions to the increasing road congestion problem caused by the territory 's fast - growing economy. Construction started soon after the release of the study, and the first line opened in 1979. The MTR was immediately popular with residents of Hong Kong; as a result, subsequent lines have been built to cover more territory. There are continual debates regarding how and where to expand the MTR network.
As a successful railway operation, the MTR has served as a model for other newly built systems in the world, particularly other urban rail transit in China.
During the 1960s, the government of Hong Kong saw a need to accommodate increasing road traffic as Hong Kong 's economy continued to grow strongly. In 1966, British transportation consultants Freeman, Fox, Wilbur Smith & Associates were appointed to study the transportation system of Hong Kong. The study was based on the projection of the population of Hong Kong for 1986, estimated at 6,868,000. On 1 September 1967, the consultants submitted the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study to the government, which recommended the construction of a 40 - mile (64 km) rapid transit rail system in Hong Kong. The study suggested that four rail lines be developed in six stages, with a completion date set between December 1973 and December 1984. Detailed positions of lines and stations were presented in the study. These four lines were the Kwun Tong line (from Western Market to Ma Yau Tong), Tsuen Wan line (from Admiralty to Tsuen Wan), Island line (from Kennedy to Chai Wan Central), and Shatin line (from Tsim Sha Tsui to Wo Liu Hang).
The study was submitted to the Legislative Council on 14 February 1968. The consultants received new data from the 1966 by - census on 6 March 1968. A short supplementary report was submitted on 22 March 1968 and amended in June 1968. The by - census indicated that the projected 1986 population was reduced by more than one million from the previous estimate to 5,647,000. The dramatic reduction affected town planning. The population distribution was largely different from the original study. The projected 1986 populations of Castle Peak New Town, Sha Tin New Town, and, to a lesser extent, Tsuen Wan New Town, were revised downward, and the plan of a new town in Tseung Kwan O was shelved. In this updated scenario, the consultants reduced the scale of the recommended system. The supplementary report stated that the originally suggested four tracks between Admiralty station and Mong Kok station should be reduced to two, and only parts of the Island line, Tsuen Wan line, and Kwun Tong line should be constructed for the initial system. The other lines would be placed in the list of extensions. This report led to the final study in 1970.
In 1970, a system with four lines was laid out and planned as part of the British consultants ' new report, Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies. The four lines were to be the Kwun Tong line, Tsuen Wan line, Island line, and East Kowloon line. However, the lines that were eventually constructed were somewhat different compared to the lines that were originally proposed by the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study.
In 1972, the Hong Kong government authorised construction of the Initial System, a 20 - kilometre (12 mi) system that roughly translates to today 's Kwun Tong line between Kwun Tong and Prince Edward, Tsuen Wan line between Prince Edward and Admiralty, and Island line between Sheung Wan and Admiralty. The Mass Transit Steering Committee, chaired by the Financial Secretary Philip Haddon - Cave, began negotiations with four major construction consortia in 1973. The government 's intention was to tender the entire project, based on the British design, as a single tender at a fixed price. A consortium from Japan, led by Mitsubishi, submitted the only proposal within the government 's $5,000 million price ceiling. They signed an agreement to construct the system in early 1974, but in December of the same year, pulled out of the agreement for reasons stemming from fears of the oil crisis.
Several weeks later, in early 1975, the Mass Transit Steering Group was replaced by the Mass Transport Provisional Authority, which held more executive powers. It announced that the Initial System would be reduced to 15.6 kilometres (9.7 mi) and renamed the "Modified Initial System ''. Plans for a single contract were abandoned in favour of 25 engineering contracts and 10 electrical and mechanical contracts. On 7 May 1975 the Legislative Council passed legislation setting up the government - owned Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) to replace the Mass Transport Provisional Authority.
Construction of the Modified Initial System (now part of the Kwun Tong line and Tsuen Wan line) commenced in November 1975. The northern section was completed on 30 September 1979 and was opened on 1 October 1979 by Governor Murray MacLehose. Trains on this route ran from Shek Kip Mei station to Kwun Tong station, initially in a four - car configuration. The first train drivers were trained on the London Underground. The route from Tsim Sha Tsui station to Shek Kip Mei station opened in December 1979. The early stations were designed under the supervision of Roland Paoletti, the chief architect at MTR.
In 1980, the first harbour crossing was made by an MTR train as the Kwun Tong line was extended to Chater station, since renamed Central station. Trains were extended to six cars to accommodate an increase in passenger numbers.
The government approved construction of the Tsuen Wan line in 1977, then known as the Tsuen Wan Extension, and works commenced in November 1978. The project added a 10.5 - kilometre (6.5 mi) section to the MTR system, from Prince Edward to Tsuen Wan. The line started service on 10 May 1982 with a total cost of construction (not adjusted for inflation) of HK $ 4.1 billion (US $526 million). The plan was modified from that in the 1970 report Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies, with Kwai Chung station, Lap Sap Wan station, and a planned depot at Kwai Chung next to Lap Sap Wan station being replaced by stations at Kwai Hing and Kwai Fong and a depot at Tsuen Wan. Several stations also had names different to that during planning: So Uk station became Cheung Sha Wan, Cheung Sha Wan became Lai Chi Kok, and Lai Chi Kok became Lai Wan (later renamed as Mei Foo).
When service of this line started, the section of the Kwun Tong line from Chater to Argyle (since renamed Central and Mong Kok stations respectively) was transferred to the Tsuen Wan line. Thus, Waterloo station (since renamed Yau Ma Tei station) became the terminus of the Kwun Tong line, and both Argyle and Prince Edward stations became interchange stations. This change was made because system planners expected the traffic of the Tsuen Wan line to exceed that of the Kwun Tong line. This forecast proved to be accurate, necessitating a bypass from the northwestern New Territories to Hong Kong Island. The Tung Chung line was therefore launched in 1998 with an interchange station at Lai King for that purpose.
Although land acquisitions were made for a station at Tsuen Wan West, beyond Tsuen Wan station, as part of the Tsuen Wan branch, the station was never built. This is not to be confused with the modern - day Tsuen Wan West station on West Rail line, which lies on a newly reclaimed area near the former ferry pier.
Since opening in 1982, the Tsuen Wan line is the line whose alignment has remained the same for the longest time. For example, the Kwun Tong line 's alignment has changed twice since its opening -- the taking over of Tsuen Wan line from Mong Kok to Central, and the taking over of Eastern Harbour Crossing section by the Tseung Kwan O line.
Government approvals were granted for construction of the Island line in December 1980. Construction commenced in October 1981. On 31 May 1985, the Island Line was opened with service between Admiralty station and Chai Wan station. Both Admiralty and Central stations became interchange stations with the Tsuen Wan line. Furthermore, each train was extended to eight cars. On 23 May 1986, the Island line was extended to Sheung Wan station. Construction was delayed for one year, as government offices which were located over the station had to be moved before the construction could start.
In 1984, the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing, a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains. The Kwun Tong line was extended across the harbour on 5 August 1989 to Quarry Bay station, which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong line and the Island line. An intermediate station, Lam Tin, started operations on 1 October 1989.
The Airport Express and Tung Chung line started services in 1998. The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport. The government invited the MTRC to build a train line, then known as the Lantau Airport Railway, to the airport. Construction started in November 1994, after the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements.
The new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links. Construction costs were also shared by the MTRC, which was granted many large - scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations.
The Lantau Airport Railway turned into two MTR lines, the Tung Chung line and the Airport Express. The Tung Chung line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee - hwa, and service commenced the next day. The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with the new Hong Kong International Airport.
The Airport Express also offers flight check - in facilities at Kowloon station and Hong Kong station -- the in - town check - ins offer a more convenient and time - saving routine; a free shuttle bus service transports travellers from these stations to their respective hotels as well. Porters are also available to help transport luggage from and onto trains. It is the second most popular means of transport to the airport after buses. In 2012, it had a 21.8 % of share of the traffic to and from the airport. However, this has drastically declined from a peak of 32 % in 1999.
The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works extended the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a pair of 2.1 - kilometre (1.3 mi) tunnels. The project was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five - minute walk from the Island line platforms to the Kwun Tong line platform. Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK $ 3.1 billion. As with most earlier interchange stations, a cross-platform interchange arrangement was provided here in both directions.
Construction of the Tseung Kwan O line (called the Tseung Kwan O extension line in the planning stage) was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve new housing developments. Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002. It took over the existing Kwun Tong line tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel, so that the full line stretches from Po Lam to North Point. When the line was opened, the Kwun Tong line was diverted to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line. Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line to new real estate and commercial developments.
The interchange between the Tsuen Wan line and the Kwun Tong line, as well as that between the Kwun Tong line and the Tseung Kwan O line, are two stations long, allowing cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line. For example, when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O line towards North Point. Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O Line trains towards Po Lam / LOHAS Park. This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels. However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong, Central, Hong Kong, Quarry Bay, Nam Cheong (except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains), Mei Foo, Tai Wai station (except alighting from Ma On Shan line to change to southbound trains for East Rail line) and Sunny Bay (except transfer between Tung Chung and Disneyland Resort bound trains) stations, mainly because this service is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines.
Two major works were undertaken to ease interchange between the Kwun Tong line and East Rail line. The modification of Kowloon Tong station started in June 2001. A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong Station southern concourse and a new entrance (Exit D) opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow. Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from the East Tsim Sha Tsui station via its pedestrian links. New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 (Exit G) and 30 March 2005 (Exit F), with the whole scheme completed in May 2005.
The Disneyland Resort line, previously known as Penny 's Bay Rail Link, provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort which was opened on 12 September 2005. Service to Sunny Bay station on the Tung Chung line started in 2005. The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005. It is a 3.5 - kilometre (2.2 mi) single - track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station. The Disneyland Resort station itself was designed to blend in with the ambiance of the resort. The line operates fully automated trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver. The carriages are refurbished M - train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3.5 - minute journey.
The AsiaWorld -- Expo station is an extension of the Airport Express serving a new international exhibition centre, AsiaWorld -- Expo, at Hong Kong International Airport. The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with the exhibition centre. To cope with the projected increase in patronage, Airport Express trains were lengthened to eight carriages from the previous seven. Additional trains are also deployed on the Tung Chung line during major exhibitions and events.
On 5 October 2000 the operator of the MTR network, MTR Corporation (MTRCL), became Hong Kong 's first rail company to be privatised, marking the beginning of the Hong Kong government 's initiative to dissolve its interests in public utilities. Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government. The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares, and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong. In June 2001, MTRCL was transferred to the Hang Seng Index.
MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its already profitable railway business. Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes. For example, Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate.
On 11 April 2006, MTRCL signed a non-binding memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong government, the owner of Kowloon - Canton Railway Corporation, to merge the operation of the two railway networks in Hong Kong in spite of the strong opposition by the KCRC staff. The minority shareholders of the corporation approved the proposal at an extraordinary general meeting on 9 October 2007, allowing MTRCL to take over the operation of the KCR network and combine the fare system of the two networks on 2 December 2007.
On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon - Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC) granted a 50 - year service concession (which may be extended) of the KCR network to MTRCL, in return for making annual payments to KCRC, thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL 's management. At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from "地鐵 有限 公司 '' (Subway Limited Company) to "香港 鐵路 有限 公司 '' (Hong Kong Railway Limited Company), but left its English name unchanged; at the same time the system 's Chinese name changed from "地鐵 '' ("Subway '') to "港 鐵 '' ("Hong Kong Railway ''). After the merger, the MTR network included three more lines -- East Rail line, West Rail line, and Ma On Shan line -- as well as the light rail network and Guangdong through train to Guangzhou.
On 28 September 2008, fare zones of all urban lines, East Rail line, Ma On Shan Line and West Rail line were merged. A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket, except where a transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations, where two tickets are required. Student discounts on Octopus Card were also issued.
The MTR system has been extended numerous times since the railway merger. Relevant projects include the LOHAS Park spur line (2009), the Kowloon Southern Link (2009), the West Island line (2014), the Kwun Tong line extension (2016), and the South Island line (2016).
The LOHAS Park Spur Line is an extension of the Tseung Kwan O line, splitting off after Tseung Kwan O station. It serves the new residential development of LOHAS Park (formerly "Dream City ''), a 3,550,000 - square - foot (330,000 m) estate with fifty residential towers. The project is divided into 9 to 13 phases and is about halfway complete as of 2016. These high rises sit above LOHAS Park station, which opened on 26 July 2009.
The West Island line, first put forward to the government on 21 January 2003, is an extension of the Island line. It serves the Western District of Hong Kong Island. The construction of the West Island line started on 10 August 2009. Kennedy Town station and HKU station opened on 28 December 2014. Sai Ying Pun station opened later, on 29 March 2015, due to construction delays.
A proposal to extend the existing Kwun Tong line to Whampoa Garden was made in April 2006 and approved in March 2008 as part of the bid for the Sha Tin to Central Link. Two new stations at Whampoa and Ho Man Tin opened on 23 October 2016.
The South Island line opened on 28 December 2016 between Admiralty and South Horizons, linking the Southern District to the MTR for the first time. With the opening of the South Island Line, all 18 districts of Hong Kong are served by the MTR.
Construction is underway to upgrade the existing infrastructure of the MTR. New subway links to the stations are also being made for better access.
The South Island line (West) was part of the same original proposal as the South Island Line, and would connect HKU to Wong Chuk Hang around the west coast of Hong Kong Island, however construction has not started as of 2016.
The Sha Tin to Central Link project will create two new rail corridors upon completion. The Tai Wai to Hung Hom section is expected to be completed in 2019, connecting the Ma On Shan line and West Rail line to form the East West Corridor. The section from Hung Hom to Admiralty, across Victoria Harbour, is expected to be completed in 2021. This will be an extension of the East Rail line to form the North South Corridor.
The North Island line is a planned extension of the Tseung Kwan O line that will interchange at the future Tamar station with the Tung Chung line. It will alleviate traffic in the Northern part of Hong Kong Island. There will be three new stations: Tamar, Exhibition Centre (which will be an interchange between the North Island line and the North South Corridor), and Causeway Bay North. Construction is expected to begin in 2021 and finish in 2026. The cost is estimated to be HK $20 billion in 2013 prices.
The Northern Link is a proposed new line which connects West Rail line with the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line of East Rail line. It also has Au Tau, Ngau Tam Mei, San Tin, a future interchange station between East Rail line and Northern Link, Kwu Tung, which will become a terminus for Northern link.
The East Kowloon line would serve the East Kowloon area to Tseung Kwan O New Town via the hilly Sau Mau Ping residential area.
The East West Corridor will be extended to Tuen Mun South station serving Tuen Mun South.
The architecture of MTR stations is less artistic, instead focusing on structural practicability. With the high level of daily passenger traffic, facilities of the MTR stations are built with durability and accessibility in mind. After extensive retrofitting, the MTR system has become, in general, disabled - friendly -- the trains have dedicated wheelchair space, the stations have special floor tiles to guide the blind safely on the platforms, and there are extra wide entry and exit gates for wheelchairs as well. Portable ramp for wheelchair users are available for boarding and alighting trains. On board the rolling stock, there are also flashing system maps on select trains while Active Line Diagrams and traditional route maps are installed on the others. Infopanels as well as on MTR In - Train TV onboard trains display important messages such as next station announcements as well as operational messages.
3G and LTE (4G) mobile phone network is in place throughout the MTR system of stations and tunnels allowing passengers to stay connected underground. Currently, full 3G network coverage in all stations and tunnels (except underground section on East Rail line and West Rail line) for the MTR system has been provided by 3 Hong Kong, SmarTone and PCCW. Passengers with subscription services will be able to make video calls and access high speed video content on their mobile phones regardless whether the train is above ground or under ground. The MTR has already extended the Wi - Fi service to all of the Airport Express trains and the expansion of the service to other MTR routes is still under consideration by MTR. All 93 stations on the MTR offer free Wi - Fi service to passengers with a limitation of 15 minutes per session and a maximum of five sessions per day.
In late 2015 it was announced that all 400 payphones in the MTR system would be removed in early 2016. The contract with the service provider, Shinetown Telecom, was expiring, and the MTR Corporation said that no one had tendered a proposal to take over the contract. As a result, the MTR system no longer has payphones.
When the system opened, public announcements were made in British English and in Cantonese by train captains and station staff. In the early 1990s the announcements were standardised, pre-recorded by RTHK presenter Cheri Chan Yu - yan (Chinese: 陳如茵), who is now a professor at University of Hong Kong and remains the voice of the MTR today. Since 2004, in order to accommodate Mainland Chinese visitors under the Individual Visit Scheme, Mandarin Chinese has been added to the repertory.
Unlike many other metro systems around the world, "main line '' MTR stations originally did not have toilet facilities available for public use. Passengers may use MTR staff toilets at all stations on request. In 2006, MTRCL said it would not consider retrofitting existing underground toilets, because of the challenge of installing new piping and toilet facilities. Only stations on the Airport Express and Disneyland Resort line had access to toilet facilities. All former KCR stations (on the East Rail line, West Rail line, and Ma On Shan line), merged into the MTR network in 2007, have public toilets.
During the Legislative Council rail merger bill discussions, the MTR Corporation was criticised by legislators for their unwillingness to install toilets in main line stations. MTRCL indicated that it would carry out a review of the feasibility of installing public toilets at or in the vicinity of its above - ground railway stations. Discussions between the Government and MTRCL have taken into account LegCo members ' request for a stronger commitment by the corporation to the provision of public toilets on new railway lines. This resulted in MTRCL agreeing to include the provision of toilets within, or adjacent to, stations in the overall design parameters for all future new railway lines, subject to planning and regulatory approval and any concerns raised by residents in the vicinity about the location of external ventilation exhausts.
Toilets have since been retrofitted into several existing MTR stations, including Sheung Wan station, Ngau Tau Kok station, Quarry Bay station, Mong Kok station, Prince Edward station, and Admiralty station. In addition, newly opened stations such as those of the West Island line have toilets. The MTR plans to install public toilets at all interchange stations by 2020.
In late 2017 the MTR introduced breastfeeding rooms at 20 interchange stations. The rooms are located in back of house areas, and are available upon request to MTR staff.
Prior to the privatisation of MTRC, MTR stations only had branches of the Hang Seng Bank, and Maxim 's Cakes stores, and a handful of other shops. Since then, the number and types of shops have increased at certain stations, turning them into miniature shopping centres. ATMs and convenience stores are now commonplace.
The MTR has contracted with publishers for the distribution of free magazines and newspapers in MTR stations. Recruit was the first free magazine which was solely distributed in stations (before railway merger) since July 1992, but the contract was terminated in July 2002. Another recruitment magazine Jiu Jik (招 職), published by South China Morning Post, replaced Recruit as the only free recruitment magazine distributed in MTR stations bi-weekly. The Metropolis Daily (都市 日報), published by Metro International, is the first free newspaper distributed free in MTR stations during weekdays (except public holidays); and in 2005, there is another weekend newspaper Express Post (快 線 週報), distributed every Saturday except public holidays. The Metropop (都市 流行), a weekly magazine featuring cultural affairs and city trends also published by Metro International, started its distribution in MTR stations every Thursday since 27 April 2006, a few months after the termination of Hui Kai Guide (去 街 Guide) in 2006. MTR Stations on ex-KCR lines feature two free Chinese - language newspapers, namely am730 and Headline Daily. MTR promotes reading of these newspapers by adding special coupons and promotion offers inside the newspapers, for example, a free trip to Lok Ma Chau or a free keyring. On the Kwun Tong line, East Rail line, Ma On Shan line and West Rail line, MTR In - Train TV is available.
At various stations of the MTR network, the MTRCL (which took over from KCR) has set up feeder buses which enhance the convenience of taking the MTR. These bus routes, which normally consist of one to two stops, terminate at housing estates and go past major landmarks. The feeder bus routes on the East Rail line are run under the MTR name but are operated by Kowloon Motor Bus.
Seven types of electric multiple unit rolling stock operate on the MTR network and four generations of light rail vehicles operate on the light rail network. All utilise either 1,432 mm (4 ft 8 ⁄ in) rail gauge (near standard gauge) or 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ⁄ in) (standard gauge). Except for Airport Express trains, all trains are designed to cope with high patronage, for example, through seating arrangements, additional ventilation fans, and additional sets of extra-wide doors. These configurations allow the MTR to run at 101,000 passengers per hour per direction (p / h / d) on its busy suburban East Rail line and 85,000 p / h / d on its urban metro network.
Known as M - trains, these are the oldest model of train in operation. M - Trains can be divided into different "stocks ''. The M - stock (or "CM - stock '') of M - Train are the oldest trains on the MTR, built originally by Metro - Cammell (now Alstom) and refurbished by United Goninan. The M - train uses sliding doors, unlike K - stocks and Grupo CAF Trains which use plug doors. They are in service on Kwun Tong line, Tsuen Wan line, Island line and Tseung Kwan O line.
The Disneyland Resort line uses driverless M - trains with their appearance overhauled to suit the atmosphere and theme of the line. Windows on each carriage and the handrails inside are made into the shape of Mickey Mouse 's head, and there are bronze - made Disney characters decorating the interior of the carriages.
The Tung Chung line and the Airport Express use CAF Trains tailored to their respective lines. Initially run in seven - car formations, they have now been lengthened to eight cars. These two variations are built jointly by Adtranz (now Bombardier Transportation) and Grupo CAF (CAF) between 1994 -- 97. Since 2006, K - stock has also been used on the Tung Chung line.
The K - stock was built jointly by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Hyundai Rotem and first put into service on the Kwun Tong line. Subsequently, in 2006, four additional sets joined the Tung Chung line to cope with the increasing passenger traffic. K - Stock trains have come under criticism when it was first put into service due to delays and door safety issues. There have been incidents where passengers have been injured by its doors and other service reliability issues have led to MTRCL "minimising the number of Korean trains for passenger service until a higher reliability of the systems concerned is achieved ''.
The contract (C6554 - 07E) for 10 new sets of trains was awarded to Changchun Railway Vehicles Co. Limited in October 2008 with a further 12 trains ordered in the summer of 2011. These MTR trains were delivered to Hong Kong between 2011 and 2013 to enhance train frequency on the existing lines to cater for increased patronage on the Island line, Kwun Tong line, Tsuen Wan line and Tseung Kwan O line. These trains feature new 22 '' LCD TVs, like their counterpart trains on former - KCR lines equipped with MTR In - Train TV, offering infotainment such as news and announcements. The first of these trains entered revenue service on 7 December 2011 on the Kwun Tong line.
The South Island line uses a similar train known as the S - train. Unlike the original C - train, the pantographs are on the A cars. All cars are powered, so there are no trailer cars. The S - train is also only three cars long and are driverless, with the driver 's cab removed with space for passengers. However, the S - trains can still enable manual operation in the event of an emergency.
Both East Rail line and West Rail line use the SP1900 while Ma On Shan line uses SP1950, a shorter model of the SP1900. The electrification system used on these lines is 25 kV AC, 50 Hz, as opposed to the 1.5 -- kV DC used on the urban lines. Should the need arise in the future, dual voltage trains such as those utilised on Oresund Bridge would be required.
These two models of rolling stock are from the former KCRC network (KCR East Rail, West Rail and Ma On Shan Rail). They did not receive major changes after the merger of the two companies except for the updated route map, the exterior company logo and such. The capability of this EMU fleet is similar to those on the urban network.
The older Metro Cammell EMUs are also used on East Rail line. There are 351 cars which have been built (29 sets + 3 surplus cars) since 1982.
There are currently plans to replace these cars with new Hyundai Rotem EMUs (R - stock) between 2018 - 2020. This is part of the upgrade programme related to the new Shatin to Central Link.
In December 2012, the MTRC announced that new contracts had been awarded to Hyundai Rotem for 37 new nine - car trains to be used on the Sha Tin to Central Link.
These trains are expected to replace the Metro Cammell EMUs that currently run on the existing East Rail line. The new R - stock trains are wider than existing units and can accommodate more passengers per car; however, the length of each train will be cut from the current 12 - car configuration used on the Metro Cammell and SP1900 EMUs to nine cars. This is due to space constraints imposed by new underground platforms on the Sha Tin to Central Link. MTR will also upgrade existing signalling systems used on the East Rail line which will enable trains to operate at two - minute headways on average, instead of the current three - minute interval, which the MTRC expects will be able to compensate for the loss of capacity resulting from the shorter trains. However, there are concerns from local residents that this will not be effective.
Light rail rolling stock were ordered from three different manufacturers: Commonwealth Engineering (Comeng), Kawasaki Heavy Industries, United Goninan and CRRC Nanjing Puzhen. They are designed to run on the standard gauge and utilise 750 V DC delivered through overhead lines. Trains comprise one or two carriages, where the second carriage functions as only a trailer. The arrangement allows each car to carry approximately 300 passengers with 26 seats, while four sets of poach seats provide flexible riding for passengers.
The light rail trains are being modernised as part of a 20th anniversary activity. Trains will include better disabled facilities as well as a totally new interior. The MTR will refurbish 69 older trains and buy 22 new ones. The first trains have been completed and were scheduled to be put into service in November 2009. The whole project is expected to be completed in 2011.
The MTR Headquarters Building is located at Telford Plaza. It is a part of the larger Telford Garden complex, which was developed as part of a partnership between MTR and private development companies.
Telford Plaza held an exhibition dedicated to the history of MTR in April 2014.
After the rail merger, there are three different fare classes on the MTR: Adult, Students and Concessionary. Only children below the age of 12 and senior citizens 65 years or older are eligible for the concessionary rate on all lines. Full - time Hong Kong students between the ages of 12 and 25 qualify for the concessionary rate using a personalized Octopus Card on all lines except on Airport Express, or travel to or from cross-border stations (Lo Wu / Lok Ma Chau). Children below the age of 3 travel free (unless they exceed the height range).
The fare of MTR between any two particular stations is not calculated using a particular formula, and must be looked up from the fare table. Fares for the Airport Express Line are significantly higher. Services to checkpoint termini are also more expensive than ordinary fares. Adult fares range from HK $ 3.6 to $52.6 (US $0.46 -- 6.74). Concessionary fares are usually half the adult fare, and range from HK $1.50 to $27.00. Student fares are the same as child and elderly fare on the urban lines, but are the same as the Adult fares for journeys to or from checkpoint termini, and range from HK $1.50 to $51.00. The fare is subject to adjustment in June every year.
Prior to May 2009, MTR did not provide concessionary fares for the disabled. Legislators such as social welfare constituency legislator Fernando Cheung Chiu - hung and those from Hong Kong 's Association for Democracy and People 's Livelihood had for years demanded that such concessions be put in place. In May 2009, MTR eventually agreed to offer the disabled concessionary fares with HK $2 million sponsorship from Transport and Housing Bureau and under the condition that Legislative Council amends the Disability Discrimination Ordinance.
Single journey tickets can be purchased at vending machines while tourist passes, Octopus cards and other special tickets must be purchased at the ticket counter. Credit cards are only accepted to purchase Airport Express tickets.
The Octopus card is a rechargeable contactless smart card used in an electronic payment system in Hong Kong developed by Australian company ERG Group. It was launched in September 1997 for use on the MTR (and KCR, now operated by MTR) and now is the most widely used electronic cash system for transactions in Hong Kong as many retailers (including supermarkets, car parks and fast food outlets) are fitted with readers. The technology used was Sony 's Felica line of smartcard. The Octopus card uses radio frequency identification (RFID) technology so that users need only hold the card in front of the reader, without taking it out of handbags and wallets.
Except for the Airport Express, MTR fares are slightly lower when using an Octopus card compared to using single journey tickets. For example, the cost of the three - minute journey from Admiralty to Tsim Sha Tsui across the Victoria Harbour is (as of January 2018) HK $9.7 using the Octopus card, compared with HK $10.5 for a single - journey ticket. Also, in order to have fare discounts and promotions, say Monthly Pass and MTR Club Bonus Points Scheme, passenger are required to hold an Octopus Card.
The Tourist Day Pass gives tourists unlimited MTR rides for one day (with the exception of MTR Bus routes, the First Class of the East Rail line, the Airport Express, as well as journeys to and from Lo Wu, Lok Ma Chau and Racecourse stations). Each pass costs HK $55 and are available at all the MTR Customer Service Centres. Tourist Day Pass must be used within 30 days upon the day of issue. The Airport Express Tourist Octopus Cards are also available. Cardholders may enjoy three days of unlimited rides on the MTR (except Airport Express, East Rail line First Class, Lo Wu and Lok Ma Chau stations) refundable deposit of HK $50 and choice of either a single (HK $220) or round trip (HK $300) on the Airport Express.
A touchless smart card system is used for single journey tickets. These tickets are pre-paid for between pre-determined stations, and are good for only one trip. There are no return tickets, except on the Airport Express. As of mid-2013, less than 5 per cent of MTR customers travelled on single journey tickets.
Fares for the Airport Express are substantially different from main line fares. Apart from single tickets, same - day return tickets (same price as a single), and one - month return tickets are also available.
A one - day pass can be used for unlimited travel to and from Hong Kong Disneyland within the same day, and costs HK $50. This pass can be purchased from any MTR Customer Service Centres or Airport Express Customer Service Centres.
The Ticket Suggestion function is developed by MTR alongside with Route Suggestion on MTR website. Based on user 's journey and travel pattern, it can recommend the most fare - saving ticket type for daily and non-daily commuters.
Apart from official application, third parties, such as MTR Service Update, have been developed their own ticket recommendation, claiming to be more user - friendly and fare - saving. The Checkfare of MTR Service Update can recommend user whether to interchange at Tsim Sha Tsui / East Tsim Sha Tsui, in order to receive more discount..
An MTR ticket gate with an Octopus reader
Ticket and add - value machines
Since the merger in 2007, MTR has consistently achieved a 99.9 % on - time rate, meaning out of the 5.2 million passengers on average each working day, 5.195 million passengers arrive within 5 minutes of scheduled time. This makes MTR one of the most efficient rapid transit systems on the planet. MTR must report all delays of more than eight minutes to the government. There were 143 reportable incidents in 2013. MTR is fined HK $1 million for having delays of 31 minutes to an hour, with higher fines for longer delays.
According to the Mass Transit Railway By - laws, eating, drinking, or smoking are not allowed in the paid area of stations or in trains. Offenders will be fined up to HK $5000.
Various campaigns and activities are taken to help ensure that the MTR is a safe system to travel on. Poster campaigns displaying information on topics such as escalator safety are a common sight in all MTR stations, and announcements are made regularly as safety reminders to travelling passengers. Bylaws were also introduced to deter potentially dangerous actions on the MTR, such as the ban on flammable goods on the MTR and rushing into trains when the doors are closing. Penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment have been imposed for such offences.
Police officers patrol the trains and stations, and police posts are available at some stations. The Hong Kong Police Force has a Railway District responsible for the MTR. Closed - circuit television cameras are installed in stations and on some of the newer trains.
The entire Tung Chung line and Airport Express, as well those stations added by the Tseung Kwan O Line, has platform screen doors (PSDs), ordered from Swiss glass door manufacturer Kaba Gilgen AG, installed upon construction. So does the entire West Rail line (except Hung Hom station), inherited from KCR. These doors make platforms safer by preventing people from falling onto the rails, even though MTRCL did not heavily promote it directly. However, the primary motivation was to separate the stations from the tunnels, hence allowing substantial energy savings on station air - conditioning and tunnel ventilation. Automatic platform gates (APGs) have also been installed at the Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort stations. Their heights are half of the PSDs and only prevent people from falling onto the rails. MTR has finished installing the APGs on all of the above - ground stations of the MTR except on the East Rail and Ma On Shan lines; they will be installed there as part of the Sha Tin to Central Link project.
In June 2000, MTRCL proceeded with its plans to retrofit 2,960 pairs of platform screen doors at all 30 underground stations on the Kwun Tong line, Tsuen Wan line, and Island Line in a six - year programme. The programme made MTR the world 's first railway to undertake the retrofitting of PSDs on a passenger - carrying system already in operation. A prototype design was first introduced at Choi Hung station in the 3rd quarter of 2001. The whole installation scheme was completed in October 2005, ahead of the forecast completion date in 2006. MTRCL said that part of the cost had to be assumed by passengers. HK $0.10 per passenger trip was levied on Octopus card users to help fund the HK $2 billion retrofit programme. This levy was ended in 2013 after raising more than HK $1 billion.
The MTR visual identity, which includes logo, vehicle livery, signage, route maps and passenger information, was updated in 1995 -- 1998 by Lloyd Northover, the British design consultancy founded by John Lloyd and Jim Northover.
MTR Service Update is an online service that provides MTR service information through Twitter and Facebook. It was founded by a group of post-80s MTR employees and passengers. Messages are provided in Traditional Chinese and English. Although some of the founders are MTR employees, the service is not officially provided by MTR.
The service was founded because of the dissatisfaction of the MTR on handling the message of service disruptions. The service was based on one provided for the London Underground. Because the service is user - driven, the involvement of passengers is very important. The MTR Service update team are now facing the problem on no data source in the areas which have a low level of participation, such as Tseung Kwan O.
Aside from providing a service to Twitter, the team have also developed mobile applications for popular mobile platforms. For Android, there is TrainBoard and Swiftzer MetroRide.
With the objective "not only bring MTR passengers more time for life, but also more time for art '', the Art in MTR Initiative has been a success since its reception in 1998, where the Airport Express Artwork Programme was the pioneer project. Thereafter, live performances, art exhibitions, display of artwork by established and emerging artists, students and young children have been brought into the MTR stations. MTRCL have even made art part of the station architecture when building new stations or renovating existing ones. Artworks are exhibited in different forms on the network, including "arttube '', open art gallery, community art galleries, roving art, living art, and art in station architecture.
MTR and Hong Kong Amateur Athletic Association have jointly hosted MTR Hong Kong Race Walking annually in spring since 2005. The race walking competition aims at promoting healthy living in Hong Kong. The race begins and ends on the ground above Central MTR station, namely Chater Garden, Chater Road, Ice House Street and Des Voeux Road Central in Central. There is a fun walk apart from the regular competition. The event attracted over 800 participants in 2005 and 1,500 in 2012. Other than Hongkongers, the event also attracts athletes from various countries. The race raises fund for Better Health for a Better Hong Kong, a Hospital Authority project for the working population.
The MTR Corporation came under fire in June 2011 after their work on the cross-border high - speed railway line encroached on a conservation area in Pat Heung, Yuen Long. 34 trees were felled and an entire slope was concreted over in the conservation area. The Environmental Protection Department issued summonses to the corporation for offences under the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance. In September 2011, a fine of HK $15,000 was imposed by the court. The MTR Corporation admitted that 34 trees were felled by mistake; all were common native woodland species and no rare tree species were affected. The corporation said owing to a technical misalignment of relevant drawings, the plan submitted to the Environmental Protection Department did not include the part of the Conservation Area which was included in the gazettal plan of their works. The corporation became aware that part of the approved tree removal works may have encroached onto the Conservation Area during construction, and proactively reported the situation to the government. Evaluation and measures have been taken to prevent similar incidents from happening again.
The MTR Corporation came under fire again in September 2011 after felling dozens of trees in Admiralty as part of construction work for the South Island line. Green activists denounced the tree felling as "unprofessional '', and Ken So Kwok - yin, chief executive of the Conservancy Association and a certified tree arborist, said that the explanations offered by the MTR Corporation as to why the trees were felled were "unacceptable ''. The MTR Corporation is felling approximately 4,000 trees for the construction of the South Island line, raising concerns from environmental groups and the public about its commitment to protecting Hong Kong 's natural environment.
The corporation has limits on the size of items allowed on trains. The MTR system is facing pressure from increasing numbers of parallel traders who carry oversized baggage onto trains for resale in China. The corporation has been criticised for allowing parallel traders to board trains with massive bags, causing undue congestion and inconvenience to residents of the North District.
Furthermore, the corporation accused of double standards in enforcement when images of cross-border smugglers pushing overladen trollies appeared on social network sites on a regular basis, whilst local students carrying large musical instruments were reported to have been stopped and issued with written warnings. Leading musicians joined in the criticism of MTR 's unreasonable stance on large instruments; some citizens invited players of cellos and other large instruments to congregate on 3 October 2015 with their equipment at Tai Wai station, where the majority of these instances occurred.
Following the public uproar, MTR issued a press release in the early hours acknowledging discontent and announcing a one - month review of the policy on oversized items to see whether there was room for fine - tuning that would not compromise on passenger safety. The corporation said that staff would continue executing existing policy until any revisions are made.
Route map: Google
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mase why you over there lookin at me | Lookin ' at Me - wikipedia
"Lookin ' at Me '' was the third and final single released from Mase 's debut album, Harlem World. The song was produced by The Neptunes and featured Puff Daddy. The single was yet another success for Mase, becoming his third consecutive top 10 hit, peaking at # 8 on the Billboard Hot 100, and was certified gold on August 17, 1998. The song was paired with "24 Hrs. to Live '', which featured Black Rob, DMX and The LOX.
Along with Noreaga 's "Superthug '' and Jay - Z 's "I Just Wanna Love U (Give It 2 Me) '', the song was one of the first high - profile productions by Virginia production team The Neptunes, who would later go on to become one of the most successful production teams in music history.
Promotional music videos were released for both "Lookin ' at Me '' and "24 Hrs. to Live. ''
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the feudal system in both medieval europe and early japan | Feudalism - wikipedia
Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. Although derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief), then in use, the term feudalism and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Middle Ages. In its classic definition, by François - Louis Ganshof (1944), feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs.
A broader definition of feudalism, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but also those of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry bound by manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a "feudal society ''. Since the publication of Elizabeth A.R. Brown 's "The Tyranny of a Construct '' (1974) and Susan Reynolds 's Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society.
There is no commonly accepted modern definition of feudalism, at least among scholars. The adjective feudal was coined in the 17th century, and the noun feudalism, often used in a political and propaganda context, was not coined until the 19th century, from the French féodalité (feudality), itself an 18th - century creation.
In a classic definition by François - Louis Ganshof (1944), feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs, though Ganshof himself noted that his treatment related only to the "narrow, technical, legal sense of the word ''.
A broader definition, as described in Marc Bloch 's Feudal Society (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but those of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and those living by their labour, most directly the peasantry bound by manorialism; this order is often referred to as "feudal society '', echoing Bloch 's usage.
Since the publication of Elizabeth A.R. Brown 's "The Tyranny of a Construct '' (1974) and Susan Reynolds 's Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society.
Outside a European context, the concept of feudalism is often used only by analogy (called semi-feudal), most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the shōguns, and sometimes medieval and Gondarine Ethiopia. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as Spring and Autumn period in China, ancient Egypt, the Parthian empire, the Indian subcontinent and the Antebellum and Jim Crow American South.
The term feudalism has also been applied -- often inappropriately or pejoratively -- to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. Some historians and political theorists believe that the term feudalism has been deprived of specific meaning by the many ways it has been used, leading them to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.
The term "féodal '' was used in 17th - century French legal treatises (1614) and translated into English legal treatises as an adjective, such as "feodal government ''.
In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe economic systems, effectively coined the forms "feudal government '' and "feudal system '' in his book Wealth of Nations (1776). In the 19th century the adjective "feudal '' evolved into a noun: "feudalism ''. The term feudalism is recent, first appearing in French in 1823, Italian in 1827, English in 1839, and in German in the second half of the 19th century.
The term "feudal '' or "feodal '' is derived from the medieval Latin word feodum. The etymology of feodum is complex with multiple theories, some suggesting a Germanic origin (the most widely held view) and others suggesting an Arabic origin. Initially in medieval Latin European documents, a land grant in exchange for service was called a beneficium (Latin). Later, the term feudum, or feodum, began to replace beneficium in the documents. The first attested instance of this is from 984, although more primitive forms were seen up to one - hundred years earlier. The origin of the feudum and why it replaced beneficium has not been well established, but there are multiple theories, described below.
The most widely held theory was proposed by Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern in 1870, being supported by, amongst others, William Stubbs and Marc Bloch. Kern derived the word from a putative Frankish term * fehu - ôd, in which * fehu means "cattle '' and - ôd means "goods '', implying "a moveable object of value. '' Bloch explains that by the beginning of the 10th century it was common to value land in monetary terms but to pay for it with moveable objects of equivalent value, such as arms, clothing, horses or food. This was known as feos, a term that took on the general meaning of paying for something in lieu of money. This meaning was then applied to land itself, in which land was used to pay for fealty, such as to a vassal. Thus the old word feos meaning movable property changed little by little to feus meaning the exact opposite: landed property.
Another theory was put forward by Archibald R. Lewis. Lewis said the origin of ' fief ' is not feudum (or feodum), but rather foderum, the earliest attested use being in Astronomus 's Vita Hludovici (840). In that text is a passage about Louis the Pious that says annona militaris quas vulgo foderum vocant, which can be translated as "Louis forbade that military provender (which they popularly call "fodder '') be furnished... ''
Another theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic origin, from fuyū (the plural of fay, which literally means "the returned '', and was used especially for ' land that has been conquered from enemies that did not fight '). Samarrai 's theory is that early forms of ' fief ' include feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others, the plurality of forms strongly suggesting origins from a loanword. The first use of these terms is in Languedoc, one of the least Germanic areas of Europe and bordering Muslim Spain. Further, the earliest use of feuum (as a replacement for beneficium) can be dated to 899, the same year a Muslim base at Fraxinetum (La Garde - Freinet) in Provence was established. It is possible, Samarrai says, that French scribes, writing in Latin, attempted to transliterate the Arabic word fuyū (the plural of fay), which was being used by the Muslim invaders and occupiers at the time, resulting in a plurality of forms -- feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others -- from which eventually feudum derived. Samarrai, however, also advises to handle this theory with care, as Medieval and Early Modern Muslim scribes often used etymologically "fanciful roots '' in order to claim the most outlandish things to be of Arabian or Muslim origin.
Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire: especially in the Carolingian empires, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure necessary to support cavalry without the ability to allocate land to these mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and their power over the territory came to encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres.
These acquired powers significantly diminished unitary power in these empires. Only when the infrastructure existed to maintain unitary power -- as with the European monarchies -- did feudalism begin to yield to this new power structure and eventually disappear.
The classic François - Louis Ganshof version of feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs. A lord was in broad terms a noble who held land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the use of the fief and the protection of the lord, the vassal would provide some sort of service to the lord. There were many varieties of feudal land tenure, consisting of military and non-military service. The obligations and corresponding rights between lord and vassal concerning the fief form the basis of the feudal relationship.
Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony, which was composed of the two - part act of homage and oath of fealty. During homage, the lord and vassal entered into a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command, whilst the lord agreed to protect the vassal from external forces. Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty '' also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an oath follows homage.
Once the commendation ceremony was complete, the lord and vassal were in a feudal relationship with agreed obligations to one another. The vassal 's principal obligation to the lord was to "aid '', or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal could have other obligations to his lord, such as attendance at his court, whether manorial, baronial, both termed court baron, or at the king 's court.
It could also involve the vassal providing "counsel '', so that if the lord faced a major decision he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. At the level of the manor this might be a fairly mundane matter of agricultural policy, but also included sentencing by the lord for criminal offences, including capital punishment in some cases. Concerning the king 's feudal court, such deliberation could include the question of declaring war. These are examples; depending on the period of time and location in Europe, feudal customs and practices varied; see examples of feudalism.
In its origin, the feudal grant of land had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land '' (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution '' or "mutation '' and a "fragmentation of powers '' (Bloch) that was unlike the development of feudalism in England or Italy or Germany in the same period or later: Counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as castellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped / privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use the lord 's mill, etc. (what Georges Duby called collectively the "seigneurie banale ''). Power in this period became more personal.
This "fragmentation of powers '' was not, however, systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later. Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal / feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "liege lord '' was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century.
Feudalism itself decayed and effectively disappeared in most of Western Europe by about 1500, partly since the military power of kings shifted from armies consisting of the nobility to professional fighters (effectively reducing the nobility 's power), but also because the Black Death reduced the nobility 's hold on the lower classes. The system lingered on in parts of Central and Eastern Europe as late as the 1850s. Russia finally abolished serfdom in 1861.
However, even when the original feudal relationships had disappeared, there were many institutional remnants of feudalism left in place. Historian Georges Lefebvre explains how at an early stage of the French Revolution, on just one night of August 4, 1789, France abolished the long - lasting remnants of the feudal order. It announced, "The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely. '' Lefebvre explains:
Without debate the Assembly enthusiastically adopted equality of taxation and redemption of all manorial rights except for those involving personal servitude -- which were to be abolished without indemnification. Other proposals followed with the same success: the equality of legal punishment, admission of all to public office, abolition of venality in office, conversion of the tithe into payments subject to redemption, freedom of worship, prohibition of plural holding of benefices... Privileges of provinces and towns were offered as a last sacrifice.
Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more than a fourth of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners. The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled. Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer paid the tithe to the church.
The phrase "feudal society '' as defined by Marc Bloch offers a wider definition than Ganshof 's and includes within the feudal structure not only the warrior aristocracy bound by vassalage, but also the peasantry bound by manorialism, and the estates of the Church. Thus the feudal order embraces society from top to bottom, though the "powerful and well - differentiated social group of the urban classes '' came to occupy a distinct position to some extent outside the classical feudal hierarchy.
The idea of feudalism was unknown and the system it describes was not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Medieval Period. This section describes the history of the idea of feudalism, how the concept originated among scholars and thinkers, how it changed over time, and modern debates about its use.
The concept of a feudal state or period, in the sense of either a regime or a period dominated by lords who possess financial or social power and prestige, became widely held in the middle of the 18th century, as a result of works such as Montesquieu 's De L'Esprit des Lois (1748; published in English as The Spirit of the Laws), and Henri de Boulainvilliers 's Histoire des anciens Parlements de France (1737; published in English as An Historical Account of the Ancient Parliaments of France or States - General of the Kingdom, 1739). In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to denigrate the antiquated system of the Ancien Régime, or French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment when writers valued reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the "Dark Ages ''. Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages '' including feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain. For them "feudalism '' meant seigneurial privileges and prerogatives. When the French Constituent Assembly abolished the "feudal regime '' in August 1789 this is what was meant.
Adam Smith used the term "feudal system '' to describe a social and economic system defined by inherited social ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and economic privileges and obligations. In such a system wealth derived from agriculture, which was arranged not according to market forces but on the basis of customary labour services owed by serfs to landowning nobles.
Karl Marx also used the term in the 19th century in his analysis of society 's economic and political development, describing feudalism (or more usually feudal society or the feudal mode of production) as the order coming before capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) in their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom and principally by means of labour, produce and money rents. Marx thus defined feudalism primarily by its economic characteristics.
He also took it as a paradigm for understanding the power - relationships between capitalists and wage - labourers in his own time: ' in pre-capitalist systems it was obvious that most people did not control their own destiny -- under feudalism, for instance, serfs had to work for their lords. Capitalism seems different because people are in theory free to work for themselves or for others as they choose. Yet most workers have as little control over their lives as feudal serfs '. Some later Marxist theorists (e.g. Eric Wolf) have applied this label to include non-European societies, grouping feudalism together with Imperial Chinese and pre-Columbian Incan societies as ' tributary '.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, John Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of English society before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had brought feudalism with them to England, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain before 1066. The debate continues today, but a consensus viewpoint is that England before the Conquest had commendation (which embodied some of the personal elements in feudalism) while William the Conqueror introduced a modified and stricter northern French feudalism to England incorporating (1086) oaths of loyalty to the king by all who held by feudal tenure, even the vassals of his principal vassals (Holding by feudal tenure meant that vassals must provide the quota of knights required by the king or a money payment in substitution).
In the 20th century, two outstanding historians offered still more widely differing perspectives. The French historian Marc Bloch, arguably the most influential 20th - century medieval historian., approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one, presenting in Feudal Society (1939; English 1961) a feudal order not limited solely to the nobility. It is his radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers: while the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection -- both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship '', and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy.
In contradistinction to Bloch, the Belgian historian François - Louis Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in Qu'est - ce que la féodalité? ("What is feudalism? '', 1944; translated in English as Feudalism). His classic definition of feudalism is widely accepted today among medieval scholars, though questioned both by those who view the concept in wider terms and by those who find insufficient uniformity in noble exchanges to support such a model.
Although he was never formally a student in the circle of scholars around Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre that came to be known as the Annales School, Georges Duby was an exponent of the Annaliste tradition. In a published version of his 1952 doctoral thesis entitled La société aux XIe et XIIe siècles dans la région mâconnaise (Society in the 11th and 12th centuries in the Mâconnais region), and working from the extensive documentary sources surviving from the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, as well as the dioceses of Mâcon and Dijon, Duby excavated the complex social and economic relationships among the individuals and institutions of the Mâconnais region and charted a profound shift in the social structures of medieval society around the year 1000. He argued that in early 11th century, governing institutions -- particularly comital courts established under the Carolingian monarchy -- that had represented public justice and order in Burgundy during the 9th and 10th centuries receded and gave way to a new feudal order wherein independent aristocratic knights wielded power over peasant communities through strong - arm tactics and threats of violence.
In 1974, U.S. historian Elizabeth A.R. Brown rejected the label feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many, often contradictory, definitions of feudalism, she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically '' into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown 's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds 's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Reynolds argues:
The term feudal has also been applied to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed (See Examples of feudalism). Japan has been extensively studied in this regard. Friday notes that in the 21st century historians of Japan rarely invoke feudalism; instead of looking at similarities, specialists attempting comparative analysis concentrate on fundamental differences. Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading some historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.
Richard Abels notes that "Western Civilization and World Civilization textbooks now shy away from the term ' feudalism '. ''
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one type of physiological process that is associated with habituation is | Habituation - wikipedia
Habituation is a form of learning in which an organism decreases or ceases its responses to a stimulus after repeated presentations. Essentially, the organism learns to stop responding to a stimulus which is no longer biologically relevant. For example, organisms may habituate to repeated sudden loud noises when they learn these have no consequences. Habituation usually refers to a reduction in innate behaviours, rather than behaviours developed during conditioning (in which case the process is termed "extinction ''). A progressive decline of a behavior in a habituation procedure may also reflect nonspecific effects such as fatigue, which must be ruled out when the interest is in habituation as a learning process.
The habituation process is a form of adaptive behavior (or neuroplasticity) that is classified as non-associative learning. Non-associative learning is a change in a response to a stimulus that does not involve associating the presented stimulus with another stimulus or event such as a reward or punishment. (Examples of associative learning include classical conditioning and operant conditioning). Habituation is the decrease of a response to a repeated eliciting stimulus that is not due to sensory adaptation or motor fatigue. Sensory adaptation (or neural adaptation) occurs when an organism can no longer detect the stimulus as efficiently as when first presented and motor fatigue occurs when an organism is able to detect the stimulus but can no longer respond efficiently. In contrast, habituation is a learned adaptation to the repeated presentation of a stimulus, not a reduction in sensory or motor ability.
Some related phenomena to habituation include sensitization and stimulus generalization / discrimination. Sensitization is the opposite process to habituation, i.e. an increase in the elicited behavior from repeated presentation of a stimulus. There may also be an initial increase in response immediately prior to the decline (a sensitization process followed by a habituation process). Another related phenomenon is stimulus generalization, when habituation occurs in response to other stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. The opposing process, stimulus discrimination, is when habituation does not occur to other stimuli that are dissimilar to the original stimulus.
There is an additional connotation to the term habituation which applies to psychological dependency on drugs, and is included in several online dictionaries. A team of specialist from the World Health Organization (WHO) assembled in 1957 to address the problem of drug addiction and adopted the term "drug habituation '' to distinguish some drug - use behaviors from drug addiction. According to the WHO lexicon of alcohol and drug terms, habituation is defined as "becoming accustomed to any behavior or condition, including psychoactive substance use ''. By 1964 the America Surgeon 's General report on smoking and health included four features that characterize drug habituation according to WHO: 1) "a desire (but not a compulsion) to continue taking the drug for the sense of improved well - being which it engenders ''; 2) "little or no tendency to increase the dose ''; 3) "some degree of psychic dependence on the effect of the drug, but absence of physical dependence and hence of an abstinence syndrome ''; 4) "detrimental effects, if any, primarily on the individual ''. However, also in 1964, a committee from the World Health Organization once again convened and decided the definitions of drug habituation and drug addiction were insufficient, replacing the two terms with "drug dependence ''. Substance dependence is the preferred term today when describing drug - related disorders, whereas the use of the term drug habituation has declined substantially. This is not to be confused with true habituation to drugs, wherein repeated doses have an increasingly diminished effect, as is often seen in addicts or persons taking painkillers frequently.
Habituation as a form of non-associative learning can be distinguished from other behavioral changes (e.g., sensory adaptation, fatigue) by considering the characteristics of habituation that have been identified over several decades of research. The characteristics first described by Thompson and Spencer have recently been updated and include the following:
Repeated presentation of a stimulus will cause a decrease in reaction to the stimulus. Habituation is also proclaimed to be a form of implicit learning, which is commonly the case with continually repeated stimuli. This characteristic is consistent with the definition of habituation as a procedure, but to confirm habituation as a process, additional characteristics must be demonstrated. Also observed is spontaneous recovery. That is, a habituated response to a stimulus recovers (increases in magnitude) when a significant amount of time (hours, days, weeks) passes between stimulus presentations.
"Potentiation of habituation '' is observed when tests of spontaneous recovery are given repeatedly. In this phenomenon, the decrease in responding that follows spontaneous recovery becomes more rapid with each test of spontaneous recovery. Also noted was that an increase in the frequency of stimulus presentation (i.e., shorter interstimulus interval) will increase the rate of habituation. Furthermore, continued exposure to the stimulus after the habituated response has plateaued (i.e., show no further decrement) may have additional effects on subsequent tests of behavior such as delaying spontaneous recovery. The concepts of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination will be observed. Habituation to an original stimulus will also occur to other stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus (stimulus generalization). The more similar the new stimulus is to the original stimulus, the greater the habituation that will be observed. When a subject shows habituation to a new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus but not to a stimulus that is different from the original stimulus, then the subject is showing stimulus discrimination. (For example, if one was habituated to the taste of lemon, their responding would increase significantly when presented with the taste of lime). Stimulus discrimination can be used to rule out sensory adaptation and fatigue as an alternative explanation of the habituation process.
Another observation mentioned is when a single introduction of a different stimulus late in the habituation procedure when responding to the eliciting stimulus has declined can cause an increase in the habituated response. This increase in responding is temporary and is called "dishabituation '' and always occurs to the original eliciting stimulus (not to the added stimulus). Researchers also use evidence of dishabituation to rule out sensory adaptation and fatigue as alternative explanations of the habituation process. Habituation of dishabituation can occur. The amount of dishabituation that occurs as a result of the introduction of a different stimulus can decrease after repeated presentation of the "dishabituating '' stimulus.
Some habituation procedures appear to result in a habituation process that last days or weeks. This is considered long - term habituation. It persists over long durations of time (i.e., shows little or no spontaneous recovery). Long - term habituation can be distinguished from short - term habituation which is identified by the nine characteristics listed above.
Habituation can refer to a decrease in behavior, subjective experience, or synaptic transmission. The changes in synaptic transmission that occur during habituation have been well - characterized in the Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex.
Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal and at least, in one species of plants (Mimosa pudica). The experimental investigation of simple organisms such as the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus provides an understanding of the cellular mechanisms that are involved in the habituation process.
Within psychology, habituation has been studied through different forms of neuroimaging like PET scan and FMRI. Habituation is observed after repeated presentations of stimuli. Within fMRI, the stimuli 's effect is measured using blood oxygen level - dependent (BOLD) signals, where long - term decreases of the BOLD signal are interpreted as habituation and increases of the BOLD signal are considered sensitization.
The amygdala is one of the most - studied areas of the brain when looking at habituation. One of the most common ways to study this is to observe the visual processing of facial expressions. A study by Breiter and colleagues used fMRI scans to identify which areas of the brain habituate and at what rate this happens. The results of this study showed that the human amygdala responds and rapidly habituates preferentially to fearful facial expressions over neutral. They also observed significant amygdala signal changes in response to happy faces over neutral faces.
One of the most recent studies that has looked at habituation was run by Blackford, Allen, Cowan and Avery. In 2012 they looked at the effect extreme inhibited temperaments verses extreme uninhibited temperaments has on habituation. Their study found that individuals with uninhibited temperament demonstrated habituation in both the amygdala and hippocampus regions of the brain. Whereas, participants with inhibited temperaments these regions of the brain failed to habituate over repeated presentations. The researchers suggest that this failure to habituate reflects a social learning deficit in individuals with an extreme inhibited temperament, which may provide a possible mechanism for higher risk of social anxiety.
Early studies relied on the demonstration of dishabituation (the brief recovery of the response to the eliciting stimulus when another stimulus is added) to distinguish habituation from sensory adaptation and fatigue. More recently, stimulus specificity and frequency - dependent spontaneous recovery have been identified as experimental evidence for the habituation process. Sensitization is also conceptualized as a nonassociative process because it involves an increase in responding with repeated presentations to a single stimulus. Much less is understood about sensitization than habituation, but the sensitization process is often observed along with the habituation process.
In an article written 20 years after his initial research with Groves, renowned authority on the behavioral phenomenon of habituation, Richard F. Thompson, reviews several theories of the process of habituation. The Stimulus - Model Comparator theory formulated by Evgeny Sokolov, and the Groves and Thompson dual - process theory are two examples.
The stimulus - model comparator theory emerged from the research of Sokolov who used the orienting response as the cornerstone of his studies, and operationally defining the orienting response as EEG activity. Orienting responses are heightened sensitivity experienced by an organism when exposed to a new or changing stimulus. Orienting responses can result in overt, observable behaviors as well as psychophysiological responses such as EEG activity and undergo habituation with repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus. The Sokolov model assumes that when a stimulus is experienced several times the nervous system creates a model of the expected stimulus (a stimulus model). With additional presentations of the stimulus the experienced stimulus is compared with the stimulus model. If the experienced stimulus matches the stimulus model responding is inhibited. At first the stimulus model is not a very good representation of the presented stimulus and therefore there is a mismatch and responding continues, but with additional presentations the stimulus model is improved; consequently there is no longer a mismatch and responding is inhibited causing habituation. However, if the stimulus is changed so that it no longer matches the stimulus model the inhibition of the orienting response is weakened, and an orienting response returns. Sokolov places the location of the Stimulus - Model within the cerebral cortex of the brain.
The Groves and Thompson dual - process theory of habituation posits that two separate processes exist in the central nervous system that interacts to produce habituation. The two distinct processes are a habituation process and a sensitization process. The dual - process theory argues that all noticeable stimuli will elicit both of these processes and that the behavioral output will reflect a summation of both processes. The habituation process is decremental, whereas the sensitization process is incremental enhancing the tendency to respond. Thus when the habituation process exceeds the sensitization process behavior shows habituation, but if the sensitization process exceeds the habituation process, then behavior shows sensitization. Groves and Thompson hypothesize the existence of two neural pathways: an "S-R pathway '' involved with the habituation process, and a "state pathway '' involved with sensitization. The state system is seen as equivalent to a general state of arousal.
Habituation has been observed in an enormously wide range of species from motile single - celled organisms such as the amoeba and Stentor coeruleus to sea slugs to humans. Habituation processes are adaptive, allowing animals to adjust their innate behaviors to changes in their natural world. A natural animal instinct, for example, is to protect themselves and their territory from any danger and potential predators. It is obvious that an animal needs to respond quickly to the sudden appearance of a predator. What may be less obvious is the importance of defensive responses to the sudden appearance of any new, unfamiliar stimulus, whether it is dangerous or not. An initial defensive response to a new stimulus is important because if an animal fails to respond to a potentially dangerous unknown stimulus, the results could be deadly. Despite this initial, innate defensive response to an unfamiliar stimulus, the response becomes habituated if the stimulus repeatedly occurs but causes no harm. An example of this is the prairie dog habituating to humans. Prairie dogs give alarm calls when they detect a potentially dangerous stimulus. This defensive call occurs when any mammal, snake, or large bird approaches them. However, they habituate to noises, such as human footsteps, that occur repeatedly but result in no harm to them. If prairie dogs never habituate to nonthreatening stimuli, they would be constantly sending out alarm calls and wasting their time and energy. However, the habituation process in prairie dogs may depend on several factors including the particular defensive response. In one study that measured several different responses to the repeated presence of humans, the alarm calls of prairie dogs showed habituation whereas the behavior of escaping into their burrows showed sensitization.
Another example of the importance of habituation in the animal world is provided by a study with harbor seals. In one study researchers measured the responses of harbor seals to underwater calls of different types of killer whales. The seals showed a strong response when they heard the calls of mammal - eating killer whales. However, they did not respond strongly when hearing familiar calls of the local fish - eating population. The seals, therefore, are capable of habituating to the calls of harmless predators, in this case harmless killer whales. While some researchers prefer to simply describe the adaptive value of observable habituated behavior others find it useful to infer psychological processes from the observed behavior change. For example, habituation of aggressive responses in male bullfrogs has been explained as "an attentional or learning process that allows animals to form enduring mental representations of the physical properties of a repeated stimulus and to shift their focus of attention away from sources of irrelevant or unimportant stimulation ''.
Habituation of innate defensive behaviors is also adaptive in humans, such as habituation of a startle response to a sudden loud noise. But habituation is much more ubiquitous even in humans. An example of habituation that is an essential element of everyone 's life is the changing response to food as it is repeatedly experienced during a meal. When people eat the same food during a meal, they begin to respond less to the food as they become habituated to the motivating properties of the food and decrease their consumption. Eating less during a meal is usually interpreted as reaching satiety or "getting full '', but experiments suggest that habituation also plays an important role. Many experiments with animals and humans have shown that providing variety in a meal increases the amount that is consumed in a meal, most likely because habituation is stimulus specific and because variety may introduce dishabituation effects. Food variety also slows the rate of habituation in children and may be an important contributing factor to the recent increases in obesity.
We also find that habituation is found in our emotional responses, called the Opponent - Process Theory, proposed by researchers Richard Solomon and John Corbit (1974). It is known that responses by the subject tends to change by repetitively presenting certain stimuli. But concerning the opponent - process theory, some emotional reactions to the stimuli weaken (decrease) while others reactions are strengthened (increase). Take for example, that is the end of the semester at your university. You have been worried about your grade for the entire semester and you need to make an A on the final in order to pass the course. You study efficiently for the test and after taking it, you feel that you will receive a very high grade. But once you check the gradebook, you see that you did not get an A on your exam. Instead you received a C+. Now you are distraught and know that there is no other way to pass the course for the semester. After a few minutes you begin to calm down and by the next hour you are back to your normal emotional state. This is an example of an emotional response explained by the opponent - process theory. It begins with an outside stimulus provoking an emotional reaction that increases rapidly until it is at its most intense (presumably after you learned that you did not receive a high letter grade). Gradually, your emotional state declines to a level lower than normal and eventually returns to neutral. This pattern coincides with two internal processes referred to as the a-process and b - process. The a-process, or "affective '' response to a stimulus, is the initial emotional response one has and can be pleasant or unpleasant. The b - process is the after reaction and has a lower intensity than the a-process. The a-process is very fast - acting and ends as soon as the stimulus ends or is removed. Unlike the a-process, b - process is much slower in returning to baseline. Concerning the definition of the opponent process theory -- repeated presentations present habituation -- the a-process does not necessarily change. It is the b - process that is strengthened instead and rises more quickly to reach the highest intensity, and much slower in attempting to return to baseline after the stimulus is removed. To sum it all up, with the opponent - process theory, repeated presentations of the same stimulus will result in habituation, where subjects show little to no reaction. It is the after - reaction that is much larger and prolonged, than if an initial reaction to a stimulus occurred.
Habituation procedures are used by researchers for many reasons. For example, in a study on aggression in female chimpanzees from a group known as the "Kasakela Chimpanzee Community '', researchers habituated the chimpanzees by repeatedly exposing them to the presence of human beings. Their efforts to habituate the chimpanzees before the field researchers studied the animal 's behavior was necessary in order for them to eventually be able to note the natural behavior of the chimpanzees, instead of simply noting chimpanzee behavior as a response to the presence of the researchers. In another study, Mitumba chimpanzees in the Gombe National Park were habituated for at least four years before the introduction of systematic data collection.
Researchers also use habituation and dishabituation procedures in the laboratory to study the perceptual and cognitive capabilities of human infants. The presentation of a visual stimulus to an infant elicits looking behavior that habituates with repeated presentations of the stimulus. When changes to the habituated stimulus are made (or a new stimulus is introduced) the looking behavior returns (dishabituates). A recent fMRI study revealed that the presentation of a dishabituating stimulus has an observable, physical effect upon the brain. In one study the mental spatial representations of infants were assessed using the phenomenon of dishabituation. Infants were presented repeatedly with an object in the same position on a table. Once the infants habituated to the object (i.e., spent less time looking at it) either the object was spatially moved while the infant remained at the same place near the table or the object was left in the same place but the infant was moved to the opposite side of the table. In both cases the spatial relationship between the object and the infant had changed, but only in the former case did the object itself move. Would the infants know the difference? Or would they treat both cases as if the object itself moved? The results revealed a return of looking behavior (dishabituation) when the object 's position was changed, but not when the infant 's position was changed. Dishabituation indicates that infants perceived a significant change in the stimulus. Therefore, the infants understood when the object itself moved and when it did not. Only when the object itself moved were they interested in it again (dishabituation), When the object remained in the same position as before it was perceived as the same old boring thing (habituation). In general, habituation / dishabituation procedures help researchers determine the way infants perceive their environments.
The habituation / dishabituation procedure is also used to discover the resolution of perceptual systems. For instance, by habituating someone to one stimulus, and then observing responses to similar ones, one can detect the smallest degree of difference that is detectable.
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who sang background on you're so vain | You 're So Vain - wikipedia
"You 're So Vain '' is a song written and performed by Carly Simon and released in November 1972. The song is a critical profile of a self - absorbed lover about whom Simon asserts "You 're so vain, you probably think this song is about you. '' The title subject 's identity has long been a matter of speculation, with Simon stating that the song refers to three men, only one of whom she has named publicly, actor Warren Beatty. The song is ranked at # 82 on Billboard 's Greatest Songs of All - Time. "You 're So Vain '' was voted # 216 in RIAA 's Songs of the Century, and in August 2014, the UK 's Official Charts Company crowned it the ultimate song of the 1970s.
The distinctive bass guitar intro is played by Klaus Voormann and the strings were arranged by Simon and orchestrated by Paul Buckmaster. Simon plays piano on the track.
Before the song became a hit single in 1972, Simon told an interviewer that the song was about "men, '' not a specific "man ''.
In 1983, she said it is not about Mick Jagger, who contributed uncredited backing vocals to the song. In a 1993 book, Angie Bowie claimed to be the "wife of a close friend '' mentioned in "You 're So Vain '', and that Jagger, for a time, had been "obsessed '' with her. Simon made another comment about the subject 's identity as a guest artist on Janet Jackson 's 2001 single, "Son of a Gun (I Betcha Think This Song Is About You) '', which sampled "You 're So Vain ''. Simon said about the song, "The apricot scarf was worn by Nick (Delbanco). Nothing in the words referred to Mick. ''
In a 2007 interview Warren Beatty said, "Let 's be honest. That song was about me. '' Simon had said in 1983 that Beatty "certainly thought it was about him -- he called me and said thanks for the song... '' In an interview for the 1978 / 1982 version of The History of Rock & Roll radio series, producer Richard Perry acknowledges that Simon was essentially referring to Beatty while also referencing other men in her life.
Over the years Simon has divulged "letter clues '' and has claimed that the subject 's name contains the letters A, E, and R.
Shortly before the writing of the song, Simon was married to James Taylor; she has said that he was "definitely not '' the subject of the song. David Bowie, David Cassidy and Cat Stevens have all been cited by the press as speculative candidates.
In August 2003 Simon agreed to reveal the name of the song 's subject to the highest bidder of the Martha 's Vineyard Possible Dreams charity auction. With the top bid of $50,000, Dick Ebersol, president of NBC Sports and a friend of Simon, won the right to know the name of the subject of "You 're So Vain ''. A condition of the prize was that Ebersol not reveal the name. Ebersol said Simon allowed him to divulge a clue about the person 's name: "Carly told me that I could offer up to the entire world a clue as to what she 'll tell me when we have this night in about two weeks. And the clue is: The letter ' E ' is in the person 's name. ''
In 2004 Simon told Regis Philbin, "If I tell it, it 's going to come out in dribs and drabs. And I 've given out two letters already, an ' A ' and an ' E. ' But I 'm going to add one to it. I 'm going to add an ' R, ' in honor of you. ''
In 2005 Simon 's ex-husband Jim Hart said he was sure that the song was not about anyone famous.
On June 19, 2008, Howard Stern stated that Simon had privately revealed to him about whom the song was written after her interview on his popular radio show on Sirius Satellite Radio. Stern commented, "There is an odd aspect to it... he 's not that vain. '' On March 17, 2009, Stern stated that she had said it was a "composite of three people. '' Stern repeated this on May 5, 2014, stating, "She takes me aside, pulls me close, whispers in my ear... three names. She goes, it was n't one person, it was three people. '' Simon herself confirmed that Stern was among "a few people '' that she had given the names to.
In her 2008 book Girls Like Us, author Sheila Weller includes a detailed account of Simon 's love affair with musician Dan Armstrong, and suggests that he was the inspiration for "You 're So Vain. '' Her heartbreak over eventually losing him inspired the song "Dan, My Fling, '' which appears on her first album. Armstrong 's full name, Daniel Kent Armstrong, contains all three letters of Simon 's clue.
On November 4, 2009, Simon said she had hidden the name of the subject in a certain version of the song. The next day, the program 's crew revealed the name concealed in a back - played whisper: David. Simon denied that the whisper was "David, '' saying she had spoken "Ovid '' both forwards and backwards, and that sounded like David. In February 2010, Simon reiterated that the name of the subject was whispered in a re-recording of "You 're So Vain '': "There 's a little whisper -- and it 's the answer to the puzzle. '' A representative for Simon confirmed that the name whispered during the song is "David ''. Multiple media outlets then speculated that the subject was Simon 's former boss at Elektra, David Geffen, The following day Jim Hart, Simon 's ex-husband and close friend, denied that the song was about Geffen. Simon said that when she wrote the song in 1971, she had not yet met Geffen. Simon 's publicist also confirmed the song was not about Geffen, but that there was indeed "a David who is connected to the song in some way, shape, or form, '' Vanity Fair noted that in addition to "David '', "Warren '' and an unintelligible name are whispered during the recording.
After her live performance of the song with Simon in July 2013, Taylor Swift stated that Simon had revealed the identity of the song 's subject to her in confidence.
In November 2015, Simon, promoting her about - to - be-published memoir, said, "I have confirmed that the second verse is Warren (Beatty) '' and added that while "Warren thinks the whole thing is about him, '' he is the subject of that verse only, with the remainder of the song referring to two other, still unnamed men.
The song was a number - one hit in the US, Canada and Australia and reached number four in Ireland and South Africa. Bowing at # 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 on 2 December 1972, the song took only five more weeks to rocket to the top of the chart, where it stayed for the first three weeks of 1973, also spending two weeks at the top of the Easy Listening chart in early 1973, her first number one on either chart. "You 're So Vain '' was Simon 's breakthrough hit in the United Kingdom, reaching number three on the UK chart on its original release in 1973. The song was re-released in the UK in 1991 to cash in on its inclusion in a commercial for Dunlop Tyres, peaking at number 41.
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what brought an end to the kingdom of rome | Overthrow of the Roman monarchy - wikipedia
The overthrow of the Roman monarchy, a political revolution in ancient Rome, took place around 509 BC and resulted in the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and the establishment of the Roman Republic.
The semi-legendary Roman histories tell that while the king was away on campaign, his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman, Lucretia. Afterwards she revealed the offence to various Roman noblemen, and then committed suicide. The Roman noblemen, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, obtained the support of the Roman aristocracy and the people to expel the king and his family and to institute a republic. The Roman army supported Brutus, and the king went into exile. Despite a number of attempts by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus to reinstate the monarchy, the citizens established a republic and thereafter elected two consuls annually to rule the city.
Roman history held that seven kings of Rome reigned from the establishment of the city in 753 BC by Romulus up to the reign of Tarquinius. The accuracy of this account has been doubted by modern historians, although it appears to be accepted that there was a monarchy, and the last king Tarquinius was expelled upon the founding of the republic in the late 6th century BC.
Tarquinius was the son of the fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. In around 535 BC Tarquinius, together with his wife Tullia Minor (one of the daughters of the then king Servius Tullius) arranged the murder of Servius, and Tarquinius became king in his place.
Despite various military victories, Tarquinius became an unpopular king. He refused to bury his predecessor, then put to death a number of the leading senators whom he suspected of remaining loyal to Servius (one of whom was the brother of Lucius Junius Brutus). By not replacing the slain senators, and not consulting the Senate on all matters of government, he diminished both the size and authority of the Senate. In another break with tradition, he judged capital criminal cases without advice of counsellors, thereby creating fear among those who might think to oppose him. He also engaged in treachery with the Latin allies.
In about 510 BC, Tarquinius went to war with the Rutuli. According to Livy, the Rutuli were, at that time, a very wealthy nation and Tarquinius was keen to obtain the spoils that would come with victory over the Rutuli in order, in part, to assuage the anger of his subjects.
Tarquinius unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital Ardea by storm, and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city.
Sextus Tarquinius, the king 's son, was sent on a military errand to Collatia. Sextus was received with great hospitality at the governor 's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king 's nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini. Lucius ' wife, Lucretia, daughter of Spurius Lucretius, prefect of Rome, "a man of distinction '', made sure that the king 's son was treated as became his rank, although her husband was away at the siege.
In a variant of the story, Sextus and Lucius, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Lucius volunteered to settle the debate by all of them riding to his home to see what Lucretia was doing. She was weaving with her maids. The party awarded her the palm of victory and Lucius invited them to visit, but for the time being they returned to camp.
At night Sextus entered her bedroom by stealth, quietly going around the slaves who were sleeping at her door. She awakened, he identified himself and offered her two choices: she could submit to his sexual advances and become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome). In the alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. He entered Lucretia 's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up.
The next day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father 's house in Rome and cast herself down in the suppliant 's position (embracing the knees), weeping. Asked to explain herself she insisted on first summoning witnesses and after disclosing the rape, called on them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored, as she was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome. While they were debating she drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart. She died in her father 's arms, with the women present keening and lamenting. "This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die a thousand deaths in defence of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants. ''
In the alternative version, Lucretia summoned Lucius Junius Brutus (a leading citizen, and the grandson of Rome 's fifth king Tarquinius Priscus), along with her father Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, another leading citizen Publius Valerius Publicola, and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (also related to Tarquinius Priscus) to Collatia after she had been raped. Lucretia, believing that the rape dishonored her and her family, committed suicide by stabbing herself with a dagger after telling of what had befallen her. According to legend, Brutus grabbed the dagger from Lucretia 's breast after her death and immediately shouted for the overthrow of the Tarquins.
The four men gathered the youth of Collatia, then went to Rome where Brutus, being at that time Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people to the forum and exhorted them to rise up against the king. The people voted for the deposition of the king, and the banishment of the royal family.
Brutus summoned the comitia curiata, an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify the decrees of the king and began to harangue them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome. He began by revealing that his pose as fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king. He leveled a number of charges against the king and his family: the outrage against Lucretia, whom everyone could see on the dais, the king 's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome. He pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife 's father, next - to - the - last king of Rome. He "solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents. '' The king 's wife, Tullia, was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to the proceedings from her palace near the forum. Seeing herself the target of so much animosity she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea.
Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have; there were many speakers (all patricians). In summation he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. They had decided on a republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate. This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully. Brutus renounced all right to the throne. In subsequent years the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies. A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution. Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex (he was prefect of the city anyway). He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae. Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole they paraded Lucretia 's body through the streets, summoning the plebeians to legal assembly in the forum. Once there they heard a further speech by Brutus. It began:
Inasmuch as Tarquinius neither obtained the sovereignty in accordance with our ancestral customs and laws, nor, since he obtained it -- in whatever manner he got it -- has he been exercising it in an honourable or kingly manner, but has surpassed in insolence and lawlessness all the tyrants the world ever saw, we patricians met together and resolved to deprive him of his power, a thing we ought to have done long ago, but are doing now when a favourable opportunity has offered. And we have called you together, plebeians, in order to declare our own decision and then ask for your assistance in achieving liberty for our country...
A general election was held. The vote was for the republic. The monarchy was at an end, even while Lucretia was still displayed in the forum.
Brutus, leaving Lucretius in command of the city, proceeded with armed men to the Roman army then camped at Ardea. The king, who had been with the army, heard of developments at Rome, and left the camp for the city before Brutus ' arrival. The army received Brutus as a hero, and the king 's sons were expelled from the camp. Tarquinius Superbus, meanwhile, was refused entry at Rome, and fled with his family into exile.
That uprising resulted in the exile or Regifugium, after a reign of 25 years, of Tarquinius and his family, and the establishment of the Roman Republic, with Brutus and Collatinus (both related by blood to Rome 's fifth king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus) as the first consuls.
Tarquinius and his two eldest sons, Titus and Arruns, went into exile at Caere.
According to Livy, Brutus ' first act after the expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was to bring the people to swear an oath (the Oath of Brutus) never to allow any man again to be king in Rome.
This is, fundamentally, a restatement of the "private oath '' sworn by the conspirators to overthrow the monarchy:
There is no scholarly agreement that the oath took place; it is reported, although differently, by Plutarch (Poplicola, 2) and Appian (B.C. 2.119).
Brutus also replenished the number of senators to 300 from the principal men of the equites. The new consuls also created a new office of rex sacrorum to carry out the religious duties that had previously been performed by the kings.
Because of the Roman people 's revulsion at the name and family of the exiled king, the consul Tarquinius Collatinus was forced to resign from the office of consul and go into exile.
After his exile, Tarquinius made a number of attempts to regain the throne. At first, he sent ambassadors to the Senate to request the return of his family 's personal effects, which had been seized in the coup. In secret, while the Senate debated his request, the ambassadors met with and subverted a number of the leading men of Rome to the royal cause, in the Tarquinian conspiracy. The conspirators included two of Brutus ' brothers - in - law, and his two sons Titus and Tiberius. The conspiracy was discovered, and the conspirators executed.
Although the Senate had initially agreed to Tarquin 's request for a return of his family 's effects, the decision was reconsidered and revoked after the discovery of the conspiracy, and the royal property was given over to be plundered by the Roman populace.
Tarquinius next attempted to regain Rome by force of arms. He first gained the support of the cities of Veii and Tarquinii, recalling to the former their regular losses of war and land to the Roman state, and to the latter his family ties. The armies of the two cities were led by Tarquinius against Rome in the Battle of Silva Arsia. The king commanded the Etruscan infantry. Although the result initially appeared uncertain, the Romans were victorious. Both Brutus (the consul) and Arruns (the king 's son) were killed in battle.
Another attempt by Tarquinius relied on military support from Lars Porsenna, king of Clusium. The war led to the siege of Rome, and finally a peace treaty. However, Tarquinius failed to achieve his aim of regaining the throne.
Tarquinius and his family left Clusium, and instead sought refuge in Tusculum with his son - in - law Octavius Mamilius. In about 496 BC, Tarquin and his son Titus fought with Mamilius and the Latin League against Rome, but lost, at the Battle of Lake Regillus at which Mamilius perished.
Subsequently, Tarquinius fled to take refuge with the tyrant of Cumae, Aristodemus and Tarquin died there in 495 BC.
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what year was the roman empire at its height | Roman Empire - Wikipedia
Mediolanum (286 -- 402, Western) Augusta Treverorum Sirmium Ravenna (402 -- 476, Western) Nicomedia (286 -- 330, Eastern) Constantinople (330 -- 1453, Eastern) Syracuse (663 -- 669, Eastern)
The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Rōmānum; Classical Latin: (ɪmˈpɛ. ri. ũː roːˈmaː. nũː) Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia. The city of Rome was the largest city in the world c. 100 BC -- c. AD 400, with Constantinople (New Rome) becoming the largest around AD 500, and the Empire 's populace grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20 % of the world 's population at the time). The 500 - year - old republic which preceded it was severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflict, during which Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar 's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavian 's power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus, effectively marking the end of the Roman Republic.
The imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empire 's existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace ''. Following Octavian 's victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in AD 41, the Senate briefly considered restoring the republic, but the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius emperor instead. Under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. After Claudius ' successor, Nero, committed suicide in AD 68, the empire suffered a series of brief civil wars, as well as a concurrent major rebellion in Judea, during which four different legionary generals were proclaimed emperor. Vespasian emerged triumphant in AD 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus, who opened the Colosseum shortly after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. His short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The Senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors. The empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line.
A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus. Commodus ' assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a fifty - year time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was ultimately unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine the Great, who defeated his rivals and became the sole ruler of the empire in 324. Constantine subsequently established a second capital city in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. It remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the official state religion of the empire. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395, the empire was permanently divided between the West and the East. The dominion of the Western Roman Empire was gradually eroded by abuses of power, civil wars, barbarian migrations and invasions, military reforms and economic depression. The Sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigoths and again in 455 by the Vandals accelerated the Western Empire 's decay, while the deposition of the emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 by Odoacer, is generally accepted to mark the end of the empire in the west. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire only ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos, in 480. The Eastern Roman Empire (in modern historiography called the Byzantine Empire) endured for another millennium as one of the leading powers in the world alongside its arch - rival the Sassanid Empire, which had inherited a centuries - old Roman - Persian conflict from its predecessor the Parthians. It eventually fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history. At its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21 % of the world 's entire population. The longevity and vast extent of the empire ensured the lasting influence of Latin and Greek language, culture, religion, inventions, architecture, philosophy, law and forms of government on the empire 's descendants. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were even made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state, and the Holy Roman Empire. By means of European colonialism following the Renaissance, and their descendant states, Greco - Roman and Judaeo - Christian culture was exported on a worldwide scale, playing a crucial role in the development of the modern world.
Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Then, it was an "empire '' long before it had an emperor. The Roman Republic was not a nation - state in the modern sense, but a network of towns left to rule themselves (though with varying degrees of independence from the Roman Senate) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was ruled, not by emperors, but by annually elected magistrates (Roman Consuls above all) in conjunction with the senate. For various reasons, the 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors. The consuls ' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium, which literally means "command '' (though typically in a military sense). Occasionally, successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator (commander), and this is the origin of the word emperor (and empire) since this title (among others) was always bestowed to the early emperors upon their accession.
Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC onwards, while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic. Towards the end of this era, in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated. The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by an army led by Mark Antony and Caesar 's adopted son Octavian. Antony and Octavian 's division of the Roman world between themselves did not last and Octavian 's forces defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps ("first citizen '') with proconsular imperium, thus beginning the Principate (the first epoch of Roman imperial history, usually dated from 27 BC to AD 284), and gave him the name "Augustus '' ("the venerated ''). Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place, Augustus came to predominate it. Although the republic stood in name, contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome. Since his rule ended a century of civil wars and began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity, he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure. During the years of his rule, a new constitutional order emerged (in part organically and in part by design), so that, upon his death, this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor. The 200 years that began with Augustus 's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace ''). During this period, the cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent, but put down "mercilessly and swiftly '' when they occurred. The sixty years of Jewish -- Roman wars in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century were exceptional in their duration and violence.
The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio - Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors -- Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero -- before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife - torn Year of Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva -- Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors '': Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically - inclined Marcus Aurelius. In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron '' -- a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus ' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.
In 212, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. But despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous -- an emperor 's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution -- and, following its collapse, the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague. In defining historical epochs, this crisis is sometimes viewed as marking the transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity. Aurelian (reigned 270 -- 275) brought the empire back from the brink and stabilized it. Diocletian completed the work of fully restoring the empire, but declined the role of princeps and became the first emperor to be addressed regularly as domine, "master '' or "lord ''. This marked the end of the Principate, and the beginning of the Dominate. Diocletian 's reign also brought the empire 's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity, the "Great Persecution ''. The state of absolute monarchy that began with Diocletian endured until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453.
Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate emperor, the Tetrarchy. Confident that he fixed the disorders that were plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east -- west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. The reign of Julian, who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire.
The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off the invaders. The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders, most famously Attila, though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself. Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer. By placing himself under the rule of the Eastern Emperor, rather than naming himself Emperor (as other Germanic chiefs had done after deposing past emperors), Odoacer ended the Western Empire by ending the line of Western emperors.
The empire in the East -- often known as the Byzantine Empire, but referred to in its time as the Roman Empire or by various other names -- had a different fate. It survived for almost a millennium after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, Justinian I reconquered Northern Africa and Italy. But within a few years of Justinian 's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula. In the east, partially resulting from the destructive Plague of Justinian, the Romans were threatened by the rise of Islam, whose followers rapidly conquered the territories of Syria, Armenia and Egypt during the Byzantine - Arab Wars, and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople. In the following century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily. Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans.
The Romans, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands. In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, culture and trade flourished. However, soon after, the expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert. The aftermath of this important battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095.
The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants in the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states, the ultimate victor being that of Nicaea. After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Roman Empire finally collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453.
The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end '') expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Vergil 's epic poem the Aeneid, limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter. This claim of universal dominion was renewed and perpetuated when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.
In reality, Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD, when Roman control in Europe, Africa and Asia was strengthened. During the reign of Augustus, a "global map of the known world '' was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the composition of the most comprehensive work on political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of the Pontic Greek writer Strabo. When Augustus died, the commemorative account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of peoples and places within the Empire. Geography, the census, and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.
The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan (reigned 98 -- 117), encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometres. The traditional population estimate of 55 -- 60 million inhabitants accounted for between one - sixth and one - fourth of the world 's total population and made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century. Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million to more than 100 million. Each of the three largest cities in the Empire -- Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch -- was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century.
As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it:
Then the empire stretched from Hadrian 's Wall in drizzle - soaked northern England to the sun - baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine -- Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum -- ' our sea '.
Trajan 's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (limites) patrolled. The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable. Hadrian 's Wall, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever - present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort.
The language of the Romans was Latin, which Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition. Until the time of Alexander Severus (reigned 222 -- 235), the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin. Latin was the language of the law courts in the West and of the military throughout the Empire, but was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule. This policy contrasts with that of Alexander the Great, who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language. As a consequence of Alexander 's conquests, koine Greek had become the shared language around the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor. The "linguistic frontier '' dividing the Latin West and the Greek East passed through the Balkan peninsula.
Romans who received an elite education studied Greek as a literary language, and most men of the governing classes could speak Greek. The Julio - Claudian emperors encouraged high standards of correct Latin (Latinitas), a linguistic movement identified in modern terms as Classical Latin, and favoured Latin for conducting official business. Claudius tried to limit the use of Greek, and on occasion revoked the citizenship of those who lacked Latin, but even in the Senate he drew on his own bilingualism in communicating with Greek - speaking ambassadors. Suetonius quotes him as referring to "our two languages ''.
In the Eastern empire, laws and official documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin. The everyday interpenetration of the two languages is indicated by bilingual inscriptions, which sometimes even switch back and forth between Greek and Latin. After all freeborn inhabitants of the empire were universally enfranchised in 212 AD, a great number of Roman citizens would have lacked Latin, though they were expected to acquire at least a token knowledge, and Latin remained a marker of "Romanness. ''
Among other reforms, the emperor Diocletian (reigned 284 -- 305) sought to renew the authority of Latin, and the Greek expression hē kratousa dialektos attests to the continuing status of Latin as "the language of power. '' In the early 6th century, the emperor Justinian engaged in a quixotic effort to reassert the status of Latin as the language of law, even though in his time Latin no longer held any currency as a living language in the East.
References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin, particularly in Egypt, where Coptic predominated, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths. In the province of Africa, Libyco - Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD). Libyco - Berber and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century, some bilingual with Latin. In Syria, Palmyrene soldiers even used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, in a striking exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military.
The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of multilingualism in the Empire. These papyri, named for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to 132 AD, mostly employ Aramaic, the local language, written in Greek characters with Semitic and Latin influences; a petition to the Roman governor, however, was written in Greek.
The dominance of Latin among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages, since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral. In the West, Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin, gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages that were related to it by a shared Indo - European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin.
After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity, Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide.
As an international language of learning and literature, Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century, and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present.
Although Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire, linguistic distribution in the East was more complex. A Greek - speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islands, western Anatolia, major cities, and some coastal areas. Like Greek and Latin, the Thracian language was of Indo - European origin, as were several now - extinct languages in Anatolia attested by Imperial - era inscriptions. Albanian is often seen as the descendant of Illyrian, although this hypothesis has been challenged by some linguists, who maintain that it derives from Dacian or Thracian. (Illyrian, Dacian, and Thracian, however, may have formed a subgroup or a Sprachbund; see Thraco - Illyrian.) Various Afroasiatic languages -- primarily Coptic in Egypt, and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia -- were never replaced by Greek. The international use of Greek, however, was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity, as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul.
The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "a rather astonishing cohesive capacity '' to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time. The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all -- such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths -- helped foster a sense of "Romanness ''.
Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies that modern concepts of "class '' in English may not represent accurately. The two decades of civil war from which Augustus rose to sole power left traditional society in Rome in a state of confusion and upheaval, but did not affect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid. Personal relationships -- patronage, friendship (amicitia), family, marriage -- continued to influence the workings of politics and government, as they had in the Republic. By the time of Nero, however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator.
The blurring or diffusion of the Republic 's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility under the Empire, both upward and downward, to an extent that exceeded that of all other well - documented ancient societies. Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them. Social life in the Empire, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited, was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities (collegia and sodalitates) formed for various purposes: professional and trade guilds, veterans ' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs, performing arts troupes, and burial societies.
Infanticide has been recorded in the Roman Empire and may have been widespread.
According to the jurist Gaius, the essential distinction in the Roman "law of persons '' was that all human beings were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi). The legal status of free persons might be further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum, "Latin right ''), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by those who lacked citizenship. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, held status as peregrini, non-Romans. In 212 AD, by means of the edict known as the Constitutio Antoniniana, the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This legal egalitarianism would have required a far - reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens.
Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens throughout the Republic and Empire, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother 's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens ''). A Roman woman kept her own family name (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father 's name, but in the Imperial period sometimes made their mother 's name part of theirs, or even used it instead.
The archaic form of manus marriage in which the woman had been subject to her husband 's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Technically she remained under her father 's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband 's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated. This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period: although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life, and her husband had no legal power over her. Although it was a point of pride to be a "one - man woman '' (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce, nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband through death or divorce.
Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will. A Roman mother 's right to own property and to dispose of it as she saw fit, including setting the terms of her own will, gave her enormous influence over her sons even when they were adults.
As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate the conduct of men and women as a means of promoting "family values ''. Adultery, which had been a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized, and defined broadly as an illicit sex act (stuprum) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. Childbearing was encouraged by the state: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum).
Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated, women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business, including shipping, manufacturing, and lending money. Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could acquire and dispose of considerable fortunes; for instance, the Arch of the Sergii was funded by Salvia Postuma, a female member of the family honoured, and the largest building in the forum at Pompeii was funded by Eumachia, a priestess of Venus.
At the time of Augustus, as many as 35 % of the people in Italy were slaves, making Rome one of five historical "slave societies '' in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy. Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility. In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants, in addition to the majority of slaves who provided trained or unskilled labour in households or workplaces. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves made up on average an estimated 10 to 20 % of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries would have affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces. Although the institution of slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until the 5th century. Slavery ceased gradually in the 6th and 7th centuries along with the decline of urban centres in the West and the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy that had created the demand for it.
Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate ''. Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood. They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. A slave could not as a matter of law be raped, since rape could be committed only against people who were free; a slave 's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law. Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium, but their unions were sometimes recognized, and if both were freed they could marry. Following the Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves.
Technically, a slave could not own property, but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual account or fund (peculium) that he could use as if it were his own. The terms of this account varied depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave: a slave with an aptitude for business could be given considerable leeway to generate profit, and might be allowed to bequeath the peculium he managed to other slaves of his household. Within a household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave in effect acting as the master of other slaves.
Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves. The burgeoning trade in eunuch slaves in the late 1st century AD prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain. ''
Roman slavery was not based on race. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, Greece... Generally slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians, with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5 % of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while the Jewish ones never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions. The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).
During the period of Republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves into Rome. Slaves were also traded in markets, and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self - enslavement among the poor were other sources. Vernae, by contrast, were "homegrown '' slaves born to female slaves within the urban household or on a country estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of his familia, the family household, and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.
Talented slaves with a knack for business might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law (Lex Fufia Caninia) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will.
Rome differed from Greek city - states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote. A slave who had acquired libertas was a libertus ("freed person, '' feminine liberta) in relation to his former master, who then became his patron (patronus): the two parties continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other. As a social class generally, freed slaves were libertini, though later writers used the terms libertus and libertinus interchangeably.
A libertinus was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but he could play a priestly role in the cult of the emperor. He could not marry a woman from a family of senatorial rank, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law. Any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship.
The rise of successful freedmen -- through either political influence in imperial service, or wealth -- is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of a high - achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire, and by their ownership of some of the most lavish houses at Pompeii, such as the House of the Vettii. The excesses of nouveau riche freedmen were satirized in the character of Trimalchio in the Satyricon by Petronius, who wrote in the time of Nero. Such individuals, while exceptional, are indicative of the upward social mobility possible in the Empire.
The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) refers to a social distinction that is translated variously into English as "class, order, rank, '' none of which is exact. One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. The two highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, the decurions, also known as curiales (Greek bouleutai), were the top governing ordo of an individual city.
"Senator '' was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate. A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii, as determined by the census. Nero made large gifts of money to a number of senators from old families who had become too impoverished to qualify. Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in the 600 - member body by appointment. A senator 's son belonged to the ordo senatorius, but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate itself. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards: he was prohibited, for instance, from marrying a freedwoman or fighting in the arena.
In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Rome and other parts of Italy, with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek - speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian. The first senator from the most eastern province, Cappadocia, was admitted under Marcus Aurelius. By the time of the Severan dynasty (193 -- 235), Italians made up less than half the Senate. During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland (patria).
Senators had an aura of prestige and were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum, the political career track, but equestrians of the Empire often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome 's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors (the "public horse ''), but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire. A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an equestrian. The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at Cadiz and Padua alone. Equestrians rose through a military career track (tres militiae) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration.
The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the first three centuries of the Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility, a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands. Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also a number of responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services (munera), rather than on tax revenues, which primarily supported the military. Maintaining one 's rank required massive personal expenditures. Decurions were so vital for the functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged by the central government to give up their seats and return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life.
In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem '') that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris, "illustrious man ''. The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women. "Grades '' of equestrian status proliferated. Those in Imperial service were ranked by pay grade (sexagenarius, 60,000 sesterces per annum; centenarius, 100,000; ducenarius, 200,000). The title eminentissimus, "most eminent '' (Greek exochôtatos) was reserved for equestrians who had been Praetorian prefects. The higher equestrian officials in general were perfectissimi, "most distinguished '' (Greek diasêmotatoi), the lower merely egregii, "outstanding '' (Greek kratistos).
As the republican principle of citizens ' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours (honestiores) and those who were humbler folk (humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the three higher "orders, '' along with certain military officers. The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority over other citizens affirmed, particularly within the justice system. Sentencing depended on the judgement of the presiding official as to the relative "worth '' (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior could pay a fine when convicted of a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging.
Execution, which had been an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic even in a capital case, could be quick and relatively painless for the Imperial citizen considered "more honourable '', while those deemed inferior might suffer the kinds of torture and prolonged death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts as a spectacle in the arena. In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they declined to fulfil the religious aspects of their civic responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom.
The three major elements of the Imperial Roman state were the central government, the military, and provincial government. The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the military mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens (after 212 AD, all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire), the agricultural fields that fed them, and religious sites. Without modern instruments of either mass communication or mass destruction, the Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to impose their rule through force alone. Cooperation with local power elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions by supporting one faction over another: in the view of Plutarch, "it was discord between factions within cities that led to the loss of self - governance ''.
Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence were an incentive to remain in good standing with Rome. Roman government was thus limited, but efficient in its use of the resources available to it.
The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of certain powers from several republican offices, including the inviolability of the tribunes of the people and the authority of the censors to manipulate the hierarchy of Roman society. The emperor also made himself the central religious authority as Pontifex Maximus, and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders. While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate, the emperor 's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in the Dominate.
The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy - and decision - making, but in the early Principate he was expected to be accessible to individuals from all walks of life, and to deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually. The Julio - Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen. After Nero, the unofficial influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor 's council (consilium) became subject to official appointment for the sake of greater transparency. Though the senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the Antonine dynasty, equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium. The women of the emperor 's family often intervened directly in his decisions. Plotina exercised influence on both her husband Trajan and his successor Hadrian. Her influence was advertised by having her letters on official matters published, as a sign that the emperor was reasonable in his exercise of authority and listened to his people.
Access to the emperor by others might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The common people who lacked this access could manifest their general approval or displeasure as a group at the games held in large venues. By the 4th century, as urban centres decayed, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions.
Although the senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it survived the Augustan restoration and the turbulent Year of Four Emperors to retain its symbolic political centrality during the Principate. The senate legitimated the emperor 's rule, and the emperor needed the experience of senators as legates (legati) to serve as generals, diplomats, and administrators. A successful career required competence as an administrator and remaining in favour with the emperor, or over time perhaps multiple emperors.
The practical source of an emperor 's power and authority was the military. The legionaries were paid by the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual military oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum). The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis. Most emperors indicated their choice of successor, usually a close family member or adopted heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive, much less to reign, without the allegiance and loyalty of the Praetorian Guard and of the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the donativum, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians.
The soldiers of the Imperial Roman army were professionals who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves. The transition to a professional military had begun during the late Republic, and was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism, under which an army of conscripts had exercised their responsibilities as citizens in defending the homeland in a campaign against a specific threat. For Imperial Rome, the military was a full - time career in itself.
The primary mission of the Roman military of the early empire was to preserve the Pax Romana. The three major divisions of the military were:
The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of cultural exchange and assimilation known as "Romanization, '' particularly in regard to politics, the economy, and religion. Knowledge of the Roman military comes from a wide range of sources: Greek and Roman literary texts; coins with military themes; papyri preserving military documents; monuments such as Trajan 's Column and triumphal arches, which feature artistic depictions of both fighting men and military machines; the archaeology of military burials, battle sites, and camps; and inscriptions, including military diplomas, epitaphs, and dedications.
Through his military reforms, which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty, Augustus changed and regularized the legion, down to the hobnail pattern on the soles of army boots. A legion was organized into ten cohorts, each of which comprised six centuries, with a century further made up of ten squads (contubernia); the exact size of the Imperial legion, which is most likely to have been determined by logistics, has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280.
In AD 9, Germanic tribes wiped out three full legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This disastrous event reduced the number of the legions to 25. The total of the legions would later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or below 30. The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller '' than the collective armed forces of the territories it conquered. No more than 2 % of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army.
Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years.
The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with Roman citizenship, also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries. The auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments. The Roman cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas. Several aspects of training and equipment, such as the four - horned saddle, derived from the Celts, as noted by Arrian and indicated by archaeology.
The Roman navy (Latin: classis, "fleet '') not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions, but also helped in the protection of the frontiers along the rivers Rhine and Danube. Another of its duties was the protection of the crucial maritime trade routes against the threat of pirates. It patrolled the whole of the Mediterranean, parts of the North Atlantic coasts, and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch.
An annexed territory became a province in a three - step process: making a register of cities, taking a census of the population, and surveying the land. Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central government sent out around 160 officials each year to govern outside Italy. Among these officials were the "Roman governors '', as they are called in English: either magistrates elected at Rome who in the name of the Roman people governed senatorial provinces; or governors, usually of equestrian rank, who held their imperium on behalf of the emperor in provinces excluded from senatorial control, most notably Roman Egypt. A governor had to make himself accessible to the people he governed, but he could delegate various duties. His staff, however, was minimal: his official attendants (apparitores), including lictors, heralds, messengers, scribes, and bodyguards; legates, both civil and military, usually of equestrian rank; and friends, ranging in age and experience, who accompanied him unofficially.
Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances. Separating fiscal responsibility from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era. Under the Republic, provincial governors and tax farmers could exploit local populations for personal gain more freely. Equestrian procurators, whose authority was originally "extra-judicial and extra-constitutional, '' managed both state - owned property and the vast personal property of the emperor (res privata). Because Roman government officials were few in number, a provincial who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some official capacity, such as a procurator or a military officer, including centurions down to the lowly stationarii or military police.
Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern empire already had well - established law codes and juridical procedures. In general, it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition '' or "law of the land '') and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability. The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium, the "law of nations '' or international law regarded as common and customary among all human communities. If the particulars of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard appeals, and the emperor held final authority to render a decision.
In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celtic peoples. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite who found their new privileges as citizens to be advantageous. The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing the local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian 's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.
The pervasive exercise of Roman law throughout Western Europe led to its enormous influence on the Western legal tradition, reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in modern law.
Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5 % of the Empire 's gross product. The typical tax rate paid by individuals ranged from 2 to 5 %. The tax code was "bewildering '' in its complicated system of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in kind. Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such as fisheries or salt evaporation ponds; they might be in effect for a limited time. Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military, and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty. In - kind taxes were accepted from less - monetized areas, particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps.
The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity. Supplemental forms could be filed by those eligible for certain exemptions; for example, Egyptian farmers could register fields as fallow and tax - exempt depending on flood patterns of the Nile. Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of household to appear before the presiding official and provide a head count of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation.
A major source of indirect - tax revenue was the portoria, customs and tolls on imports and exports, including among provinces. Special taxes were levied on the slave trade. Towards the end of his reign, Augustus instituted a 4 % tax on the sale of slaves, which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers, who responded by raising their prices. An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom tax '', calculated at 5 % of value.
An inheritance tax of 5 % was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone but members of their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and from a 1 % sales tax on auctions went towards the veterans ' pension fund (aerarium militare).
Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich '', but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.
Moses Finley was the chief proponent of the primitivist view that the Roman economy was "underdeveloped and underachieving, '' characterized by subsistence agriculture; urban centres that consumed more than they produced in terms of trade and industry; low - status artisans; slowly developing technology; and a "lack of economic rationality. '' Current views are more complex. Territorial conquests permitted a large - scale reorganization of land use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization, particularly in north Africa. Some cities were known for particular industries or commercial activities, and the scale of building in urban areas indicates a significant construction industry. Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of economic rationalism, and the Empire was highly monetized. Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected regional economies. The supply contracts for the army, which pervaded every part of the Empire, drew on local suppliers near the base (castrum), throughout the province, and across provincial borders. The Empire is perhaps best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism '' in which the state monitored and regulated commerce to assure its own revenues. Economic growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater than that of most other societies prior to industrialization.
Socially, economic dynamism opened up one of the avenues of social mobility in the Roman Empire. Social advancement was thus not dependent solely on birth, patronage, good luck, or even extraordinary ability. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, a strong tendency towards plutocracy is indicated by the wealth requirements for census rank. Prestige could be obtained through investing one 's wealth in ways that advertised it appropriately: grand country estates or townhouses, durable luxury items such as jewels and silverware, public entertainments, funerary monuments for family members or coworkers, and religious dedications such as altars. Guilds (collegia) and corporations (corpora) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking, sharing sound business practices, and a willingness to work.
The early Empire was monetized to a near - universal extent, in the sense of using money as a way to express prices and debts. The sestertius (plural sestertii, English "sesterces '', symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century, though the silver denarius, worth four sesterces, was used also for accounting beginning in the Severan dynasty. The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze as (plural asses), one - fourth sestertius. Bullion and ingots seem not to have counted as pecunia, "money, '' and were used only on the frontiers for transacting business or buying property. Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them -- an indication that the coin was valued on its face, not for its metal content. This tendency towards fiat money led eventually to the debasement of Roman coinage, with consequences in the later Empire. The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration. The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving.
Rome had no central bank, and regulation of the banking system was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in reserves than the full total of customers ' deposits. A typical bank had fairly limited capital, and often only one principal, though a bank might have as many as six to fifteen principals. Seneca assumes that anyone involved in commerce needs access to credit.
A professional deposit banker (argentarius, coactor argentarius, or later nummularius) received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers, making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections. The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked "paper '' or documentary transactions, the system of banks throughout the Empire also permitted the exchange of very large sums without the physical transfer of coins, in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash, particularly by sea. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire, a credit crisis in 33 AD that put a number of senators at risk; the central government rescued the market through a loan of 100 million HS made by the emperor Tiberius to the banks (mensae). Generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers. The central government itself did not borrow money, and without public debt had to fund deficits from cash reserves.
Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties overall debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls. Sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus damaged the credit market. In the mid-200s, the supply of specie contracted sharply. Conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century -- such as reductions in long - distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies -- greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector by the year 300. Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary currency, general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian, and bankers lost confidence in coins legitimately issued by the central government. Despite Diocletian 's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness.
The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gaul (gold, silver, iron); Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin), the Danubian provinces (gold, iron); Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large - scale mining -- of alluvial deposits, and by means of open - cast mining and underground mining -- took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century AD, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. The gold mines of Dacia, for instance, were no longer available for Roman exploitation after the province was surrendered in 271. Mining seems to have resumed to some extent during the 4th century.
Hydraulic mining, which Pliny referred to as ruina montium ("ruin of the mountains ''), allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto - industrial scale. The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes. Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t, and lead at 80,000 t, both production levels unmatched until the Industrial Revolution; Hispania alone had a 40 % share in world lead production. The high lead output was a by - product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum. At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD. As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era, and dropped again thereafter.
The Roman Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea '' (mare nostrum). Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as the major rivers of the Empire, including the Guadalquivir, Ebro, Rhône, Rhine, Tiber and Nile. Transport by water was preferred where possible, and moving commodities by land was more difficult. Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.
Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads. The in - kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport service established by Augustus. Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to grow into a village or trading post. A mansio (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The support staff at such a facility included muleteers, secretaries, blacksmiths, cartwrights, a veterinarian, and a few military police and couriers. The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day. Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts, travelling about 4 mph. As an example of the pace of communication, it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior, even on a matter of urgency. In addition to the mansiones, some taverns offered accommodations as well as food and drink; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine, bread, mule feed, and the services of a prostitute.
Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as China and India. The main commodity was grain. Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the Silk Road; Indian trade, however, also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports on the Red Sea. Also traded were olive oil, various foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, pottery, glassware, marble, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory, pearls, and gemstones.
Though most provinces were capable of producing wine, regional varietals were desirable and wine was a central item of trade. Shortages of vin ordinaire were rare. The major suppliers for the city of Rome were the west coast of Italy, southern Gaul, the Tarraconensis region of Hispania, and Crete. Alexandria, the second - largest city, imported wine from Laodicea in Syria and the Aegean. At the retail level, taverns or speciality wine shops (vinaria) sold wine by the jug for carryout and by the drink on premises, with price ranges reflecting quality.
Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome, and 85 in Pompeii. Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, including fishermen (piscatores), salt merchants (salinatores), olive oil dealers (olivarii), entertainers (scaenici), cattle dealers (pecuarii), goldsmiths (aurifices), teamsters (asinarii or muliones), and stonecutters (lapidarii). These are sometimes quite specialized: one collegium at Rome was strictly limited to craftsmen who worked in ivory and citrus wood.
Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; imperial or public service; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining. Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal. In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free, and most workers were illiterate and without special skills. The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in the Italian system of industrial farming (latifundia), these may have been mostly slaves, but throughout the Empire, slave farm labour was probably less important than other forms of dependent labour by people who were technically not enslaved.
Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded among the peoples of the Empire, whose products were often named for them or a particular town, rather like a fashion "label ''. Better ready - to - wear was exported by businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores) who were often well - to - do residents of the production centres. Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, who travelled to potential customers, or by vestiarii, clothing dealers who were mostly freedmen; or they might be peddled by itinerant merchants. In Egypt, textile producers could run prosperous small businesses employing apprentices, free workers earning wages, and slaves. The fullers (fullones) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds. Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods.
Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate. In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40 to 66 % higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland.
In the Scheidel -- Friesen economic model, the total annual income generated by the Empire is placed at nearly 20 billion HS, with about 5 % extracted by central and local government. Households in the top 1.5 % of income distribution captured about 20 % of income. Another 20 % went to about 10 % of the population who can be characterized as a non-elite middle. The remaining "vast majority '' produced more than half of the total income, but lived near subsistence.
The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, vault and the dome. Even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand, due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. The system of roadways facilitated military policing, communications, and trade. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. Even after the collapse of the central government, some roads remained usable for more than a thousand years.
Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges, built from stone with the arch as the basic structure. Most utilized concrete as well. The largest Roman bridge was Trajan 's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall span and length.
The Romans built many dams and reservoirs for water collection, such as the Subiaco Dams, two of which fed the Anio Novus, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome. They built 72 dams just on the Iberian peninsula, and many more are known across the Empire, some still in use. Several earthen dams are known from Roman Britain, including a well - preserved example from Longovicium (Lanchester).
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts. A surviving treatise by Frontinus, who served as curator aquarum (water commissioner) under Nerva, reflects the administrative importance placed on ensuring the water supply. Masonry channels carried water from distant springs and reservoirs along a precise gradient, using gravity alone. After the water passed through the aqueduct, it was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or industrial sites. The main aqueducts in the city of Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia. The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km. Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance, and to a technological standard that was not to be equalled until modern times. The Romans also made use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, at sites such as Las Medulas and Dolaucothi in South Wales.
Insulated glazing (or "double glazing '') was used in the construction of public baths. Elite housing in cooler climates might have hypocausts, a form of central heating. The Romans were the first culture to assemble all essential components of the much later steam engine, when Hero built the aeolipile. With the crank and connecting rod system, all elements for constructing a steam engine (invented in 1712) -- Hero 's aeolipile (generating steam power), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps), gearing (in water mills and clocks) -- were known in Roman times.
In the ancient world, a city was viewed as a place that fostered civilization by being "properly designed, ordered, and adorned. '' Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, supported public displays of art that expressed the new imperial ideology, and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods (vici) administered at the local level with police and firefighting services. A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius, an open area outside the city centre that in early times had been devoted to equestrian sports and physical training for youth. The Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) was located there, as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer (gnomon) of a horologium. With its public gardens, the Campus became one of the most attractive places in the city to visit.
City planning and urban lifestyles had been influenced by the Greeks from an early period, and in the eastern Empire, Roman rule accelerated and shaped the local development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character. Cities such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus and Gerasa altered some aspects of city planning and architecture to conform to imperial ideals, while also expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence. In the areas of the western Empire inhabited by Celtic - speaking peoples, Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres, often on or near the sites of the preexisting walled settlements known as oppida. Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic cities along the coast.
The network of cities throughout the Empire (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana. Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD were encouraged by imperial propaganda to "inculcate the habits of peacetime ''. As the classicist Clifford Ando has noted:
Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culture -- public cult and its games and civic banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art -- were financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges.
Even the Christian polemicist Tertullian declared that the world of the late 2nd century was more orderly and well - cultivated than in earlier times: "Everywhere there are houses, everywhere people, everywhere the res publica, the commonwealth, everywhere life. '' The decline of cities and civic life in the 4th century, when the wealthy classes were unable or disinclined to support public works, was one sign of the Empire 's imminent dissolution.
In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment buildings (insulae) that were often squalid firetraps. Public facilities -- such as baths (thermae), toilets that were flushed with running water (latrinae), conveniently located basins or elaborate fountains (nymphea) delivering fresh water, and large - scale entertainments such as chariot races and gladiator combat -- were aimed primarily at the common people who lived in the insulae. Similar facilities were constructed in cities throughout the Empire, and some of the best - preserved Roman structures are in Spain, southern France, and northern Africa.
The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural functions. Bathing was the focus of daily socializing in the late afternoon before dinner. Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures, with varying amenities that might include an exercise and weight - training room, sauna, exfoliation spa (where oils were massaged into the skin and scraped from the body with a strigil), ball court, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had hypocaust heating: the floors were suspended over hot - air channels that circulated warmth. Mixed nude bathing was not unusual in the early Empire, though some baths may have offered separate facilities or hours for men and women. Public baths were a part of urban culture throughout the provinces, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths for health and cleanliness, not pleasure, but to avoid the games (ludi), which were part of religious festivals they considered "pagan ''. Tertullian says that otherwise Christians not only availed themselves of the baths, but participated fully in commerce and society.
Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses, a townhouse (domus, plural domūs) and at least one luxury home (villa) outside the city. The domus was a privately owned single - family house, and might be furnished with a private bath (balneum), but it was not a place to retreat from public life. Although some neighbourhoods of Rome show a higher concentration of well - to - do houses, the rich did not live in segregated enclaves. Their houses were meant to be visible and accessible. The atrium served as a reception hall in which the paterfamilias (head of household) met with clients every morning, from wealthy friends to poorer dependents who received charity. It was also a centre of family religious rites, containing a shrine and the images of family ancestors. The houses were located on busy public roads, and ground - level spaces facing the street were often rented out as shops (tabernae). In addition to a kitchen garden -- windowboxes might substitute in the insulae -- townhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden that brought a tract of nature, made orderly, within walls.
The villa by contrast was an escape from the bustle of the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances the civilized pursuit of intellectual and artistic interests (otium) with an appreciation of nature and the agricultural cycle. Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design. It might be located on a working estate, or in a "resort town '' situated on the seacoast, such as Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The programme of urban renewal under Augustus, and the growth of Rome 's population to as many as 1 million people, was accompanied by a nostalgia for rural life expressed in the arts. Poetry praised the idealized lives of farmers and shepherds. The interiors of houses were often decorated with painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament, and animals, especially birds and marine life, rendered accurately enough that modern scholars can sometimes identify them by species. The Augustan poet Horace gently satirized the dichotomy of urban and rural values in his fable of the city mouse and the country mouse, which has often been retold as a children 's story.
On a more practical level, the central government took an active interest in supporting agriculture. Producing food was the top priority of land use. Larger farms (latifundia) achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life and its more specialized division of labour. Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres. Agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire, and new crops were introduced from one province to another, such as peas and cabbage to Britain.
Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (annona) to citizens who registered for it. About 200,000 -- 250,000 adult males in Rome received the dole, amounting to about 33 kg. per month, for a per annum total of about 100,000 tons of wheat primarily from Sicily, north Africa, and Egypt. The dole cost at least 15 % of state revenues, but improved living conditions and family life among the lower classes, and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on the estates of the landowning class.
The grain dole also had symbolic value: it affirmed both the emperor 's position as universal benefactor, and the right of all citizens to share in "the fruits of conquest ''. The annona, public facilities, and spectacular entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower - class Romans, and kept social unrest in check. The satirist Juvenal, however, saw "bread and circuses '' (panem et circenses) as emblematic of the loss of republican political liberty:
The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things: bread and circuses.
Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal brazier could be used for rudimentary cookery. Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae, popinae, thermopolia). Carryout and restaurant dining were for the lower classes; fine dining could be sought only at private dinner parties in well - to - do houses with a chef (archimagirus) and trained kitchen staff, or at banquets hosted by social clubs (collegia).
Most people would have consumed at least 70 % of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes. Puls (pottage) was considered the aboriginal food of the Romans. The basic grain pottage could be elaborated with chopped vegetables, bits of meat, cheese, or herbs to produce dishes similar to polenta or risotto.
Urban populations and the military preferred to consume their grain in the form of bread. Mills and commercial ovens were usually combined in a bakery complex. By the reign of Aurelian, the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine, and pork to the dole.
The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as Galen (2nd century AD), whose treatises included one On Barley Soup. Views on nutrition were influenced by schools of thought such as humoral theory.
Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes, for whom the evening meal (cena) had important social functions. Guests were entertained in a finely decorated dining room (triclinium), often with a view of the peristyle garden. Diners lounged on couches, leaning on the left elbow. By the late Republic, if not earlier, women dined, reclined, and drank wine along with men.
The most famous description of a Roman meal is probably Trimalchio 's dinner party in the Satyricon, a fictional extravaganza that bears little resemblance to reality even among the most wealthy. The poet Martial describes serving a more plausible dinner, beginning with the gustatio ("tasting '' or "appetizer ''), which was a composed salad of mallow leaves, lettuce, chopped leeks, mint, arugula, mackerel garnished with rue, sliced eggs, and marinated sow udder. The main course was succulent cuts of kid, beans, greens, a chicken, and leftover ham, followed by a dessert of fresh fruit and vintage wine. The Latin expression for a full - course dinner was ab ovo usque mala, "from the egg to the apples, '' equivalent to the English "from soup to nuts. ''
A book - length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to Apicius, a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with "gourmet. '' Roman "foodies '' indulged in wild game, fowl such as peacock and flamingo, large fish (mullet was especially prized), and shellfish. Luxury ingredients were brought by the fleet from the far reaches of empire, from the Parthian frontier to the Straits of Gibraltar.
Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline. The early Imperial historian Tacitus contrasted the indulgent luxuries of the Roman table in his day with the simplicity of the Germanic diet of fresh wild meat, foraged fruit, and cheese, unadulterated by imported seasonings and elaborate sauces. Most often, because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture, produce -- cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruit -- was considered a more civilized form of food than meat. The Mediterranean staples of bread, wine, and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of paganism, as it might be the product of animal sacrifice.
Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the pleasures of food, and adopted fasting as an ideal. Food became simpler in general as urban life in the West diminished, trade routes were disrupted, and the rich retreated to the more limited self - sufficiency of their country estates. As an urban lifestyle came to be associated with decadence, the Church formally discouraged gluttony, and hunting and pastoralism were seen as simple, virtuous ways of life.
When Juvenal complained that the Roman people had exchanged their political liberty for "bread and circuses '', he was referring to the state - provided grain dole and the circenses, events held in the entertainment venue called a circus in Latin. The largest such venue in Rome was the Circus Maximus, the setting of horse races, chariot races, the equestrian Troy Game, staged beast hunts (venationes), athletic contests, gladiator combat, and historical re-enactments. From earliest times, several religious festivals had featured games (ludi), primarily horse and chariot races (ludi circenses). Although their entertainment value tended to overshadow ritual significance, the races remained part of archaic religious observances that pertained to agriculture, initiation, and the cycle of birth and death.
Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the number of days had expanded to 135. Circus games were preceded by an elaborate parade (pompa circensis) that ended at the venue. Competitive events were held also in smaller venues such as the amphitheatre, which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue, and stadium. Greek - style athletics included footraces, boxing, wrestling, and the pancratium. Aquatic displays, such as the mock sea battle (naumachia) and a form of "water ballet '', were presented in engineered pools. State - supported theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres, or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an odeum.
Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world, though the Greeks had their own architectural traditions for the similarly purposed hippodrome. The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome after it opened in 80 AD. The circus races continued to be held more frequently. The Circus Maximus could seat around 150,000 spectators, and the Colosseum about 50,000 with standing room for about 10,000 more. Many Roman amphitheatres, circuses and theatres built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today. The local ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events, which both enhanced their status and drained their resources.
The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of Roman society: the emperor presiding in his opulent box; senators and equestrians watching from the advantageous seats reserved for them; women seated at a remove from the action; slaves given the worst places, and everybody else packed in - between. The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering, but the emperor had the final say. Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest, and emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at the Nika riots in the year 532, when troops under Justinian slaughtered thousands.
The chariot teams were known by the colours they wore, with the Blues and Greens the most popular. Fan loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into sports riots. Racing was perilous, but charioteers were among the most celebrated and well - compensated athletes. One star of the sport was Diocles, from Lusitania (present - day Portugal), who raced chariots for 24 years and had career earnings of 35 million sesterces. Horses had their fans too, and were commemorated in art and inscriptions, sometimes by name. The design of Roman circuses was developed to assure that no team had an unfair advantage and to minimize collisions (naufragia, "shipwrecks ''), which were nonetheless frequent and spectacularly satisfying to the crowd. The races retained a magical aura through their early association with chthonic rituals: circus images were considered protective or lucky, curse tablets have been found buried at the site of racetracks, and charioteers were often suspected of sorcery. Chariot racing continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, but the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise.
The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral games and sacrifices in which select captive warriors were forced to fight to expiate the deaths of noble Romans. Some of the earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such as "Thracian '' or "Gallic ''. The staged combats were considered munera, "services, offerings, benefactions '', initially distinct from the festival games (ludi).
Throughout his 40 - year reign, Augustus presented eight gladiator shows in which a total of 10,000 men fought, as well as 26 staged beast hunts that resulted in the deaths of 3,500 animals. To mark the opening of the Colosseum, the emperor Titus presented 100 days of arena events, with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day. Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, and even graffiti drawings.
Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers. Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training represented a costly and time - consuming investment. By contrast, noxii were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival. Physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice for the crimes they had committed. These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects. Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed - up form of human sacrifice.
Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death '' to be one of the more difficult aspects of their civilization to understand and explain. The younger Pliny rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, a way "to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory even in the bodies of slaves and criminals ''. Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter rather than in victory -- an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the Christians martyred in the arena. Even martyr literature, however, offers "detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering '', and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction.
In the plural, ludi almost always refers to the large - scale spectator games. The singular ludus, "play, game, sport, training, '' had a wide range of meanings such as "word play, '' "theatrical performance, '' "board game, '' "primary school, '' and even "gladiator training school '' (as in Ludus Magnus, the largest such training camp at Rome).
Activities for children and young people included hoop rolling and knucklebones (astragali or "jacks ''). The sarcophagi of children often show them playing games. Girls had dolls, typically 15 -- 16 cm tall with jointed limbs, made of materials such as wood, terracotta, and especially bone and ivory. Ball games include trigon, which required dexterity, and harpastum, a rougher sport. Pets appear often on children 's memorials and in literature, including birds, dogs, cats, goats, sheep, rabbits and geese.
After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The Campus Martius originally was an exercise field where young men developed the skills of horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime. According to Plutarch, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek - style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned Nero 's efforts to encourage gymnastic games in the Greek manner.
Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as female gladiators. The famous "bikini girls '' mosaic shows young women engaging in apparatus routines that might be compared to rhythmic gymnastics. Women in general were encouraged to maintain their health through activities such as playing ball, swimming, walking, reading aloud (as a breathing exercise), riding in vehicles, and travel.
People of all ages played board games pitting two players against each other, including latrunculi ("Raiders ''), a game of strategy in which opponents coordinated the movements and capture of multiple game pieces, and XII scripta ("Twelve Marks ''), involving dice and arranging pieces on a grid of letters or words. A game referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board), to which the emperor Claudius was notoriously addicted, may have been similar to backgammon, using a dice - cup (pyrgus). Playing with dice as a form of gambling was disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the December festival of the Saturnalia with its carnival, norms - overturned atmosphere.
In a status - conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment gave immediate visual clues about the etiquette of interacting with the wearer. Wearing the correct clothing was supposed to reflect a society in good order. The toga was the distinctive national garment of the Roman male citizen, but it was heavy and impractical, worn mainly for conducting political business and religious rites, and for going to court. The clothing Romans wore ordinarily was dark or colourful, and the most common male attire seen daily throughout the provinces would have been tunics, cloaks, and in some regions trousers. The study of how Romans dressed in daily life is complicated by a lack of direct evidence, since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles from the period are rare.
The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved tunic. The length differed by wearer: a man 's reached mid-calf, but a soldier 's was somewhat shorter; a woman 's fell to her feet, and a child 's to its knees. The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades, with the length determined by the type of work they did. Finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man who belonged to the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven vertically into the fabric: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer 's status. Other garments could be layered over the tunic.
The Imperial toga was a "vast expanse '' of semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance. In his work on oratory, Quintilian describes in detail how the public speaker ought to orchestrate his gestures in relation to his toga. In art, the toga is shown with the long end dipping between the feet, a deep curved fold in front, and a bulbous flap at the midsection. The drapery became more intricate and structured over time, with the cloth forming a tight roll across the chest in later periods. The toga praetexta, with a purple or purplish - red stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children who had not come of age, curule magistrates, and state priests. Only the emperor could wear an all - purple toga (toga picta).
In the 2nd century, emperors and men of status are often portrayed wearing the pallium, an originally Greek mantle (himation) folded tightly around the body. Women are also portrayed in the pallium. Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people, since it was associated with philosophers. By the 4th century, the toga had been more or less replaced by the pallium as a garment that embodied social unity.
Roman clothing styles changed over time, though not as rapidly as fashions today. In the Dominate, clothing worn by both soldiers and government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embroidered stripes (clavi) and circular roundels (orbiculi) applied to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements consisted of geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures. The use of silk increased, and courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of cultural life based on urban ideals, affected habits of dress: heavy military - style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned.
People visiting or living in Rome or the cities throughout the Empire would have seen art in a range of styles and media on a daily basis. Public or official art -- including sculpture, monuments such as victory columns or triumphal arches, and the iconography on coins -- is often analysed for its historical significance or as an expression of imperial ideology. At Imperial public baths, a person of humble means could view wall paintings, mosaics, statues, and interior decoration often of high quality. In the private sphere, objects made for religious dedications, funerary commemoration, domestic use, and commerce can show varying degrees of aesthetic quality and artistic skill. A wealthy person might advertise his appreciation of culture through painting, sculpture, and decorative arts at his home -- though some efforts strike modern viewers and some ancient connoisseurs as strenuous rather than tasteful. Greek art had a profound influence on the Roman tradition, and some of the most famous examples of Greek statues are known only from Roman Imperial versions and the occasional description in a Greek or Latin literary source.
Despite the high value placed on works of art, even famous artists were of low social status among the Greeks and Romans, who regarded artists, artisans, and craftsmen alike as manual labourers. At the same time, the level of skill required to produce quality work was recognized, and even considered a divine gift.
Portraiture, which survives mainly in the medium of sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits during the Augustan period utilize youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Republican portraits had been characterized by a "warts and all '' verism, but as early as the 2nd century BC, the Greek convention of heroic nudity was adopted sometimes for portraying conquering generals. Imperial portrait sculptures may model the head as mature, even craggy, atop a nude or seminude body that is smooth and youthful with perfect musculature; a portrait head might even be added to a body created for another purpose. Clothed in the toga or military regalia, the body communicates rank or sphere of activity, not the characteristics of the individual.
Women of the emperor 's family were often depicted dressed as goddesses or divine personifications such as Pax ("Peace ''). Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the Fayum mummy portraits, which evoke Egyptian and Roman traditions of commemorating the dead with the realistic painting techniques of the Empire. Marble portrait sculpture would have been painted, and while traces of paint have only rarely survived the centuries, the Fayum portraits indicate why ancient literary sources marvelled at how lifelike artistic representations could be.
Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including freestanding statues and statuettes in marble, bronze and terracotta, and reliefs from public buildings, temples, and monuments such as the Ara Pacis, Trajan 's Column, and the Arch of Titus. Niches in amphitheatres such as the Colosseum were originally filled with statues, and no formal garden was complete without statuary.
Temples housed the cult images of deities, often by famed sculptors. The religiosity of the Romans encouraged the production of decorated altars, small representations of deities for the household shrine or votive offerings, and other pieces for dedicating at temples. Divine and mythological figures were also given secular, humorous, and even obscene depictions.
Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the 2nd to the 4th centuries with at least 10,000 examples surviving. Although mythological scenes have been most widely studied, sarcophagus relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman iconography, '' and may also depict the deceased 's occupation or life course, military scenes, and other subject matter. The same workshops produced sarcophagi with Jewish or Christian imagery.
Much of what is known of Roman painting is based on the interior decoration of private homes, particularly as preserved at Pompeii and Herculaneum by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. In addition to decorative borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs, wall painting depicts scenes from mythology and the theatre, landscapes and gardens, recreation and spectacles, work and everyday life, and frank pornography. Birds, animals, and marine life are often depicted with careful attention to realistic detail.
A unique source for Jewish figurative painting under the Empire is the Dura - Europos synagogue, dubbed "the Pompeii of the Syrian Desert, '' buried and preserved in the mid-3rd century after the city was destroyed by Persians.
Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts, and are found on the surfaces of floors and other architectural features such as walls, vaulted ceilings, and columns. The most common form is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces (tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass. Mosaics were usually crafted on site, but sometimes assembled and shipped as ready - made panels. A mosaic workshop was led by the master artist (pictor) who worked with two grades of assistants.
Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some cases portray subject matter in almost identical compositions. Although geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire, regional preferences also find expression. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local wildlife. Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present - day Turkey, Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal. More than 300 Antioch mosaics from the 3rd century are known.
Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone, usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult technique was highly prized, and became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century, an abundant example of which is the Basilica of Junius Bassus.
Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and glassware. The manufacture of pottery in a wide range of quality was important to trade and employment, as were the glass and metalworking industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red - gloss pottery (terra sigillata) that was a major item of trade in 1st - century Europe. Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and by the 3rd century Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass.
Silver cup, from the Boscoreale treasure (early 1st century AD)
Figural bronze oil lamps from Nova Zagora in Roman - era Bulgaria (1st -- 2nd century)
Finely decorated Gallo - Roman terra sigillata bowl
Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century
Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, latter 4th century
Seuso plate (detail)
In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre was performed by all - male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions that allowed audiences to "see '' how a character was feeling. Such masks were occasionally also specific to a particular role, and an actor could then play multiple roles merely by switching masks. Female roles were played by men in drag (travesti). Roman literary theatre tradition is particularly well represented in Latin literature by the tragedies of Seneca. The circumstances under which Seneca 's tragedies were performed are however unclear; scholarly conjectures range from minimally staged readings to full production pageants. More popular than literary theatre was the genre - defying mimus theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvisation, risqué language and jokes, sex scenes, action sequences, and political satire, along with dance numbers, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking, striptease, and dancing bears. Unlike literary theatre, mimus was played without masks, and encouraged stylistic realism in acting. Female roles were performed by women, not by men. Mimus was related to the genre called pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that contained no spoken dialogue. Pantomimus combined expressive dancing, instrumental music and a sung libretto, often mythological, that could be either tragic or comic.
Although sometimes regarded as foreign elements in Roman culture, music and dance had existed in Rome from earliest times. Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia (Greek aulos), a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences. Song (carmen) was an integral part of almost every social occasion. The Secular Ode of Horace, commissioned by Augustus, was performed publicly in 17 BC by a mixed children 's choir. Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos, and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge.
Various woodwinds and "brass '' instruments were played, as were stringed instruments such as the cithara, and percussion. The cornu, a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician 's body, was used for military signals and on parade. These instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces. Instruments are widely depicted in Roman art.
The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis) was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity '', and accompanied gladiator games and events in the amphitheatre, as well as stage performances. It was among the instruments that the emperor Nero played.
Although certain forms of dance were disapproved of at times as non-Roman or unmanly, dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome, such as those of the dancing armed Salian priests and of the Arval Brothers, priesthoods which underwent a revival during the Principate. Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the international mystery religions, particularly the cult of Cybele as practised by her eunuch priests the Galli and of Isis. In the secular realm, dancing girls from Syria and Cadiz were extremely popular.
Like gladiators, entertainers were infames in the eyes of the law, little better than slaves even if they were technically free. "Stars '', however, could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity, and mingled socially and often sexually with the upper classes, including emperors. Performers supported each other by forming guilds, and several memorials for members of the theatre community survive. Theatre and dance were often condemned by Christian polemicists in the later Empire, and Christians who integrated dance traditions and music into their worship practices were regarded by the Church Fathers as shockingly "pagan. '' St. Augustine is supposed to have said that bringing clowns, actors, and dancers into a house was like inviting in a gang of unclean spirits.
Estimates of the average literacy rate in the Empire range from 5 to 30 % or higher, depending in part on the definition of "literacy ''. The Roman obsession with documents and public inscriptions indicates the high value placed on the written word. The Imperial bureaucracy was so dependent on writing that the Babylonian Talmud declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government 's concerns. '' Laws and edicts were posted in writing as well as read out. Illiterate Roman subjects would have someone such as a government scribe (scriba) read or write their official documents for them. Public art and religious ceremonies were ways to communicate imperial ideology regardless of ability to read. Although the Romans were not a "People of the Book '', they had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with statues and small votives dedicated by ordinary people to divinities, as well as on binding tablets and other "magic spells '', with hundreds of examples collected in the Greek Magical Papyri. The military produced a vast amount of written reports and service records, and literacy in the army was "strikingly high ''. Urban graffiti, which include literary quotations, and low - quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites. In addition, numeracy was necessary for any form of commerce. Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers, and some were highly educated.
Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out individually on a roll of papyrus (volumen) by scribes who had apprenticed to the trade. The codex -- a book with pages bound to a spine -- was still a novelty in the time of the poet Martial (1st century AD), but by the end of the 3rd century was replacing the volumen and was the regular form for books with Christian content. Commercial production of books had been established by the late Republic, and by the 1st century AD certain neighbourhoods of Rome were known for their bookshops (tabernae librariae), which were found also in Western provincial cities such as Lugdunum (present - day Lyon, France). The quality of editing varied wildly, and some ancient authors complain about error - ridden copies, as well as plagiarism or forgery, since there was no copyright law. A skilled slave copyist (servus litteratus) could be valued as highly as 100,000 sesterces.
Collectors amassed personal libraries, such as that of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, and a fine library was part of the cultivated leisure (otium) associated with the villa lifestyle. Significant collections might attract "in - house '' scholars; Lucian mocked mercenary Greek intellectuals who attached themselves to philistine Roman patrons. An individual benefactor might endow a community with a library: Pliny the Younger gave the city of Comum a library valued at 1 million sesterces, along with another 100,000 to maintain it. Imperial libraries housed in state buildings were open to users as a privilege on a limited basis, and represented a literary canon from which disreputable writers could be excluded. Books considered subversive might be publicly burned, and Domitian crucified copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous.
Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups. Scholars such as Pliny the Elder engaged in "multitasking '' by having works read aloud to them while they dined, bathed or travelled, times during which they might also dictate drafts or notes to their secretaries. The multivolume Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius is an extended exploration of how Romans constructed their literary culture. The reading public expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, and while those who read for pleasure remained a minority, they were no longer confined to a sophisticated ruling elite, reflecting the social fluidity of the Empire as a whole and giving rise to "consumer literature '' meant for entertainment. Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are poorly represented by extant fragments.
Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories about great men and women, or cautionary tales about individual failures, were meant to instil Roman values (mores maiorum). Parents and family members were expected to act as role models, and parents who worked for a living passed their skills on to their children, who might also enter apprenticeships for more advanced training in crafts or trades. Formal education was available only to children from families who could pay for it, and the lack of state intervention in access to education contributed to the low rate of literacy.
Young children were attended by a pedagogus, or less frequently a female pedagoga, usually a Greek slave or former slave. The pedagogue kept the child safe, taught self - discipline and public behaviour, attended class and helped with tutoring. The emperor Julian recalled his pedagogue Mardonius, a eunuch slave who reared him from the age of 7 to 15, with affection and gratitude. Usually, however, pedagogues received little respect.
Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home for privileged children whose parents hired or bought a teacher. Others attended a school that was "public, '' though not state - supported, organized by an individual schoolmaster (ludimagister) who accepted fees from multiple parents. Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in home - or public - schooling. Schools became more numerous during the Empire, and increased the opportunities for children to acquire an education. School could be held regularly in a rented space, or in any available public niche, even outdoors. Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but classes were not segregated by grade or age. For the socially ambitious, bilingual education in Greek as well as Latin was a must.
Quintilian provides the most extensive theory of primary education in Latin literature. According to Quintilian, each child has in - born ingenium, a talent for learning or linguistic intelligence that is ready to be cultivated and sharpened, as evidenced by the young child 's ability to memorize and imitate. The child incapable of learning was rare. To Quintilian, ingenium represented a potential best realized in the social setting of school, and he argued against homeschooling. He also recognized the importance of play in child development, and disapproved of corporal punishment because it discouraged love of learning -- in contrast to the practice in most Roman primary schools of routinely striking children with a cane (ferula) or birch rod for being slow or disruptive.
At the age of 14, upperclass males made their rite of passage into adulthood, and began to learn leadership roles in political, religious, and military life through mentoring from a senior member of their family or a family friend. Higher education was provided by grammatici or rhetores. The grammaticus or "grammarian '' taught mainly Greek and Latin literature, with history, geography, philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the text. With the rise of Augustus, contemporary Latin authors such as Vergil and Livy also became part of the curriculum. The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or public speaking. The art of speaking (ars dicendi) was highly prized as a marker of social and intellectual superiority, and eloquentia ("speaking ability, eloquence '') was considered the "glue '' of a civilized society. Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge (though it required a command of references to the literary canon) as it was a mode of expression and decorum that distinguished those who held social power. The ancient model of rhetorical training -- "restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, and good humour '' -- endured into the 18th century as a Western educational ideal.
In Latin, illiteratus (Greek agrammatos) could mean both "unable to read and write '' and "lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication. '' Higher education promoted career advancement, particularly for an equestrian in Imperial service: "eloquence and learning were considered marks of a well - bred man and worthy of reward ''. The poet Horace, for instance, was given a top - notch education by his father, a prosperous former slave.
Urban elites throughout the Empire shared a literary culture embued with Greek educational ideals (paideia). Hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning as an expression of cultural achievement. Young men from Rome who wished to pursue the highest levels of education often went abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy, mostly to one of several Greek schools in Athens. The curriculum in the East was more likely to include music and physical training along with literacy and numeracy. On the Hellenistic model, Vespasian endowed chairs of grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, and gave teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties, though primary schoolmasters did not receive these benefits. Quintilian held the first chair of grammar. In the eastern empire, Berytus (present - day Beirut) was unusual in offering a Latin education, and became famous for its school of Roman law. The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st -- 3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and aesthetic values, and the Greek proclivities for which Nero had been criticized were regarded from the time of Hadrian onward as integral to Imperial culture.
Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be calligraphers and scribes. The "girlfriends '' addressed in Augustan love poetry, although fictional, represent an ideal that a desirable woman should be educated, well - versed in the arts, and independent to a frustrating degree. Education seems to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders during the Empire. A highly educated wife was an asset for the socially ambitious household, but one that Martial regards as an unnecessary luxury.
The woman who achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria, who educated young men in mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy, and advised the Roman prefect of Egypt on politics. Her influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria, Cyril, who may have been implicated in her violent death in 415 at the hands of a Christian mob.
Literacy began to decline, perhaps dramatically, during the socio - political Crisis of the Third Century. Although the Church Fathers were well - educated, they regarded Classical literature as dangerous, if valuable, and reconstrued it through moralizing and allegorical readings. Julian, the only emperor after the conversion of Constantine to reject Christianity, banned Christians from teaching the Classical curriculum, on the grounds that they might corrupt the minds of youth.
While the book roll had emphasized the continuity of the text, the codex format encouraged a "piecemeal '' approach to reading by means of citation, fragmented interpretation, and the extraction of maxims. In the 5th and 6th centuries, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy.
In the traditional literary canon, literature under Augustus, along with that of the late Republic, has been viewed as the "Golden Age '' of Latin literature, embodying the classical ideals of "unity of the whole, the proportion of the parts, and the careful articulation of an apparently seamless composition. '' The three most influential Classical Latin poets -- Vergil, Horace, and Ovid -- belong to this period. Vergil wrote the Aeneid, creating a national epic for Rome in the manner of the Homeric epics of Greece. Horace perfected the use of Greek lyric metres in Latin verse. Ovid 's erotic poetry was enormously popular, but ran afoul of the Augustan moral programme; it was one of the ostensible causes for which the emperor exiled him to Tomis (present - day Constanța, Romania), where he remained to the end of his life. Ovid 's Metamorphoses was a continuous poem of fifteen books weaving together Greco - Roman mythology from the creation of the universe to the deification of Julius Caesar. Ovid 's versions of Greek myths became one of the primary sources of later classical mythology, and his work was so influential in the Middle Ages that the 12th and 13th centuries have been called the "Age of Ovid. ''
The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy, whose account of Rome 's founding and early history became the most familiar version in modern - era literature. Vitruvius 's book De Architectura, the only complete work on architecture to survive from antiquity, also belongs to this period.
Latin writers were immersed in the Greek literary tradition, and adapted its forms and much of its content, but Romans regarded satire as a genre in which they surpassed the Greeks. Horace wrote verse satires before fashioning himself as an Augustan court poet, and the early Principate also produced the satirists Persius and Juvenal. The poetry of Juvenal offers a lively curmudgeon 's perspective on urban society.
The period from the mid-1st century through the mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the "Silver Age '' of Latin literature. Under Nero, disillusioned writers reacted to Augustanism. The three leading writers -- Seneca the philosopher, dramatist, and tutor of Nero; Lucan, his nephew, who turned Caesar 's civil war into an epic poem; and the novelist Petronius (Satyricon) -- all committed suicide after incurring the emperor 's displeasure. Seneca and Lucan were from Hispania, as was the later epigrammatist and keen social observer Martial, who expressed his pride in his Celtiberian heritage. Martial and the epic poet Statius, whose poetry collection Silvae had a far - reaching influence on Renaissance literature, wrote during the reign of Domitian.
The so - called "Silver Age '' produced several distinguished writers, including the encyclopedist Pliny the Elder; his nephew, known as Pliny the Younger; and the historian Tacitus. The Natural History of the elder Pliny, who died during disaster relief efforts in the wake of the eruption of Vesuvius, is a vast collection on flora and fauna, gems and minerals, climate, medicine, freaks of nature, works of art, and antiquarian lore. Tacitus 's reputation as a literary artist matches or exceeds his value as a historian; his stylistic experimentation produced "one of the most powerful of Latin prose styles. '' The Twelve Caesars by his contemporary Suetonius is one of the primary sources for imperial biography.
Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Jewish historian Josephus, and the senator Cassius Dio. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer and antiquarian Plutarch, the geographer Strabo, and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian. Popular Greek romance novels were part of the development of long - form fiction works, represented in Latin by the Satyricon of Petronius and The Golden Ass of Apuleius.
From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, the Christian authors who would become the Latin Church Fathers were in active dialogue with the Classical tradition, within which they had been educated. Tertullian, a convert to Christianity from Roman Africa, was the contemporary of Apuleius and one of the earliest prose authors to establish a distinctly Christian voice. After the conversion of Constantine, Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective. When the orator Symmachus argued for the preservation of Rome 's religious traditions, he was effectively opposed by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan and future saint -- a debate preserved by their missives.
In the late 4th century, Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. Augustine, another of the Church Fathers from the province of Africa, has been called "one of the most influential writers of western culture '', and his Confessions is sometimes considered the first autobiography of Western literature. In The City of God against the Pagans, Augustine builds a vision of an eternal, spiritual Rome, a new imperium sine fine that will outlast the collapsing Empire.
In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary aesthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated quality that has been compared to the mosaics characteristic of the period. A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of Martianus Capella. Prominent Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius, Prudentius, Claudian, and Sidonius. Ausonius (d. ca. 394), the Bordelaise tutor of the emperor Gratian, was at least nominally a Christian, though throughout his occasionally obscene mixed - genre poems, he retains a literary interest in the Greco - Roman gods and even druidism. The imperial panegyrist Claudian (d. 404) was a vir illustris who appears never to have converted. Prudentius (d. ca. 413), born in Hispania Tarraconensis and a fervent Christian, was thoroughly versed in the poets of the Classical tradition, and transforms their vision of poetry as a monument of immortality into an expression of the poet 's quest for eternal life culminating in Christian salvation. Sidonius (d. 486), a native of Lugdunum, was a Roman senator and bishop of Clermont who cultivated a traditional villa lifestyle as he watched the Western empire succumb to barbarian incursions. His poetry and collected letters offer a unique view of life in late Roman Gaul from the perspective of a man who "survived the end of his world ''.
Religion in the Roman Empire encompassed the practices and beliefs the Romans regarded as their own, as well as the many cults imported to Rome or practised by peoples throughout the provinces. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to have been handed down from the earliest kings of Rome was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors '' or "tradition '', viewed as central to Roman identity. There was no principle analogous to "separation of church and state ''. The priesthoods of the state religion were filled from the same social pool of men who held public office, and in the Imperial era, the Pontifex Maximus was the emperor.
Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give. '' Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family 's domestic deities were offered. Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. Apuleius (2nd century) described the everyday quality of religion in observing how people who passed a cult place might make a vow or a fruit offering, or merely sit for a while. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. In the Imperial era, as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to religious festivals and games (ludi). Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities.
In the wake of the Republic 's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. As the first Roman emperor, Augustus justified the novelty of one - man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So - called "emperor worship '' expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Upon death, an emperor could be made a state divinity (divus) by vote of the Senate. Imperial cult, influenced by Hellenistic ruler cult, became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult, extending as far as the Augustan military settlement at Najran, in present - day Saudi Arabia. Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason against the emperor. This was the context for Rome 's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio.
The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honoured, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists. As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them. One way that Rome promoted stability among diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side - by - side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous cults of pseudo-foreign gods (Roman reinventions of foreign gods) were cultivated at Rome and in the provinces, among them cults of Cybele, Isis, Epona, and of solar gods such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems.
Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practised in addition to carrying on one 's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic '', conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity. In Gaul, the power of the druids was checked, first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether. At the same time, however, Celtic traditions were reinterpreted (interpretatio romana) within the context of Imperial theology, and a new Gallo - Roman religion coalesced, with its capital at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls in Lugdunum (present - day Lyon, France). The sanctuary established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman - provincial identity.
The monotheistic rigour of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions. Tertullian noted that the Jewish religion, unlike that of the Christians, was considered a religio licita, "legitimate religion. '' Wars between the Romans and the Jews occurred when conflict, political as well as religious, became intractable. When Caligula wanted to place a golden statue of his deified self in the Temple in Jerusalem, the potential sacrilege and likely war were prevented only by his timely death. The Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power (see Jewish diaspora).
Christianity emerged in Roman Judea as a Jewish religious sect in the 1st century AD. The religion gradually spread out of Jerusalem, initially establishing major bases in first Antioch, then Alexandria, and over time throughout the Empire as well as beyond. Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic, with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local officials.
The first persecution by an emperor occurred under Nero, and was confined to the city of Rome. Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, some among the population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame onto the Christians. After Nero, a major persecution occurred under the emperor Domitian and a persecution in 177 took place at Lugdunum, the Gallo - Roman religious capital. A surviving letter from Pliny the Younger, governor of Bythinia, to the emperor Trajan describes his persecution and executions of Christians. The Decian persecution of 246 -- 251 was a serious threat to the Church, but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance. Diocletian undertook what was to be the most severe persecution of Christians, lasting from 303 to 311.
In the early 4th century, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to Christianity. During the rest of the fourth century Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. The emperor Julian made a short - lived attempt to revive traditional and Hellenistic religion and to affirm the special status of Judaism, but in 380 (Edict of Thessalonica), under Theodosius I Christianity became the official state church of the Roman Empire, to the exclusion of all others. From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers had begun to condemn the diverse religions practised throughout the Empire collectively as "pagan. '' Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the senator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected, and Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination. Christian heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution, but Rome 's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian forms, and many pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions.
Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire 's successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire 's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the Third Rome (Constantinople having been the second). These concepts are known as Translatio imperii.
When the Ottomans, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire. He even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of re-uniting the Empire and invited European artists to his capital, including Gentile Bellini.
In the medieval West, "Roman '' came to mean the church and the Pope of Rome. The Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek - speaking Christian population of the Eastern Roman Empire, and is still used by Greeks in addition to their common appellation.
The Roman Empire 's territorial legacy of controlling the Italian peninsula would influence Italian nationalism and the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) in 1861.
In the United States, the founders were educated in the classical tradition, and used classical models for landmarks and buildings in Washington, D.C., to avoid the feudal and religious connotations of European architecture such as castles and cathedrals. In forming their theory of the mixed constitution, the founders looked to Athenian democracy and Roman republicanism for models, but regarded the Roman emperor as a figure of tyranny. They nonetheless adopted Roman Imperial forms such as the dome, as represented by the US Capitol and numerous state capitol buildings, to express classical ideals through architecture. Thomas Jefferson saw the Empire as a negative political lesson, but was a chief proponent of its architectural models. Jefferson 's design for the Virginia State Capitol, for instance, is modelled directly from the Maison Carrée, a Gallo - Roman temple built under Augustus. The renovations of the National Mall at the beginning of the 20th century have been viewed as expressing a more overt imperialist kinship with Rome.
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who got constructed the moti masjid in delhi | Moti Masjid (Red Fort) - wikipedia
The Moti Masjid is a white marble mosque inside the Red Fort complex in Delhi, India. The name translates into English as "Pearl Mosque. '' Located to the west of the Hammam and close to the Diwan - e-Khas, it was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb from 1659 - 1660.
The mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb at the Red Fort complex in Delhi, India, from 1659 - 1660 for his personal use. The mosque was also used by the ladies of the Zenana. The mosque was constructed at a cost of Rs. 160,000.
The prayer hall has three arches, and it is divided into two aisles. It is surmounted with three bulbous domes, which were originally covered in gilded copper. The gilded copper was probably lost after the Indian rebellion of 1857.
The outer walls are oriented in symmetry with the outer walls of the fort, while the inner walls are at a slightly different orientation to align with the location of Mecca. The eastern door is provided with copper - plated leaves.
The mosque is plastered in white on the outside. Inside is the white marble courtyard and a prayer hall, which stands on a higher level than the courtyard. The floor of the prayer - hall is inlaid with outlines of small carpets for prayers (musalla) in black marble. In the middle of the courtyard is a small, square ablution fountain. The courtyard measures 40 x 35 feet.
Another small mosque by the same name was built for private prayer by Aurangzeb 's son, the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah I (r. 1707 - 1712), close to the Ajmere Gate of the Dargah of Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, which is located in Mehrauli at the Jahaz Mahal. It is an imitation of the one inside the Red Fort.
Bronze main door with floral decoration
Interior view today
Media related to Moti Masjid (Red Fort) at Wikimedia Commons
Coordinates: 28 ° 39 ′ 25 '' N 77 ° 14 ′ 35 '' E / 28.656815 ° N 77.243142 ° E / 28.656815; 77.243142
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when is the system said to be thermally isolated | Thermally isolated system - Wikipedia
In thermodynamics, a thermally isolated system can exchange no mass or heat energy with its environment. The internal energy of a thermally isolated system may therefore change due to the exchange of work energy. The entropy of a thermally isolated system will increase in time if it is not at equilibrium, but as long as it is at equilibrium, its entropy will be at a maximum and constant value and will not change, no matter how much work energy the system exchanges with its environment. To maintain this constant entropy, any exchange of work energy with the environment must therefore be quasistatic in nature, in order to assure that the system remains essentially at equilibrium during the process.
The opposite of a thermally isolated system is a thermally open system, which allows the transfer of heat energy and entropy. Thermally open systems may vary, however, in the rate at which they equilibrate, depending on the nature of the boundary of the open system. At equilibrium, the temperatures on both sides of a thermally open boundary are equal. At equilibrium, only a thermally isolating boundary can support a temperature difference.
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when was the linq hotel built in las vegas | The Linq - wikipedia
The Linq (formerly Flamingo Capri, Imperial Palace and The Quad) is a 2,640 - room hotel, casino and shopping promenade on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is owned and operated by Caesars Entertainment Corporation. As of 2012, the casino is 32,890 sq ft (3,056 m) with 830 slot machines, 55 table games, and a race and sports book.
It originally opened in 1959 as the 180 - room Flamingo Capri motel, located adjacent to the Flamingo hotel and casino. Ralph Engelstad purchased the property in 1971, and added a casino the following year. In 1977, the hotel had 650 rooms, after the completion of its Imperial Palace Tower. The resort was later reopened as the Asian - themed Imperial Palace in 1979.
Several additional hotel towers were added during the 1980s, bringing the resort 's room count to an ultimate total of 2,637, after the completion of a fifth and final hotel tower in 1987. At the time of Engelstad 's death in 2002, the resort had 2,600 employees and was the second - largest privately owned hotel in the world. In 2012, the resort was renamed as The Quad. The resort was renamed again as The Linq in 2014, after a $223 million renovation.
The property began as the $2 million, 180 - room Flamingo Capri motel, owned by George E. Goldberg and Bill Capri. The motel was built directly north of the Flamingo Hotel and Casino, where Capri was an employee. The motel began construction in May 1959, with a planned completion date of August 15, 1959. Douglas Honnold and John Rex, both of Beverly Hills, California, were the architects. Maurice N. Aroff of Beverly Hills was the general contractor. The Flamingo Capri opened in 1959. The original Flamingo agreed to provide hotel services to guests at the Capri.
Ralph Engelstad purchased the motel in 1971, and added a casino in 1972. Prior to the addition of a casino, the motel had 250 employees. In 1973, four motel buildings from the Flamingo Capri were relocated and converted to become part of Engelstad 's other property, the Kona Kai motel. Engelstad 's construction company added a three - story wing at the east end of the motel, as well as a northern addition, both of which opened in 1974 along with the Shangri - la pool.
By 1976, the motel was being operated as part of the Best Western hotel chain, while retaining the Flamingo Capri name. The new Imperial Palace Tower, which raised the number of rooms from 300 to 650, was completed in July 1977.
The property re-opened as the Asian - themed Imperial Palace Hotel and Casino on November 1, 1979, with the number of employees increasing to 1,000. Merlin J. Barth was the architect of the resort, which was themed after an Asian palace. Engelstad chose the Oriental theme, and Barth chose blue tile imported from Japan for the roof of the resort, having been influenced by Japanese temples. The interior heavily featured the Oriental theme as well, and included carved dragons and giant wind chime chandeliers.
At the time of opening, the resort included Court of a Thousand Treasures, a four - story shopping arcade with 60 stores, overlooking the east end of the 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m) casino. The Imperial Theatre showroom with 850 seats was opened in June 1980. In addition to live shows, the showroom was also expanded to be used for filming of sports and entertainment television specials. A second hotel tower with 850 rooms was added in early 1981. The Auto Collections opened on December 1, 1981, on the fifth floor of a new parking garage which was added that year. A 650 - room hotel tower opened in August 1982, bringing the total room count to more than 1,500. By 1982, the shopping arcade included the free Imperial Palace School of Gaming, for gamblers who did not know how to play. The school operated as a mini casino overlooking the main 40,000 sq ft (3,700 m) casino. During the 1980s, the resort served as the starting and finishing location of the annual Imperial Palace Antique Auto Run.
In 1984, a couple from Missouri were assaulted in their guest room by a man dressed as a hotel employee. They were beaten, bound and gagged, and the wife was raped. The assailant was never caught. The couple sued the Imperial Palace, claiming that the hotel did not provide adequate security. The lawsuit lasted until at least 1989, with allegations that hotel employees destroyed evidence relating to their security practices. The case was ultimately settled on undisclosed terms.
The lawsuit would lead indirectly to more trouble for the casino. In 1988, several employees, angry about being placed on leave as punishment for talking to the plaintiff attorney, began speaking to the Gaming Control Board and local media about two Nazi - themed parties Engelstad had held at the Imperial Palace. The parties were held in Engelstad 's so - called "war room '', which featured a large collection of World War II Nazi memorabilia, including a portrait of Engelstad in the likeness of Hitler. A national controversy ensued. Engelstad claimed the collection was purely of historical interest, and not meant to glorify the Nazis. The Gaming Control Board recommended that Engelstad lose his gaming license and be fined $200,000 for reflecting poorly on the reputation of the Nevada gaming industry. An agreement was ultimately reached whereby Engelstad kept his license, but paid $1.5 million in penalties.
In 1985, the parking garage was expanded to include more than 1,000 additional parking spaces, becoming one of the largest parking facilities in Las Vegas. In December 1985, the foundation was laid for a 560 - room hotel addition, which was completed in 1986 as the resort 's fourth tower, bringing the room count total to 2,100. The Imperial Palace became the seventh largest hotel in the world, and had more than 2,200 employees. Also in 1986, the casino was expanded by 15,000 square feet (1,400 m), and convention facilities were increased from 25,000 sq ft (2,300 m) to 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m). A fifth and final hotel tower, standing 19 stories with 547 rooms, was completed in July 1987, bringing the total to 2,637 rooms. The tower was the former location of the resort 's pool.
In 1987, the Governor 's Committee for the Handicapped named the Imperial Palace as "Employer of the Year '' for its extensiving hiring of handicapped people. A three - phase expansion began in August 1987 and concluded in July 1989. The three - phase expansion included the addition of a new Olympic - size swimming pool, a heated spa, and a poolside bar. The final phase of the expansion -- including a race & sportsbook, and fitness center -- extended the resort to the sidewalk along Las Vegas Boulevard. The sportsbook was completed in September 1989, and a drive - through option was created in 1991, making the Imperial Palace the first casino in Las Vegas to offer such a feature. The drive - through sportsbook, located on Koval Lane behind the hotel, became popular among customers. In 1991, the President 's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities named the Imperial Palace "National Employer of the Year '' for its hiring of disabled people. In 1993, an independent 24 - hour medical facility serving guests and employees was opened. In the 1990s, the Imperial Palace 's gaming school operated on the main casino floor. In 1997, Engelstad opened a second Imperial Palace in Biloxi, Mississippi.
As of 1997, the Imperial Palace was the 10th largest hotel in the world and the world 's largest privately owned hotel. When Engelstad died in 2002, the casino ownership transferred to the Ralph Engelstad and Betty Engelstad Trust. The casino operated as its own limited partnership, Imperial Palace LLC, under the Trust 's oversight. At the time of Engelstad 's death, the resort was the second - largest privately owned hotel in the world, with nearly 2,700 rooms and 2,600 employees.
On August 22, 2005, Harrah 's Entertainment announced plans to purchase the property. The acquisition was completed on December 23, 2005. During a conference call with investors on November 20, 2005, the Chairman for Harrah 's, Gary Loveman, noted that both the Imperial Palace and neighboring O'Sheas Casino "are going to require very substantial modifications or complete tear - downs and rebuilds '' in order to make room for an expansion of the nearby Harrah 's and / or Flamingo hotel - casinos. However, since then, Harrah 's has invested millions of dollars into refurbishing both the hotel rooms and the casino itself.
In July 2009, Harrah 's announced new plans for the area around the Imperial Palace, O'Sheas, and Flamingo casinos, confirming that the Imperial Palace will not be demolished at this time. Harrah 's planned to add approximately 20 restaurants and bars between O'Sheas and the Flamingo.
In August 2011, Caesars Entertainment Corporation announced it will be building a massive entertainment complex adjacent to the Imperial Palace and on the site of O'Sheas casino, called Project LINQ. The Imperial Palace name will be retired and the property renamed.
On September 17, 2012, Caesars Entertainment Corporation announced that Imperial Palace would be renamed The Quad Resort and Casino. The official conversion was completed on December 21, 2012.
In July 2014, Caesars announced that the Quad would be again renamed The Linq Hotel & Casino in order to join the LINQ Promenade, an adjacent shopping and entertainment center that opened in January 2014, following a $223 million renovation of the property. The hotel and casino were officially renamed on October 30, 2014.
The Linq Promenade is an open - air retail, dining, and entertainment district located between The Linq and Flamingo resorts that began a soft open in January 2014.
In November 2017, Caesars Entertainment Corporation announced the intended addition of Fly LINQ, expected to be the first and only zipline on the Las Vegas Strip. Construction of the $20 million zipline was underway in April 2018. Once complete, the Fly LINQ attraction will feature 10 side - by - side zip lines. Fly Linq is scheduled to open at The Linq Promenade on November 9, 2018.
On March 31, 2014, Caesars Entertainment opened the 550 - foot - tall High Roller, The World 's Tallest Observation Wheel at The LINQ Promenade.
O'Sheas Casino reopened in December 2013, attached to the Linq 's casino floor and to its shopping promenade.
The Auto Collections was a collection of classic vehicles on display at the resort until 2017. The museum opened on December 1, 1981, known then as the Antique and Classic Auto Collections. The museum initially consisted of Engelstad 's own private car collection, worth over $10 million at the time of the opening. The exhibition was located in an air - conditioned facility on the 5th floor of the resort 's parking garage.
Don Williams and Richie Clyne took over operations of the museum in 1999. Under their management, the museum began offering its vehicles for sale and trade on February 1, 2000. Approximately 200 vehicles were kept in storage nearby. Vehicles would be taken out of storage to take the place of those that had been sold in the exhibit. Approximately half of the vehicles in the collection were owned by Williams and Clyne. The Auto Collections closed on December 30, 2017. Rob Williams, the general manager and a part - owner, said about the closure, "It 's time; it 's basically that simple. We 've had a great run here... It 's just time to close it down and move on to our next endeavors. '' Although visitor attendance had slightly declined, it was not a reason for the closure.
The exhibit was located in 125,000 sq ft (11,600 m) of space. The collection was the world 's largest classic car showroom, with more than $25 million worth of inventory on display and for sale. More than 250 antique, classic, muscle and historically significant cars were on display and nearly all were for sale. Prices varied dramatically depending on many factors and ranged from as low as $30,000 to several million dollars for the especially rare pieces in the collection. Some of the cars presented included those once driven by famous celebrities or utilized by state officials, such as the 1955 Lincoln Capri Convertible owned by Marilyn Monroe, the 1939 Chrysler Royal Sedan formerly belonging to Johnny Carson or the 1962 Lincoln Continental Towne Limousine serving President John F. Kennedy.
Mat Franco - Magic Reinvented Nightly stars Mat Franco, the season nine winner on NBC 's America 's Got Talent. In the newly renovated "Mat Franco Theater '', Franco performs multiple tricks involving audience participation, as well as his awarding winning sleight - of - hand. In 2016 Magic Reinvented Nightly was awarded "Best Show '' and "Best Magic Show '' by Las Vegas Weekly and the Las Vegas Review - Journal respectively.
Frank Marino 's Divas Las Vegas was a drag revue starring Las Vegas ' longest - running headliner, Frank Marino, who hosted the revue as his most famous impersonation, Joan Rivers. The show moved to the Imperial Palace from the Riviera Hotel and Casino in 2010, and ran for eight years, until it was shut down in July 2018 due to controversy involving a charity scandal.
Beginning in 2003, the casino had approximately eight blackjack tables on the lower level that featured celebrity impersonators as dealers. These impersonators, which included Joliet Jake from the Blues Brothers, Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson, Cher, Shakira, Roy Orbison, Zac Brown, Shania Twain, Britney Spears, Buddy Holly, and others, alternated dealing cards and performing a song on a small stage in the center of the tables. The Dealertainers pit was discontinued as of September 8, 2014.
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indian defence service of engineers (electrical engineering posts) | Indian Engineering Services - Wikipedia
Indian Engineering Services abbreviated as IES are the civil services that meet the technical and managerial functions of the Government of India. Like most countries, the Government of India recruits its civil servants and officials on the basis of merit, the middle management positions in the bureaucracy are filled through competitive exams. Large number of candidates take these exams, competing for limited posts. IES officers are selected by the union government on the recommendations made by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). A combined three - stage competitive examination (comprising five tests), called the Engineering Services Examination (ESE) is conducted by the UPSC for recruitment to the Indian Engineering Services.
IES remain the most sought - after careers for the engineering graduates in India. In 2015, a total of 434 candidates were recommended through ESE with least selection ratio ever. In the year 2010, a total of 157,649 candidates applied for 434 vacancies (includes all branches and cadres). In 2011, a total number of 693 candidates were recommended for appointments in these four lists include 317 General, 209 Other Backward Classes, 113 Scheduled Castes and 54 Scheduled Tribes (including 44 candidates belonging to Physically Handicapped category). ESE 2012 was conducted for the recruitment of candidates to as many as 560 posts, which also includes 47 vacancies available only for the PH (physically handicapped) category. ESE 2013 was conducted for the recruitment of candidates to as many as 763 posts, which also includes 19 vacancies available only for the PH (physically handicapped) category.
ESE is therefore considered as the toughest exam in India and amongst the toughest in the world due to less number of posts having a selection ratio of 0.00275 (based on 2010 statistics) and its technical nature. Most toppers of this exam are graduates of institutes like the Indian Institutes of Technology and Indian Institute of Science. Because of this difficult selection procedure, IES officers carry high respect and status in society and are able to manage activities in diverse areas. Government spending comprises more than 15 percent of India 's GDP and given the extent of tasks and functions managed by the public sector, this extends to a fairly broad segment of the economy covering the railways, roads, defense, manufacturing, inspection, supply, construction, public works, power, telecommunications, etc. All appointments to the Group A services are made by the President of India.
The nature of work performed by these bureaucrats largely depends on their engineering branch and the service or cadre they are recruited in. However, they can move to any cadre, organisation, agency, department, ministry or PSU of the Government of India. They are appointed in the posts analogous to their present one, either on deputation basis which is of a fixed tenure (at least 5 years and extensible) after which the officer returns to their parent cadre or on absorption basis where the official leaves the parent cadre and is "absorbed '' permanently into the new cadre.
The candidate must be one of the following:
At least a bachelor 's degree in Engineering (B.E. / B. Tech) from a recognised university or equivalent. M.Sc degree or its equivalent with Wireless Communications, Electronics, Radio Physics or Radio Engineering as special subjects also acceptable for certain services / posts only.
21 -- 30 years on 1 August of the year of Engineering Services Examination.
Upper age limit relaxation is provided to candidates as follows:
Candidates are required to apply online only, using UPSC 's official website.
The application fee of the online form for General category male candidates is ₹ 200, while no fee is required by female and the reserved category applicants.
The test is conducted in June every year at centres across India, namely: Agartala, Ahmedabad, Aizwal, Aligarh, Allahabad, Bangalore, Bareilly, Bhopal, Chandigarh, Chennai, Cuttack, Dehradun, Delhi, Dharwad, Dispur, Gangtok, Hyderabad, Imphal, Itanagar, Jaipur, Jammu, Jorhat, Kochi, Kohima, Kolkata, Lucknow, Madurai, Mumbai, Nagpur, Panaji (Goa), Patna, Port Blair, Raipur, Ranchi, Sambalpur, Shillong, Shimla, Srinagar, Thiruvananthapuram, Tirupati, Udaipur and Visakhapatnam.
Based on the recommendations of expert committees formed by the Union Public Service Commission, the Government of India has conveyed its approval to the following structural changes in the scheme and syllabi of the Engineering Services Examination to be implemented from the year 2017 onwards.
Examination (Objective Type Papers)
(Common for all Candidates)
200 Marks (max.)
300 Marks (max.)
discretion of the Commission.
Only those candidates qualifying at this Stage to be permitted to
appear for Stage - II examination
Examination (Conventional Type Papers)
300 Marks (max.)
300 Marks (max.)
be permitted to appear for Stage - III examination
Stage - III
Stage III) to be included in the Final Merit List of Engineering Services Exam.
Thus the marks secured by the candidates in the Stage - I (Objective type
papers) of the Engineering Services Examination should be added to the
marks secured in the Stage - II (Conventional type papers) of the
Examination and Stage - III (Personality Test) and accordingly, such
marks secured by the candidates in Stage - I should also be counted for
merit.
The paper in General Studies and Engineering Aptitude will include the questions from the following topics will be set in Paper - I of Stage - I:
This is the final stage; candidates who qualify the written exam are called for the interview. Interview carries 200 marks. Officially called "Personality Test '', the object of the interview is to assess the personal suitability of the candidate for a career in public service by a Board of competent and unbiased observers. The test is intended to judge the mental caliber of a candidate. In broad terms this is really an assessment of not only his intellectual qualities but also social traits and his interest in current affairs. Some of the qualities to be judged are mental alertness, critical powers of assimilation, clear and logical exposition, balance of judgement, variety and depth of interest, ability for social cohesion and leadership, intellectual and moral integrity.
The technique of the interview is not that of a strict cross-examination but of a natural, though directed and purposive conversation which is intended to reveal the mental qualities of the candidate.
The interview test is not intended to be a test either of the specialized or general knowledge of the candidates which has been already tested through their written papers. Candidates are expected to have taken an intelligent interest not only in their special subjects of academic study but also in the events which are happening around them both within and outside their own state or country as well as in modern currents of thought and in new discoveries which should rouse the curiosity of well educated youth.
These four stages ensure that the candidates selected, are best suited to handle the responsibilities which will be entrusted to them. The selected candidates then undergo training at the academies / institutes of their respective cadres that makes them acquainted with the area of work, the cadre / service is engaged in.
1. Maharashtra Engineering Service
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who played francis in malcom in the middle | Characters of Malcolm in the Middle - wikipedia
The following characters had significant roles in the American television comedy series Malcolm in the Middle, which was originally televised from 2000 to 2006 on the Fox Network.
Originally there were four brothers (although Malcolm 's oldest brother attended a military school away from home, so Malcolm was still the middle sibling left at home). A fifth son was introduced in the show 's fourth season, a boy named Jamie. The boys are, from eldest to youngest: Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie. In the final episode, Lois discovered she was pregnant with a sixth child. In the third season, Francis travels home (to celebrate his father 's birthday) with an Alaskan girl named Piama, and reveals that they are married.
During the first season, the writers decided to keep the family 's last name a mystery. In the fifth season episode "Reese Joins the Army (1) '', Reese uses a fake ID by the name of "Jetson '' to lie about his age. In the series finale, "Graduation '', Francis ' employee ID reads "Nolastname '' (or "No Last Name '', a joke referring to the fact that the family name was never spoken aloud). In the same episode when Malcolm was introduced to give the graduation speech, the speaker announces Malcolm 's name, but microphone feedback makes his surname inaudible, even though he does appear to mouth the phrase "No last name ''.
In the pilot episode, the name Wilkerson can be seen on the name badge of the uniform Francis is wearing at Marlin Academy. In the sleeve notes for the season 5 DVD released in Europe, the family is referred to as the Wilkersons in the description for the episode "Block Party ''. British television advertisements and some Fox promotional material also occasionally referred to the family as the Wilkersons, although this name was never spoken aloud in the series. In an early version of the pilot, Malcolm had an exchange of dialogue with a classmate, who claims to have overheard his parents talking about Malcolm 's family and asks him what his last name is. When Malcolm responds, "Wilkerson, why? '' the friend replied with the punchline, "Oh... who are the ' Pariahs '? ''
Out of the show 's six leads, Cranston, Muniz, Berfield and Sullivan were the only ones to appear in all 151 episodes.
Hal, played by Bryan Cranston (all 151 episodes), is the father of the family. Though relaxed in his parenting when compared to Lois, Hal has shown that he can slide into a disciplinarian when confronted by the boys ' bad behavior. He comes from a wealthy family who resent his choice to marry Lois over Susan (an action also shared by Victor and Ida). Hal has a hard time making good decisions, which he often deferred to Lois. Despite the fact many of the neighbors hate his family, Hal blends in well with them. He loves Lois more than she loves him, never even thinking about other women. He is also very scared of her, even more than the boys are, which is why he often bribes their sons to take the fall for his wrongdoings. He is very neurotic and has a slight obsessive - compulsive disorder, and also enjoys unusual hobbies. Hal is also a sex addict, this was revealed in the episode "Forbidden Girlfriend '' when Lois is taking medication and is unable to have sex for an entire week, it is mentioned again in the episode "Poker 2 '' when Hal tells his friends he has sex 14 times per week. It was also revealed that Hal was a chain smoker before quitting the habit. Hal 's best friend is Abe Kenarban.
Francis, played by Christopher Masterson (119 episodes), is the oldest of the brothers, whom Malcolm often looks up to. It is revealed in the episodes "Sleepover '' and "The Bots and the Bees '' in season one that Francis was a breech birth, and in "Flashback '' in season 2, that Lois was in labor with him during her and Hal 's wedding. A rebel from birth, showing signs of Attention - Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder, he was exiled to Marlin Academy by Lois for his behavior before eventually emancipating himself to run away from the Academy to work in Alaska, incurring his mother 's wrath. Upon moving to Alaska, he marries a local woman named Piama, who is about one year older than him, and had previously been married briefly, and whom Lois does n't like. In the series finale, Hal discovers that Francis has taken a job with Amerysis, and Francis admits he likes sitting at a desk sorting computer data. However, he also admits that he has no intentions of telling Lois about the job and enjoys torturing her by telling her that he 's still unemployed.
Malcolm, portrayed by Frankie Muniz (150 episodes), is the protagonist of the series. He is Five years younger than his oldest brother Francis, one year younger than his older brother Reese, Four years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 15 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. In the first episode of the series, he is discovered to be a child prodigy and immediately moved from his regular class into the ' Krelboynes ', a class for gifted students. Despite his high intelligence, he still gets into mischief either alongside or working against his brothers (in particular, Reese), although he becomes more self - absorbed and egotistical in the later seasons as he goes through puberty. Malcolm, like Reese, is not very popular. However, he has had a number of girlfriends during the series run. Even though he is very intelligent, Malcolm has a short temper, can be easily manipulated and also has problems containing his opinion about himself. Malcolm also occasionally serves as the voice of reason, and does have a conscience, (for instance, despite emotionally manipulating a grieving Hal to buy him a car in the episode "Hal Grieves, '' when the time comes to make the purchase he finds he ca n't go through with it). In the series finale, it is revealed that Lois intended him to have a hard life, knowing that he is destined to assume the role of President of the United States; she wants him to remember where he came from to get there and try to help families like his own when he assumes the office. Malcolm eventually comes to terms with his future, after being unable to tell Lois he ca n't do it. In the series finale, Malcolm begins taking classes at Harvard University. Throughout the series, Malcolm frequently breaks the fourth wall and talks to the viewer about either the current situation or giving exposition about past events.
Lois, played by Jane Kaczmarek (146 episodes), is Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie 's angry and temperamental mother. She is an overbearing control freak despised by the neighbors to the point that they refuse to invite her to their gatherings, revealed in "Mono ''. Unlike Malcolm, Lois is n't bothered by it and tries her best to blend in with it. She was revealed to be a charming and a nurturing mother while Francis was little, but toughened up. She is also always stubbornly right, to the point of being unable to say that she was wrong. It was also shown that she is overbearing and mad as a result of her children 's bad behavior, and not her pure hate. At the series finale, Lois is revealed to be pregnant with a sixth child (actually twins). Her unfairness and behavior also come from her miserable childhood, living with a tough mother and an uncaring father (both of whom favored her younger sister, Susan).
Reese, played by Justin Berfield (all 151 episodes), is the second oldest of the sons. He is two years younger than his older brother Francis, one year older than his younger brother Malcolm, six years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 16 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. It was revealed in the episode "Flashback '', in season 2, that Reese has been vicious from the womb, so vicious in fact that when he kept kicking Lois during labor, she pushed him out by force. A complete moron from birth, Reese is the worst - behaved of the brothers. Reese is inclined to beat up the Krelboynes. He is intimidated by certain students, including Ira, a dumb jock at school. Despite his violent, idiotic nature, Reese is a culinary prodigy, after finding that he has a talent and genuine love for cooking and baking. He is also the favorite grandson of his grandmother Ida, who taught him the importance of having patsies. In the series finale, Reese moves in with Craig Feldspar and is a janitor at his alma mater North High.
Dewey, played by Erik Per Sullivan (all 151 episodes), is portrayed as being quieter and more inclined to the arts than his brothers. He soon finds he is a musical prodigy, and as the series goes on he becomes more caring and thoughtful especially in regards to his younger brother Jamie, whom he decides not to bully like he was by Malcolm and Reese. Lois remarks at one point that unlike Malcolm, who would have to work hard to achieve success, Dewey would have success handed to him. Dewey joins the Buseys, a class for the emotionally disturbed, by mistake and ends up becoming their unofficial teacher. He ended up caring for his fellow students so much that, when the mistake was uncovered, he feigned severe emotional problems so he could remain. In the final few seasons, Dewey becomes increasingly bitter towards his parents due to them overlooking him throughout his childhood and neglecting his interests. Because of this, he forces them to give Jamie the childhood he never had. In the last episode, he and Jamie (the only other remaining brother living at home) continued the tradition of causing havoc all over the house.
Jamie was played by identical twin brothers James and Lukas Rodriguez (35 episodes). The youngest brother born who is the only brother to have beaten Lois in her own game, bordering to attacking her (though Reese was mostly responsible for feeding him soda). Like Malcolm and Dewey, Jamie is revealed to be intelligent, evident when he tricked Reese into taking a marker after he colored part of the wall.
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who sings the song no one is to blame | No One is to Blame - wikipedia
"No One Is to Blame '' is a song by British musician Howard Jones. The song, in its original version, can be found on his second studio album, Dream into Action, which was released in 1985. Following the success of the previous singles taken from the album, the original track for "No One Is to Blame '' was re-recorded to give the song a more radio - friendly sound. Phil Collins and Hugh Padgham produced the re-recording, with Collins adding his own backing vocals and drum work. This new version of the song was included on the 1986 US EP Action Replay as well as the CD version of Jones 's 1986 studio album, One to One.
"No One Is to Blame '' was released as a single in March 1986 and became Jones 's biggest hit in the United States, peaking at # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song also became the first of his two # 1 songs on the U.S. adult contemporary chart ("Everlasting Love '' would top this chart in 1989). The song was also a top 10 hit in Australia and a # 16 hit in the U.K..
The song is about unfulfilled attractions, saying that they 're normal and commonplace ("We want everyone -- no one ever is to blame ''). It uses a number of metaphors, such as "You can look at the menu, but you just ca n't eat '' and "It 's the last piece of the puzzle, but you just ca n't make it fit, '' to describe the frustration of experiencing attraction but being unable to act on it, for whatever reason. On a deeper level it describes the frustration and pain of unfulfilled desires and dreams inherent in the human condition.
7 ''
12 ''
"The Long Mix '' is significantly shorter than the single; it is actually not a remix, but an entirely different piano and vocal - only version of the song recorded in session for the BBC Radio 1 Janice Long show.
A previously unreleased version of "No One is to Blame '' by Neilson Hubbard appears on the 2001 Parasol Records compilation, Parasol 's Sweet Sixteen, Volume 4. (1)
In 2007, American singer - songwriter Katrina Carlson recorded a cover version, on which Jones contributed piano and backing vocals. Carlson 's version, which is taken from her album Here and Now, reached # 20 on the US Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart.
Emile Millar covered the song for the soundtrack of Waitress in 2007.
"No One Is to Blame '' featured on Cindy Alexander 's 2007 album, Wobble with the World.
American indie artist Jules Larson features "No One Is To Blame '' in her 2010 EP A Lot Like You.
On October 19, 2015, contestants Braiden Sunshine and Lyndsey Elm performed a duet of the song during the "Battle Rounds '' on NBC 's television program The Voice.
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the face of a man lion ox eagle | Tetramorph - wikipedia
A tetramorph is a symbolic arrangement of four differing elements, or the combination of four disparate elements in one unit. The term is derived from the Greek tetra, meaning four, and morph, shape.
Archaeological evidence exists showing that early man divided the four quarters of the horizon, or space, later a place of sacrifice, such as a temple, and attributed characteristics and spiritual qualities to each quarter. Alternatively the composite elements were carved into mythic creatures such as the ancient Egyptian, Greek and Babylonian sphinxes of antiquity depicting bull - like bodies with birds - wings, lion 's paws and human faces. Such composite creatures are found in many mythologies.
In Christian art, the tetramorph is the union of the symbols of the Four Evangelists, derived from the four living creatures in the Book of Ezekiel, into a single figure or, more commonly, a group of four figures. Each of the four Evangelists is associated with one of the living creatures, usually shown with wings. The most common association, but not the original or only, is: Matthew the man, Mark the lion, Luke the ox, and John the eagle. In Christian art and iconography, Evangelist portraits are often accompanied by tetramorphs, or the symbols alone used to represent them. Evangelist portraits that depict them in their human forms are often accompanied by their symbolic creatures, and Christ in Majesty is often shown surrounded by the four symbols.
The word comes from the Greek for "four forms '' or "shapes ''. In English usage each symbol may be described as a tetramorph in the singular, and a group as "the tetramorphs '', but usually only in contexts where all four are included. The tetramorphs were especially common in Early Medieval art, above all in illuminated Gospel books, but remain common in religious art to the present day.
Images of unions of different elements into one symbol were originally used by the Ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks. The image of the sphinx, found in Egypt and Babylon, depicted the body of a lion and the head of a human, while the harpies of Greek mythology showed bird - like human women.
The prophet Ezekiel was among the Jews who were exiled to Babylon in the 6th century BC. The creatures in his vision, from which the images of the tetramorph are derived, are reminiscent of ancient Assyria art.
The animals associated with the Christian tetramorph originate in the Babylonian symbols of the four fixed signs of the zodiac: the ox representing Taurus; the lion representing Leo; the eagle representing Scorpio; the man or angel representing Aquarius. In Western astrology the four symbols are associated with the elements of, respectively Earth, Fire, Water, and Air. The creatures of the Christian tetramorph were also common in Egyptian, Greek, and Assyrian mythology. The early Christians adopted this symbolism and adapted it for the four Evangelists as the tetramorph, which first appears in Christian art in the 5th century, but who 's interpretative origin stems from Irenaeus in the 2nd century.
The elements of the Christian tetramorph first appear in the vision of Ezekiel, who describes the four creatures as they appear to him in a vision:
As for the likeness of their faces, they four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and they four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle. (Ezekiel 1: 10, ESV).
They are described later in the Book of Revelation: "And the first beast was like a lion, and the second beast like a calf, and the third beast had a face as a man, and the fourth beast was like a flying eagle. ''
The association of the four living creatures with the four evangelists originated with Irenaeus in the 2nd century. The interpretation of each creature has varied through church history. The most common interpretation, first laid out by Victorinus and adopted by Jerome, St Gregory, and the Book of Kells is that the man is Matthew, the lion Mark, the ox Luke, and the eagle John. The creatures of the tetramorph, just like the four gospels of the Evangelists, represent four facets of Christ.
It is clear from the table that various interpretive schemes have been followed through church history. The four main schemes are summarized below with their most well - known proponent and rationale. The given rationale usually has to do with how each Gospel begins, major themes in each Gospel, or the aspect of Christ emphasized in each Gospel.
1st scheme -- Irenaeus
The man is Matthew, because his Gospel begins with the genealogy of Jesus; the lion is John, because his Gospel begins full of confidence; the ox is Luke, because his Gospel begins with priestly sacrifice; and the eagle is Mark, because his Gospel begins with the prophecy of Isaiah. Irenaeus originates this connection between the four living creatures and the four evangelists because he is looking for an answer to the question "Why four Gospels? ''
2nd scheme (most common) -- Jerome
The rationale given for this scheme is how each Gospel narrative begins. Matthew is the man because he begins with a genealogy; Mark is the lion, roaring in the desert with prophetic power; Luke is the ox, because he begins with temple sacrifice; and John is the eagle, flying heavenwards like the divine Word. It must be said that at a certain point, once enough interpretive authorities in the church backed this scheme, many who followed simply defaulted to their authority.
3rd scheme -- Augustine
The lion is Matthew, because Matthew 's Gospel depicts Christ royal character, he who descended from the tribe of Judah; the ox is Luke, because Christ is shown in his priestly character; the man is Mark, because of the humanity of Christ shown in that Gospel focusing on the things the man did; and the eagle is John, because the mystery of the Word ascends to heaven. Augustine departs from Jerome 's scheme saying, "This latter formulation focuses only on the beginnings of the books and not on the overall plan of the evangelists, which is what should have been examined more thoroughly. ''
4th scheme -- Witness Lee
The lion is Matthew, because Matthew portrays the Lord Jesus as the King; the ox is Mark, because Mark portrays Him as a servant; the man is Luke, because Luke portrays Him as a perfect, genuine man; the eagle is John, because John portrays Him as God.
The creatures of the tetramorph, as they appear in their animal forms, are predominantly shown as winged figures. The wings, an ancient symbol of divinity, represent the divinity of the Evangelists, the divine nature of Christ, and the virtues required for Christian salvation. In regards to the depiction of St Mark in particular, the use of wings distinguish him from images of St Jerome, who is also associated with the image of a lion.
The perfect human body of Christ was originally represented as a winged man, and was later adapted for St Matthew in order to symbolise Christ 's humanity. In the context of the tetramorphs, the winged man indicates Christ 's humanity and reason, as well as Matthew 's account of the Incarnation of Christ. The lion of St Mark represents courage, resurrection, and royalty, coinciding with the theme of Christ as king in Mark 's gospel. It is also interpreted as the Lion of Judah as a reference to Christ 's royal lineage. The ox, or bull, is an ancient Christian symbol of redemption and life through sacrifice, signifying Luke 's records of Christ as a priest and his ultimate sacrifice for the future of humanity. The eagle represents the sky, heavens, and the human spirit, paralleling the divine nature of Christ.
In their earliest appearances, the Evangelists were depicted in their human forms each with a scroll or a book to represent the Gospels. By the 5th century, images of the Evangelists evolved into their respective tetramorphs. By the later Middle Ages, the tetramorph in the form of creatures was used less frequently. Instead, the Evangelists were often shown in their human forms accompanied by their symbolic creatures, or as men with the heads of animals.
In images where the creatures surround Christ, the winged man and the eagle are often depicted at Christ 's sides, with the lion and the ox positioned lower by his feet, with the man on Christ 's right, taking precedence over the eagle, and the lion to the left of the ox. This positions reflects the medieval great chain of being.
The use of the tetramorph in architecture is most common in the decoration of Christian churches. On medieval churches, the symbols of the Evangelists are usually found above westerly - facing portals and in the eastern apse, particularly surrounding the enthroned figure of Christ in Glory in scenes of the Last Judgment. This image of Christ in Glory often features Christ pantocrator in a mandorla surrounded by the creatures of the tetramorph is often found on the spherical ceiling inside the apse, typically as a mosaic or fresco. Older Roman churches, such as Santa Pudenziana and Santa Maria in Trastevere, mosaics often depict the four creatures in a straight line rather than in a circular formation.
Medieval churches also feature sculptures of bas - relief symbols of the Evangelists on western facades, externally around eastern apse windows, or as large statues atop apse walls. Generally all four creatures of the tetramorph will be found together in either one image or in one structure, but it is not unheard of to have a single Evangelist dominate the imagery of the church. This is usually found in cities that bear one of the Evangelists as their patron saint. A notable example is St Mark 's Basilica in Venice, where the winged lion is the city 's mascot and St Mark is the city 's patron saint.
12th century apse mosaic from Basilica di San Clemente in Rome.
Detail of the rooftop of San Marco cathedral in Venice.
Central portal of Chartres Cathedral in Chartres.
Most illuminated Gospel books were prefaced with Evangelist portraits, often combined on a single page. Insular manuscripts were very focused on abstract linear patterns that combined Mediterranean, Anglo - Saxon and Celtic influences, the latter mostly traceable from surviving metalwork. The artists of the period were initially more comfortable with images of animals than humans, so in early Gospel Books the Evangelists were represented as tetramorphic symbols rather than portraits. Their preferences for abstract, geometric, and stylized art led to a lot of differences in portrayals of the tetramorphs. Celtic artists would paint the creatures in a relatively realistic fashion, or their divine nature would be emphasised through the inclusion of wings or human traits, such as hands in place of talons or the animal standing upright.
The Evangelists and tetramorphs were highly featured in Ottonian manuscripts as the Gospel books, periscopes, and the Apocalypse were most popular and while they imitated the Byzantine artistic style, Carolingian illuminations consciously revived the early Christian style, and was much more elaborate than Celtic or Insular art.
For most illuminated manuscript portraits, the Evangelist typically occupied a full page. Though numerous examples of Late Antique portraits featured each figure in a standing position, the Evangelists were predominantly depicted in a seating position at a writing desk or with a book or scroll, both in reference to the Gospels. The symbols of the tetramorphs were most common in the Middle Ages through to the Romanesque period before they fell out of favour and images of the Evangelists in their human forms became more common. However, the tetramorphs were used still used and were found in artwork of the Renaissance and even in modern art.
St Mark as the lion as depicted in the Echternach Gospels, c. 800, Hiberno - Saxon.
Illumination of the four Evangelists with their symbols, c. 820, Carolingian.
Christ and the tetramorphs in the Bamberg Apocalypse, c. 1000, Ottonian.
Christ surrounded by the Evangelists, c. 1123, Romanesque fresco.
Christ in Majesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary, c. 12th century, manuscript illumination.
St Luke in The Hours of Mary of Burgundy, c. 1477, Northern Renaissance manuscript illumination.
Vision of Ezekiel by Raphael, c. 1518, Renaissance painting.
Statue of St John outside Saint John 's Seminary in Boston, c. 1884.
Christ in Glory in the Tetramorph by Graham Sutherland, c. 1962, tapestry. Coventry Cathedral
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the walking dead season 6 episode 12 cast | The Walking Dead (season 6) - Wikipedia
The sixth season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 11, 2015, and concluded on April 3, 2016, consisting of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The executive producers are Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple as showrunner for the third consecutive season. The sixth season received positive reviews by critics. It was nominated for multiple awards and won three, including Best Horror Television Series, at the 42nd Saturn Awards.
This season adapts material from issues # 78 -- 100 of the comic book series and introduces notable comic characters, including Heath (Corey Hawkins), Dr. Denise Cloyd (Merritt Wever), Dwight (Austin Amelio), Paul "Jesus '' Rovia (Tom Payne), Gregory (Xander Berkeley) and Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan). Following Pete 's death, the season continues the story of Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) and his group of survivors, who must take a step back from the violence they 've come to embrace, as multiple threats lead them to adopt a mindset of hardness.
The first half of the season focuses on the group, still having trouble assimilating in the Alexandria Safe - Zone, leading the community through a series of crises, including luring the threat of a massive herd of walkers away from a nearby quarry, an attack by dangerous scavengers known as the Wolves and the invasion of a gargantuan swarm of walkers inside Alexandria. The second half of the season focuses on the group 's discovery of a new survivor community -- The Hilltop -- who they make allies with and becoming adversaries of a vast organization of hostile survivors known as the Saviors.
On October 7, 2014, AMC renewed The Walking Dead for a sixth season. Scott M. Gimple said that the sixth season would continue to remix material from the comic and explained that there would be a flashback backstory to some of the characters:
"There are other people that we 're going to see throughout the season from the comics, and I 'm excited for people to see it, but I do n't want to tell them now. I think a few minor remixes, but some direct stuff from the comic as well, as far as these characters go.
I think there 's a really cool aspect to the first half of the season that serves almost as a prequel to some direct comic stuff in the second half of the season. I think there 's a way that Robert did some of the story that we 're reaching that had a real past to it, where people are referring to some things in the past in the comic. And we 're able to portray some of that backstory in some ways that you did n't get to see in the comic. ''
Filming for the season began in Senoia, Georgia, in early May 2015 and concluded on November 17, 2015. The season contains three extended episodes, airing in expanded 90 - minute time slots, the season premiere, the fourth episode and the season finale.
Three new actors were cast to portray new characters in the sixth season, including Corey Hawkins as Heath, a prominent and long running comic book character who is a supply runner and loyal friend to Glenn Rhee. Merritt Wever joined the cast in the role of comic book character Dr. Denise Cloyd, while Ethan Embry also joined the cast. In September 2015, Xander Berkeley was announced in an unknown recurring role that would debut during the second half of the season, and Berkeley has an option for series regular for the seventh season. In January 2016, Berkeley 's role was confirmed to be Gregory, a character from the comics. Tom Payne joins the cast as Hilltop recruiter, Paul Monroe. On November 10, 2015, it was announced that Jeffrey Dean Morgan had been cast as Negan.
Alanna Masterson who portrays Tara Chambler took maternity leave from the season in the episode "Not Tomorrow Yet '' as she was nine months pregnant during the time of filming the episode. She is absent from the final four episodes, and it is explained through her character going on a two - week supply run.
The sixth season of The Walking Dead has received positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, the season holds a score of 79 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews '', based on 10 critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a 78 % with an average rating of 7.35 out of 10, based on 23 reviews, and an average episode score of 78 %. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Six seasons in, The Walking Dead is still finding ways to top itself, despite slow patches that do little to advance the plot. '' Matt Fowler for IGN gave a 6.8 / 10 rating for the season as a whole. In summary, he said: "Walking Dead 's Season 6 had some big, effective moments while also crumbling under an avalanche of fake outs & trickery. '' He praised the Morgan flashback episode ("Here 's Not Here '') and Carol 's arc and the "string of great, violent episodes in the (second half of the season). '' His major criticisms of the season were "Glenn 's ' death ' - and other cheap fake outs / unnecessary cliffhangers '' and "characters clumsily steered into making dumb choices. ''
Glenn 's fake death in the third episode, "Thank You '', was a major source of controversy. The Hollywood Reporter heavily criticized the decision of the writers to create the story line. Daniel Fienberg felt apathetic about the decision and said, "I 'm not sure I care about (...) the way his death would impact the ensemble. If he 's dead, the loss will be felt most by Maggie, but Maggie just had her sister die a few episodes ago, so there 's no variation anymore to making Lauren Cohan wail, no matter how entirely convincingly she does it. To me, The Walking Dead has lost whatever core of human relationships it ever had, and whether Glenn lives or dies, it just feels mechanical now. '' Tim Goodman expressed shock over the concept of Glenn potentially being alive saying, "I honestly do n't think showrunner Scott M. Gimple is dumb enough to fake this death somehow, not with how implausible it would be for Glenn to survive it. '' The Hollywood Reporter later declared that the show had "lost its credibility '' when Glenn was revealed to be alive in the seventh episode, "Heads Up. '' Scott Gimple responded to the controversy surrounding this. He said, "We 've had instances of people in a very emotional state -- Tyreese jumping into the middle of a large herd and fighting his way out; a man cut off his own hand and fights his way through a department store full of walkers. These things are part of the world. Glenn had the bad luck of being knocked off that dumpster by Nicholas, ending his own life but (Glenn) had the good luck of Nicholas landing on him. There 's a lot of very specific facts about it that I think a lot of people have sort of gotten wrong. But breaking it down shot for shot... I think we 're past that point. I do n't think this is any sort of new instance that broke the rules of our show at all. I think it 's very much in line with everything we 've done before. I do n't think there 's a credibility issue. '' Erik Kain for Forbes felt that the decision ruined Glenn 's storyline. He declared season 6 "a mixed bag '' and was frustrated with the decision to hold off Glenn 's fate for 3 episodes. He said, "... the showrunners spent three more episodes essentially refusing to move the plot forward. We got one good backstory, and then two episodes where almost nothing happened to anyone we cared about. We learned that Maggie was pregnant and that 's about all. '' When speaking of the confirmation of Glenn being alive, Kain felt the decision was "implausible '' from the inconsistency of his fall and camera angle tricks. He also felt the decision to "(drag) it out for weeks '' had "effectively (killed) off all the tension (...) at the end of episode 3. '' Brian Moylan of The Guardian was also critical, saying: "Glenn is alive, and The Walking Dead will never be the same... It would rather kill off a main character than pull a lame switcheroo. Until now. ''
While the first half of the season received heavy criticism, many of the episodes in the second half were critically acclaimed. The episode "No Way Out, '' which resolved all previous cliffhangers, was widely acclaimed. "The Next World '' received highly positive reviews for its lighter tone and the romance between protagonist Rick Grimes and Michonne by fans and critics alike, notably The Guardian and The A.V. Club. Subsequent episodes received praise, notably the episode "Not Tomorrow Yet ''. "The Same Boat '' was lauded for its "strong female focus. '' Jeremy Egner of The New York Times commented positively on Carol 's character development. He adulated the complexity of Carol 's division between ruse and real emotion, saying "Like always, Carol did whatever necessary to survive and protect her cohorts, and did so in particularly brutal fashion (...) but she seems increasingly unable to avoid reckoning with the toll. "Are you O.K.? '' Daryl asked when he arrived. "No, '' she responded, and that was before Rick executed the remaining Savior right in front of her. It 's going to take more than a few Hail Marys to make that image, among many others, go away. ''
The finale, "Last Day on Earth '', received largely mixed to negative reviews, with many criticizing the cliffhanger. It sparked backlash on social media from fans and critics alike. While Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's performance as Negan was praised, the episode was mostly criticized for its cliffhanger ending. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 43 % with an average rating of 6.55 out of 10, based on 30 reviews. The episode 's critical consensus reads, "Despite Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's deliciously evil turn as Negan, the meandering "Last Day on Earth '' -- and its manipulative cliffhanger ending -- make for a disappointing season finale. '' Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C, the lowest grade given by the site for the show to date, and commented, "The problem is almost everything else. We 'll get to Negan and that so - idiotic - it 's - actually - kind - of - hilarious cliffhanger in a second, but before we do, let 's unpack the many ways ' Last Day On Earth ' went wrong. Even the title is bad -- not on its own. '' Todd VanDerWerff of Vox gave the episode a negative review, calling it the worst episode of the show so far, and commenting, "The extra-long episode spent its first hour dramatizing all the excitement of your GPS insisting that you take a road you already know is closed, and the last half - hour sank some nicely spooky moments with a too - long monologue and a completely botched cliffhanger. '' However, he gave a positive review on Negan 's introduction.
For the 42nd Saturn Awards, the sixth season of The Walking Dead received seven nominations and three wins. The wins were for Best Horror Television Series, Best Supporting Actress on Television (Danai Gurira), and Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series (Chandler Riggs). The nominations were for Best Actor on Television (Andrew Lincoln), Best Supporting Actress on Television (Tovah Feldshuh and Melissa McBride), and Best Guest Starring Role on Television (John Carroll Lynch).
The season also received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for the 68th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, which were for Outstanding Prosthetic Make - up for a Series, Limited Series, Movie, or Special and Outstanding Special Visual Effects in a Supporting Role (both for "No Way Out ''). Additionally, the season was also nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series at the 22nd and 23rd Screen Actors Guild Awards for both halves of the season, respectively. For his portrayal of Negan, Jeffrey Dean Morgan earned himself a nomination and win for Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Television Awards for his appearance in the season six finale, in addition to the first half of season seven.
The Walking Dead 's sixth - season premiere ("First Time Again '') received 14.63 million viewers in its initial broadcast on AMC in the United States. The viewership slightly declined from the previous season 's record - breaking premiere ("No Sanctuary '') and the fourth - season premiere ("30 Days Without an Accident ''), but was the most watched television series of the night. The season finale ("Last Day on Earth '') received a 6.9 rating in the key 18 - 49 demographic with 14.19 million total viewers and was a significant increase from the previous episode ("East ''), which received a 5.9 rating and 12.38 million total. This was also significantly lower than the ratings for the fifth - season finale ("Conquer ''), which was watched by 15.78 million American viewers with an 18 - 49 rating of 8.2.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The sixth season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on August 23, 2016.
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along approximately what latitude is the southernmost land claim of the us | Southernmost Point buoy - wikipedia
The Southernmost Point Buoy is an anchored concrete buoy in Key West, Florida, marking the southernmost point in the continental United States, the lowest latitude land of contiguous North American States. It is 18 feet above sea level. The large painted buoy was established as a tourist attraction in 1983 by the city at the corner of South Street and Whitehead Street. Today it is one of the most visited and photographed attractions in the United States.
The southernmost point was originally marked with a small sign, before the City of Key West erected the now famous concrete buoy in 1983. The concrete buoy has overall withstood several hurricanes and is a gathering place for photographs and tourists. The paint job was damaged by Hurricane Irma in September 2017, but it was refurbished later that year by the original artist supported by the City of Key West which values the landmark as a tourist attraction. Cuba is roughly 90 miles south of this point in Key West, although this was not originally on the marker, but rather on a smaller sign next to maker.
Before the concrete buoy there was a wooden sign that noted the southern point at this spot. The old wood sign as of 1970 only said "The Southernmost Point, of Southernmost City, Key West Fla. '' By 1982 this had changed to "The Southernmost Point, In USA, Key West Fla ''. There was separate sign on a nearby fence in that area, with an arrow pointing south (in this case to the left) with the text "90 Miles to Cuba ''.
The buoy is maintained by the Key West Public Works Department and it was dedicated on September 10, 1983. The painted concrete buoy is 12 feet tall and 7 feet wide.
Heading north east begins the route along US 1, a road which goes all the way to Fort Kent, Maine. Next to maker is a cement telegraph hut that was the location that an underwater cable for telephone going to Havana laid in 1917. The cable hut is a small structure just a little east of the Southernmost marker where the cable went into the sea.
As of 2011, the buoy is inscribed: "The Conch Republic. 90 Miles to Cuba, Southernmost, Point, Continental, U.S.A., Key West, F.L., Home of the Sunset ''. The buoy was refurbished in 2005. The phrases "90 miles to Cuba '' and "Home of the Sunset '' were not on the 1986 paint job.
In November 1983, the text did not include the line "90 miles to Cuba '', which was still written on a smaller sign on fence next to the buoy. Next to the buoy, also as of November 1983, there was a script "America Begins '' painted on a curb below the 90 miles to Cuba sign. Also at that time the buoy did not include the text "Home of the Sunset ''. (see also Mallory Square, which hosts Key West sunset celebration)
By the 2010s, there was a web cam that relays video of the street corner where the buoy is located to the internet.
The buoy paint job was done by local painter - artist Danny Acosta, and the City of Key West hired him to paint again after it was damaged by Hurricane Irma in 2017.
A more southern part of Key West Island exists and is publicly accessible: the beach area of Fort Zachary Taylor Historic State Park at approximately 24 ° 32'42.2 "N 81 ° 48'34.5 '' W, and approximately 500 feet (150 m) farther south than the marker. Also the big Island of Hawaii is farther south than Key West (see Ka Lae).
Further south, land on the Truman Annex property, just west - southwest of the buoy, is the true southernmost point on the island (approximately 900 feet (270 m) farther south near 24 ° 32'39.2 "N 81 ° 48'17.8 '' W), but it has no marker since it is U.S. Navy property and can not be entered by civilian tourists.
Finally, the true southernmost point in Florida (as well as in the continental United States) is actually 10 miles away at Ballast Key (24 ° 31'15.9 "N 81 ° 57'49.5 '' W), a privately owned island south and west of Key West. Signs on that island strictly prohibit unauthorized visitors.
The claim on the buoy stating "90 miles to Cuba '' may be a rounded number, since Cuba, at its closest point is 94 statute (81 nautical) miles due south. One book author suggests they meant 90 nautical miles, from a distance of 103 statute (' regular ') miles measuring from Key West to Havana, Cuba. West of Key west there are number of islands that are farther south including Man, Woman, and Ballast Key, and even on the Key West the island the land extends farther south heading West such as at For Zachary Taylor park
The sign at this site from 1970 said that is the was the Southernmost point of Southernmost City of Key West. Over time as the signs were placed, the amount of short messages increased and slowly morphed into the longer string of text today.
In Callahan 's Key (2001) by Spider Robinson it is noted that "The famous, oft - photographed marker at The Southernmost Point... is not. ''
A subplot of Robert Tacoma 's second novel, Key Weirder (2005), involves an interstate dispute over where the true southernmost point is located, and, therefore, where the monument should be placed.
Coordinates: 24 ° 32 ′ 47.42 '' N 81 ° 47 ′ 50.92 '' W / 24.5465056 ° N 81.7974778 ° W / 24.5465056; - 81.7974778
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jersey shore family vacation how long are they in miami | Jersey Shore: Family Vacation - wikipedia
Jersey Shore: Family Vacation is an American reality television series that premiered on MTV globally on April 5, 2018. The series follows seven housemates from the original Jersey Shore spending a month living together in Miami, Florida. On February 28, 2018, a second season had been ordered ahead of the series premiere.
On November 27, 2017, MTV announced that the cast (with the exception of Sammi) would be reuniting in Miami, Florida for a new reunion season titled Jersey Shore: Family Vacation. The series premiered globally on April 5, 2018. According to MTV, it is considered a new series and not the seventh season of the original show.
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what are the sources of non renewable energy | Non-renewable resource - wikipedia
A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time - frames. An example is carbon - based, organically - derived fuel. The original organic material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual elements are almost always conserved.
In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered renewable resources, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans.
Earth minerals and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth 's crust, and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by natural geological processes (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through plate tectonics, tectonic subsidence and crustal recycling.
The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time - frames. There are certain rare earth minerals and elements that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in manufacturing, particularly for the electronics industry.
Most metal ores are considered vastly greater in supply to fossil fuels, because metal ores are formed by crustal - scale processes which make up a much larger portion of the Earth 's near - surface environment, than those that form fossil fuels which are limited to areas where carbon - based life forms flourish, die, and are quickly buried.
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and can not be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil - based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see renewable energy.
An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon - based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined. These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation / replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels. Since the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies in the 19th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase global warming and cause more severe climate change.
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) an organization set up by but independent from the United Nations classified fission reactors that produce more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume - i.e. breeder reactors, and when it is developed, fusion power, among conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar and falling water. The American Petroleum Institute likewise does not consider conventional nuclear fission as renewable, but that breeder reactor nuclear power fuel is considered renewable and sustainable, before explaining that radioactive waste from used spent fuel rods remains dangerous, and so has to be very carefully stored for up to a thousand years. With the careful monitoring of radioactive waste products also being required upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal energy.
The use of nuclear technology relying on fission requires Naturally occurring radioactive material as fuel. Uranium, the most common fission fuel, and is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and mined in 19 countries. This mined uranium is used to fuel energy - generating nuclear reactors with fissionable uranium - 235 which generates heat that is ultimately used to power turbines to generate electricity.
As of 2013 only a few kilograms (picture available) of uranium have been extracted from the ocean in pilot programs and it is also believed that the uranium extracted on an industrial scale from the seawater would constantly be replenished from uranium leached from the ocean floor, maintaining the seawater concentration at a stable level. In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, a paper in the journal of Marine Science & Engineering suggests that with, light water reactors as its target, the process would be economically competitive if implemented on a large scale.
Nuclear power provides about 6 % of the world 's energy and 13 -- 14 % of the world 's electricity. Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous radioactive contamination as it relies upon unstable elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of high level waste (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.
Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high - level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is highly hazardous to people and wildlife. The United Nations (UNSCEAR) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 millisievert (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the Chernobyl disaster and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays; all exposures vary by location. natural uranium in some inefficient reactor nuclear fuel cycles, becomes part of the nuclear waste "once through '' stream, and in a similar manner to the scenario were this uranium remained naturally in the ground, this uranium emits various forms of radiation in a decay chain that has a half - life of about 4.5 billion years, the storage of this unused uranium and the accompanying fission reaction products have raised public concerns about risks of leaks and containment, however the knowledge gained from studying the Natural nuclear fission reactor in Oklo Gabon, has informed geologists on the proven processes that kept the waste from this 2 billion year old natural nuclear reactor that operated for hundreds of thousands of years, from negatively impacting the surrounding plant and animal life.
Natural resources, known as renewable resources, are replaced by natural processes and forces persistent in the natural environment. There are intermittent and reoccurring renewables, and recyclable materials, which are utilized during a cycle across a certain amount of time, and can be harnessed for any number of cycles.
The production of goods and services by manufacturing products in economic systems creates many types of waste during production and after the consumer has made use of it. The material is then either incinerated, buried in a landfill or recycled for reuse. Recycling turns materials of value that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources again.
The natural environment, with soil, water, forests, plants and animals are all renewable resources, as long as they are adequately monitored, protected and conserved. Sustainable agriculture is the cultivation of plant and animal materials in a manner that preserves plant and animal ecosystems over the long term. The overfishing of the oceans is one example of where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem, endanger species and possibly even determine whether or not a fishery is sustainable for use by humans. An unregulated industry practice or method can lead to a complete resource depletion.
The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water (hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically infinite and can not be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.
The potential wave energy on coastlines can provide 1 / 5 of world demand. Hydroelectric power can supply 1 / 3 of our total energy global needs. Geothermal energy can provide 1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough wind to power the planet 30 times over, wind power could power all of humanity 's needs alone. Solar currently supplies only 0.1 % of our world energy needs, but there is enough out there to power humanity 's needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy demand by 2050.
Renewable energy and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are commercializing renewable energy, enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.
In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as goods, where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow. David Ricardo in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by Hotelling 's rule, which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable resource management by Harold Hotelling. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a depletion of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent '' for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the rate of interest, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources. The Hartwick 's rule provides an important result about the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable source.
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who plays the female blacksmith in a knight's tale | A Knight 's Tale - wikipedia
A Knight 's Tale is a 2001 medieval adventure - comedy film written, produced, and directed by Brian Helgeland. The film stars Heath Ledger, Shannyn Sossamon, Mark Addy, Alan Tudyk, Rufus Sewell, Paul Bettany as Geoffrey Chaucer, and James Purefoy as Sir Thomas Colville / Edward, the Black Prince.
The story is told in an anachronistic style with many modern references. It follows a peasant named William who poses as a knight and competes in tournaments, winning accolades and acquiring friendships with such historical figures as Edward, the Black Prince of Wales and Geoffrey Chaucer.
The film takes its title from Chaucer 's "The Knight 's Tale '' in his Canterbury Tales, though the plot is not similar. It was a modest success at the box office, garnering $117,487,473 with a budget of $65 million.
At a jousting tournament in 14th - century Europe, young squires William Thatcher, Roland, and Wat discover that their master, Sir Ector, has died. If he had completed one final pass he would have won the tournament. Destitute, William wears Ector 's armour to impersonate him, winning the tournament and taking the prize.
Although only nobles are allowed in tournaments, William is now inspired to compete and win more prizes. Roland and Wat would rather take their share of coins and leave, but William convinces them to stay and train him to joust. Along the way to his first tournament in Rouen, the trio encounters a young Geoffrey Chaucer, who is also destitute and agrees to forge the patent of nobility that will allow William to enter under the assumed name of "Sir Ulrich von Liechtenstein '' from Gelderland. At the tournament, William is brought before Simon the Summoner and Peter the Pardoner: Chaucer has a gambling problem and is in their debt. William demands Chaucer be released and promises payment.
In the course of competition, William 's armour is damaged. He goads Kate, a blacksmith, to repair it without payment and goes on to win the sword event at the tournament. In the joust, he faces a Sir Thomas Colville, who withdraws from the tournament after being injured by William, though they exchange a ceremonial pass so that Colville can retain the honour of never having failed to complete a match. The proceedings are observed by Jocelyn, a noblewoman with whom William has become infatuated, and Count Adhemar, a rival both in the joust and for Jocelyn 's heart. In the final joust of the tournament, Adhemar defeats William.
Kate joins William 's party and forges new lightweight armour allowing him greater mobility. In the following tournament, Adhemar and William are both assigned to tilt against Sir Thomas Colville, but they learn that he is actually Edward, the Black Prince. Adhemar withdraws, but William continues the match and then addresses the prince by name, further earning Edward 's respect.
Adhemar is called away to the Battle of Poitiers, and William achieves several victories in his absence. William proves his love for Jocelyn by complying when she first asks him to deliberately lose (in contrast to the countless knights who promise to win in her name), and then, just before he would be eliminated, to win the tournament in her name after all.
The group travels to London for the World Championship. William recalls leaving his father to squire for Sir Ector and learn to become a knight hoping to "change his stars ''. Adhemar has also arrived in London and announces that he is in negotiations with Jocelyn 's father for her hand in marriage. William dominates at the tournament and he returns to visit his father, now blind and living alone in Cheapside, but is discovered by Adhemar, who alerts the authorities to William 's false identity.
William is placed in the pillory, but is defended from the hostile crowd by his friends. Just as the mob reaches its frenzy, Prince Edward emerges from the crowd, noting that his friends ' dedication to him reflects an ability to inspire others that is in the best traditions of knighthood. In acknowledgement of William 's honour, Edward announces that, William is in fact, "beyond contestation '', descended from a noble lineage, and knights him "Sir William ''.
William returns to the tournament to face Adhemar in the final match, but Adhemar cheats with an illegally sharpened lance, piercing William 's shoulder and seriously injuring him. Entering the final pass, William is losing by two lances and must unhorse Adhemar to win. He demands to be stripped of his armour while Chaucer buys time by performing the introduction of William that he omitted earlier. Finally he tilts against Adhemar, with his father and Jocelyn in attendance. Bellowing his true name as he tilts, he knocks Adhemar to the ground with a crushing blow. Over his defeat, Adhemar experiences a vision of William and his friends mocking him that he has been weighted, measured and found wanting (ironically just like Adhemar did to William before). In the ensuing celebration, as Jocelyn and William embrace, Chaucer remarks that he should write this whole story down.
The entire film was shot at the Barrandov Studios in Prague, Czech Republic.
The film includes a great deal of jousting footage. The initial scene of the two knights jousting is actually footage of Heath Ledger 's stunt double in an accident. During filming of a later scene in the film, the lance of the stunt double 's opponent moved off target and hit him in the head. The double fell to the ground unconscious. In another incident, Ledger knocked out one of director Helgeland 's front teeth with a broomstick when the two were demonstrating a jousting move. It took several months for Helgeland 's mouth to heal enough to repair the damage.
Plenty of effort was expended creating lances that would convincingly explode upon impact without injuring the stunt riders. The body of each lance was scored so it would break easily, and the tips were made of balsa wood. Each was also hollowed out, with the holes filled with balsa splinters and uncooked linguine. Jousting armour was made by Rod Vass and his company Armordillo Ltd. using a unique sprayed polyurethane system that they invented for the film Gladiator. Onscreen, it is almost impossible to distinguish between the polyurethane stunt armour and steel armour, much of which was also made by Armordillo. Heath Ledger 's armour was originally made in steel along with three polyurethane stunt replicas.
In the DVD commentary, director Helgeland, co-commentating with Bettany, states that the film was intended to have occurred sometime in the 1370s during a six - month period in which Chaucer had apparently gone missing and show what he might have done during this time, which Helgeland says later on in the commentary inspired Chaucer to write his Canterbury Tales. (The first Canterbury tale is The Knight 's Tale. Chaucer also threatens two men he meets in the film with undying humiliation through fiction; these characters seem to have inspired the vitriolic descriptions of the Tales ' Pardoner and Summoner.)
The scene in which the lady Jocelyn asks William to lose a joust to prove his love and then reverses her proposal for him to suddenly win, is also a direct reference to the classic tale of Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, in which Queen Guinevere asks Lancelot to do the same during a tournament.
The script is notable for its use of epigrams.
The film, which notionally took place during the Middle Ages, is notable for its deliberate use of classic rock songs in its soundtrack. The ten that were credited in the film are listed in order of appearance:
Critical reception was mixed, with complaints about the anachronisms (the classic rock in a film that takes place during the Middle Ages), the many jousting scenes, and the thin plot. Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and argued that the anachronisms made little difference, writing that the director himself "pointed out that an orchestral score would be equally anachronistic, since orchestras had n't been invented in the 1400s. ''
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 58 % based on reviews from 146 critics. "Once you get past the anachronism, '' according to the site, "A Knight 's Tale becomes a predictable, if spirited, Rocky on horseback. '' On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 54 out of 100, sampled from 32 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Newsweek revealed in June 2001 that print ads contained glowing comments from a film reviewer who did not exist for at least four films released by Columbia Pictures, including A Knight 's Tale and The Animal (2001). The fake critic was named David Manning and was created by a Columbia employee who worked in the advertising department. "Manning '' was misrepresented as a reviewer for The Ridgefield Press, a small Connecticut weekly.
Despite the mixed critical reception, the film won four cinematic awards:
The film earned $56,569,702 at the North American domestic box office, and an additional $60,917,771 internationally for a worldwide total of $117,487,473.
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when will travellers season 2 be on netflix | Travelers (TV series) - wikipedia
Travelers is a science fiction television series created by Brad Wright, starring Eric McCormack, Mackenzie Porter, Jared Abrahamson, Nesta Cooper, Reilly Dolman and Patrick Gilmore. The series was an international co-production between streaming service Netflix and Canadian specialty channel Showcase for its first two seasons, after which Netflix took over as its sole production company and exclusive worldwide distributor. The show premiered in Canada on October 17, 2016 and worldwide on December 23, 2016. A second season followed in 2017, and a third season is due in late 2018.
In a post-apocalyptic future, thousands of special operatives are tasked with preventing the collapse of society. These operatives, known as "travelers '', have their consciousnesses sent back in time and transferred into the body of present - day individuals who would otherwise be moments from death, to minimize unexpected impact on the timeline. The transfer requires the exact location of the target, made possible by twenty - first century smart phones and GPS. Prepared using social media and public records concerning their targets, each traveler must maintain the host 's pre-existing life as cover for the rest of their lives, while carrying out missions in teams of five. These missions are dictated by the Director, an artificial intelligence in the future that monitors the timeline, aimed at saving the world from a series of catastrophic events. One method by which the Director communicates with travelers is via pre-pubescent children used as messengers; unlike adults, any child can safely be taken over for a few minutes and then released from control without risk of killing them. All travelers are required to behave according to certain protocols to protect the timeline. As the series progresses, however, travelers affect the present and future in unanticipated ways. Showcase explained the protocols on its blog.
The show focuses on one team of five travelers, starting from their transfers of consciousness.
The first season premiered on Netflix on December 23, 2016, before its final two episodes aired on Showcase.
Season 3 is scheduled to premiere worldwide on Netflix in late 2018. Series star Eric McCormack will direct the first episode.
Neil Genzlinger, writing for The New York Times, described the show as "tasty '', and "enjoyable science fiction '', with "some attention - grabbing flourishes and fine acting ''. Hanh Nguyen, writing for IndieWire, describes the series as "fun and freaky, '' finding the series ' appeal "in how the core group of five travelers adjust to life in our present, '' noting the "human nature in the travelers ''. Lawrence Devoe, of TheaterByte.com, called the series "tautly paced and suspenseful '' with "well - developed characters '', declaring that "Brad Wright has a real knack for creating futuristic series ''. Evan Narcisse, reviewing the first five episodes for io9, appreciated the moral dilemmas offered by the series premise and the awkwardness presented by the characters ' interactions with their hosts ' friends, colleagues, lovers, or caretakers: "This is a superhero show in double disguise, offering up clever explorations of the secret identity concept that touch on the guilt and contortions that come with living a double life. '' Netflix announced that the series was one of its "most devoured '' series in 2017.
Season 2 is described as "bigger and better '' by Forbes, which notes: "There 's a lot to love about what Travelers brings to the table this season. The show has truly come into its own. ''
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who sings don't hand me no lines and keep your hands to yourself | Keep Your Hands to Yourself - wikipedia
"Keep Your Hands to Yourself '' is a song by the American southern rock group The Georgia Satellites. The song was written by the group 's lead singer, Dan Baird, and was released in 1986 as their debut single. The single reached # 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 during the week of February 21, 1987, kept off the top spot by "Livin ' on a Prayer '' by Bon Jovi.
The song is in the key of A major with a moderate tempo of about 112 beats per minute. It follows the chord pattern A-D-A-E-A, with vocals ranging from D4 to A5.
The lyrics tell the story of a woman who refuses to become more intimate with her boyfriend until he marries her.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote that the song "rocked as hard as an old Chuck Berry song, as well as being almost as clever. '' In the book 99 Red Balloons: And 100 All - Time One - Hit Wonders, Brent Mann wrote that "it 's just a timeless, kick - out - the - jams rock ' n ' roll number. Dan Baird digs into the song 's vocals with a no - holds - barred zest straight out of a Texas honky - tonk. ''
Several cover versions of the song exist. A year after its release, Hank Williams, Jr. covered it on his album Born to Boogie. John Anderson covered the song in 1994 for his album Country ' til I Die, and released it as the B - side to that album 's single "Bend It Until It Breaks ''. Sawyer Brown released a version from their 2005 album Mission Temple Fireworks Stand. Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers performed a version of the song during their 1989 tour. Garth Brooks performed a version on the This is Garth DVD. The Charlie Daniels Band covered the song on their Tailgate Party album. The song has been a favorite of bar - bands for many years because of its simplicity and popularity.
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plot summary of the adventures of huckleberry finn | Adventures of Huckleberry Finn - wikipedia
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (or, in more recent editions, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) is a novel by Mark Twain, first published in the United Kingdom in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885. Commonly named among the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American literature to be written throughout in vernacular English, characterized by local color regionalism. It is told in the first person by Huckleberry "Huck '' Finn, the narrator of two other Twain novels (Tom Sawyer Abroad and Tom Sawyer, Detective) and a friend of Tom Sawyer. It is a direct sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
The book is noted for its colorful description of people and places along the Mississippi River. Set in a Southern antebellum society that had ceased to exist about 20 years before the work was published, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is an often scathing satire on entrenched attitudes, particularly racism.
Perennially popular with readers, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has also been the continued object of study by literary critics since its publication. The book was widely criticized upon release because of its extensive use of coarse language. Throughout the 20th century, and despite arguments that the protagonist and the tenor of the book are anti-racist, criticism of the book continued due to both its perceived use of racial stereotypes and its frequent use of the racial slur "nigger ''.
In order of appearance:
The story begins in fictional St. Petersburg, Missouri (based on the actual town of Hannibal, Missouri), on the shore of the Mississippi River "forty to fifty years ago '' (the novel having been published in 1884). Huckleberry "Huck '' Finn (the protagonist and first - person narrator) and his friend, Thomas "Tom '' Sawyer, have each come into a considerable sum of money as a result of their earlier adventures (detailed in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer). Huck explains how he is placed under the guardianship of the Widow Douglas, who, together with her stringent sister, Miss Watson, are attempting to "sivilize '' him and teach him religion. Finding civilized life confining, his spirits are raised somewhat when Tom Sawyer helps him to escape one night past Miss Watson 's slave Jim, to meet up with Tom 's gang of self - proclaimed "robbers. '' Just as the gang 's activities begin to bore Huck, he is suddenly interrupted by the reappearance of his shiftless father, "Pap '', an abusive alcoholic. Knowing that Pap would only spend the money on alcohol, Huck is successful in preventing Pap from acquiring his fortune; however, Pap kidnaps Huck and leaves town with him.
Pap forcibly moves Huck to his isolated cabin in the woods along the Illinois shoreline. Because of Pap 's drunken violence and imprisonment of Huck inside the cabin, Huck, during one of his father 's absences, elaborately fakes his own death, escapes from the cabin, and sets off downriver. He settles comfortably, on Jackson 's Island. Here, Huck reunites with Jim, Miss Watson 's slave. Jim has also run away after he overheard Miss Watson planning to sell him "down the river '' to presumably more brutal owners. Jim plans to make his way to the town of Cairo in Illinois, a free state, so that he can later buy the rest of his enslaved family 's freedom. At first, Huck is conflicted about the sin and crime of supporting a runaway slave, but as the two talk in depth and bond over their mutually held superstitions, Huck emotionally connects with Jim, who increasingly becomes Huck 's close friend and guardian. After heavy flooding on the river, the two find a raft (which they keep) as well as an entire house floating on the river. Entering the house to seek loot, Jim finds the naked body of a dead man lying on the floor, shot in the back. He prevents Huck from viewing the corpse.
To find out the latest news in town, Huck dresses as a girl and enters the house of Judith Loftus, a woman new to the area. Huck learns from her about the news of his own supposed murder; Pap was initially blamed, but since Jim ran away he is also a suspect and a reward for Jim 's capture has initiated a manhunt. Mrs. Loftus becomes increasingly suspicious that Huck is a boy, finally proving it by a series of tests. Once he is exposed, she nevertheless allows him to leave her home without commotion, not realizing that he is the allegedly murdered boy they have just been discussing. Huck returns to Jim to tell him the news and that a search party is coming to Jackson 's Island that very night. The two hastily load up the raft and depart.
After a while, Huck and Jim come across a grounded steamship. Searching it, they stumble upon two thieves discussing murdering a third, but they flee before being noticed. They are later separated in a fog, making Jim intensely anxious, and when they reunite, Huck tricks Jim into thinking he dreamed the entire incident. Jim is not deceived for long, and is deeply hurt that his friend should have teased him so mercilessly. Huck becomes remorseful and apologizes to Jim, though his conscience troubles him about humbling himself to a black man.
Traveling onward, Huck and Jim 's raft is struck by a passing steamship, again separating the two. Huck is given shelter on the Kentucky side of the river by the Grangerfords, an "aristocratic '' family. He befriends Buck Grangerford, a boy about his age, and learns that the Grangerfords are engaged in a 30 - year blood feud against another family, the Shepherdsons. The Grangerfords and Shepherdsons go to the same church, which ironically preaches brotherly love. The vendetta finally comes to a head when Buck 's older sister elopes with a member of the Shepherdson clan. In the resulting conflict, all the Grangerford males from this branch of the family are shot and killed, including Buck, whose horrific murder Huck witnesses. He is immensely relieved to be reunited with Jim, who has since recovered and repaired the raft.
Near the Arkansas - Missouri - Tennessee border, Jim and Huck take two on - the - run grifters aboard the raft. The younger man, who is about thirty, introduces himself as the long - lost son of an English duke (the Duke of Bridgewater). The older one, about seventy, then trumps this outrageous claim by alleging that he himself is the Lost Dauphin, the son of Louis XVI and rightful King of France. The "duke '' and "king '' soon become permanent passengers on Jim and Huck 's raft, committing a series of confidence schemes upon unsuspecting locals all along their journey. To divert suspicions from the public away from Jim, they pose him as recaptured slave runaway, but later paint him up entirely blue and call him the "Sick Arab '' so that he can move about the raft without bindings.
On one occasion, the swindlers advertise a three - night engagement of a play called "The Royal Nonesuch ''. The play turns out to be only a couple of minutes ' worth of an absurd, bawdy sham. On the afternoon of the first performance, a drunk called Boggs is shot dead by a gentleman named Colonel Sherburn; a lynch mob forms to retaliate against Sherburn; and Sherburn, surrounded at his home, disperses the mob by making a defiant speech describing how true lynching should be done. By the third night of "The Royal Nonesuch '', the townspeople prepare for their revenge on the duke and king for their money - making scam, but the two cleverly skip town together with Huck and Jim just before the performance begins.
In the next town, the two swindlers then impersonate brothers of Peter Wilks, a recently deceased man of property. To match accounts of Wilks 's brothers, the king attempts an English accent and the duke pretends to be a deaf - mute while starting to collect Wilks 's inheritance. Huck decides that Wilks 's three orphaned nieces, who treat Huck with kindness, do not deserve to be cheated thus and so he tries to retrieve for them the stolen inheritance. In a desperate moment, Huck is forced to hide the money in Wilks 's coffin, which is abruptly buried the next morning. The arrival of two new men who seem to be the real brothers throws everything into confusion, so that the townspeople decide to dig up the coffin in order to determine which are the true brothers, but, with everyone else distracted, Huck leaves for the raft, hoping to never see the duke and king again. Suddenly, though, the two villains return, much to Huck 's despair. When Huck is finally able to get away a second time, he finds to his horror that the swindlers have sold Jim away to a family that intends to return him to his proper owner for the reward. Defying his conscience and accepting the negative religious consequences he expects for his actions -- "All right, then, I 'll go to hell! '' -- Huck resolves to free Jim once and for all.
Huck learns that Jim is being held at the plantation of Silas and Sally Phelps. The family 's nephew, Tom, is expected for a visit at the same time as Huck 's arrival, so Huck is mistaken for Tom and welcomed into their home. He plays along, hoping to find Jim 's location and free him; in a surprising plot twist, it is revealed that the expected nephew is, in fact, Tom Sawyer. When Huck intercepts the real Tom Sawyer on the road and tells him everything, Tom decides to join Huck 's scheme, pretending to be his own younger half - brother, Sid, while Huck continues pretending to be Tom. In the meantime, Jim has told the family about the two grifters and the new plan for "The Royal Nonesuch '', and so the townspeople capture the duke and king, who are then tarred and feathered and ridden out of town on a rail.
Rather than simply sneaking Jim out of the shed where he is being held, Tom develops an elaborate plan to free him, involving secret messages, a hidden tunnel, snakes in a shed, a rope ladder sent in Jim 's food, and other elements from adventure books he has read, including an anonymous note to the Phelps warning them of the whole scheme. During the actual escape and resulting pursuit, Tom is shot in the leg, while Jim remains by his side, risking recapture rather than completing his escape alone. Although a local doctor admires Jim 's decency, he has Jim arrested in his sleep and returned to the Phelps. After this, events quickly resolve themselves. Tom 's Aunt Polly arrives and reveals Huck and Tom 's true identities to the Phelps family. Jim is revealed to be a free man: Miss Watson died two months earlier and freed Jim in her will, but Tom (who already knew this) chose not to reveal this information to Huck so that he could come up with an artful rescue plan for Jim. Jim tells Huck that Huck 's father (Pap Finn) has been dead for some time (he was the dead man they found earlier in the floating house), and so Huck may now return safely to St. Petersburg. Huck is rewarded six hundred dollars for saving the aunts from the con men. Huck gives most of it to Jim for his family. Huck declares that he is quite glad to be done writing his story, and despite Sally 's plans to adopt and civilize him, he intends to flee west to Indian Territory.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn explores themes of race and identity. A complexity exists concerning Jim 's character. While some scholars point out that Jim is good - hearted, moral, and he is not unintelligent (in contrast to several of the more negatively depicted white characters), others have criticized the novel as racist, citing the use of the word "nigger '' and emphasizing the stereotypically "comic '' treatment of Jim 's lack of education, superstition and ignorance.
Throughout the story, Huck is in moral conflict with the received values of the society in which he lives, and while he is unable to consciously refute those values even in his thoughts, he makes a moral choice based on his own valuation of Jim 's friendship and Jim 's human worth, a decision in direct opposition to the things he has been taught. Mark Twain, in his lecture notes, proposes that "a sound heart is a surer guide than an ill - trained conscience '' and goes on to describe the novel as "... a book of mine where a sound heart and a deformed conscience come into collision and conscience suffers defeat ''.
To highlight the hypocrisy required to condone slavery within an ostensibly moral system, Twain has Huck 's father enslave his son, isolate him, and beat him. When Huck escapes -- which anyone would agree was the right thing to do -- he then immediately encounters Jim "illegally '' doing the same thing. The treatment both of them receive are radically different especially with an encounter with Mrs. Judith Loftus who takes pity on who she presumes to be a runaway apprentice, Huck, yet boasts about her husband sending the hounds after a runaway slave, Jim.
Some scholars discuss Huck 's own character, and the novel itself, in the context of its relation to African - American culture as a whole. John Alberti quotes Shelley Fisher Fishkin, who writes in her 1990s book Was Huck Black?: Mark Twain and African - American Voices, "by limiting their field of inquiry to the periphery, '' white scholars "have missed the ways in which African - American voices shaped Twain 's creative imagination at its core. '' It is suggested that the character of Huckleberry Finn illustrates the correlation, and even interrelatedness, between white and black culture in the United States.
The original illustrations were done by E.W. Kemble, at the time a young artist working for Life magazine. Kemble was hand - picked by Twain, who admired his work. Hearn suggests that Twain and Kemble had a similar skill, writing that:
Whatever he may have lacked in technical grace... Kemble shared with the greatest illustrators the ability to give even the minor individual in a text his own distinct visual personality; just as Twain so deftly defined a full - rounded character in a few phrases, so too did Kemble depict with a few strokes of his pen that same entire personage.
As Kemble could afford only one model, most of his illustrations produced for the book were done by guesswork. When the novel was published, the illustrations were praised even as the novel was harshly criticized. E.W. Kemble produced another set of illustrations for Harper 's and the American Publishing Company in 1898 and 1899 after Twain lost the copyright.
Twain initially conceived of the work as a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer that would follow Huckleberry Finn through adulthood. Beginning with a few pages he had removed from the earlier novel, Twain began work on a manuscript he originally titled Huckleberry Finn 's Autobiography. Twain worked on the manuscript off and on for the next several years, ultimately abandoning his original plan of following Huck 's development into adulthood. He appeared to have lost interest in the manuscript while it was in progress, and set it aside for several years. After making a trip down the Hudson River, Twain returned to his work on the novel. Upon completion, the novel 's title closely paralleled its predecessor 's: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer 's Comrade).
Mark Twain composed the story in pen on notepaper between 1876 and 1883. Paul Needham, who supervised the authentication of the manuscript for Sotheby 's books and manuscripts department in New York in 1991, stated, "What you see is (Clemens ') attempt to move away from pure literary writing to dialect writing ''. For example, Twain revised the opening line of Huck Finn three times. He initially wrote, "You will not know about me '', which he changed to, "You do not know about me '', before settling on the final version, "You do n't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of ' The Adventures of Tom Sawyer '; but that ai n't no matter. '' The revisions also show how Twain reworked his material to strengthen the characters of Huck and Jim, as well as his sensitivity to the then - current debate over literacy and voting.
A later version was the first typewritten manuscript delivered to a printer.
Demand for the book spread outside of the United States. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was eventually published on December 10, 1884, in Canada and the United Kingdom, and on February 18, 1885, in the United States. The illustration on page 283 became a point of issue after an engraver, whose identity was never discovered, made a last - minute addition to the printing plate of Kemble 's picture of old Silas Phelps, which drew attention to Phelps ' groin. Thirty thousand copies of the book had been printed before the obscenity was discovered. A new plate was made to correct the illustration and repair the existing copies.
In 1885, the Buffalo Public Library 's curator, James Fraser Gluck, approached Twain to donate the manuscript to the library. Twain did so. Later it was believed that half of the pages had been misplaced by the printer. In 1991, the missing first half turned up in a steamer trunk owned by descendants of Gluck 's. The library successfully claimed possession and, in 1994, opened the Mark Twain Room to showcase the treasure.
In relation to the literary climate at the time of the book 's publication in 1885, Henry Nash Smith describes the importance of Mark Twain 's already established reputation as a "professional humorist '', having already published over a dozen other works. Smith suggests that while the "dismantling of the decadent Romanticism of the later nineteenth century was a necessary operation, '' Adventures of Huckleberry Finn illustrated "previously inaccessible resources of imaginative power, but also made vernacular language, with its new sources of pleasure and new energy, available for American prose and poetry in the twentieth century. ''
While it was clear that the publication of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was controversial from the outset, Norman Mailer, writing in The New York Times in 1984, concluded that Twain 's novel was not initially "too unpleasantly regarded. '' In fact, Mailer writes: "the critical climate could hardly anticipate T.S. Eliot and Ernest Hemingway 's encomiums 50 years later, '' reviews that would remain longstanding in the American consciousness.
Alberti suggests that the academic establishment responded to the book 's challenges both dismissively and with confusion. During Twain 's time, and today, defenders of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn "lump all nonacademic critics of the book together as extremists and ' censors ' thus equating the complaints about the book 's ' coarseness ' from the genteel bourgeois trustees of the Concord Public Library in the 1880s with more recent objections based on race and civil rights. ''
Upon issue of the American edition in 1885 several libraries banned it from their shelves. The early criticism focused on what was perceived as the book 's crudeness. One incident was recounted in the newspaper the Boston Transcript:
The Concord (Mass.) Public Library committee has decided to exclude Mark Twain 's latest book from the library. One member of the committee says that, while he does not wish to call it immoral, he thinks it contains but little humor, and that of a very coarse type. He regards it as the veriest trash. The library and the other members of the committee entertain similar views, characterizing it as rough, coarse, and inelegant, dealing with a series of experiences not elevating, the whole book being more suited to the slums than to intelligent, respectable people.
Writer Louisa May Alcott criticized the book 's publication as well, saying that if Twain "(could not) think of something better to tell our pure - minded lads and lasses he had best stop writing for them ''.
Twain later remarked to his editor, "Apparently, the Concord library has condemned Huck as ' trash and only suitable for the slums. ' This will sell us another twenty - five thousand copies for sure! ''
In 1905, New York 's Brooklyn Public Library also banned the book due to "bad word choice '' and Huck 's having "not only itched but scratched '' within the novel, which was considered obscene. When asked by a Brooklyn librarian about the situation, Twain sardonically replied:
I am greatly troubled by what you say. I wrote ' Tom Sawyer ' & ' Huck Finn ' for adults exclusively, & it always distressed me when I find that boys and girls have been allowed access to them. The mind that becomes soiled in youth can never again be washed clean. I know this by my own experience, & to this day I cherish an unappeased bitterness against the unfaithful guardians of my young life, who not only permitted but compelled me to read an unexpurgated Bible through before I was 15 years old. None can do that and ever draw a clean sweet breath again on this side of the grave.
Many subsequent critics, Ernest Hemingway among them, have deprecated the final chapters, claiming the book "devolves into little more than minstrel - show satire and broad comedy '' after Jim is detained. Although Hemingway declared, "All modern American literature comes from '' Huck Finn, and hailed it as "the best book we 've had '', he cautioned, "If you must read it you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys (sic). That is the real end. The rest is just cheating. '' Pulitzer Prize winner Ron Powers states in his Twain biography (Mark Twain: A Life) that "Huckleberry Finn endures as a consensus masterpiece despite these final chapters '', in which Tom Sawyer leads Huck through elaborate machinations to rescue Jim.
In his introduction to The Annotated Huckleberry Finn, Michael Patrick Hearn writes that Twain "could be uninhibitedly vulgar '', and quotes critic William Dean Howells, a Twain contemporary, who wrote that the author 's "humor was not for most women ''. However, Hearn continues by explaining that "the reticent Howells found nothing in the proofs of Huckleberry Finn so offensive that it needed to be struck out ''.
Much of modern scholarship of Huckleberry Finn has focused on its treatment of race. Many Twain scholars have argued that the book, by humanizing Jim and exposing the fallacies of the racist assumptions of slavery, is an attack on racism. Others have argued that the book falls short on this score, especially in its depiction of Jim. According to Professor Stephen Railton of the University of Virginia, Twain was unable to fully rise above the stereotypes of black people that white readers of his era expected and enjoyed, and, therefore, resorted to minstrel show - style comedy to provide humor at Jim 's expense, and ended up confirming rather than challenging late - 19th century racist stereotypes.
In one instance, the controversy caused a drastically altered interpretation of the text: in 1955, CBS tried to avoid controversial material in a televised version of the book, by deleting all mention of slavery and omitting the character of Jim entirely.
Because of this controversy over whether Huckleberry Finn is racist or anti-racist, and because the word "nigger '' is frequently used in the novel (a commonly used word in Twain 's time which has since become vulgar and taboo), many have questioned the appropriateness of teaching the book in the U.S. public school system -- this questioning of the word "nigger '' is illustrated by a school administrator of Virginia in 1982 calling the novel the "most grotesque example of racism I 've ever seen in my life ''. According to the American Library Association, Huckleberry Finn was the fifth most frequently challenged book in the United States during the 1990s.
There have been several more recent cases involving protests for the banning of the novel. In 2003, high school student Calista Phair and her grandmother, Beatrice Clark, in Renton, Washington, proposed banning the book from classroom learning in the Renton School District, though not from any public libraries, because of the word "nigger ''. Clark filed a request with the school district in response to the required reading of the book, asking for the novel to be removed from the English curriculum. The two curriculum committees that considered her request eventually decided to keep the novel on the 11th grade curriculum, though they suspended it until a panel had time to review the novel and set a specific teaching procedure for the novel 's controversial topics.
In 2009, a Washington state high school teacher called for the removal of the novel from a school curriculum. The teacher, John Foley, called for replacing Adventures of Huckleberry Finn with a more modern novel. In an opinion column that Foley wrote in the Seattle Post Intelligencer, he states that all "novels that use the ' N - word ' repeatedly need to go. '' He states that teaching the novel is not only unnecessary, but difficult due to the offensive language within the novel with many students becoming uncomfortable at "just hear (ing) the N - word. '' He views this change as "common sense, '' with Obama 's election into office as a sign that Americans "are ready for a change, '' and that by removing these books from the reading lists, they would be following this change.
Publishers of the book have made their own attempts at easing the controversy by way of less - coarse publications. A 2011 edition of the book, published by NewSouth Books, replaced the word "nigger '' with "slave '' (although being incorrectly addressed to a freed man) and did not use the term "Injun. '' Mark Twain scholar Alan Gribben said he hoped the edition would be more friendly for use in classrooms, rather than have the work banned outright from classroom reading lists due to its language.
According to publisher Suzanne La Rosa "At NewSouth, we saw the value in an edition that would help the works find new readers. If the publication sparks good debate about how language impacts learning or about the nature of censorship or the way in which racial slurs exercise their baneful influence, then our mission in publishing this new edition of Twain 's works will be more emphatically fulfilled. '' Another scholar, Thomas Wortham, criticized the changes, saying the new edition "does n't challenge children to ask, ' Why would a child like Huck use such reprehensible language? ' ''
In 2016, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was removed from a public school district in Virginia, along with the novel To Kill a Mockingbird, due to their use of racial slurs.
Responses to this include the publishing of The Hipster Huckleberry Finn which is an edition with the word "nigger '' replaced with the word "hipster ''. The book 's description includes this statement "Thanks to editor Richard Grayson, the adventures of Huckleberry Finn are now neither offensive nor uncool. ''
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why did congress pass the kansas nebraska act | Kansas -- Nebraska Act - wikipedia
The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 (10 Stat. 277) created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and was drafted by Democratic Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois and President Franklin Pierce. The initial purpose of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act was to open up thousands of new farms and make feasible a Midwestern Transcontinental Railroad. The popular sovereignty clause of the law led pro - and anti-slavery elements to flood into Kansas with the goal of voting slavery up or down, resulting in Bleeding Kansas.
The availability of tens of millions of acres of excellent farmland in the area made it necessary to create a territorial infrastructure to allow settlement. Railroad interests were especially eager to start operations since they needed farmers as customers. Four previous attempts to pass legislation had failed. The solution was a bill proposed in January 1854 by Douglas: the Democratic Party leader in the US Senate, the chairman of the Committee on Territories, an avid promoter of railroads, an aspirant to the presidency, and a fervent believer in popular sovereignty: the policy of letting the voters, almost exclusively white males, of a territory decide whether or not slavery should exist in it.
Since the 1840s, the topic of a transcontinental railroad had been discussed. While there were debates over the specifics, especially the route to be taken, there was a public consensus that such a railroad should be built by private interests, financed by public land grants. In 1845, Douglas, serving in his first term in the US House of Representatives, had submitted an unsuccessful plan to organize the Nebraska Territory formally, as the first step in building a railroad with its eastern terminus in Chicago. Railroad proposals were debated in all subsequent sessions of Congress with cities such as Chicago, St. Louis, Quincy, Memphis, and New Orleans competing to be the jumping - off point for the construction.
Several proposals in late 1852 and early 1853 had strong support, but they failed because of disputes over whether the railroad would follow a northern or a southern route. In early 1853, the House of Representatives passed a bill 107 to 49 to organize the Nebraska Territory in the land west of Iowa and Missouri. In March, the bill moved to the Senate Committee on Territories, which was headed by Douglas. Missouri Senator David Atchison announced that he would support the Nebraska proposal only if slavery was allowed. While the bill was silent on this issue, slavery would have been prohibited, under the Missouri Compromise. Other Southern senators were as inflexible as Atchison. By a vote of 23 to 17, the Senate voted to table the motion, with every senator from the states south of Missouri voting to table.
During the Senate adjournment, the issues of the railroad and the repeal of the Missouri Compromise became entangled in Missouri politics, as Atchison campaigned for re-election against the forces of Thomas Hart Benton. Atchison was maneuvered into choosing between antagonizing the state 's railroad interests or its slaveholders. Finally, Atchison took the position that he would rather see Nebraska "sink in hell '' before he would allow it to be overrun by free soilers.
Representatives then generally found lodging in boarding houses when they were in the nation 's capital to perform their legislative duties. Atchison shared lodgings in an F Street house, shared by the leading Southerners in Congress. Atchison himself was the Senate 's president pro tempore. His housemates included Robert T. Hunter (from Virginia, chairman of the Finance Committee), James Mason (from Virginia, chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee) and Andrew P. Butler (from South Carolina, chairman of the Judiciary Committee). When Congress reconvened on December 5, 1853, the group, termed the F Street Mess, along with Virginian William O. Goode, formed the nucleus that would insist on slaveholder equality in Nebraska. Douglas was aware of the group 's opinions and power and knew that he needed to address its concerns.
Iowa Senator Augustus C. Dodge immediately reintroduced the same legislation to organize Nebraska that had stalled in the previous session; it was referred to Douglas 's committee on December 14. Douglas, hoping to achieve the support of the Southerners, publicly announced that the same principle that had been established in the Compromise of 1850 should apply in Nebraska.
In the Compromise of 1850, Utah and New Mexico Territories had been organized without any restrictions on slavery, and many supporters of Douglas argued that the compromise had already superseded the Missouri Compromise. The two territories, however, unlike Nebraska, had not been part of the Louisiana Purchase and had never been subject to the Missouri Compromise.
The bill was reported to the main body of the Senate on January 4, 1854. It had been modified by Douglas, who had also authored the New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory Acts, to mirror the language from the Compromise of 1850. In the bill, a vast new Nebraska Territory was created to extend from Kansas north all the way to the 49th parallel, the US -- Canada border. A large portion of Nebraska Territory would soon be split off into Dakota Territory (1861), and smaller portions transferred to Colorado Territory (1861) and Idaho Territory (1863) before the balance of the land became the State of Nebraska in 1867.
Furthermore, any decisions on slavery in the new lands were to be made "when admitted as a state or states, the said territory, or any portion of the same, shall be received into the Union, with or without slavery, as their constitution may prescribe at the time of their admission. '' In a report accompanying the bill, Douglas 's committee wrote that the Utah and New Mexico Acts
... were intended to have a far more comprehensive and enduring effect than the mere adjustment of the difficulties arising out of the recent acquisition of Mexican territory. They were designed to establish certain great principles, which would not only furnish adequate remedies for existing evils, but, in all time to come, avoid the perils of a similar agitation, by withdrawing the question of slavery from the halls of Congress and the political arena, and committing it to the arbitrament of those who were immediately interested in, and alone responsible for its consequences.
The report compared the situation in New Mexico and Utah with the situation in Nebraska. In the first instance, many had argued that slavery had previously been prohibited under Mexican law, just as it was prohibited in Nebraska under the Missouri Compromise. Just as the creation of New Mexico and Utah territories had not ruled on the validity of Mexican law on the acquired territory, the Nebraska bill was neither "affirming or repealing... the Missouri act. '' In other words, popular sovereignty was being established by ignoring, rather than addressing, the problem presented by the Missouri Compromise.
Douglas 's attempt to finesse his way around the Missouri Compromise did not work. Kentucky Whig Archibald Dixon believed that unless the Missouri Compromise was explicitly repealed, slaveholders would be reluctant to move to the new territory until slavery was actually approved by the settlers, who would most likely oppose slavery. On January 16 Dixon surprised Douglas by introducing an amendment that would repeal the section of the Missouri Compromise that prohibited slavery north of the 36 ° 30 ' parallel. Douglas met privately with Dixon and in the end, despite his misgivings on Northern reaction, agreed to accept Dixon 's arguments.
From a political standpoint, the Whig Party had been in decline in the South because of the effectiveness with which it had been hammered by the Democratic Party over slavery. The Southern Whigs hoped that by seizing the initiative on this issue, they would be identified as strong defenders of slavery. Many Northern Whigs broke with them in the Act. The party eventually died by the division over the issue.
A similar amendment was offered in the House by Philip Phillips of Alabama. With the encouragement of the "F Street Mess '', Douglas met with them and Phillips to ensure that the momentum for passing the bill remained with the Democratic Party. They arranged to meet with President Franklin Pierce to ensure that the issue would be declared a test of party loyalty within the Democratic Party.
Pierce had barely mentioned Nebraska in his State of the Union message the previous month and was not enthusiastic about the implications of repealing the Missouri Compromise. Close advisors Senator Lewis Cass, a proponent of popular sovereignty as far back as 1848 as an alternative to the Wilmot Proviso, and Secretary of State William L. Marcy both told Pierce that repeal would create serious political problems. The full cabinet met and only Secretary of War Jefferson Davis and Secretary of Navy James C. Dobbin supported repeal. Instead the president and cabinet submitted to Douglas an alternative plan that would have sought out a judicial ruling on the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise. Both Pierce and Attorney General Caleb Cushing believed that the Supreme Court would find it unconstitutional.
Douglas 's committee met later that night. Douglas was agreeable to the proposal, but the Atchison group was not. Determined to offer the repeal to Congress on January 23 but reluctant to act without Pierce 's commitment, Douglas arranged through Davis to meet with Pierce on January 22 even though it was a Sunday, when Pierce generally refrained from conducting any business. Douglas was accompanied at the meeting by Atchison, Hunter, Phillips, and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky.
Douglas and Atchison first met alone with Pierce before the whole group convened. Pierce was persuaded to support repeal, and at Douglas ' insistence, Pierce provided a written draft, asserting that the Missouri Compromise had been made inoperative by the principles of the Compromise of 1850. Pierce later informed his cabinet, which concurred in the change of direction. The Washington Union, the communications organ for the administration, wrote on January 24 that support for the bill would be "a test of Democratic orthodoxy. ''
On January 23, a revised bill was introduced in the Senate that repealed the Missouri Compromise and divided the territory into two territories: Kansas and Nebraska. The division was the result of concerns expressed by settlers already in Nebraska as well as the senators from Iowa, who were concerned with the location of the territory 's seat of government if such a large territory were created. Existing language to affirm the application of all other laws of the United States in the new territory was supplemented by the language agreed on with Pierce: "except the eighth section of the act preparatory to the admission of Missouri into the Union, approved March 6, 1820, which was superseded by the legislation of 1850, commonly called the compromise measures, and is declared inoperative. '' Identical legislation was soon introduced in the House.
Historian Allan Nevins wrote that "two interconnected battles began to rage, one in Congress and one in the country at large: each fought with a pertinacity, bitterness, and rancor unknown even in Wilmot Proviso days. '' In Congress, the freesoilers were at a distinct disadvantage. The Democrats held large majorities in each house, and Douglas, "a ferocious fighter, the fiercest, most ruthless, and most unscrupulous that Congress had perhaps ever known '' led a tightly disciplined party. It was in the nation at large that the opponents of Nebraska hoped to achieve a moral victory. The New York Times, which had earlier supported Pierce, predicted that this would be the final straw for Northern supporters of the slavery forces and would "create a deep - seated, intense, and ineradicable hatred of the institution which will crush its political power, at all hazards, and at any cost. ''
The day after the bill was reintroduced, two Ohioans, Representative Joshua Giddings and Senator Salmon P. Chase, published a free - soil response, "Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the People of the United States: ''
We arraign this bill as a gross violation of a sacred pledge; as a criminal betrayal of precious rights; as part and parcel of an atrocious plot to exclude from a vast unoccupied region immigrants from the Old World and free laborers from our own States, and convert it into a dreary region of despotism, inhabited by masters and slaves.
Douglas took the appeal personally and responded in Congress, when the debate was opened on January 30 before a full House and packed gallery. Douglas biographer Robert W. Johanssen described part of the speech:
Douglas charged the authors of the "Appeal '', whom he referred to throughout as the "Abolitionist confederates '', with having perpetrated a "base falsehood '' in their protest. He expressed his own sense of betrayal, recalling that Chase, "with a smiling face and the appearance of friendship '', had appealed for a postponement of debate on the ground that he had not yet familiarized himself with the bill. "Little did I suppose at the time that I granted that act of courtesy, '' Douglas remarked, that Chase and his compatriots had published a document "in which they arraigned me as having been guilty of a criminal betrayal of my trust, '' of bad faith, and of plotting against the cause of free government. While other Senators were attending divine worship, they had been "assembled in a secret conclave '', devoting the Sabbath to their own conspiratorial and deceitful purposes.
The debate would continue for four months, as many Anti-Nebraska political rallies were held across the north. Douglas remained the main advocate for the bill while Chase, William Seward, of New York, and Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, led the opposition. The New - York Tribune wrote on March 2:
The debate in the Senate concluded on March 4, 1854, when Douglas, beginning near midnight on March 3, made a five - and - a-half - hour speech. The final vote in favor of passage was 37 to 14. Free - state senators voted 14 to 12 in favor, and slave - state senators supported the bill 23 to 2.
On March 21, 1854, as a delaying tactic in the House of Representatives, the legislation was referred by a vote of 110 to 95 to the Committee of the Whole, where it was the last item on the calendar. Realizing from the vote to stall that the act faced an uphill struggle, the Pierce administration made it clear to all Democrats that passage of the bill was essential to the party and would dictate how federal patronage would be handled. Davis and Cushing, from Massachusetts, along with Douglas, spearheaded the partisan efforts. By the end of April, Douglas believed that there were enough votes to pass the bill. The House leadership then began a series of roll call votes in which legislation ahead of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act was called to the floor and tabled without debate.
Thomas Hart Benton was among those speaking forcefully against the measure. On April 25, in a House speech that biographer William Nisbet Chambers called "long, passionate, historical, (and) polemical, '' Benton attacked the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, which he "had stood upon... above thirty years, and intended to stand upon it to the end -- solitary and alone, if need be; but preferring company. '' The speech was distributed afterwards as a pamphlet when opposition to the act moved outside the walls of Congress.
It was not until May 8 that the debate began in the House. The debate was even more intense than in the Senate. While it seemed to be a foregone conclusion that the bill would pass, the opponents went all out to fight it. Historian Michael Morrison wrote:
A filibuster led by Lewis D. Campbell, an Ohio free - soiler, nearly provoked the House into a war of more than words. Campbell, joined by other antislavery northerners, exchanged insults and invectives with southerners, neither side giving quarter. Weapons were brandished on the floor of the House. Finally, bumptiousness gave way to violence. Henry A. Edmundson, a Virginia Democrat, well oiled and well armed, had to be restrained from making a violent attack on Campbell. Only after the sergeant at arms arrested him, debate was cut off, and the House adjourned did the melee subside.
The floor debate was handled by Alexander Stephens, of Georgia, who insisted that the Missouri Compromise had never been a true compromise but had been imposed on the South. He argued that the issue was whether republican principles, "that the citizens of every distinct community or State should have the right to govern themselves in their domestic matters as they please, '' would be honored.
The final vote in favor of the bill was 113 to 100. Northern Democrats supported the bill 44 to 42, but all 45 northern Whigs opposed it. Southern Democrats voted in favor by 57 to 2, and southern Whigs supported it by 12 to 7. Pierce signed the bill into law on May 30.
The immediate responses to the passing of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act fell into two classes. The less common response was held by Douglas 's supporters, who believed that the bill would withdraw "the question of slavery from the halls of Congress and the political arena, committing it to the arbitration of those who were immediately interested in, and alone responsible for, its consequences. '' In other words, they believed that the Act would leave decisions about slavery in the hands of the people, rather than under the carefully - balanced jurisdiction of the Federal government. The far more common response was one of outrage, interpreting Douglas 's actions as part of "an atrocious plot. '' Especially in the eyes of northerners, the Kansas -- Nebraska Act was aggression and an attack on the power and beliefs of free states. The response led to calls for public action against the South, as seen in broadsides that advertised gatherings in northern states to discuss publicly what to do about the presumption of the Act.
Bleeding Kansas, Bloody Kansas or the Border War was a series of violent political confrontations in the United States between 1854 and 1861 involving anti-slavery "Free - Staters '' and pro-slavery "Border Ruffian '', or "southern '' elements in Kansas. At the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would allow or outlaw slavery, and thus enter the Union as a slave state or a free state.
Pro-slavery settlers came to Kansas mainly from neighboring Missouri. Their influence in territorial elections was often bolstered by resident Missourians who crossed into Kansas solely for the purpose of voting in such ballots. They formed groups such as the Blue Lodges and were dubbed border ruffians, a term coined by opponent and abolitionist Horace Greeley. Abolitionist settlers, known as "Jayhawkers, '' moved from the East expressly to make Kansas a free state. A clash between the opposing sides was inevitable.
Successive territorial governors, usually sympathetic to slavery, attempted to maintain the peace. The territorial capital of Lecompton, the target of much agitation, became such a hostile environment for Free - Staters that they set up their own, unofficial legislature, at Topeka.
John Brown and his sons gained notoriety in the fight against slavery by murdering five pro-slavery farmers with a broadsword in the Pottawatomie massacre. Brown also helped defend a few dozen Free - State supporters from several hundred angry pro-slavery supporters at Osawatomie.
Hostilities between the factions reached a state of low - intensity civil war, which was damaging to Pierce. The new Republican Party sought to capitalize on the scandal of Bleeding Kansas. Routine ballot - rigging and intimidation, practiced by both pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers, failed to deter the immigration of anti-slavery settlers, who eventually became the majority of the population.
Prior to the organization of the Kansas -- Nebraska territory in 1854, the Kansas and Nebraska Territories were consolidated as part of the Indian Territory. Throughout the 1830s, large - scale relocations of Native American tribes to the Indian Territory took place, with many Southeastern nations removed to present - day Oklahoma, a process ordered by the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and known as the Trail of Tears, and many Midwestern nations removed by way of treaty to present - day Kansas. Among the latter were the Shawnee, Delaware, Kickapoo, Kaskaskia and Peoria, Ioway, and Miami. The passing of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act came into direct conflict with the relocations. White American settlers from both the free - soil North and pro-slavery South flooded the Northern Indian Territory, hoping to influence the vote on slavery that would come following the admittance of Kansas and, to a lesser extent, Nebraska to the United States.
In order to avoid and / or alleviate the reservation - settlement problem, further treaty negotiations were attempted with the tribes of Kansas and Nebraska. In 1854 alone, the U.S. agreed to acquire lands in Kansas or Nebraska from several tribes including the Kickapoo, Delaware, Omaha, Shawnee, Otoe and Missouri, Miami, and Kaskaskia and Peoria. In exchange for their land cessions, the tribes largely received small reservations in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma or Kansas in some cases.
For the nations that remained in Kansas beyond 1854, the Kansas -- Nebraska Act introduced a host of other problems. In 1855, white "squatters '' built the city of Leavenworth on the Delaware reservation without the consent of either the Delaware or the US government. When Commissioner of Indian Affairs George Manypenny ordered for military support in removing the squatters, both the military and the squatters refused to comply, undermining both Federal authority and the treaties in place with the Delaware. In addition to the violations of treaty agreements, other promises made were not being kept. Construction and infrastructure improvement projects dedicated in nearly every treaty, for example, took a great deal longer than expected. Beyond that, however, the most damaging violation by White American settlers was the mistreatment of Native Americans and their properties. Personal maltreatment, stolen property, and deforestation have all been cited. Furthermore, the squatters ' premature and illegal settlement of the Kansas Territory jeopardized the value of the land and, with it, the future of the Indian tribes living on them. Because treaties were land cessions and purchases, the value of the land handed over to the Federal government was critical to the payment received by a given Native nation. Deforestation, destruction of property, and other general injuries to the land lowered the value of the territories that were ceded by the Kansas Territory tribes.
Manypenny 's 1856 "Report on Indian Affairs '' explained the devastating effect of diseases White settlers brought to Kansas on Indian populations. Without providing statistics, Indian Affairs Superintendent to the area Colonel Alfred Cumming reported at least more deaths than births in most tribes in the area. While noting intemperance, or alcoholism, as a leading cause of death, Cumming specifically cited cholera, smallpox, and measles, none of which the Native Americans were able to treat. The disastrous epidemics exemplified the Osage people, who lost an estimated 1300 lives to scurvy, measles, smallpox, and scrofula between 1852 and 1856, contributing, in part, to the massive decline in population, from 8000 in 1850 to just 3500 in 1860. The Osage had already encountered epidemics associated with relocation and white settlement. The initial removal acts in the 1830s brought both White American settlers and foreign Native American tribes to the Great Plains and into contact with the Osage people. Between 1829 and 1843, influenza, cholera, and smallpox killed an estimated 1242 Osage Indians, resulting in a population recession of roughly 20 percent between 1830 and 1850.
Though their role has been largely minimized or excluded in many historical accounts, Native Americans were also subjected to a great deal of violence during Bleeding Kansas. It has been argued that the widespread absence of Indian involvement in Bleeding Kansas and the settlement of Kansas as a whole from historical texts are caused by racism, an insistence that Native Americans are "half - civilized '' and have "done nothing for the world, '' Furthermore, it has also been argued that the dismissal of Native Americans, as civilized societies, removed White settlers from responsibility for their transgressions against Indian tribes in Kansas throughout Bleeding Kansas.
The Kansas -- Nebraska Act divided the nation and pointed it toward civil war. The Act itself virtually nullified the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The turmoil over the act split both the Democratic and Whig parties and gave rise to the Republican Party, which split the United States into two major political camps, the Republican North and the Democratic South.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas and former Illinois Representative Abraham Lincoln aired their disagreement over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in seven public speeches during September and October 1854. Lincoln gave his most comprehensive argument against slavery and the provisions of the act in Peoria, Illinois, on October 16, the Peoria Speech. He and Douglas both spoke to the large audience, Douglas first and Lincoln in response, two hours later. Lincoln 's three - hour speech presented thorough moral, legal, and economic arguments against slavery and raised Lincoln 's political profile for the first time. The speeches set the stage for the Lincoln - Douglas debates four years later, when Lincoln was running for Douglas 's Senate seat.
A new anti-slavery state constitution, known as the Wyandotte Constitution, was eventually drawn up. On January 29, 1861, five weeks before Lincoln 's inauguration, Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state. On March 1, 1867, Nebraska was admitted to the Union. By then, the 1861 -- 1865 Civil War had been fought, and slavery itself had been outlawed throughout the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
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when calls the heart season 4 episode 1 part 1 | List of when Calls the Heart episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of episodes for When Calls the Heart, an American - Canadian television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West Series. Developed by Michael Landon Jr., the series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
On April 24, 2017, star Erin Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season in 2018. The series has also been renewed for a sixth season. As of April 22, 2018, 50 episodes of When Calls the Heart have aired, concluding the fifth season.
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who is the only bowler to have taken a hattrick in both innings of a test matches | List of Test cricket hat - tricks - wikipedia
In the sport of cricket, a hat - trick is an occasion where a bowler takes three wickets in consecutive deliveries. As of 31 July 2017, this feat has only been achieved 43 times in more than two thousand Test matches, the form of the sport in which national representative teams compete in matches of up to five days ' duration. The first Test hat - trick was recorded on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match to take place, by the Australian pace bowler Fred Spofforth, nicknamed "The Demon Bowler '', who dismissed three English batsmen with consecutive deliveries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. The most recent bowler to achieve the feat was English spin bowler Moeen Ali against South Africa on 31 July 2017. At least one bowler from each of the ten nations that have played Test cricket have taken a Test hat - trick.
A player has taken two hat - tricks in the same Test match only once. Playing for Australia against South Africa in the first match of the 1912 Triangular Tournament at Old Trafford, Manchester, England, leg spinner Jimmy Matthews took a hat - trick in South Africa 's first and second innings, both taken on 28 May 1912. He completed both hat - tricks by dismissing South Africa 's Tommy Ward. Only three other cricketers have taken more than one Test hat - trick: Australian off spinner Hugh Trumble (two years apart, between the same teams at the same ground), Pakistani fast bowler Wasim Akram (just over a week apart, in consecutive matches between the same teams) and English fast bowler Stuart Broad. Three players have taken a hat - trick on their Test debut: English medium pace bowler Maurice Allom in 1930, New Zealand off - spinner Peter Petherick in 1976, and Australian pace bowler Damien Fleming in 1994. Geoff Griffin took the fewest total Test wickets of any player who recorded a hat - trick, taking only eight wickets in his entire Test career. During the match in which he took his hat - trick, Griffin was repeatedly called for throwing by the umpires and never bowled again in a Test match. Australian Peter Siddle is the only bowler to take a hat - trick on his birthday, and Bangladeshi off spinner Sohag Gazi is the only player to score a century and take a hat - trick in the same Test match.
Australian Merv Hughes is the only bowler to take a hat - trick where the wickets fell over three overs. He took a wicket with the final ball of an over. With the first ball of the next over he took the final wicket of the West Indies innings. He then removed the opener Gordon Greenidge with the first ball of the West Indies second innings.
In the five - match series between a Rest of the World XI and England in 1970, a hat - trick was taken by South African Eddie Barlow in the fourth match, at Headingley (the last three of four wickets in five balls). These matches were considered to be Tests at the time, but that status was later removed.
England and Australia combined have taken over half of all Test match hat - tricks to date, 25 of 43 (58.14 %).
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who was the first actor to get paid royalties | Residual (entertainment industry) - wikipedia
Residuals are royalties that are paid to the actors, film or television directors, and others involved in making TV shows and movies in cases of reruns, syndication, DVD release, or online streaming release. Residuals are calculated and administered by industry trade unions like SAG - AFTRA, the Directors Guild of America, and the Writers Guild of America. The word is typically used in the plural form.
Technological advances gave rise to residual payments, and their evolution can be traced in terms of those technologies.
Residuals were established in U.S. network radio. Live radio programs with nationwide audiences were generally performed either two or three times to account for different time zones between the east and west coasts of the United States. The performers were paid for each performance. After audio "transcription disc '' technology became widely available in the late 1930s, it was initially used to make recordings to send to radio stations that were not connected to the live network. As sound quality improved, radio networks began using them for time - delaying west coast broadcasts, eventually eliminating the need for multiple performances. The performers were kept on standby and paid for a second performance in case there were technical problems. This established the precedent for residual payments from recorded performances.
In the early 1950s, a similar transition occurred in television. Initially, most television broadcasts were either live performances or broadcasts of older films originally produced for theaters. Kinescope recordings were made of live east coast performances so they could be broadcast several hours later on the west coast, which also made it possible to broadcast these shows later as many times as they wanted. In 1952, residual payments were extended to these television reruns, thanks in large part to Ronald Reagan, whose first term as president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) ran from 1947 to 1952. In 1953, the WGA negotiated residuals for up to five reruns for made - for - TV shows.
That said, film actors were still not paid residuals for reruns. As Americans increasingly watched TV at home instead of going out to the movies, movie attendance plummeted by over 65 % between 1948 and 1959, studios were grappling with decreased revenues, and actors felt like they were being deprived of significant income that was owed to them. The studios, however, took a hardline stance on residuals for movie actors due to their shrinking revenue as well as the fact that if they paid residuals to actors, they would also have to pay directors and screenwriters as well.
This stalemate led SAG actors to revote Ronald Reagan as SAG President in fall of 1959. Reagan asked SAG for a strike authorization in February and the actors agreed on a work - stop date for March 7, 1960, Hollywood 's first - ever industry - wide strike. Starting with Universal Pictures, studios ended up agreeing to film residuals, but only for movies made after 1960s. They would issue a one - time payout of $2.25 million for movies made between 1948 and 1960, and movies made before 1948 would not be eligible for any residuals. (Unrelated to residuals, Reagan also secured health insurance and pensions for SAG actors.) This upset older actors like Mickey Rooney, Glenn Ford and Bob Hope, who blamed Reagan and the SAG board for weak negotiating, but in April 1960 SAG voted to accept the offer and returned to work.
In 1988, WAG launched its longest strike, lasting 22 weeks, over a disagreement over residuals for TV shows broadcast in foreign countries. The new contract allowed writers two formulas for calculating foreign residuals: the existing formula ($4,400 maximum for a one - hour show) or the new formula (1.2 % of the producer 's foreign sales). On the other hand, domestic residuals were adjusted to take a sliding scale, which would incentivize producers to syndicate one - hour shows, whose revenue performance was poor, to independent TV stations.
In 2007, the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP), the industry bargaining group that deals with the trade unions, called for an end to the current residual payment system in response to the rise of online media. Instead, it proposed that residuals be pooled so the studios would recoup their costs paying the actors, directors, and writers based on a profit - based formula, which would solve the problem that residuals remain the same despite decreases in TV profits. Writers in the Writers Guild of America (WGA) decided to negotiate for higher residual payments. The AMPTP adamantly opposed extending residuals to online movie and TV show sales for at least three years, citing the need to "adapt to the realities of the marketplace, the new demands from our audiences and new technologies '', while a WGA representative countered that they "already had effective business models ''.
In 2011, SAG - AFTRA, WGA, and DGA negotiations kept residuals for network primetime TV (considered "among the most lucrative '' residuals) frozen at previous levels.
Residuals are administered by the unions -- SAG - AFTRA, the Directors Guild of America (DGA), and the Writers Guild of America (WGA) -- for their members, who are paid between one and four months after the air date. According to SAG - AFTRA, it processes around 1.5 million residual checks a year. WAG receives between 100 and 5,000 residual checks a day. The DGA processes "hundreds of thousands of checks '' a year, and in 2016 it processed $300 million in residuals for its members.
Residual calculation is complex and depends on several variables, including guild membership, initial payment, time spent, type of production (e.g., network TV, DVD, ad - supported streaming, online purchases), and whether it involves a domestic or foreign market. Additionally, residuals change a lot: guilds negotiate new contracts with the AMPTP every three years, and residuals for primetime TV tend to increase every year because they are "directly or indirectly keyed to salary minimums, which increase several percent per year ''.
In acting, extras are generally not eligible, but stunt performers, puppeteers, singers, and actors with lines or scripted physical interactions with characters ("supporting actors or "day players '') are eligible. Principal performers generally get larger residuals. In fact, the more prominent the actor, the more generous the residual. Big stars like Tom Cruise, for example, would get a portion of DVD sales in addition to his "regular '' residuals.
All "credited '' writers are eligible for residuals, and the specific credit determines the amount of amount. For example, the "written by '' credit yields a 100 % residual allocation, "screenplay / teleplay by '' yields a 75 %, and "adaptation by '' yields 10 %.
Residual payments can sometimes be very small if the role was small or the movie or show was not successful. For example, actor Jeff Cohen received a residual check for $0.67 after appearing in one episode of The Facts of Life; he took it to a former bar in Studio City called "Maeve 's Re $ iduals '', which used to trade free drinks for any SAG - AFTRA residual checks for less than $1.
For example, Bob Gunton, who had a supporting role in The Shawshank Redemption, noted that the movie, one of the most - rerun films, generated "close to six figures '' in residuals for him in 2004, ten years after the movie was released, and even as of 2014, that he continued to receive "a very substantial income ''.
In 2014, actor Lisa Kudrow of Friends was ordered to pay $1.6 million to her former manager, who argued that he was owed 5 % of Kudrow 's residuals earnings from work that he negotiated. Using figures that were publicly disclosed, one analyst estimated Kudrow 's residuals to be at least $2.3 million, and likely much higher.
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i had the time of my life music video | (I 've Had) the Time of My Life - wikipedia
"(I 've Had) The Time of My Life '' is a 1987 song composed by Franke Previte, John DeNicola, and Donald Markowitz. It was recorded by Bill Medley and Jennifer Warnes, and used as the theme song for the 1987 film Dirty Dancing. The song has won a number of awards, including an Academy Award for "Best Original Song '', a Golden Globe Award for "Best Original Song '', and a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
Singer - songwriter Previte was the lead singer of the band Franke and the Knockouts. He had success with the song "Sweetheart '' in 1981, but by 1986 was without a recording contract. In late 1986 or early 1987, producer and head of Millennium Records, Jimmy Ienner, asked Previte about writing some music for "a little movie called Dirty Dancing ''. Previte initially turned the request down because he was still trying to get a record deal, but Ienner was persistent, and got Previte to write several songs for the film, including "Hungry Eyes '', later recorded by singer Eric Carmen, which also became a top 10 hit.
Previte wrote the lyrics, and the music was written by John DeNicola and Don Markowitz. After getting further approval, Previte created a demo of the song, performing on it himself, along with singer Rachele Cappelli. The demo showcased how the harmonies were to be used, employing a "cold open '', or a slow build - up of the song to its finale. This demo was n't used in the final cut of the film − the more polished version with Warnes and Medley was. However, because the Warnes / Medley track was not ready by the time the finale was filmed (it was shot first, due to the tight budget), Previte and Capelli 's much lighter and more youthful version was used as a backing track, so that the actors, Patrick Swayze and Jennifer Grey, and the dancers, could have something to dance to (Swayze had later remarked it was his favorite version, even including all the subsequent remakes). The demo version finally appeared on the 1998 CD reissue of Previte 's 1981 album Franke and the Knockouts, but is only listed as "Bonus Track ''.
The song was initially intended for Donna Summer and Joe Esposito, but they turned it down. Bill Medley was approached by Jimmy Ienner repeatedly over two months to do the recording, but he also turned it down because his daughter McKenna was due to be born, and he had promised his wife he would be there. After the birth of his daughter, Medley was approached again, because Jennifer Warnes had indicated she would record the song if she could do the duet with Medley. Medley then agreed to record the track. With the release of the film it became a worldwide hit, and is one of the most frequently played songs on radio.
A song by Lionel Richie was initially planned to be used as the finale of Dirty Dancing, but choreographer Kenny Ortega and his assistant Miranda Garrison (who also played Vivian in the film) selected "The Time of My Life '' instead.
A music video was produced for this song in October 1987. The video features several couples dancing like in the movie, and it also featured clips from it.
In the United States, the single topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart in November 1987 for one week and also reached number one on the Adult Contemporary for four weeks. In the United Kingdom the song had two chart outings: in November 1987, after the film 's initial release, the song peaked at No. 6; in January 1991, after the film was shown on mainstream television, the song reached No. 8.
In 2004 AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey placed it # 86 among the top tunes in American cinema.
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choose the artist is an example of the garage bands that became popular in the mid 1960's | List of garage rock bands - wikipedia
The following is a list of notable garage rock bands. It is not exclusive to collective bands, but also includes solo acts who have created music in this style (usually backed by accompanying musicians). The list features artists from the US and Canada, but also includes similar acts from other countries.
The bands listed were often considered garage rock, but also straddled the line with other genres such as punk, protopunk, acid rock, psychedelia, blues rock, power pop, hard rock, bubblegum, glam, prog rock, art rock or even heavy metal. Many similar British bands of this era (1965 - 1979) were retrospectively called "Freakbeat '' and pub rock.
Some of these bands overlap with punk, garage punk, punk blues, the mod revival, psychobilly, noise rock / noise pop / noise punk, grunge, new wave and post-punk, post-punk revival, the Paisley Underground, indie rock, indie pop, neo-psychedelia, power pop, Britpop, hard rock and even riot grrl, queercore or traditional heavy metal.
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what happened to lisa on six feet under | List of six Feet Under characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of descriptions for characters on the HBO television series Six Feet Under, which aired for five seasons, from 2001 to 2005.
Nathaniel Samuel "Nate '' Fisher, Jr. (1965 -- 2005), played by Peter Krause, is the oldest of the three Fisher siblings. In the first episode, Nate is returning to Los Angeles on Christmas Eve only to learn that his father has died.
A recurring theme throughout the series is Nate searching for the ideal life. In the pilot episode, he meets Brenda Chenowith on an airplane and has sex with her upon landing. Brenda becomes his on - again / off - again lover throughout the series. Upon learning of his father 's death, his mother asks him to stay, despite Nate wanting to return to Seattle. Displeased with the direction his life is going, Nate agrees to stay and become business partners with his brother in the funeral home. Nate becomes diagnosed with an arteriovenous malformation (AVM) and becomes engaged to Brenda around the same time. During their engagement, Brenda sleeps with others, claiming a sex addiction which Nate does not believe. Nate began having seizures and seeks treatment for his AVM. Nate marries his former girlfriend Lisa, after discovering that Lisa is pregnant (between seasons 2 and 3). When their daughter Maya is still very young, Lisa disappears and is eventually discovered to have drowned. It 's later implied that she was murdered by her brother - in - law when she tried to end their affair. Nate conspired to fulfill Lisa 's wishes for a "green '' burial. Nate reconciles with Brenda and they move in together. He agrees to marry her and have a child but Brenda miscarries on the eve of their wedding. Nate does n't want Brenda 's next pregnancy. He develops feeling for his stepfather 's daughter, Maggie, a Quaker. After Nate and Maggie have sex, he collapses and is rushed to a hospital. Although it appears he will recover, he dies in his sleep with David by his side.
Following his death, the series spends the last three episodes addressing the other characters ' lives as they attempt to cope with his absence. Nate - like his father - continues to appear in these episodes as a mental manifestation of his surviving family.
David James Fisher (1969 -- 2044), played by Michael C. Hall, is the middle child in the Fisher family. Prior to the start of the series, David was engaged to a woman named Jennifer Mason, but broke the engagement because he was unsure of his sexuality. David is gay but no one knows except his boyfriend, Keith Charles, a police officer, whom he met at a church social function. Keith has come out to his family and friends and quickly loses patience with David hiding his own sexuality. David joined the family business in 1989 at the age of 20 and was upset that his brother Nate did not do the same. After his father 's death and Nate 's return, David holds resentment towards Nate, which is resolved when Nate agrees to help with the family funeral business. At the same time, David is offered his father 's old position as deacon at their local church, which frowns upon homosexuality. After breaking up with Keith over continuing sexuality issues, David briefly engages in some anonymous sex, for which he suffered ongoing legal issues. After arranging a funeral for a young gay man who was brutally murdered for his sexual orientation, David comes out to his family and resigns his post as deacon. David and Keith eventually reconcile and start planning a family together. Soon after, David is carjacked. The experience leaves him extremely traumatized and he remains so for the rest of the series. They later adopt two young boys (brothers) Anthony and Durrell.
David marries Keith around 2009 and they remain together until Keith 's death in 2029. David dies in 2044 at a family outing after seeing a vision of a young Keith.
Ruth O'Connor Fisher (November 17, 1946 -- 2025), played by Frances Conroy, is the widow of Nathaniel, Sr and mother to Nate, David and Claire.
Ruth had an unhappy and abusive childhood, so she has learned to bottle her emotions, frequently resulting in a violent outburst.
Ruth married Nathaniel Fisher in 1965 after becoming pregnant with her first child, Nate, who was born while Nathaniel is serving in Vietnam. Four years later, David was born. Their last child, Claire, is born much later, in 1983. Feeling trapped in a maternal role at such a young age, Ruth resented her younger sister Sarah, an artist whom Ruth views as a free spirit.
Before the series begins, Ruth had an affair with her hairdresser, Hiram Gunderson. After Nathaniel 's sudden death, she calls off the affair to mourn but rekindles the relationship some months later. Ruth takes a job at a flower shop, where the owner Nikolai becomes infatuated with her. Hiram then breaks up with Ruth and she begins seeing Nikolai. Ruth ends their relationship when she realizes Nikolai has been feeling suffocated by her attentions and has only been staying with her out of guilt.
During her daughter - in - law Lisa 's disappearance, Ruth struggles with her emotions and her role of matriarch. During this time, she meets and marries geologist George Sibley after six weeks of courtship. Ruth discovers unpleasant facts about her new husband 's past, including multiple wives and an estranged son. Over time, George becomes increasingly paranoid, particularly with beliefs regarding an inevitable nuclear apocalypse, forcing Ruth to admit him for treatments including electro - convulsive therapy. Finding it hard to deal with his subsequent memory loss and emotional instability, Ruth decides to set George up with a life separate from hers before eventually divorcing him.
After Nate 's death, Ruth decides she needs a change in her life and moves in with her sister Sarah and her caretaker, Bettina. Ruth dies at the age of 79 at a hospital with George and her surviving children at her bedside. In her final moments, she sees the spirits of Nathaniel and Nate.
Claire Simone Fisher (March 13, 1983 -- February 11, 2085), played by Lauren Ambrose, is the only daughter and third child of the Fisher family. She is known for being rebellious throughout her teenage years and often acts in a selfish and surly manner, yet displays genuine affection and care for her family at moments of crisis. She is the most creative member of the family, specializing in art and photography. Claire has several turbulent relationships during the five years of the series. Her high school boyfriend, Gabe, was a troubled and rebellious teen. Claire had brief relationship with Brenda 's brother Billy, who has bipolar disorder. Claire dated a fellow college student Russell, who struggled with his sexuality and had an affair with their professor, Olivier.
During Season 5, Claire works as a temp in a legal department where she meets and begins to date Ted, a handsome Republican lawyer, despite having left - wing views. Ted becomes a source of comfort after Nate 's death. In the series finale, Claire receives a job offer to work as a photographer 's assistant in New York, but the job offer is later rescinded. Claire 's mental manifestation of Nate encourages her to move to New York anyway, assuring her she will find something. Claire decides to do so, leaving her family and Ted behind, driving to NYC in her new Toyota Prius, replacing the family 's vintage Cadillac hearse, which she wrecked. On her journey, she listens to a CD which Ted gave her, a compilation of ' un-hip ' songs he listens to. In 2025, Claire returns to L.A. shortly before her mother 's death. She reunites with Ted at her mother 's funeral and later marries him. According to her obituary, she became an award - winning photographer and taught photography as a faculty member at New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts in 2018, earning tenure in 2028. Claire eventually dies of natural causes in 2085 at the age of 101, as she lies in her bed surrounded by pictures of her family. She outlives all of the other adults from the show 's 5 - year run.
Brenda Chenowith (1969 -- 2051), played by Rachel Griffiths, is Nate 's girlfriend and, later, wife. Her parents are wealthy psychiatrists who were in an open marriage, flaunting their activities in front of their children. As a child, she was under the scrutiny of Dr. Gareth Feinberg and various psychologists who began documenting her odd behavior. Being a genius, however, she would study the symptoms of various mental disorders and feign them to spite the doctors. Her case was turned into a best - selling book titled Charlotte Light and Dark, which haunts Brenda into adulthood.
Her brother (Billy) is a successful photographer, struggling with bipolar disorder. Brenda spent much of her life taking care of Billy and has struggled to build her own life outside of Billy 's illness. Billy has a strong fixation on Brenda 's life and their relationship at times bordered on incest.
At the time of the series beginning, Brenda runs a shiatsu massage service out of her house. Brenda meets Nate Fisher on a flight from Seattle to Los Angeles, immediately before Nate learns of his father 's death. The two begin a relationship which is often interrupted by her brother Billy who continues to find his way into her life. After she has her brother institutionalized for violent behavior, Brenda returns to college to study psychology and begins writing a novel to stave off depression. She develops a friendship with a high - class prostitute and eventually finds herself succumbing to sexual impulses outside of her relationship. Nate breaks up with Brenda after her sexual addiction is revealed. Consequently, she spirals into drug addiction and harmful behavior. Brenda moves away from Los Angeles and seeks therapy.
Brenda returns to L.A. after her father is diagnosed with terminal cancer. She then begins a relationship with her neighbor Joe, who likes to be dominated in bed. After Joe catches Brenda making out with Nate, he ends the relationship and moves out of the house they had recently bought.
Brenda reconciles with Nate and becomes pregnant. On the night before their wedding, Brenda suffers a miscarriage. Brenda eventually becomes pregnant again and begins an internship as a cognitive therapist. About this time, Nate begins spending a lot of time with his step - sister Maggie and becomes interested in her religion. After Nate 's collapse and admission to hospital, he breaks up with Brenda but dies before divorce proceedings begin. Six weeks after Nate 's death, Brenda delivers a premature baby girl named Willa.
Brenda becomes a university professor and leading scholar on the topic of development of gifted children. Brenda later marries a man named Daniel Nathanson and has another child, Forrest Nathanson. She dies in 2051, with her brother Billy at her side, at the age of 82 of natural causes.
Keith Dwayne Charles (1968 -- 2029), played by Mathew St. Patrick, is David 's main love interest over the course of the series. Keith was born in 1968 in San Diego and attended West Point Military Academy, before graduating with a degree in Criminology in 1989. David and Keith began dating some months before the pilot episode after meeting at a gay - friendly church.
Keith is an openly gay policeman who works for the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD). He tolerates David hiding his sexuality until an incident where a fellow shopper calls them "fags ''. Keith dumps David and begins dating an emergency medical technician named Eddie, but their relationship fails when Keith becomes concerned with his niece Taylor and his sister Karla Denise, who goes into drug rehabilitation. David and Keith then reconcile. After Keith 's sister is incarcerated, Keith gets custody of Taylor and begins adoption proceedings. However, after Keith brutally beats a man during a domestic violence call, he resigns from the LAPD and gives Taylor to his parents without consulting David. David is hurt and furious, and the two go into couples ' counseling to sort out their issues.
After another breakup with David, Keith finds work as a bodyguard, but does not reveal his sexuality to co-workers. He is selected to go on tour with pop star Celeste (Michelle Trachtenberg). While Keith is on tour, David is carjacked and tortured, so Keith returns home for several days, but returns to the tour at David 's insistence. While he is gone, David begins to suffer from panic attacks and becomes emotionally unstable. Keith, who has "come out '' at work, confides in Celeste about David, and she seduces him into having sex, then fires him the next day for the indiscretion. When Keith gets home, he confesses the one - night stand to David, and David suffers anxiety that Keith will leave him for a woman. Keith is hired as personal security to an agent named Roger in order to have a lawsuit against David (who had previously attacked Roger and was being sued) dropped.
Towards the end of Season 4, Keith and David decide to have children, with Keith favoring surrogacy and David favoring adoption. During Season 5, after the surrogacy attempt fails, they adopt brothers Anthony and Durrell, whom David met at a fair. Durrell is rebellious due to his history of foster care, but despite Keith 's protests, David insists that they keep the boys. Soon, Keith begins to embrace his new family life. Keith offers to combine his savings with David 's so that they can buy Fisher and Diaz.
The series finale and official HBO website reveal that Keith eventually owns his own security company, and dies in 2029 after being gunned down in an armored car. While at a family function in 2044, David sees Keith in a vision, still young and healthy and playing football; Keith smiles at David who immediately dies from a heart attack.
Héctor Federico "Rico '' Diaz (1974 -- 2049), played by Freddy Rodriguez, is the extremely skilled restorative artist who later becomes a partner in the business. In 1992, Rico 's father Mauricio slipped on the roof and landed face - first in a pile of bricks next to the house. Rico and his mother Lilia went to the Fisher funeral home for burial, and to Rico 's shock, Nathaniel Fisher Sr. (who then owned and operated the home) had made his father look just as he was before the accident. Rico struck up a friendship with Nathaniel, who paid for his education and hired him as a restorative artist. They remained close until Nathaniel 's death. Rico married his high school sweetheart, Vanessa (Justina Machado) and had two children. Federico graduated from Cypress College in 1997 with a degree in Mortuary Science. Rico is considered one of the best in the business, and is briefly lured away by a funeral home chain called Kroehner Services International, before he realizes he has become just another over-worked employee. He returns to work with David and Nate, resenting his status within the business. Although Rico and Vanessa struggle for money, they receive inheritance from an elderly neighbor and Rico buys 25 % of Fisher & Sons. Rico becomes involved with a stripper and is thrown out by his wife. He is devastated by the breakdown of his marriage, however he and Vanessa eventually reconcile. Federico is frequently in conflict with the Fishers over the direction of the business. After the death of Nate, Federico is pondering his future with Fisher & Diaz when he hears about a mortuary in the area for sale. David and Keith purchase Rico 's 25 % and Federico and Vanessa go on to establish the Diaz Family Mortuary in 2005, where he serves the community for 35 years before retiring. Rico dies in 2049 at age 75 on a cruise ship apparently of a heart attack while at his wife 's side. He leaves behind his wife Vanessa, his sons Julio and Augusto and his three grandchildren: Emily, Celestina and Vincent.
Bill Chenowith, played by Jeremy Sisto, is an artist and Brenda 's younger brother. He suffers from bipolar disorder and occasionally suffers from disruptive, and sometimes violent, episodes of mania, depression, and psychosis. While his disorder can be managed with medication, he sometimes stops using it for various reasons, which has caused many issues for his family, especially Brenda. In 1986, he burnt down a section of the family home which caused Brenda to leave school and abandon her fiancé. In another incident, he carved a tattoo off his back with a box cutter and attempts to do the same to his sister, forcing his sister to have him committed. Billy is an alumnus and associate professor at LAC - Arts, where Claire Fisher also attends college until late 2004. Billy first meets Claire in 2001 at Brenda 's place but nothing happens besides casual flirting. After being institutionalized, the only person he can talk to is Claire and they begin to communicate over instant messaging. After he is released he rekindles the relationship, and the two begin dating two years later, briefly living together. After some taunting by old acquaintances that he 's not the guy he used to be, coupled with finding himself lacking artistic inspiration, Billy again ceases to take his medication. When Claire realizes this, she breaks it off with him for her own safety. Billy goes back on his medication and asks Claire to take him back, but she refuses. Billy later helps his sister after Nate dies, until she asks him to leave. However, the two remain close and Billy is present when Brenda finally dies. During Brenda 's death, Billy is shown talking about Claire 's husband, Ted.
George Sibley, played by James Cromwell, is Ruth 's second husband, a professor of geology who had been married six times previously. He has two children from a previous marriage: a son, Brian, and a daughter, Maggie, who is a traveling pharmaceutical representative. While he was still a student, George dated a woman and she became pregnant with a son, Kyle. Before Kyle was born, however, George signed away his custodial rights, and Kyle, though he was born into great wealth, intensely hated his father and sent boxes of feces to the Fisher home. George and Kyle later reconcile with Ruth 's help. George suffers from psychotic depression and undergoes electroconvulsive therapy, still recovering from the wounds of his mother 's suicide when he was a child in 1953. It soon becomes too much for Ruth to take care of him, and the two separate. After adjusting, he reveals to Ruth that he is engaged for the eighth time. Ruth warns this new fiancée of George 's past and sabotages the relationship. George and Ruth later reconcile at the time of Nate 's death. They plan to move in together but Ruth changes her mind at the last minute, preferring her independence. Meanwhile, his daughter Maggie walks out of his life after blaming him for her problems. Ruth and George remain in separate residences, but stay together until her death in 2025.
Vanessa Diaz, played by Justina Machado, is Federico 's high school sweetheart, wife and mother of his two sons Julio and Augusto. Vanessa is a registered nurse. In 2002, after several years of working at the Bay Breeze Nursing Home she is fired for negligence after not realizing that a resident 's roommate shoved a hot dog down the deceased 's throat. She later finds work at a hospital. In 2003 Vanessa sinks into clinical depression following the death of her mother and begins abusing prescription medication. When her health begins to suffer she seeks help; her increased spending habits and closeness to her sister Angelica alienate Rico. In late season four, Federico 's infidelity causes the couple to separate and consider divorce. After finding it difficult to live and raise her sons alone, she asks Federico to move back in. However, she is initially very cold towards him, refusing to communicate with him more than the bare minimum and taking every opportunity to let him know he is not forgiven for his actions. When Rico finally tells her that he does not want to be there if she no longer loves him and will move out for good, Vanessa begins treating him a little better, and they slowly begin to successfully work through their issues until their marriage is back on solid footing. Throughout the series, Rico 's moods and decisions outside the home are often closely affected by Vanessa 's advice and attitude. Vanessa pushes Rico into opening his own mortuary business, and they remain together for many years until his death at age 75.
Father Jack, played by Tim Maculan, is a compassionate gay priest who heads the church at which the Fishers attend.
Nathaniel Samuel Fisher, Sr. (1943 -- 2000), played by Richard Jenkins, is the patriarch of the Fisher family and owner of Fisher & Sons Funeral Home until his death in a traffic accident on Christmas Eve, 2000. Although Ruth viewed him as a distant husband and father, many flashbacks show him trying his best to bond with his children, but also to give them their space, as well as acting as a surrogate father and friend to Rico. Even after his death, he is still a presence with all of the Fishers and Rico and frequently appears in scenes as the living characters converse with him, visually like a "ghost '' but actually as a fiction of their minds and sort of a conscience. In many of the early episodes, family members have lengthy conversations with the senior Nathaniel, on their way to reconciling themselves with his death. His children, particularly Nate, all come to realize that they never really knew their father; something they all grieve. Both Nathaniel Sr. and Jr. appear to Ruth shortly before her death.
Lisa Kimmel Fisher (1967 -- 2003), played by Lili Taylor, is Nate 's friend from Seattle who becomes pregnant by him after a one - night stand. This is apparently her second pregnancy from Nate, having aborted the first. They later marry after the birth of their daughter, Maya. Their marriage lasts throughout season 3, but is a turbulent one, as Lisa worries about Nate 's remaining feelings for Brenda. Several episodes during season 3 and 4 focus on Lisa 's disappearance. It becomes evident that she is dead and her corpse is later found washed up on the beach. Nate conflicts with Lisa 's family about how she wanted to be buried; Lisa had told him that she wanted to be buried in the wilderness with no chemicals or preservatives, while her family wants her cremated and buried in their family mausoleum in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. Nate buries Lisa as she wanted, while giving her family the cremated remains of an unclaimed body from several decades earlier. At the end of season 4, it is revealed that her brother - in - law, Hoyt, with whom she had an affair before marrying Nate, was with her on the beach the day she drowned. The details of Lisa 's death are left ambiguous (although murder by Hoyt is strongly implied, it is never confirmed) but she remains in the show as another deceased character who appears in recurring visions, frequently to Nate or Brenda.
Margaret Chenowith, played by Joanna Cassidy, is Brenda and Billy 's dysfunctional mother and a psychologist. Her bouts of misplaced anger can be seen throughout the series. In the 1960s, she met her future husband, Bernard Chenowith in therapy when she was working as an intern. The couple married in 1967. In the 1970s, the Chenowiths had become controversial for allowing their daughter Brenda to undergo testing by the controversial Gareth Feinberg, who later wrote Charlotte: Light and Dark about Brenda. Though Margaret and Bernard have an open marriage, they separate briefly in 2002 after Bernard lies about an infidelity. The two later renew their vows and soon after, Bernard dies of cancer in early 2003. Margaret moves on and begins dating her son 's former lover (and art teacher), Olivier Castro - Staal.
Maggie Sibley, played by Tina Holmes, is George 's daughter. A Quaker and traveling pharmaceutical representative from Arizona, Maggie moves to Los Angeles to help take care of her ailing father. She and Nate become close friends, with Nate confiding to her his fears about his and Brenda 's unborn child after blood tests show the baby may have special needs (Maggie 's own child had died of leukemia when he was only two). Nate 's feelings for her, combined with his problems with Brenda, lead to him committing adultery with Maggie on the evening of his seizure. Maggie suffers guilt and tried to make amends with Brenda, who is not interested. Maggie leaves town after Nate 's funeral and an argument with her father. Ruth later calls Maggie to ask her if Nate had been happy while he was with her before he had his stroke. During the phone call, Maggie is at the doctor 's office, which led to audience speculation as to whether she was pregnant with Nate 's child. Alan Ball specifically denied this speculation during his DVD commentary on the series finale, noting that as a pharmaceutical industry representative, Maggie is simply working when we see her in the doctor 's office.
Sarah O'Connor, played by Patricia Clarkson, is Ruth 's artistic younger sister who runs an artists ' colony in Topanga Canyon. Sarah lives with a caretaker and friend named Bettina. Sarah feels she has little talent but surrounds herself with people who do. As a young girl Sarah left Ruth alone to deal with sick relatives. Sarah later baby - sat Ruth 's sons and they got into trouble: fifteen - year - old Nate Jr lost his virginity to a friend of Sarah 's and David once got lost in the wild. Ruth resented Sarah for both these reasons and they stayed out of touch for decades. The two finally reconcile after Ruth attends a self - help seminar and Sarah returns from Spain. Sarah feels a strong connection to Claire, whom she believes is a true artist. She invites Claire to her house in Topanga and they spend a weekend together. She sends Claire magic mushrooms on her birthday to help inspire her artistic passion. Ruth discovers that Sarah has developed a drug addiction to the pain killer Vicodin. Weeks after going through withdrawal, Sarah goes into drug rehabilitation, which puts her life into perspective. Sarah once lived with Allen Ginsberg in Berlin and hosts a Howl full moon celebration every year at her house. Sarah later gives Ruth invaluable support following Nate 's death, and Ruth moves into Sarah 's house at Topanga Canyon.
Maya Fisher (2002 -- unknown), played alternately by twins Brenna and Bronwyn Tosh, is Nate and Lisa 's daughter. After Nate 's death, Brenda (her stepmother) is given custody of Maya. After learning of Nate 's affair with George 's daughter, Brenda gives temporary custody to Ruth so that she can process her grief. Maya moves back in with Brenda after Brenda gives birth to her half - sister, Willa and is eventually fully adopted by Brenda and raises her as if she was her own daughter. In the final scenes, she 's seen celebrating her sister 's first birthday, as a little girl at David and Keith 's wedding (still holding her favorite puppet toy, a monkey), and as a woman in her twenties at Ruth 's funeral and Claire and Ted 's wedding.
Nikolai, played by Ed O'Ross, is the Russian owner of Blossom d'Amour Flower Shop where Ruth Fisher works for a time. He is Ruth 's lover for almost two years. Nikolai is in serious debt which culminates several encounters with a Russian mob. When they break his legs because he is unable to repay his debt, he recuperates at the Fishers ' house. Ruth takes this as an opportunity to expand their relationship, but instead causes more tension when she pays off Nikolai 's debt with Nathaniel 's life insurance policy. Several weeks after their break - up, Ruth resigns from Blossom d'Amour so that she can spend more time with her newborn grandchild, Maya. Nikolai had a son and wife who died before he moved to the U.S. He has a brief cameo in episode # 5.9 ("Ecotone '') when Ruth envisions herself shooting all of her ex-lovers with a rifle to the tune of carnival music in a bloodless shooting gallery.
Gabriel "Gabe '' Dimas (1983 -- 2002), played by Eric Balfour, is Claire 's boyfriend during her senior year in high school. Claire thinks she 's in love, but after Gabe tells the entire school that she slept with him and sucked his toes, an upset Claire gets her revenge by throwing a severed foot from a deceased person into Gabe 's school locker. The two do n't speak to each other until the death of Gabe 's brother. Gabe 's mother blames Gabe for the death, and his stepfather attacks him at the funeral. Soon after, Gabe overdoses and Claire tries to help him recover. However, he gets into more trouble; holding up a convenience store, stealing the Fishers ' embalming fluid to use for extra-potent joints, and pulling a gun on another driver while Claire is trying to drive him to a secluded area. After that, Claire breaks off ties with him. Later, she receives closure from a fantasy scene showing she believes Gabe has died and is at peace in death and able to see his younger brother, Anthony.
Dr. Bernard Asa Chenowith (1939 -- 2003), played by Robert Foxworth, is Brenda and Billy 's father who worked as a celebrity psychiatrist with his wife Margaret, whom he met when she was a college intern. Bernard was raised Jewish but ultimately became an atheist. In the 1970s, the Chenowiths made headlines when they allowed their daughter to undergo testing by the controversial Dr. Gareth Feinberg for her brilliant, yet uncontrollable behavior. Bernard and Margaret briefly separate in 2002 for reasons of infidelity but soon reconcile and renew their vows. He succumbs to stomach cancer in 2003.
Taylor Benoit, played by Aysia Polk, is Keith 's niece. Her mother Karla is a drug addict and not in a fit state to look after the young girl. Keith and David look after her for some time during season 2. She is quite often rude and unhappy due to her poor upbringing. After Keith is suspended from the police force, Taylor goes to live with Keith 's parents, Roderick and Lucille Charles (played by James Pickens Jr. and Beverly Todd).
Russell Corwin, played by Ben Foster, is Claire 's sexually - ambiguous classmate at art school and one - time boyfriend. Claire initially suspects that Russell is gay. However, Russell claims that he is not, and starts seeing Claire. Later, Russell has sex with his teacher, Olivier Castro - Staal. Claire subsequently breaks up with him and, learning she is pregnant, gets an abortion. When he finds out about the abortion, Russell is distraught. He begins sleeping with Claire 's friend Anita, despite having feelings for Claire. Claire enjoys great success with an art project that Russell helps her begin, but Claire takes all the credit, and also gets a gallery showing. Russell is infuriated and gets into a fight with Claire at the exhibit. She drops out of art school and does n't see him again for several months. When she runs into him at another showing, he tells her he had been hit by a car, and that while most believe he 's in love with fellow student / artist, Jimmy (to whom he gave a drunken blow job), he confides in Claire that he 's merely jealous and wishes he could be as talented as she. In their last moment together in the series, Russell gives her a kiss on the cheek and rushes away.
Parker McKenna played by Marina Black, is Claire 's best friend during her senior year of high school. Parker is a rebellious transfer student from a private school, although she appears to be a "goody two - shoes '', who attempts to start a friendship with Claire Fisher. The friendship blossoms, however after finding out that Parker had cheated on her SATs and had been accepted into better colleges than Claire, the friendship is broken off until Claire learns it 's better to have one friend than no friends at all. Parker tells Claire that the Chinese holistic herbs that her Aunt Sarah sent her are actually magic mushrooms and the two trip together. After Claire enrolls in art school, Parker is caught when the person who took the SATs for Parker was arrested. Parker enrolled in community college as a result. The two do n't speak again after graduation.
Anthony Charles - Fisher, played by C.J. Sanders, is David and Keith 's adopted 8 - year - old son. The couple meet young Anthony at an "adoption picnic '' where David feels an instant bond with the boy. After Mary, David and Keith 's surrogate mother announces her pregnancy, the plans to adopt Anthony slowly fade away. However, after Mary gets her period, Keith and David try to adopt Anthony, at which time they learn he also has an older brother. In the last scene of the last episode, Anthony is shown as an adult attending his aunt Claire 's wedding in the company of a male companion.
Durrell Charles - Fisher, played by Kendré Berry, is David and Keith 's adopted 11 - year - old son. At first when going back to adopt younger brother Anthony, David and Keith do not realize they will be adopting his older brother also. After two weeks of Durrell testing the waters and Keith 's patience, Keith believes it is time for the brothers to go. David then sticks up for the boys in front of Keith and the social worker, and the adoption becomes permanent. Slowly, Durrell becomes comfortable in his surroundings after David and Keith set some boundaries and show Durrell some support and nurturing. At age 11, Durrell expresses interest in becoming a fireman. However, in the last scenes of the last episode, he is shown spending time with his father David in the prep room. He most likely inherits the operation of Fisher and Sons Funeral Home after David 's retirement, and is shown conducting Ruth Fisher 's funeral in the final minutes of the series. Durrell becomes involved with a woman and has three children with her: Matthew, Keith Jr., and Katie.
Bettina, played by Kathy Bates, is Sarah 's caretaker. Bettina 's brash personality and Ruth 's reserved nature complement each other and they form a strong friendship. She prides herself on her ability to see people through drug detoxes; although she has done quite a few drugs herself, she seems to be someone who can still run her life without the drugs running her. She does have a reckless streak; she eggs Ruth on to shoplifting once, and encourages her to take a Vicodin when they are overseeing one of Sarah 's detoxes. Bettina was married three times -- her second husband cheated on her and her first and third husbands left her a widow. Bettina has a daughter who got caught up in a militia movement in Montana.
Olivier Castro - Staal, played by Peter Macdissi, teaches Form and Space at LAC - Arts. Claire, Russell, and Billy Chenowith were all his students. Olivier is bisexual and has flings with Russell and Billy, but ends up living with Billy and Brenda 's mother, Margaret. Despite having a rocky relationship with Claire, he is the one who makes the recommendation for her photographer assistant 's job in New York.
Arthur Martin, played by Rainn Wilson, is an intern at Fisher & Diaz Funeral Home from March to November 2003, though it was intended to be permanent. The eccentric Arthur was orphaned at the age of 5 and was home schooled by his great Aunt Pearl. After his aunt died of old age, Arthur went on to college to study music, but after discovering his major was n't what he had hoped, Arthur attended mortuary school to become a funeral director. During his senior year, he receives a live - in apprenticeship from the Fishers and Federico. Things soon decline after Ruth Fisher starts thinking their budding friendship is becoming physical. When she realizes he is not able to relate to her in a sexual, more mature relationship, she stops the relationship and acts coldly to Arthur during his attempts at conversation. When Ruth 's daughter - in - law Lisa goes missing, she is comforted by George Sibley, who had been attending one of Fisher & Diaz 's funerals. The two become close and marry after only a few months, to Arthur 's discomfort. When George moves in, Arthur has a confrontational relationship with him. Later, George 's estranged son starts sending boxed feces to them, and Ruth assumes it is a jealous Arthur. When she confronts Arthur, he becomes offended and leaves. After Ruth talks about pressing charges against Arthur, George tells her that it is his son who has been sending the feces. Arthur has a brief cameo in episode # 5.9 ("Ecotone ''), when Ruth imagines herself shooting all of her ex-boyfriends (and eventually her dead husband Nathaniel) with a shotgun to the tune of circus music.
Anita Miller, played by Sprague Grayden, is Claire 's former best friend and roommate. The two met at art school and develop a Laverne and Shirley - like relationship. The relationship is broken off when Claire is abandoned by her friends soon after she leaves art school for good. They briefly meet again towards the end of the series, and Anita makes it clear that she was hurt by Claire 's lack of contact.
Edie, played by Mena Suvari, is a free - spirited lesbian artist who becomes a friend and (briefly) a lover of Claire. Their relationship ends when Edie gets fed up with Claire 's sexual ambivalence.
Jimmy, played by Peter Facinelli, was a friend of Claire 's during her time at art school. At first Jimmy wanted a relationship with her, but realized in the end that she did n't. They engaged in a brief sexual relationship where he was responsible for giving Claire her first orgasm using the coital alignment technique which he refers to by its slang name "grinding the corn ''. He also introduced Claire to her first gallery owner. He was often drinking and getting high. He remained a friend of Anita and Claire, until Claire quit Art School.
Hiram Gunderson, played by Ed Begley Jr., is a fling of Ruth 's. A divorcee and an environmentalist (he drove a hybrid Toyota Prius car, while Begley drives an electric vehicle in real life), Hiram was once a major chef (he received a rave review from the Chicago Tribune) who gave up cooking to become a hairdresser. One of his clients, Ruth Fisher, was unhappily married, and during frequent camping trips, Hiram taught her how to enjoy sex. After Ruth 's husband dies, she initially pushes Hiram away, but then dates him for several months. Their relationship ends when he tells her he has feelings for another woman; to his surprise, she happily sends him on his way. Months later, she calls him to make amends (she is on The Plan at this time) but he mistakenly assumes she wants to reunite, leading to a fight. Several years pass before they meet up again for another camping trip. While on the trip, Ruth realizes she is no longer attracted to Hiram and hitchhikes back home.
Ted Fairwell, played by Chris Messina, is an attorney at Braeden Chemical Legal Department who becomes Claire Fisher 's love interest after she begins working as a temp secretary. Prior to meeting Claire, Ted had a (one - night stand and some "discreet '' making out in the men 's room of a local bar) relationship with Kirsten, one of Claire 's other co-workers at the Legal Department. Ted insists that it is over, making Claire feel at ease when she secretly makes out with him. On their first date, Ted reveals himself to be a conservative Republican which upsets Claire at the moment when the mood changes to somber after receiving the news of Nate 's stroke. Rather than going home, Ted drives Claire to the hospital and stays with her through the night as her emotional support, causing Claire to see that Ted is a positive force in her life. Ted and Claire part ways when Claire moves to New York in the final episode, although when Claire returns to Los Angeles for her mother 's funeral in 2025, she and Ted will reunite and marry, and stay together for the rest of Ted 's life. His death is not shown in the final episode, but it is implied that he died before Claire as she dies alone in 2085.
Carol Ward, played by Catherine O'Hara, is Lisa Kimmel 's boss during seasons 2 and 3, a neurotic, self - involved motion picture producer with an unstable demeanor. Her demands on Lisa prove incompatible with Lisa 's newfound roles as a wife and mother, leading to a confrontation in which Lisa quits. Carol later appears in Episode 52, in a video flashback to 2002 revolving around Nate and Lisa 's wedding where she expresses her views on relationships and marriage.
Joe, played by Justin Theroux, is a gifted French horn player and Brenda 's boyfriend for the first half of season 4. They become neighbors when Brenda returns to L.A. and quickly become friends. Although Brenda is hesitant to start a new relationship, and insists on a period of celibacy, they soon become serious. The couple buy a house together and even tried for a baby. However, Brenda soon becomes tired of Joe 's cerebral sexual ambivalence. Their relationship ends when Joe walks in on Nate and Brenda.
Angelica, played by Melissa Marsala, is Vanessa 's sister who appears periodically in seasons 2 through 5. An aspiring actress, she brings business to the funeral home when one of her horror film co-stars overdoses on cocaine. In season 2, Vanessa goes behind Rico 's back to borrow money from Angelica to for a down payment on a house, causing strain between Angelica and Rico. Later, when she experiences her own financial difficulties, she moves in with Rico and Vanessa but quickly wears out her welcome. In season 4, after Vanessa discovers Rico 's affair with Sophia, Angelica helps her confront Sophia and smash her car windows. Despite her generally combative attitude toward Rico, she and her sister remain very close, even after Vanessa asks her to move out.
Sophia, played by Idalis DeLeón, is an erotic dancer with whom Rico has an affair in seasons 3 and 4. Although their relationship was initially only sexual on their first encounter, Rico continues to show her affection for several months by spending time with her and her daughter and buying her gifts. Over time, Sophia begins to take advantage of Rico 's time and money. Rico, feeling guilty, breaks things off with Sophia, but Vanessa soon finds out about the affair and kicks Rico out of the house. Rico has sex with Sophia and asks if he can stay with her. Vanessa and Angelica confront Sophia, but she seems unfazed by them. They smash in her car windows with a baseball bat, and when she confronts Rico about the encounter, they break things off for good.
Roger Pasquese, played by Matt Malloy, is a Hollywood movie producer who became Keith 's employer in season 5. David and Roger had gotten into a fight towards the end of season 4, which resulted in Roger opening a lawsuit against him. The case was dropped when Keith agreed to allow Roger to perform oral sex on him. After this initial meeting, Roger employs Keith on an as - needed basis as a body guard and personal assistant. Keith and Roger 's relationship ends near the end of the series when he discovers that Roger has filmed their one sexual encounter, and frequently plays it back with other sexual partners. Despite being gay, Roger remains in an open marriage with the mother of his two children.
Kroehner Service International is a mortuary conglomerate that tries to get Fisher & Sons out of business in the first two seasons. In the first season, a smarmy company representative named Matthew Gilardi (Gary Hershberger) tries buying the Fishers out. When he fails, his boss Mitzi Dalton - Huntley, played by Julie White, fires him and tries buying the Fishers out, but she also fails. Ultimately, Kroehner Service International files for bankruptcy at the end of the second season, though their bankruptcy was most likely not connected to the Fishers.
Willa Fisher Chenowith (born 2005) is Brenda and Nate 's daughter, born prematurely, six weeks after Nate 's death. Willa 's birth is unexpected, since Brenda was due to deliver 2 months later. Several weeks after her birth, Willa is healthy enough to go home, a cause for celebration between the two families. Brenda worries about her daughter 's health for some time after, but Willa is completely fine. In the final scenes, she 's seen celebrating her first birthday, as a little girl at David and Keith 's wedding, and as a young woman at Ruth 's funeral.
Jake, played by Michael Weston, is a criminal who appears in seasons four and five. He carjacks David and takes him on a night - long joyride through the city, beating him, forcing him to do drugs, and ultimately putting a gun in his mouth, before driving away in David 's car, sparing him. Jake is later arrested and thrown in jail for numerous violent crimes, and David visits him there to try to get closure on his ordeal; however, Jake is completely detached from reality and provides no answers, so David satisfies himself that Jake is visibly miserable in prison and leaves, telling Jake he is never coming back.
Gary, played by David Norona is Claire 's guidance counselor.
^ a: The tattoos were of their favorite fictional characters: Nathaniel and Isabel, based on a book their father bought them when they were children. -- there was speculation that the two siblings were intimately involved during their childhood, until the episode "Static '' showed they had n't been.
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who wrote the song it's only make believe | It 's only Make Believe - wikipedia
"It 's Only Make Believe '' is a song written by Jack Nance and American country music artist Conway Twitty, and produced by MGM Records ' Jim Vienneau, released by Twitty as a single in July 1958. The single topped both U.S. and the UK Singles Chart, and was Twitty 's only number - one single on the pop charts of either country. On a segment of Pop Goes The Country, Twitty states the single was a hit in 22 different countries and sold over 8 million copies. It is believed that Twitty wrote his part of the song while sitting on a fire escape outside his hotel room, to escape the summer heat, in Hamilton, Ontario. Twitty had come to Canada at the request of another American singer, Rompin ' Ronnie Hawkins, due to Hawkins saying to Twitty that Canada was the ' promised land ' for music.
Twitty recorded many subsequent versions of "It 's Only Make Believe '', including a 1970 duet with Loretta Lynn on their very first collaborative album, We Only Make Believe. Twitty joins in on the last verse in a 1988 uptempo cover by Ronnie McDowell, which was a # 8 hit on the country music charts. Additionally, Twitty contributed to an alternative cover by McDowell.
The song 's lyrics describe the thoughts and feelings of a man who is in a one - way relationship: He has a girlfriend, but she does not love him and only stays in the relationship for appearances, a fact of which he is painfully aware. He hopes and prays that, at some point in the future, the woman whom he is in love with will return his love, but laments that, at present, "it 's only make believe. ''
Robert Gordon covered this song in 1979
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what is the meaning of schedule in pipes | Nominal pipe size - wikipedia
Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) is a North American set of standard sizes for pipes used for high or low pressures and temperatures. "Nominal '' refers to pipe in non-specific terms and identifies the diameter of the hole with a non-dimensional number (for example -- 2 - inch nominal steel pipe '' consists of many varieties of steel pipe with the only criterion being a 2.375 - inch (60.3 mm) outside diameter). Specific pipe is identified by pipe diameter and another non-dimensional number for wall thickness referred to as the Schedule (Sched. or Sch., for example -- "2 - inch diameter pipe, Schedule 40 ''). NPS is often incorrectly called National Pipe Size, due to confusion with the American standard for pipe threads, "national pipe straight '', which also abbreviates as "NPS ''. The European and international designation equivalent to NPS is DN (diamètre nominal / nominal diameter / Durchmesser nach Norm), in which sizes are measured in millimetres, see ISO 6708. The term NB (nominal bore) is also frequently used interchangeably with NPS.
In March 1927 the American Standards Association authorized a committee to standardize the dimensions of wrought steel and wrought iron pipe and tubing. At that time only a small selection of wall thicknesses were in use: standard weight (STD), extra-strong (XS), and double extra-strong (XXS), based on the iron pipe size (IPS) system of the day. However these three sizes did not fit all applications. Also, in 1939, it was hoped that the designations of STD, XS, and XXS would be phased out by schedule numbers, however those original terms are still in common use today (although sometimes referred to as standard, extra-heavy (XH), and double extra-heavy (XXH), respectively). Since the original schedules were created, there have been many revisions and additions to the tables of pipe sizes based on industry use and on standards from API, ASTM, and others.
Stainless steel pipes, which were coming into more common use in the mid 20th century, permitted the use of thinner pipe walls with much less risk of failure due to corrosion. By 1949 thinner schedules 5S and 10S, which were based on the pressure requirements modified to the nearest BWG number, had been created, and other "S '' sizes followed later. Due to their thin walls, the smaller "S '' sizes can not be threaded together according to ASME code, but must be fusion welded.
Based on the NPS and schedule of a pipe, the pipe outside diameter (OD) and wall thickness can be obtained from reference tables such as those below, which are based on ASME standards B36. 10M and B36. 19M. For example, NPS 14 Sch 40 has an OD of 14 inches (360 mm) and a wall thickness of 0.437 inches (11.1 mm). However the NPS and OD values are not always equal, which can create confusion.
The reason for the discrepancy for NPS 1⁄8 to 12 inches is that these NPS values were originally set to give the same inside diameter (ID) based on wall thicknesses standard at the time. However, as the set of available wall thicknesses evolved, the ID changed and NPS became only indirectly related to ID and OD.
For a given NPS, the OD stays fixed and the wall thickness increases with schedule. For a given schedule, the OD increases with NPS while the wall thickness stays constant or increases. Using equations and rules in ASME B31. 3 Process Piping, it can be shown that pressure rating decreases with increasing NPS and constant schedule.
Some specifications use pipe schedules called standard wall (STD), extra strong (XS), and double extra strong (XXS), although these actually belong to an older system called iron pipe size (IPS). The IPS number is the same as the NPS number. STD is identical to SCH 40S, and 40S is identical to 40 for NPS 1 / 8 to NPS 10, inclusive. XS is identical to SCH 80S, and 80S is identical to 80 for NPS 1 / 8 to NPS 8, inclusive. XXS wall is thicker than schedule 160 from NPS 1 / 8 in to NPS 6 in inclusive, and schedule 160 is thicker than XXS wall for NPS 8 in and larger.
When a pipe is welded or bent the most common method to inspect blockages, misalignment, ovality, and weld bead dimensional conformity is to pass a round ball through the pipe coil or circuit. If the inner pipe dimension is to be measured then the weld bead should be subtracted, if welding is applicable. Typically, the clearance tolerance for the ball must not exceed 1 millimetre (0.039 in). Allowable ovality of any pipe is measured on the inside dimension of the pipe, normally 5 % to 10 % ovality can be accepted. If no other test is conducted to verify ovality, or blockages, this test must be seen as a standard requirement. A flow test can not be used in lieu of a blockage or ball test. See pipe dimensional table, Specification ASME B36. 10M or B36. 19M for pipe dimensions per schedule.
Stainless steel pipe is most often available in standard weight sizes (noted by the S designation; for example, NPS Sch 10S). However stainless steel pipe can also be available in other schedules.
Both polyvinyl chloride pipe (PVC) and chlorinated polyvinyl chloride pipe (CPVC) are made in NPS sizes.
Note that DN does not exactly correspond to a size in millimeters, because ISO 6708 defines it as being a dimensionless specification only indirectly related to a diameter. The ISO 6708 sizes provide a metric name for existing inch sizes, resulting in a 1: 1 correlation between NPS and DN sizes. ISO 6708 does not include values for "DN 6 '' or "DN 8 '', however ASME B36. 10M list the "DN 6 '' and "DN 8 ''.
(dimensionless)
Tolerance: The tolerance on pipe OD is + 1 / 64 (. 0156) inch (0.40 mm), - 1 / 32 (. 0312) inch (0.79 mm).
As per ASME B36. 10M - 2015 Pipe wall thickness are rounded to nearest 0.01 mm (0.00039 in), while converting Wall Thickness from inch to mm.
The term, nominal bore, is used in Australia and New Zealand with millimeter measurements. Hence, 50NB indicates a nominal bore of 50 mm (2.0 in).
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where do they speak french in canada map | French language in Canada - wikipedia
French is the mother tongue of about 7.2 million Canadians (20.6 % of the Canadian population, second to English at 56 %) according to Census Canada 2016. Most native speakers of the French language in Canada live in Quebec, where French is the majority official language. 77 % of Quebec 's population are native francophones, and 95 % of the population speak French as their first or second language. Additionally, about one million native francophones live in other provinces, forming a sizable minority in New Brunswick, which is officially a bilingual province, where about one - third of the population are francophone. There are also French - speaking communities in Manitoba and Ontario, where francophones make up about 4 percent of the population, as well as significantly smaller communities in Alberta, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan -- around 1 -- 2 %. Many, but not all of these communities are supported by French - language institutions.
By the Official Languages Act in 1969, Canada recognized English and French as having equal status in the government of Canada. While French, with no specification as to dialect or variety, has the status of one of Canada 's two official languages at the federal government level, English is the native language of the majority of Canadians. The federal government provides services and operates in both languages. French is the sole official language in Quebec at the provincial level and is co-official with English in New Brunswick. The provincial governments of Ontario, New Brunswick, and Manitoba are required to provide services in French where justified by the number of francophones (those whose mother tongue is French or who use French on a daily basis). However, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms requires all provinces to provide primary and secondary education to their official - language minorities at public expense.
In 1524, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano, working for Italian bankers in France, explored the American coast from Florida to Cape Breton. In 1529, Verrazzano mapped a part of the coastal region of the North American continent under the name Nova Gallia (New France). In 1534, Francis I, King of France, sent Jacques Cartier to discover new lands. He discovered the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, sealed an alliance with the local people and obtained passage to go farther. During his second expedition (1535 -- 1536), Cartier discovered the Saint Lawrence River, a path into the heart of the continent. However, Cartier failed to establish a permanent colony in the area, and war in Europe kept France from further colonization through the end of the 16th century.
At the beginning of the 17th century, French settlements and private companies were established in the area which is now eastern Canada. In 1605 Samuel de Champlain founded Port Royal (Acadia) and in 1608 he founded Quebec City. In 1642 the foundation of Ville Marie, the settlement which would eventually become Montreal, completed the occupation of the territory.
In 1634, Quebec contained two hundred settlers, who were principally involved in the fur trade. The trade was profit - making and the city was on the point of becoming more than a mere temporary trading post.
In 1635, Jesuits founded the secondary school of Quebec for the education of children. Ten years later, in 1645, the Compagnie des Habitants was created, uniting the political and economic leaders of the colony. French was the language of all the non-native people.
In 1685, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV (1654 -- 1715), which had legalized freedom of religion of the Reformed Church, caused the emigration from France of 300,000 Huguenots (French Calvinists), to other countries of Europe and to North America.
With the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the British began their domination of eastern North America, some parts of which had been controlled by the French. The British took mainland Nova Scotia in 1713. Present - day Maine fell to the British during Father Rale 's War, while present - day New Brunswick fell after Father Le Loutre 's War. In 1755 the majority of the French - speaking inhabitants of Nova Scotia were deported to the Thirteen Colonies. After 1758, they were deported to England and France. The Treaty of Paris (1763) completed the British takeover, removing France from Canadian territory, except for Saint Pierre and Miquelon at the entrance of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
The French language was relegated to second rank as far as trade and state communications were concerned. Out of necessity, the educated class learned the English language and became progressively bilingual, but the great majority of the French - speaking inhabitants continued to speak only French, and their population increased. Anglicization of the French population failed, and it became obvious that coexistence was required. In 1774, Parliament passed the Quebec Act, restoring French civil laws and abrogating the Test Act, which had been used to suppress Catholicism.
In 1791, Parliament repealed the Quebec Act and gave the king authority to divide the Canadian colony into two new provinces: Upper Canada, which later became Ontario, and Lower Canada, which became Quebec.
In 1867, three colonies of British North America agreed to form a federal state which was named Canada. It was composed of four provinces:
In Quebec, French became again the official language; until then it was the vernacular language but with no legal status.
The term Canadian French was formerly used to refer specifically to Quebec French and the closely related varieties of Ontario and Western Canada descended from it. This is presumably because Canada and Acadia were distinct parts of New France, and also of British North America, until 1867. However, today the term Canadian French is not usually deemed to exclude Acadian French.
Phylogenetically, Quebec French, Métis French and Brayon French are representatives of koiné French in the Americas whereas Acadian French, Cajun French, and Newfoundland French are derivatives of non-koinesized local dialects in France.
As a consequence of geographical seclusion and, due to the British conquest, the French language in Canada presents three different but related main dialects. They share certain features which distinguish them from European French. The name Canadian French is now usually viewed as an umbrella term for all of these varieties.
All of these dialects mix to varying degrees elements from regional languages and folk dialects spoken in France at the time of colonization. For instance, the origins of Quebec French lie in 17th - and 18th - century Parisian French influenced by folk dialects of the early modern period and other regional languages (such as Norman, Picard, and Poitevin - Saintongeais) which French colonists brought to New France. The influence of these dialects on Acadian French is acknowledged to be stronger than on Quebec French. The three dialects can also be historically and geographically associated with three of the five former colonies of New France, respectively Canada, Acadia, and Terre - Neuve (Newfoundland).
In addition, there is a mixed language known as Michif which is based on Cree and French. It is spoken by Métis communities in Manitoba and Saskatchewan as well as adjacent areas of the United States.
Finally, more recent immigration (post -- World War II) has brought francophone immigrants from around the world, and with them other French dialects.
Quebec French is spoken in Quebec. Closely related varieties are spoken by francophone communities in Ontario, Western Canada, Labrador and in the New England region of the United States and differ from Quebec French primarily by their greater conservatism. The term Laurentian French has limited application as a collective label for all these varieties, and Quebec French has also been used for the entire dialect group. The overwhelming majority of francophone Canadians speak this dialect.
Acadian French is spoken by over 350,000 Acadians in parts of the Maritime Provinces, Newfoundland, the Magdalen Islands, and the Gaspé peninsula.
Métis French is spoken in Manitoba and Western Canada by the Métis, descendants of First Nations mothers and voyageur fathers during the fur trade. Many Métis spoke Cree in addition to French, and over the years they developed a unique mixed language called Michif by combining Métis French nouns, numerals, articles and adjectives with Cree verbs, demonstratives, postpositions, interrogatives and pronouns. Both the Michif language and the Métis dialect of French are severely endangered.
Newfoundland French is spoken by a small population on the Port - au - Port Peninsula of Newfoundland. It is endangered -- both Quebec French and Acadian French are now more widely spoken among Newfoundland francophones than the distinctive peninsular dialect.
Brayon French is spoken in the Beauce of Quebec; Edmundston, New Brunswick; and Madawaska, Maine. Although superficially a phonological descendant of Acadian French, analysis reveals it is morphosyntactically identical to Quebec French. It is believed to have resulted from a localized levelling of contact dialects between Québécois and Acadian settlers.
New England French is spoken in parts of New England in the United States. Essentially a local variant of Quebec French, it is one of three major forms of French that developed in what is now the U.S., the others being Louisiana French and the nearly - extinct Missouri French. It is endangered, though its use is supported by bilingual education programs in place since 1987.
There are two main sub-varieties of Canadian French. Joual is an informal variety of French spoken in working - class neighbourhoods in the province of Quebec. Chiac is a blending of Acadian French syntax and vocabulary with numerous lexical borrowings from English.
Quebec is the only province whose sole official language is French. Today, 81.4 percent of Quebecers are first language francophones. About 95 percent of Quebecers speak French. However, many of the services the provincial government provides are available in English for the sizeable anglophone population of the province (notably in Montreal). For native French speakers, Quebec French is noticeably different in pronunciation and vocabulary from the French of France, sometimes called Metropolitan French, but they are easily mutually intelligible in their formal varieties, and after moderate exposure, in most of their informal ones as well. The differences are primarily due to changes that have occurred in Quebec French and Parisian French since the 18th century, when Britain gained possession of Canada. Different regions of Quebec have their own varieties: Gaspé Peninsula, Côte - Nord, Quebec City, Saguenay - Lac - Saint - Jean, Outaouais, and Abitibi - Témiscamingue have differences in pronunciation as well as in vocabulary. For example, depending on one 's region, the ordinary word for "kettle '' can be bouilloire, bombe, or canard.
In Quebec, the French language is of paramount importance. For example, the stop signs on the roads are written ARRÊT (which has the literal meaning of "stop '' in French), even if other French - speaking countries, like France, use STOP. On a similar note, movies originally made in other languages than French (mostly movies originally made in English) are more literally named in Quebec than they are in France (e.g. The movie The Love Guru is called Love Gourou in France, but in Quebec it is called Le Gourou de l'amour). Also, Québécois do not always use the same words as the French. Here are some examples:
Quebec French had recourse to many anglicisms, which characterize it in comparison with other varieties of French. The Quebec Office of the French Language 's "Banque de dépannage linguistique '' distinguishes different kinds of anglicisms:
The abundance of anglicisms in Quebec French leads some people to speak of "sabirisation '' (from sabir, "pidgin ''), because of the mixture of both languages. Law 101 could postpone the advance of the phenomenon or even prevent it.
In conclusion, according to Robert Dubuc 's article "Régionalismes et communication '' ("Regionalisms and communication ''), for the French - speaking community of Quebec, "il n'y a de salut hors de la maîtrise de ses moyens linguistiques dont le français commun constitue l'armature essentielle et efficace '' ("there is no salvation beyond the mastery of its (the community 's) linguistic means, of which common French constitutes the essential and effective weapon '').
In general, the same norms as in common French are applied. Only certain words have a different gender. Notable from a semantic point of view are the use of the word "pis '' for the conjunction "and '', where "et '' would be used in Metropolitan French; the word "là '' to punctuate the end of a sentence or after a word; and the use of "à '' instead of the possessive "de '', for instance, "la maison à Jacques '' for "Jacques 's house ''.
French is a language with a T -- V distinction, where different pronouns are used for polite and familiar address. Quebecers use the familiar tu form more than other dialects. This use is often qualified as the imitation of the English - speaking use of you, which is the only pronoun referring to the second person, but only in spoken language.
The colonists living in what are now the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were principally constituted of Bretons, Normans, Basques, and Portuguese. Conquered by the English, they suffered massive deportations to the United States and France. Others went into exile to Canada or to nearby islands. Those who stayed were persecuted. At the end of the 18th century, more liberal measures granted new lands to those who had stayed, and measures were taken to promote the return of numerous exiled people from Canada and Miquelon. The number of Acadians rose rapidly, to the point of gaining representation in the Legislative Assembly.
French is one of the official languages, with English, of the province of New Brunswick. Apart from Quebec, this is the only other Canadian province that recognizes French as an official language. Approximately one - third of New Brunswickers are francophone, by far the largest Acadian population in Canada.
This feeling of identity is also present in Louisiana due to the historical relationship with Cajun French. The Council for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODFIL) aims is to develop, to use, and to preserve the French language as it exists in Louisiana.
The Acadian community is concentrated in primarily rural areas along the border with Quebec and the eastern coast of the province. Francophones in the Madawaska area may also be identified as Brayon, although sociologists have disputed whether the Brayons represent a distinct francophone community, a subgroup of the Acadians or an extraprovincial community of Québécois. The only major Acadian population centre is Moncton, home to the main campus of the Université de Moncton. Francophones are, however, in the minority in Moncton.
In addition to New Brunswick, Acadian French has speakers in portions of mainland Quebec and in the Atlantic provinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. In these provinces, the percentage of francophones is much smaller than in New Brunswick. In some communities, French is an endangered language.
Linguists do not agree about the origin of Acadian French. Acadian French is influenced by the langues d'oïl. The dialect contains, among other features, the alveolar r and the pronunciation of the final syllable in the plural form of the verb in the third person. But Acadia is the only place outside Jersey (a Channel Island close to mainland Normandy) where Jèrriais speakers can be found.
The variety of French spoken in Atlantic Canada possesses features that differ from Quebec French.
According to Wiesmath (2006), some characteristics of Acadian are:
These features typically occur in older speech.
Yves Cormier 's Dictionnaire du français acadien (ComiersAcad) includes the majority of Acadian regionalisms. From a syntactic point of view, a major feature is the use of je both for the first person singular and for the third plural; the same phenomenon takes place with i for the third persons. Acadian still differentiates the vous form from the tu form.
However, because of contact with francophones from other parts of Canada, the distinctive characteristics of Acadian French have been progressively weakened.
In addition, English has influenced Acadian French through the borrowing of words, many of which used to be French words used in the English language.
Although French is the native language of just over half a million Canadians in Ontario, francophone Ontarians represent only 4.4 percent of the province 's population. They are concentrated primarily in the Eastern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario regions, near the border with Quebec, although they are also present in smaller numbers throughout the province. Forty percent of Franco - Ontarians no longer speak the language at home. However, Ottawa is the city which counts the biggest number of Franco - Ontarians. The Franco - Ontarians are originally from a first wave of immigration from France, from a second wave from Quebec. The third wave comes from Quebec, but also from Haiti, Europe, Africa, Vietnam, etc.
The province has no official language defined in law, although it is a largely English - speaking province. Ontario law requires that the provincial Legislative Assembly operate in both English and French (individuals can speak in the Assembly in the official language of their choice), and requires that all provincial statutes and bills be made available in both English and French. Furthermore, under the French Language Services Act, individuals are entitled to communicate with the head or central office of any provincial government department or agency in French, as well as to receive all government services in French in 25 designated areas in the province, selected according to minority population criteria. The provincial government of Ontario 's website is bilingual. Residents of Ottawa, Toronto, Windsor, Sudbury and Timmins can receive services from their municipal government in the official language of their choice.
There are also several French - speaking communities on military bases in Ontario, such as the one at CFB Trenton. These communities have been founded by francophone Canadians in the Canadian Forces who live together in military residences.
The term Franco - Ontarian accepts two interpretations. According to the first one, it includes all French speakers of Ontario, wherever they come from. According to second one, it includes all French Canadians born in Ontario, whatever their level of French is.
The modern Franco - Ontarian language is close to Quebec French with some rare exceptions of expressions and pronunciations. Once again, the influence of English can be noted, with a big recourse to tonic stresses, but nevertheless a French vocabulary is still used. According to Michel Laurier (1989), the semantic and stylistic value of the use of the subjunctive is progressively disappearing. In the article "Le français canadien parlé hors Québec: aperçu sociolinguistique '' (1989), Edward Berniak and Raymond Mougeon underline some characteristics:
The use of French among Franco - Ontarians is in decline due to the omnipresence of the English language in a lot of fields.
The island is discovered by Jean Cabot in 1497. Newfoundland is annexed by England in 1583. It is the first British possession in North America. In 1610, the Frenchmen become established in the peninsula of Avalon and go to war against the Englishmen. In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht acknowledges the sovereignty of the Englishmen. The origin of Franco - Newfoundlanders is double: the first ones to arrive are especially of Breton origin, attracted by the fishing possibilities. Then, from the 19th century, the Acadians who came from the Cape Breton Island and from the Magdalen Islands, an archipelago of nine small islands belonging to Quebec, become established. Up to the middle of the 20th century, Breton fishers, who had Breton as their mother tongue, but who had been educated in French came to settle. This Breton presence can explain differences between the Newfoundland French and the Acadian French. In the 1970s, the French language appears in the school of Cape St - George in the form of a bilingual education. In the 1980s, classes of French for native French speakers are organized there.
According to Patrice Brasseur 's articles "Les Représentations linguistiques des francophones de la péninsule de Port - au - Port '' (2007) and "Quelques aspects de la situation linguistique dans la communauté franco - terreneuvienne '' (1995) as well as according to the French Academy, some characteristics of French in Newfoundland can be kept in mind:
Manitoba also has a significant Franco - Manitoban community, centred especially in the St. Boniface area of Winnipeg, but also in numerous surrounding towns. The provincial government of Manitoba boasts the only bilingual website of the Prairies; the Canadian constitution makes French an official language in Manitoba for the legislature and courts. Saskatchewan also has a Fransaskois community, as does Alberta with its Franco - Albertans, and British Columbia hosts the Franco - Columbians.
Michif, a dialect of French originating in Western Canada, is a unique mixed language derived from Cree and French. It is spoken by a small number of Métis living mostly in Manitoba and in North Dakota.
French is an official language in each of the three northern territories: the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Francophones in the Yukon are called Franco - Yukonnais, those from the Northwest Territories, Franco - Ténois (from the French acronym for the Northwest Territories, T.N. - O.), and those in Nunavut, Franco - Nunavois.
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nba players who have scored over 50 points in a game | List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 60 or more points in a game.
This feat has been accomplished 68 times in NBA history. Twenty - five different players have scored 60 or more points in a game. Only four players have scored 60 or more points on more than one occasion: Wilt Chamberlain (32 times), Kobe Bryant (6 times), Michael Jordan (5 times), and Elgin Baylor (4 times). Chamberlain holds the single - game scoring record, having scored 100 in game in 1962.
Jordan (63) and Baylor (61) are the only players to score at least 60 points in a game during the playoffs, each accomplishing this once.
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who was appointed to the high court of australia on the same day that the first woman | List of Justices of the High Court of Australia - Wikipedia
The following table contains the details of the 48 men and five women who have ever been appointed as Justices of the High Court of Australia. The High Court of Australia was formed in 1903 under the Judiciary Act 1903, and under Section 71 of the Australian Constitution the judicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia is vested in the Court. Since the passing of the Australia Act 1986, the court has been the highest court in the Australian court hierarchy.
The court is currently composed of seven judges, including six Justices and the Chief Justice of Australia.
Prior to 1977, appointments were for life. However, since 1977, appointments are made until the mandatory retirement age of 70. Due to the steady increase in the judicial workload, several Justices have retired before reaching the mandatory retirement age.
The current judges are listed in bold on the table below.
13 politicians, serving or former, have been appointed to the High Court of Australia. Nine justices have served in the Parliament of Australia: Edmund Barton, Richard O'Connor, Isaac Isaacs, H.B. Higgins, Edward McTiernan, H.V. Evatt, John Latham, Garfield Barwick, and Lionel Murphy. All but Evatt were appointed after their parliamentary service; Evatt resigned from the bench in order to pursue his federal political career, although he had previously served in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly. In addition to the above, four justices served in colonial parliaments: Samuel Griffith, Charles Powers, Albert Piddington and Adrian Knox, although all concluded their political careers more than 10 years prior to their appointments. No justice since Lionel Murphy has served in state or federal parliament.
This following chart illustrates the composition of the High Court. It indicates the seven seats of the court and who has occupied each seat at different points in the court 's existence. The red portions represent the future part of a judge 's term and show the date at which they are bound to retire from the court (although they may choose to retire before that date). The blue portions of a judge 's term show a period in which that judge was Chief Justice.
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what was the climate of the new england colonies | Climate of New England - wikipedia
The climate of New England varies greatly across its 500 - mile (800 km) span from northern Maine to southern Connecticut:
Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, and most of Massachusetts have a humid continental climate (Dfb in Köppen climate classification). In this region the winters are long, cold, and heavy snow is common (most locations receive 60 to 120 inches (1,500 to 3,000 mm) of snow annually in this region). The summer 's months are moderately warm, though summer is rather short and rainfall is spread through the year. Cities like Worcester, Massachusetts, Concord, New Hampshire, and Burlington, Vermont average 60 to 80 inches (1,500 to 2,000 mm) of snow annually. The frost - free growing season ranges from 90 days in far northern Maine and the mountains of New Hampshire and Vermont to 140 days along the Maine coast and in most of western Massachusetts.
In central and eastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and most of Connecticut, the same humid continental prevails (Dfa), though summers are warm to hot, winters are shorter, and there is less snowfall (especially in the coastal areas where it is often warmer), with the general exception of the higher elevations and other normally cooler locations. Cities like Boston, Hartford, and Providence receive 35 to 50 inches (890 to 1,270 mm) of snow annually. Summers can occasionally be hot and humid, with high temperatures in the lower Connecticut River valley of Massachusetts and northern Connecticut between 90 and 100 ° F (32 and 38 ° C). Summer thunderstorms are common between June and August. The frost - free growing season ranges from 140 days in parts of central Massachusetts to near 160 days across interior Connecticut and most Rhode Island.
Southern and coastal Connecticut is the broad transition zone from continental climates to temperate climates to the south. The coast of Connecticut from Stamford, through the Bridgeport / New Haven area to New London is the mildest area of New England. Summers are frequently hot and humid, and winters are cool with a mix of snow and rain. Most cities along the Connecticut coast average 20 to 25 inches (510 to 640 mm) of snow annually, though in some winters there is little snowfall. Winters also tend to be sunnier in southern Connecticut and southern Rhode Island compared to northern and central New England. Summers can be hot and humid, and thunderstorms are common from June through September. Tropical cyclones have struck southern Connecticut and coastal Rhode Island several times, including in 1938 and 1954 (Hurricane Carol) when several hundred people were killed. The frost - free growing season approaches 200 days along the Connecticut coast.
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who won the football world cup in 1998 | 1998 FIFA World Cup - Wikipedia
The 1998 FIFA World Cup was the 16th FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men 's national association football teams. It was held in France from 10 June to 12 July 1998. The country was chosen as the host nation by FIFA for the second time in the history of the tournament, defeating Morocco in the bidding process. It was the second time that France staged the competition (the first was in 1938) and the ninth time that it was held in Europe.
Qualification for the finals began in March 1996 and concluded in November 1997. For the first time in the competition, the group stage was expanded from 24 teams to 32, with eight groups of four. 64 matches were played in 10 stadiums in 10 host cities, with the opening match and final staged at the Stade de France, Saint - Denis.
The tournament was won by host country France, who beat defending champions Brazil 3 -- 0 in the final. France won their first title, becoming the seventh nation to win a World Cup, and the sixth (after Uruguay, Italy, England, West Germany and Argentina) to win the tournament on home soil. Croatia, Jamaica, Japan and South Africa made their first appearances in the finals.
France was awarded the 1998 World Cup on 2 July 1992 by the executive committee of FIFA during a general meeting in Zürich, Switzerland. They defeated Morocco by 12 votes to 7. Switzerland withdrew, due to being unable to meet FIFA 's requirements. This made France the third country to host two World Cups, after Mexico and Italy in 1986 and 1990 respectively. France previously hosted the third edition of the World Cup in 1938. England, who hosted the competition in 1966 and won it, were among the original applicants, but later withdrew their application in favour of an ultimately successful bid to host UEFA Euro 1996.
On 4 June 2015, while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities, Chuck Blazer confirmed that he and other members of FIFA 's executive committee were bribed during the 1998 and 2010 World Cups host selection process. Blazer stated that "we facilitated bribes in conjunction with the selection of the host nation for the 1998 World Cup ''. Since France won the selection process it was initially thought the bribery came from its bid committee. It eventually transpired that the bribe payment was from the failed Moroccan bid.
The qualification draw for the 1998 World Cup finals took place in the Musée du Louvre, Paris on 12 December 1995. As tournament hosts, France was exempt from the draw as was defending champion Brazil. 174 teams from six confederations participated, 24 more than in the previous round. Fourteen countries qualified from the European zone (in addition to hosts France). Ten were determined after group play - nine group winners and the best second - placed team; the other eight group runners - up were drawn into pairs of four play - off matches with the winners qualifying for the finals as well. CONMEBOL (South America) and CAF (Africa) were each given five spots in the final tournament, while three spots were contested between 30 CONCACAF members in the North and Central America and the Caribbean zone. The winner of the Oceanian zone advanced to an intercontinental play - off against the runner - up of the Asian play - off, determined by the two best second placed teams.
Four nations qualified for the first time: Croatia, Jamaica, Japan and South Africa. The last team to qualify was Iran by virtue of beating Australia in a two - legged tie on 29 November 1997. This was Team Melli 's first appearance in the finals since 1978, the last time Tunisia also qualified for the tournament. Chile qualified for the first time since 1982, after serving a ban that saw them miss out on the two previous tournaments. Paraguay and Denmark returned for the first time since 1986. Austria, England, Scotland and Yugoslavia returned after missing out on the 1994 tournament, with the Balkan team now appearing under the name of FR Yugoslavia. Among the teams who failed to qualify were two - time winners Uruguay (for the second successive tournament); Sweden, who finished third in 1994; Russia (who failed to qualify for the first time since 1978 after losing to Italy in the play - off round); and the Republic of Ireland, who had qualified for the previous two tournaments. As of 2018, this is the most recent time Austria, Scotland, Norway, Bulgaria, Romania, and Jamaica have qualified for a FIFA World Cup finals, as well as the last time Portugal missed out.
The following 32 teams, shown with final pre-tournament rankings, qualified for the final tournament.
France 's bid to host the World Cup centered on a national stadium with 80,000 seats and nine other stadiums located across the country. When the finals were originally awarded in July 1992, none of the regional club grounds were of a capacity meeting FIFA 's requirements -- namely being able to safely seat 40,000. The proposed national stadium, colloquially referred to as the ' Grand stade ' met with controversy at every stage of planning; the stadium 's location was determined by politics, finance and national symbolism. As Mayor of Paris, Jacques Chirac successfully negotiated a deal with Prime Minister Édouard Balladur to bring the Stade de France -- as it was named now, to the commune of Saint - Denis just north of the capital city. Construction on the stadium started in December 1995 and was completed after 26 months of work in November 1997 at a cost of ₣ 2.67 billion.
The choice of stadium locations was drafted from an original list of 14 cities. FIFA and CFO monitored the progress and quality of preparations, culminating in the former providing final checks of the grounds weeks before the tournament commenced. Montpellier was the surprise inclusion from the final list of cities because of its low urban hierarchy in comparison to Strasbourg, who boasted a better hierarchy and success from its local football team, having been taken over by a consortium. Montpellier however was considered ambitious by the selecting panel to host World Cup matches. The local city and regional authories in particular had invested heavily into football the previous two decades and were able to measure economic effects, in terms of jobs as early as in 1997. Some of the venues used for this tournament were also used for the previous World Cup in France in 1938. The Stade Vélodrome in Marseille, the Stade Municipal in Toulouse, the Gerland in Lyon, the Parc Lescure in Bordeaux and the Parc des Princes in Paris received the honour of hosting World Cup matches once again in 1998 as they had all done in 1938.
10 stadiums in total were used for the finals; in addition to nine matches being played at the Stade de France (the most used stadium in the tournament), a further seven matches took place in Paris Saint - Germain 's Parc des Princes, bringing Paris 's total matches hosted to 16. France played four of their seven matches in the national stadium; they also played in the country 's second and third largest cities, Marseille (hosting 7 total matches) and Lyon (hosting 6 total matches), as well as a Round of 16 knockout match in the northern city of Lens (also hosting 6 total matches). Nantes, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Montpellier and Saint - Etienne also hosted 6 matches in total; all of the stadiums used also hosted knockout round matches.
This was the first World Cup where fourth officials used electronic boards, instead of cardboard.
This was the first World Cup since the introduction of golden goals, banning of tackles from behind that endanger the safety of an opponent and allowance of three substitutions per game.
34 referees and 33 assistants officiated in the 1998 World Cup. As a result of the extension to 32 teams in the finals, there was an increase of 10 referees and 11 officials from the 1994 World Cup.
As with the preceding tournament, each team 's squad for the 1998 World Cup finals consisted of 22 players. Each participating national association had to confirm their final 22 - player squad by 1 June 1998.
Out of the 704 players participating in the 1998 World Cup, 447 were signed up with a European club; 90 in Asia, 67 in South America, 61 in Northern and Central America and 37 in Africa. 75 played their club football in England -- five more than Italy and Spain. Barcelona of Spain was the club contributing to the most players in the tournament with 13 players on their side.
The average age of all teams was 27 years, 8 months -- five months older than the previous tournament. Samuel Eto'o of Cameroon was the youngest player selected in the competition at 17 years, 3 months, while the oldest was Jim Leighton of Scotland at 39 years, 11 months.
All times are Central European Summer Time (UTC + 2)
Defending champions Brazil won Group A after only two matches as the nation achieved victories over Scotland (2 -- 1) and Morocco (3 -- 0). Heading into the third game, Brazil had nothing to play for but still started its regulars against Norway, who was looking to upset Brazil once again. Needing a victory, Norway overturned a 1 -- 0 deficit with 12 minutes remaining to defeat Brazil 2 -- 1, with Kjetil Rekdal scoring the winning penalty to send Norway into the knockout stage for the first time.
Norway 's victory denied Morocco a chance at the Round of 16, despite winning 3 -- 0 against Scotland. It was only Morocco 's second ever victory at a World Cup, having recorded its only previous win 12 years earlier on 11 June 1986.
Scotland managed only one point, coming in a 1 -- 1 draw against Norway, and failed to get out of the first round for an eighth time in the FIFA World Cup, a record that stands to this date.
Italy and Chile progressed to the second round because Austria suffered their worst FIFA World Cup performance. Cameroon failed to get out of the group stage for the second time in a row.
France, the host nation, swept Group C when the start of their path to their first FIFA World Cup trophy culminated with their 2 -- 1 win over Denmark, who despite their loss, progressed to the second round.
Nigeria and Paraguay advanced to the Round of 16 after a surprise elimination of top seed Spain, while Bulgaria failed to repeat their surprise performance from the previous tournament.
The Netherlands and Mexico advanced with the same record (The Netherlands placed first on goal difference); Belgium and eventual 2002 FIFA World Cup co-hosts South Korea failed to advance.
Germany and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia advanced, each with 7 points (Germany took 1st through goal differential tiebreak). Iran and 1994 host United States failed to advance.
Romania and England became Group G top finishers as Colombia and Tunisia were unable to reach the last 16, despite Colombia having one win.
Argentina and World Cup debutants Croatia finished at the top of Group H while Jamaica (another debutant) and 2002 FIFA World Cup co-hosts Japan failed to advance.
The knockout stage comprised the 16 teams that advanced from the group stage of the tournament. For each game in the knockout stage, any draw at 90 minutes was followed by 30 minutes of extra time; if scores were still level, there was a penalty shoot - out to determine who progressed to the next round. Golden goal comes into play if a team scores during extra time, thus becoming the winner which concludes the game.
Croatia beat the Netherlands to earn third place in the competition. Davor Šuker scored the winner in the 35th minute to secure the golden boot.
The final was held on 12 July 1998 at the Stade de France, Saint - Denis. France defeated holders Brazil 3 -- 0, with two goals from Zinedine Zidane and a stoppage time strike from Emmanuel Petit. The win gave France their first World Cup title, becoming the sixth national team after Uruguay, Italy, England, West Germany and Argentina to win the tournament on their home soil. They also inflicted the second - heaviest World Cup defeat on Brazil, later to be topped by Brazil 's 7 -- 1 defeat by Germany in the semi-finals of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The pre-match build up was dominated by the omission of Brazilian striker Ronaldo from the starting lineup only to be reinstated 45 minutes before kick - off. He managed to create the first open chance for Brazil in the 22nd minute, dribbling past defender Thuram before sending a cross out on the left side that goalkeeper Fabien Barthez struggled to hold onto. France however took the lead after Brazilian defender Roberto Carlos conceded a corner from which Zidane scored via a header. Three minutes before half - time, Zidane scored his second goal of the match, similarly another header from a corner. The tournament hosts went down to ten men in the 68th minute as Marcel Desailly was sent off for a second bookable offence. Brazil reacted to this by making an attacking substitution and although they applied pressure France sealed the win with a third goal: substitute Patrick Vieira set up his club teammate Petit in a counterattack to shoot low past goalkeeper Cláudio Taffarel.
French president Jacques Chirac was in attendance to congratulate and commiserate the winners and runners - up respectively after the match. Several days after the victory, winning manager Aimé Jacquet announced his resignation from the French team with immediate effect.
Davor Šuker received the Golden Boot for scoring six goals. In total, 171 goals were scored by 112 players:
The All - star team is a squad consisting of the 16 most impressive players at the 1998 World Cup, as selected by FIFA 's Technical Study Group.
Fabien Barthez José Luis Chilavert
Roberto Carlos Marcel Desailly Lilian Thuram Frank de Boer Carlos Gamarra
Dunga Rivaldo Michael Laudrup Zinedine Zidane Edgar Davids
Ronaldo Davor Šuker Brian Laudrup Dennis Bergkamp
After the tournament, FIFA published a ranking of all teams that competed in the 1998 World Cup finals based on progress in the competition and overall results.
The official mascot was Footix, a rooster first presented in May 1996. It was created by graphic designer Fabrice Pialot and selected from a shortlist of five mascots. Research carried out about the choice of having a cockerel as a mascot was greatly received: 91 % associated it immediately with France, the traditional symbol of the nation. Footix, the name chosen by French television viewers, is a portmanteau of "football '' and the ending "- ix '' from the popular Astérix comic strip. The mascot 's colours reflect those of the host nation 's flag and home strip -- blue for the jump suit, a red crest and with the words ' France 98 ' coloured in white.
The official song of the 1998 FIFA World Cup was "The Cup of Life, '' aka "La Copa de la Vida '' recorded by Ricky Martin.
The match ball for the 1998 World Cup, manufactured by Adidas was named the Tricolore, meaning ' three - coloured ' in French. It was the eighth World Cup match ball made for the tournament by the German company and was the first in the series to be multi-coloured. The tricolour flag and cockerel, traditional symbols of France were used as inspiration for the design.
The sponsors of the 1998 FIFA World Cup are divided into two categories: FIFA World Cup Sponsors and France Supporters.
The absence of Budweiser (which was one of the sponsors in the previous two World Cups) is notable due to the Evin law, which forbids alcohol - related sponsorship in France, including in sports events (and thus, being replaced by Casio).
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 1998 FIFA World Cup to many broadcasters. In the UK BBC and ITV had the broadcasting rights. The pictures and audio of the competition were supplied to the TV and radio channels by the company TVRS 98, the broadcaster of the tournament.
The World Cup matches were broadcast in 200 countries. 818 photographers were credited for the tournament. In every match, a stand was reserved for the press. The number of places granted to them reached its maximum in the final, when 1,750 reporters and 110 TV commentators were present in the stand.
The official video game, World Cup 98 was released by EA Sports on 13 March 1998 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and the Game Boy. It was the first international football game developed by Electronic Arts since obtaining the rights from FIFA in 1997 and received mostly favourable reviews.
Many other video games, including International Superstar Soccer 98, World League Soccer 98, Actua Soccer 2 and Neo Geo Cup ' 98: The Road to the Victory were released in the buildup to the 1998 World Cup and evidently were based on the tournament. FIFA: Road to World Cup 98, also by EA Sports focused on the qualification stage.
Honorary FIFA President João Havelange praised France 's hosting of the World Cup, describing the tournament as one that would "remain with me forever, as I am sure they will remain with everyone who witnessed this unforgettable competition ''. Lennart Johansson, the chairman of the organising committee for the World Cup and President of UEFA added that France provided "subject matter of a quality that made the world hold its breath ''.
Cour des Comptes, the quasi-judicial body of the French government released its report on the organisation of the 1998 World Cup in 2000.
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who are the judges of sa re ga ma pa | Sa Re Ga Ma Pa - wikipedia
Sonu Nigam (1995 - 2000)
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa is an Indian musical reality TV show. It started airing on Zee TV in 1995 as Sa Re Ga Ma.
The first episode aired on May 1, 1995 and was hosted by Sonu Nigam. In the year 1999, the show was hosted by the Bangash brothers, Amaan Ali Bangash and Ayaan Ali Bangash, sons of legendary sarod - player Amjad Ali Khan. From 2002, Shaan started hosting the show. Till 2005, the show used to follow a format wherein experts in the field of music would judge the contestants and score them. The format changed with the advent of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2005 which introduced the judges as mentors of different teams and scoring was primarily dependent on public voting. After Shaan quit hosting the show, the show was hosted by many others like Purab Kohli, Manish Paul, Karan Singh Rathore, Archana Jani, Vipul Roy, Jay Soni and even kids Dhairya Sorecha & Afsha Musani. The most prominent names to host the show in later seasons were Javed Ali and the current host Aditya Narayan.
The show has seen multiple variations over the years:
There have also been multiple regional versions in languages like Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, Punjabi, Tamil, and Telugu.
Vipul Roy and Manish Paul
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who won the first game of the world series 2017 | 2017 World Series - wikipedia
The 2017 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball 's (MLB) 2017 season. The 113th edition of the World Series, it was played between October 24 and November 1. The series was a best - of - seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Los Angeles Dodgers and the American League (AL) champion Houston Astros. It was sponsored by the internet television service YouTube TV and officially known as the World Series presented by YouTube TV.
The Astros defeated the Dodgers, four games to three, to win their first World Series in franchise history, and the first team from Texas to do so, and the first time since 2002 when two consecutive World Series went to seven games. Both teams set a World Series record with a combined total of 25 home runs throughout the entire series, including a team record 15 home runs by the Astros, and hit a combined total of eight home runs in Game 2 to set the single game World Series mark. Houston outfielder George Springer was named as the World Series Most Valuable Player (MVP) after hitting five home runs in the series to tie a World Series record with Reggie Jackson in 1977 and Dodgers ' 2017 World Series representative Chase Utley in 2009 when he played for the Philadelphia Phillies.
This was the first World Series in which home - field advantage was decided by the regular season record of pennant winners. From 1903 to 2002, home - field advantage had been determined by coin flips and by alternating between the AL and NL. From 2003 to 2016, it was determined by results from that season 's All - Star Game, when it was awarded to the team from the winning league. The Dodgers earned home - field advantage over the Astros. The series was played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format, with the Dodgers hosting Games 1, 2, 6, and 7; and the Astros hosting Games 3, 4, and 5.
This was the first World Series matchup, and second postseason meeting overall, between the Astros and Dodgers. Los Angeles defeated Houston in the 1981 National League Division Series in five games en route to its World Series championship that year. The teams also met in the 1980 National League West tie - breaker game. This was the first Fall Classic since 1970, and the eighth overall, in which both participants had 100 or more wins during the regular season.
The two teams did not meet in interleague play during the regular season.
The Dodgers held a 91 -- 36 record through August 25. They won their fifth consecutive National League West title and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. In the postseason, the Dodgers swept the Arizona Diamondbacks in the National League Division Series and defeated the defending World Series champion Chicago Cubs in the previous year 's rematch of the National League Championship Series in five games. This was the first appearance in the Fall Classic for the Dodgers since 1988, the tenth since the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles in 1958, and the 19th overall.
Entering the 2017 World Series, the Dodgers bullpen had thrown 23 consecutive scoreless innings, a postseason record for a bullpen. Additionally, by outscoring the Arizona Diamondbacks and Chicago Cubs by a combined 48 -- 19 margin, the Dodgers entered the World Series with the third - best run differential of any pennant winner since the playoff structure was expanded in 1995.
All - Star shortstop Corey Seager, who was out for the entire National League Championship Series with a back injury, was included on the Dodgers ' World Series roster. Manager Dave Roberts became first manager of Asian heritage ever in the World Series, as well as the fourth African - American manager.
With a 101 -- 61 regular season record, the team won its first American League West title, and their first division title since 2001. In the American League Division Series, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in four games and then defeated the New York Yankees in the American League Championship Series (ALCS) in seven games. This was their second World Series appearance and first since 2005, when they were swept in four games by the Chicago White Sox. They became the first team in history to make it to the World Series as members of both the National League and the American League.
The city of Houston in August 2017 suffered record flooding from Hurricane Harvey. The team began to wear patches which had the logo of the team with the word "Strong '' on the bottom of the patch, as well as promoting the hashtag Houston Strong. Manager A.J. Hinch has stated in an interview that the team was n't just playing for a title, but to help boost moral support for the city.
On August 31, just seconds before the midnight deadline, the Astros traded for Detroit Tigers pitcher Justin Verlander. Following the trade, including the regular season and postseason to this point, Verlander had posted a 9 -- 0 win - loss record with a 1.23 earned run average. He was named the ALCS MVP.
Houston won the series, 4 -- 3.
The temperature at the start of the game was 103 ° F (39 ° C), which made this the hottest World Series game ever recorded. Clayton Kershaw started Game 1 for the Dodgers, while Dallas Keuchel started for the Astros.
Chris Taylor hit a home run for the Dodgers on Keuchel 's first pitch of the game. It was the third home run to leadoff a game in Dodgers postseason history (following Davey Lopes in 1978 World Series and Carl Crawford in 2013 NLDS). Alex Bregman hit a tying solo home run for the Astros in the fourth inning. In the sixth inning, Justin Turner hit a go - ahead two - run home run for the Dodgers. Turner tied Duke Snider for most career runs batted in (RBIs) in Dodgers postseason history with 26. Kershaw struck out 11 in seven innings pitched with no walks and only three hits allowed while Keuchel allowed three runs on six hits in 6 ⁄ innings. Brandon Morrow pitched a scoreless eighth and Kenley Jansen earned the save. The two - hour, 28 - minute game was the shortest World Series contest since Game 4 in 1992.
The starting pitchers for Game 2 were Rich Hill for the Dodgers and Justin Verlander for the Astros. The Astros scored first when Bregman drove in Josh Reddick with a hit in the third inning. Hill struck out seven in four innings but was replaced by Kenta Maeda in the fifth. Joc Pederson tied the game with a solo home run in the bottom of the fifth inning, and the Dodgers took the lead when Corey Seager hit a two - run home run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Verlander allowed two hits, both home runs, in his six innings pitched. Carlos Correa drove in the Astros ' second run of the game on a single in the eighth, ending the Dodgers bullpen 's streak of 28 consecutive scoreless innings in the postseason. Marwin González hit a home run off Jansen in the ninth to tie the game. This was only Jansen 's second blown save all season and snapped his streak of converting his first 12 postseason save opportunities, a major league record.
The game went into extra innings. José Altuve and Correa hit home runs off Josh Fields in the tenth inning to put the Astros in the lead. In the bottom of the inning, Yasiel Puig hit a home run off of Ken Giles and Enrique Hernández drove in Logan Forsythe to tie the game, with the latter being the Dodgers ' first run that was not driven in by a home run. In the next inning, George Springer hit a two - run home run for the Astros off of Brandon McCarthy to retake the lead. In the bottom of the 11th inning, Charlie Culberson homered off of Chris Devenski, who later struck out Puig to end the game. This was the first ever World Series game in which a team hit home runs in the ninth, tenth and eleventh inning. The teams set a new record for combined home runs in a single World Series game with eight and this was the first time in MLB history, regular season or postseason, that five home runs were hit in extra innings. The Astros won their first World Series game in franchise history as they had been swept in their previous appearance in 2005.
The starting pitchers for Game 3 were Yu Darvish for the Dodgers and Lance McCullers Jr. for the Astros. The Astros scored four runs in the bottom of the second inning on a home run by Yuli Gurriel and RBIs by González, Brian McCann, and Bregman. Darvish left the game after 1 ⁄ innings, which was the shortest outing of his career. The Dodgers scored one run in the top of the third inning as Seager grounded into a double play after McCullers loaded the bases with three consecutive walks. The Astros added another run in the fifth on an RBI single by Evan Gattis and the Dodgers added two in the sixth on an RBI groundout by Puig and a wild pitch. McCullers wound up pitching 5 ⁄ innings and allowed three runs on four hits. Brad Peacock replaced McCullers, completing the final 3 ⁄ innings with no hits allowed and four strikeouts to earn his first major league save. It was the longest hitless World Series relief outing since Ron Taylor 's four innings in Game 4 of the 1964 Series, and tied Ken Clay for the longest hitless postseason save, first accomplished in the 1978 ALCS.
Gurriel made a racially insensitive gesture in the dugout after his home run. He stretched the sides of his eyes and mouthing the Spanish word chinito, which translates to "little Chinese Boy ''; Darvish is from Japan. Gurriel apologized, and said that anyone from Asia is called a chino in Cuba, although he acknowledged knowing that the term was offensive in Japan from having played there. As a result, Rob Manfred, the Commissioner of Baseball, suspended Gurriel for the first five games of the 2018 MLB season without pay, but allowed him to continue playing in the World Series.
The starting pitchers for Game 4 were Alex Wood for the Dodgers and Charlie Morton for the Astros. Springer homered off Wood in the bottom of the sixth for the first run of the ballgame. It was the only hit Wood allowed in 5 ⁄ innings pitched in the game. Forsythe drove in Cody Bellinger to tie the game in the top of the seventh. Morton struck out seven and only allowed three hits and one run in 6 ⁄ innings. Bellinger then drove in the go - ahead run with a double in the top of the ninth off of Giles and the Dodgers added four more runs on a sacrifice fly by Austin Barnes and a three - run homer by Pederson. Bregman hit a home run off of Jansen in the bottom of the ninth inning, but the Dodgers won the game to even up the series. The Astros had two hits in the game; both were home runs. This was the first game in World Series history where both starting pitchers allowed four or fewer baserunners.
After Game 4, both teams ' pitching coaches, Rick Honeycutt for the Dodgers and Brent Strom for the Astros, commented on how the baseball being used for the World Series is slicker than the baseball used during the regular season. Pitchers on both teams noted that this difference has made it more difficult for them to throw their sliders.
Kershaw and Keuchel started Game 5, in a rematch of the opening game of the series. Forsythe singled in two runs off of Keuchel in the first inning to put the Dodgers up early. A third run scored on a throwing error by Gurriel. Barnes singled in the fourth to score Forsythe. Keuchel pitched 3 ⁄ innings for the Astros, allowing five hits and four runs (three earned). The Astros scored their first run with an RBI double by Correa in the bottom of the fourth inning, followed by a three - run home run by Gurriel to tie the game. Bellinger hit a three - run home run off of Collin McHugh in the top of the fifth to put the Dodgers back on top only for Altuve to hit his own three - run home run in the bottom of the inning off Maeda to tie it back up. Kershaw pitched 4 ⁄ innings and allowed six runs on four hits and three walks.
A triple by Bellinger on a line drive that Springer missed on a dive in the seventh inning off of Peacock scored Hernández from first base. In the bottom of the seventh inning, Springer hit a home run off the first pitch he saw off of Morrow, who was pitching for the third consecutive day, to tie the game. Bregman scored on a double by Altuve to put the Astros ahead for the first time in the game, and then Correa hit a two - run home run to extend the lead. Seager doubled in a run in the top of the eighth inning, but McCann hit a home run in the bottom of the inning. That was the 21st home run of the series, tying the record set in the 2002 World Series. Puig broke the record with a two - run home run in the top of the ninth inning. Down to their last strike, Chris Taylor drove in Barnes to tie the game with a single.
In the tenth inning, McCann was hit by a pitch to put him on base with two outs. Subsequently, Springer walked on five pitches to move McCann to second base. McCann was then replaced by pinch runner Derek Fisher. On the next pitch, Bregman singled in Fisher for the winning run. The Astros became only the second team to come back twice from three runs down in a World Series game, the other was the Toronto Blue Jays in the 15 -- 14 win during Game 4 of the 1993 World Series. The six game tying home runs in the series to this point is the most for any World Series on record. This World Series set a new record for most players to hit a home run (14 to date in the World Series). With the teams combining to score 25 runs throughout the game, this was the highest scoring World Series game since the Florida Marlins defeated the Cleveland Indians 14 -- 11 in Game 3 of the 1997 World Series. Game 5 lasted five hours and seventeen minutes, making it the second longest World Series game in history by time.
Game 6 featured the same starting pitchers as the second game: Verlander and Hill. Springer hit a solo home run off of Hill in the top of the third for the first run of the night. It was Springer 's fourth homer of the series, tied for third all - time in a single series and joining Gene Tenace, in 1972, as the only players with four game - tying or go - ahead home runs in a World Series. Springer also joined Hank Bauer in the 1958 World Series and Barry Bonds in the 2002 World Series with four home runs in a series. The Astros loaded the bases in the fifth inning, but did not score. Hill pitched 4 ⁄ innings, struck out five and allowed four hits and one run.
In the sixth inning, Taylor tied the game with an RBI double and Seager hit a sacrifice fly to give the Dodgers the lead. Verlander pitched six innings with nine strikeouts and only three hits allowed. Pederson hit a home run in the bottom of the seventh inning and Jansen pitched two scoreless innings for the save. Pederson tied a World Series record with his fifth consecutive game with an extra base hit and Andre Ethier, who appeared in the game as a pinch hitter, set a new Dodgers franchise record with his 50th career postseason game.
This was the first World Series Game 7 to be played at Dodger Stadium (and the first postseason Game 7 at the stadium since the 1988 NLCS, and the Dodgers ' first World Series Game 7 since 1965). It was also the first time since the 1931 World Series that a Game 7 occurred in a Series with both teams having won at least 100 games during the season. This was the first time since the 2001 World Series and 2002 World Series that back - to - back Fall Classics had a Game 7.
The starting pitchers for this game were the same as in the third game: McCullers and Darvish. Springer doubled to open the game and scored the first run on an error by Bellinger, which allowed Bregman to reach second base. Bregman stole third base and scored on an Altuve groundout. McCann scored the next inning on a groundout hit by the pitcher McCullers. Springer hit a two - run home run, his fifth of the series, tying Reggie Jackson and Chase Utley for most home runs in a single World Series and setting a new record with 29 total bases in any postseason series. As in Game 3, Darvish lasted only 1 ⁄ innings (tying the shortest outing of his career) and became the third pitcher with two starts of less than two innings in a World Series, and the first since Art Ditmar in the 1960 World Series. Morrow relieved Darvish and in the process became only the second pitcher to pitch in all seven games of a single World Series, joining Darold Knowles in the 1973 World Series. McCullers lasted only 2 ⁄ innings himself; he allowed three hits and hit a World Series record four batters. This was the first Game 7 in World Series history where neither starting pitcher got past the third inning.
The Dodgers failed to score a run and left eight men on base through five innings. Ethier, pinch hitting, scored Pederson on a single in the sixth inning for the Dodgers ' only run. They only had one hit in 13 chances with runners in scoring position in the game. Kershaw pitched four scoreless innings of relief in the game, and in the process, he broke Orel Hershiser 's Dodgers postseason record with his 33rd strikeout. Morton pitched four innings of relief to earn the win, as Corey Seager grounded out to José Altuve, who threw to Yuli Gurriel to end the game, with the Astros winning their first championship in franchise history, and ending their 56 - year drought. Springer won the World Series MVP Award.
After Game 7, Correa proposed to his girlfriend, 2016 Miss Texas USA winner Daniella Rodríguez, on live television during a postgame interview conducted by Rosenthal. She accepted.
2017 World Series (4 -- 3): Houston Astros beat Los Angeles Dodgers.
Fox broadcast the series in the United States, with Joe Buck serving as the play - by - play announcer, along with John Smoltz as color commentator and Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci as field reporters. For Fox Deportes, Rolando Nichols provided play - by - play while Carlos Álvarez and Edgar Gonzalez provided color commentary.
Kevin Burkhardt hosted the pregame shows, joined by analysts Keith Hernandez, David Ortiz, Alex Rodriguez, and Frank Thomas. Outside the United States, MLB International televised the series, with Matt Vasgersian on play - by - play and Buck Martinez doing color commentary.
According to Nielsen ratings, this series was the third highest rated since 2005, trailing only the 2009 World Series and the 2016 World Series. For the second straight year, a World Series game, Game 5, beat out NBC Sunday Night Football in ratings.
ESPN Radio broadcast the series nationally in English, with Dan Shulman providing the play - by - play and Aaron Boone serving as color analyst. Tim Kurkjian and Buster Olney served as reporters for the network, while Marc Kestecher hosted the pre-game and post-game coverage along with analyst Chris Singleton. The ESPN Radio coverage was carried on affiliated stations throughout the United States and Canada, as well as online at ESPN.com and via the ESPN mobile app. Spanish - language coverage was provided by ESPN Deportes Radio, with Eduardo Ortega, Renato Bermúdez, José Francisco Rivera, and Orlando Hernández announcing.
Locally, both teams ' flagship radio stations broadcast the series with their regular announcers. Sportstalk 790 aired the English - language broadcast for the Houston area, with Robert Ford and Steve Sparks calling the games. In Los Angeles, AM 570 LA Sports aired the English - language broadcast, with Charley Steiner and Rick Monday announcing. In Spanish, Univision America 1020 carried the broadcast, with Jaime Jarrín and Jorge Jarrín on the call. In Korean, Radio Korea 1540 aired the series, with Richard Choi and Chong Ho Yim in the booth.
For the first time, MLB sold presenting sponsorships to all of its postseason series; the internet television service YouTube TV is the first - ever presenting sponsor of the World Series. The series is officially known as the 2017 World Series Presented by YouTube TV. This sponsorship includes logo branding in - stadium and on official digital properties, as well as commercial inventory during Fox 's telecasts of the games.
The Astros earned $30,420,155.57 from postseason pool money to split among team personnel; each share was worth $438,901.57. The Dodgers received $20,280,103.72, with shares of $259,722.14 The sportsbooks in Nevada lost $11.4 million in November 2017, a record for baseball - related betting.
The city of Houston held a parade for the Astros on November 3, 2017, which Mayor Sylvester Turner proclaimed was "Houston Astros ' Day ''. An estimated 750,000 to one million attended the parade. Springer and Altuve appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated 's November 13, 2017, issue, with Altuve holding the Commissioner 's Trophy and Springer holding a copy of a Sports Illustrated from 2014 that predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series.
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what is the role of disaster management cell | National Disaster Management Authority (India) - Wikipedia
National Disaster Management Authority, abbreviated as NDMA is an agency of the Ministry of Home Affairs whose primary purpose is to coordinate response to natural or man - made disasters and for capacity - building in disaster resiliency and crisis response. NDMA was established through the Disaster Management Act enacted by the Government of India in may 30 2005. The Prime Minister is the ex-officio chairperson of the same. The agency is responsible for framing policies, laying down guidelines and best - practices and coordinating with the State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to ensure a holistic and distributed approach to disaster management.
By a 9 - member board chaired by the Prime Minister of India. The remainder of the board consists of members nominated based on their expertise in areas such as, planning, infrastructure management, communications, meteorology and natural sciences. The day - to - day management of the agency is overseen by the office of the Vice Chair.
NDMA is operationally organized into the following divisions:
NDMA equips and trains other Government officials, institutions and the community in mitigation for and response during a crisis situation or a disaster. It operates the National Institute of Disaster Management, which develops practices, delivers hands - on training and organizes drills for disaster management. It also equips and trains disaster management cells at the state and local levels.
NDMA also collaborates with the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy to impart training to administration and police officers in planning and incident response. It monitors and develops guidelines for the local Firefighting Services across the country. It collaborates with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in developing emergency health and ambulance services. Specifically, it focuses on capacity building in dealing with mass casualty at local hospitals.
Functions and responsibilities
NDMA, as the apex body, is mandated to lay down the policies, plans and guidelines for Disaster Management to ensure timely and effective response to disasters. Towards this, it has the following responsibilities: -
NDMA runs various programs for mitigation and responsiveness for specific situations. These include the National Cyclone Risk Management Project, School Safety Project, Decision Support System and others. India Disaster Response Summit recently held on 9 November 2017 held at New Delhi. This Summit was jointly organised by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and social networking site Facebook. India has become the first country to partner with Facebook on disaster response.
AT NDMA Official Site: -
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what's the difference between the confederations cup and the world cup | FIFA Confederations Cup - wikipedia
The FIFA Confederations Cup is an international association football tournament for national teams, currently held every four years by FIFA. It is contested by the holders of each of the six (UEFA, CONMEBOL, CONCACAF, CAF, AFC, OFC) continental championships, along with the current FIFA World Cup holder and the host nation, to bring the number of teams up to eight. The tournament is also described as the Cup of Champions because it is contested by the Champions of each confederation and the world champions with the host.
Since 2005, the tournament has been held in the nation that will host the next World Cup, acting as a test event for the larger tournament. The 2021 tournament will be moved from 2022 World Cup host Qatar to another Asian country, due to concerns over the high temperatures that it experiences during June and July (these same concerns prompted the start of the 2022 World Cup to be moved to November instead of June).
The current champions are Germany, who won the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup by defeating Chile 1 -- 0 in the final to win their first title.
The tournament was originally organized by and held in Saudi Arabia and called the King Fahd Cup (Confederations Winners Cup or Intercontinental Championship), contested in 1992 and 1995 by the Saudi national side and some continental champions. In 1997, FIFA took over the organization of the tournament, named it the FIFA Confederations Cup and staged the competition every two years.
Since 2005, it has been held every four years, in the year prior to each World Cup in the host country of the forthcoming World Cup (the 2001 edition was hosted in South Korea and Japan, before the quadrennial pattern was established). Considered a dress - rehearsal for the World Cup it precedes, it uses around half of the stadia intended for use at the following year 's competition and gives the host nation, which qualifies for that tournament automatically, experience at a high level of competition during two years of otherwise friendlies. At the same time, participation was made optional for the South American and European champions.
Generally, the host nation, the World Cup holders, and the six continental champions qualify for the competition. In those cases where a team meets more than one of the qualification criteria (such as the 2001 tournament where France qualified as the World Cup champions and European champions), another team is invited to participate, often the runner - up in a competition that the extra-qualified team won.
On four occasions teams have chosen not to participate in the tournament. Germany did so twice, first in the 1997 Confederations Cup after their victory in the Euro 1996, and again in the 2003 Confederations Cup when they were awarded a place as the 2002 World Cup runners - up. In 1997, Germany were replaced by 1996 runners - up Czech Republic, and in 2003 they were replaced by Turkey, the 2002 third place team.
France, 1998 World Cup winners, declined their place in the 1999 Confederations Cup, and were replaced by Brazil, the 1998 World Cup runners - up (and also 1997 Copa América champions). Italy, UEFA Euro 2000 runners up, declined their place in the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup.
An earlier tournament existed that invited former World Cup winners, the Mundialito, or Copa de Oro which celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the first World Cup. The Artemio Franchi Trophy, contested in 1985 and 1993 between the winners of the Copa América and UEFA European Football Championship, was also another example of an earlier contest between football confederations. Both of these are considered by some to be a form of an unofficial precursor to the Confederations Cup, although FIFA recognised only the 1992 tournaments onwards to be Confederations Cup winners.
The eight qualified teams are drawn into two round - robin groups: two teams from the same confederation can not be drawn in a group, except if there are three teams from the same confederation (something that happened for the first time in the 2017 edition when hosts Russia were joined by World Cup champions Germany and European champions Portugal). Every team plays all other teams in their group once, for a total three matches.
The top two teams of each group advance to the semi-finals, with the winners of each group playing the runners - up of the other group. The rankings of teams in each group are determined as follows (regulations Article 19.6):
If two or more teams are equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings are determined as follows:
The winners of the semi-finals advance to the final, while the losers play in the third - place game. For the knockout stage if the score is drawn at the end of regular time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winner.
The first two editions were in fact the defunct King Fahd Cup. FIFA later recognized them retroactively as Confederations Cup editions.
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what is the healthy body fat percentage for a male | Body fat percentage - wikipedia
The body fat percentage (BFP) of a human or other living being is the total mass of fat divided by total body mass; body fat includes essential body fat and storage body fat. Essential body fat is necessary to maintain life and reproductive functions. The percentage of essential body fat for women is greater than that for men, due to the demands of childbearing and other hormonal functions. The percentage of essential fat is 2 -- 5 % in men, and 10 -- 13 % in women (referenced through NASM). Storage body fat consists of fat accumulation in adipose tissue, part of which protects internal organs in the chest and abdomen. The minimum recommended total body fat percentage exceeds the essential fat percentage value reported above. A number of methods are available for determining body fat percentage, such as measurement with calipers or through the use of bioelectrical impedance analysis.
The body fat percentage is a measure of fitness level, since it is the only body measurement which directly calculates a person 's relative body composition without regard to height or weight. The widely used body mass index (BMI) provides a measure that allows the comparison of the adiposity of individuals of different heights and weights. While BMI largely increases as adiposity increases, due to differences in body composition, other indicators of body fat give more accurate results; for example, individuals with greater muscle mass or larger bones will have higher BMIs. As such, BMI is a useful indicator of overall fitness for a large group of people, but a poor tool for determining the health of an individual.
Epidemiologically, the percentage of body fat in an individual varies according to sex and age. Various theoretical approaches exist on the relationships between body fat percentage, health, athletic capacity, etc. Different authorities have consequently developed different recommendations for ideal body fat percentages.
This graph from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in the United States charts the average body fat percentages of Americans from samples from 1999 -- 2004:
In males, mean percentage body fat ranged from 22.9 % at age 16 -- 19 years to 30.9 % at age 60 -- 79 years. In females, mean percentage body fat ranged from 32.0 % at age 8 -- 11 years to 42.4 % at age 60 -- 79 years.
The table below from the American Council on Exercise shows how average percentages differ according to the specified groups and categories:
Essential fat is the level below which physical and physiological health would be negatively affected. Controversy exists as to whether a particular body fat percentage is better for one 's health; athletic performance may also be affected. The leanest athletes typically compete at levels of about 6 -- 13 % for men or 14 -- 20 % for women. Bodybuilders may compete at ranges even lower than these levels. Certified personal trainers will suggest to male bodybuilders that they aim for a body fat percentage between 2 % and 4 % by contest time. However it is unclear that such levels are ever actually attained since (a) the means to measure such levels are, as noted below, lacking in principle and inaccurate, and (b) 4 -- 6 % is generally considered a physiological minimum for human males.
Irrespective of the location from which they are obtained, the fat cells in humans are composed almost entirely of pure triglycerides with an average density of about 0.9 kilograms per litre. Most modern body composition laboratories today use the value of 1.1 kilograms per litre for the density of the "fat free mass '', a theoretical tissue composed of 72 % water (density = 0.993), 21 % protein (density = 1.340) and 7 % mineral (density = 3.000) by weight.
With a well engineered weighing system, body density can be determined with great accuracy by completely submerging a person in water and calculating the volume of the displaced water from the weight of the displaced water. A correction is made for the buoyancy of air in the lungs and other gases in the body spaces. If there were no errors whatsoever in measuring body density, the uncertainty in fat estimation would be about ± 3.8 % of the body weight, primarily because of normal variability in body constituents.
Whole - body air displacement plethysmography (ADP) is a recognised and scientifically validated densitometric method to measure human body fat percentage. ADP uses the same principles as the gold - standard method of underwater weighing, but representing a densitometric method that is based on air displacement rather than on water immersion. Air - displacement plethysmography offers several advantages over established reference methods, including a quick, comfortable, automated, noninvasive, and safe measurement process, and accommodation of various subject types (e.g., children, obese, elderly, and disabled persons). However, its accuracy declines at the extremes of body fat percentages, tending to slightly understate the percent body fat in overweight and obese persons (by 1.68 -- 2.94 % depending on the method of calculation), and to overstate to a much larger degree the percent body fat in very lean subjects (by an average of 6.8 %, with up to a 13 % overstatement of the reported body percentage of one individual -- i.e. 2 % body fat by DXA but 15 % by ADP).
A beam of infra - red light is transmitted into a biceps. The light is reflected from the underlying muscle and absorbed by the fat. The method is safe, noninvasive, rapid and easy to use.
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, or DXA (formerly DEXA), is a newer method for estimating body fat percentage, and determining body composition and bone mineral density.
X-rays of two different energies are used to scan the body, one of which is absorbed more strongly by fat than the other. A computer can subtract one image from the other, and the difference indicates the amount of fat relative to other tissues at each point. A sum over the entire image enables calculation of the overall body composition.
There are several more complicated procedures that more accurately determine body fat percentage. Some, referred to as multicompartment models, can include DXA measurement of bone, plus independent measures of body water (using the dilution principle with isotopically labeled water) and body volume (either by water displacement or air plethysmography). Various other components may be independently measured, such as total body potassium.
In - vivo neutron activation can quantify all the elements of the body and use mathematical relations among the measured elements in the different components of the body (fat, water, protein, etc.) to develop simultaneous equations to estimate total body composition, including body fat.
Prior to the adoption of DXA, the most accurate method of estimating body fat percentage was to measure that person 's average density (total mass divided by total volume) and apply a formula to convert that to body fat percentage.
Since fat tissue has a lower density than muscles and bones, it is possible to estimate the fat content. This estimate is distorted by the fact that muscles and bones have different densities: for a person with a more - than - average amount of bone mass, the estimate will be too low. However, this method gives highly reproducible results for individual persons (± 1 %), unlike the methods discussed below, which can have an uncertainty of 10 %, or more. The body fat percentage is commonly calculated from one of two formulas (ρ represents density in g / cm):
The bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) method is a lower - cost (from less than one to several hundred US dollars in 2006) but less accurate way to estimate body fat percentage. The general principle behind BIA: two or more conductors are attached to a person 's body and a small electric current is sent through the body. The resistance between the conductors will provide a measure of body fat between a pair of electrodes, since the resistance to electricity varies between adipose, muscular and skeletal tissue. Fat - free mass (muscle) is a good conductor as it contains a large amount of water (approximately 73 %) and electrolytes, while fat is anhydrous and a poor conductor of electric current. Factors that affect the accuracy and precision of this method include instrumentation, subject factors, technician skill, and the prediction equation formulated to estimate the fat - free mass.
Each (bare) foot may be placed on an electrode, with the current sent up one leg, across the abdomen and down the other leg. (For convenience, an instrument which must be stepped on will also measure weight.) Alternatively, an electrode may be held in each hand; calculation of fat percentage uses the weight, so that must be measured with scales and entered by the user. The two methods may give different percentages, without being inconsistent, as they measure fat in different parts of the body. More sophisticated instruments for domestic use are available with electrodes for both feet and hands.
There is little scope for technician error as such, but factors such as eating, drinking and exercising must be controlled since hydration level is an important source of error in determining the flow of the electric current to estimate body fat. The instructions for use of instruments typically recommended not making measurements soon after drinking or eating or exercising, or when dehydrated. Instruments require details such as sex and age to be entered, and use formulae taking these into account; for example, men and women store fat differently around the abdomen and thigh region.
Different BIA analysers may vary. For instance when comparing outputs from a Tanita scale to an Omron Body Logic handheld device, the Tanita scale estimated a 40 % higher percentage body fat in college - aged men and a 55 % higher percentage in college - aged women when compared to hydrostatic weighing. Population - specific equations are available for some instruments, making them more reliable.
There exist various anthropometric methods for estimating body fat. The term anthropometric refers to measurements made of various parameters of the human body, such as circumferences of various body parts or thicknesses of skinfolds. Most of these methods are based on a statistical model. Some measurements are selected, and are applied to a population sample. For each individual in the sample, the method 's measurements are recorded, and that individual 's body density is also recorded, being determined by, for instance, under - water weighing, in combination with a multi-compartment body density model. From this data, a formula relating the body measurements to density is developed.
Because most anthropometric formulas such as the Durnin - Womersley skinfold method, the Jackson - Pollock skinfold method, and the US Navy circumference method, actually estimate body density, not body fat percentage, the body fat percentage is obtained by applying a second formula, such as the Siri or Brozek described in the above section on density. Consequently, the body fat percentage calculated from skin folds or other anthropometric methods carries the cumulative error from the application of two separate statistical models.
These methods are therefore inferior to a direct measurement of body density and the application of just one formula to estimate body fat percentage. One way to regard these methods is that they trade accuracy for convenience, since it is much more convenient to take a few body measurements than to submerge individuals in water.
The chief problem with all statistically derived formulas is that in order to be widely applicable, they must be based on a broad sample of individuals. Yet, that breadth makes them inherently inaccurate. The ideal statistical estimation method for an individual is based on a sample of similar individuals. For instance, a skinfold based body density formula developed from a sample of male collegiate rowers is likely to be much more accurate for estimating the body density of a male collegiate rower than a method developed using a sample of the general population, because the sample is narrowed down by age, sex, physical fitness level, type of sport, and lifestyle factors. On the other hand, such a formula is unsuitable for general use.
The skinfold estimation methods are based on a skinfold test, also known as a pinch test, whereby a pinch of skin is precisely measured by calipers at several standardized points on the body to determine the subcutaneous fat layer thickness. These measurements are converted to an estimated body fat percentage by an equation. Some formulas require as few as three measurements, others as many as seven. The accuracy of these estimates is more dependent on a person 's unique body fat distribution than on the number of sites measured. As well, it is of utmost importance to test in a precise location with a fixed pressure. Although it may not give an accurate reading of real body fat percentage, it is a reliable measure of body composition change over a period of time, provided the test is carried out by the same person with the same technique.
Skinfold - based body fat estimation is sensitive to the type of caliper used, and technique. This method also only measures one type of fat: subcutaneous adipose tissue (fat under the skin). Two individuals might have nearly identical measurements at all of the skin fold sites, yet differ greatly in their body fat levels due to differences in other body fat deposits such as visceral adipose tissue: fat in the abdominal cavity. Some models partially address this problem by including age as a variable in the statistics and the resulting formula. Older individuals are found to have a lower body density for the same skinfold measurements, which is assumed to signify a higher body fat percentage. However, older, highly athletic individuals might not fit this assumption, causing the formulas to underestimate their body density.
Ultrasound is used extensively to measure tissue structure and has proven to be an accurate technique to measure subcutaneous fat thickness. A-mode and B - mode ultrasound systems are now used and both rely on using tabulated values of tissue sound speed and automated signal analysis to determine fat thickness. By making thickness measurements at multiple sites on the body you can calculate the estimated body fat percentage. Ultrasound techniques can also be used to directly measure muscle thickness and quantify intramuscular fat. Ultrasound equipment is expensive, and not cost - effective solely for body fat measurement, but where equipment is available, as in hospitals, the extra cost for the capability to measure body fat is minimal.
There also exist formulas for estimating body fat percentage from an individual 's weight and girth measurements. For example, the U.S. Navy circumference method compares abdomen or waist and hips measurements to neck measurement and height and other sites claim to estimate one 's body fat percentage by a conversion from the body mass index. In the U.S. Navy the method is known as the "rope and choke. '' There is limited information, however, on the validity of the "rope and choke '' method because of its universal acceptance as inaccurate and easily falsified.
The U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps also rely on the height and circumference method. For males, they measure the neck and waist just above the navel. Females are measured around the hips, waist, and neck. These measurements are then looked up in published tables, with the individual 's height as an additional parameter. This method is used because it is a cheap and convenient way to implement a body fat test throughout an entire service.
Methods using circumference have little acceptance outside the Department of Defense due to their negative reputation in comparison to other methods. The method 's accuracy becomes an issue when comparing people with different body compositions, those with larger necks artificially generate lower body fat percentage calculations than those with smaller necks.
Body fat can be estimated from body mass index (BMI), a person 's mass in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters; if weight is measured in pounds and height in inches, the result can be converted to BMI by multiplying by 703. There are a number of proposed formulae that relate body fat to BMI. These formulae are based on work by researchers published in peer - reviewed journals, but their correlation with body fat are only estimates; body fat can not be deduced accurately from BMI.
Body fat may be estimated from the body mass index by formulae derived by Deurenberg and co-workers. When making calculations, the relationship between densitometrically determined body fat percentage (BF %) and BMI must take age and sex into account. Internal and external cross-validation of the prediction formulas showed that they gave valid estimates of body fat in males and females at all ages. In obese subjects, however, the prediction formulas slightly overestimated the BF %. The prediction error is comparable to the prediction error obtained with other methods of estimating BF %, such as skinfold thickness measurements and bioelectrical impedance. The formula for children is different; the relationship between BMI and BF % in children was found to differ from that in adults due to the height - related increase in BMI in children.
Child body fat % = (1.51 × BMI) − (0.70 × Age) − (3.6 × sex) + 1.4
Adult body fat % = (1.20 × BMI) + (0.23 × Age) − (10.8 × sex) − 5.4
where sex is 1 for males and 0 for females.
Other indices may be used; the body adiposity index was said by its developers to give a direct estimate of body fat percentage, but statistical studies found this not to be so.
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who was the chicano leader who worked to unionize agricultural workers | United Farm Workers - wikipedia
The United Farm Workers of America, or more commonly just United Farm Workers (UFW), is a labor union for farmworkers in the United States. It originated from the merger of two workers ' rights organizations, the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) led by organizer Larry Itliong, and the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) led by César Chávez and Dolores Huerta. They became allied and transformed from workers ' rights organizations into a union as a result of a series of strikes in 1965, when the mostly Filipino farmworkers of the AWOC in Delano, California initiated a grape strike, and the NFWA went on strike in support. As a result of the commonality in goals and methods, the NFWA and the AWOC formed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee on August 22, 1966. This organization was accepted into the AFL - CIO in 1972 and changed its name to the United Farmworkers Union.
Dolores Huerta grew up in Stockton, California, which is in the San Joaquin Valley, an area filled with farms. In the early 1950s, she completed a degree at Delta Community College, part of the University of the Pacific. She briefly worked as an elementary school teacher. Huerta saw that her students, many of them children of farm workers, were living in poverty without enough food to eat or other basic necessities. To help, she became one of the founders of the Stockton chapter of the Community Service Organization (CSO). The CSO worked to improve social and economic conditions for farm workers and to fight discrimination.
By 1959, César Chávez had already established professional relationships with local community organizations that aimed to empower the working class population by encouraging them to become more politically active. In 1952, Chávez met Fred Ross who was a community organizer working on behalf of the Community Service Organization. This was a group which was affiliated with the Industrial Areas Foundation which was headed by Saul Alinsky.
To further her cause, Huerta created the Agricultural Workers Association (AWA) in 1960. Through the AWA, she lobbied politicians on many issues, including allowing migrant workers without U.S. citizenship to receive public assistance and pensions and creating Spanish - language voting ballots and driver 's tests. In 1962, she co-founded a workers ' union with César Chávez, which was later known as the United Farm Workers (UFW). The two made a great team. Chávez was the dynamic leader and speaker and Huerta was a skilled organizer and tough negotiator. Huerta was instrumental in the union 's many successes, including the strikes against California grape growers in the 1960s and 1970s.
During Chávez 's participation in the Community Service Organization, Fred Ross trained César Chávez in the grassroots, door - to - door, house meeting tactic of organization, a tactic which was crucial to the UFW 's recruiting methods. The house meeting tactic successfully established a broad base of local Community Service Organization chapters during Ross 's era, and Chávez used this technique to extend the UFW 's reach as well as to find up and coming organizers. During the 1950s, César Chávez and Fred Ross developed twenty - two new Community Service Organization chapters in the Mexican American neighborhoods of San Jose. In 1959, Chávez would claim the rank of executive director in the Community Service Organization. During this time, Chávez observed and adopted the notion of having the community become more politically involved in order to bring about the social changes that the community sought. This would be a vital tactic in Chávez 's future struggles in fighting for immigrant rights.
César Chávez 's ultimate goal in his participation with the Community Service Organization and the Industrial Areas Foundation was to eventually organize a union for the farm workers. Saul Alinsky did not share Chávez 's sympathy for the farm workers struggle, claiming that organizing farm workers, "was like fighting on a constantly disintegrating bed of sand. '' (Alinsky, 1967)
In March 1962 at the Community Service Organization convention, Chávez proposed a pilot project for organizing farm workers which was rejected by the organization 's members. Chávez 's reaction to this led him to resign from the organization in order to pursue his goal of creating a farm workers union which would later come to be known as the National Farm Workers Association.
By 1965 the National Farm Workers Association had acquired twelve hundred members through Chávez 's person - to - person recruitment efforts which he learned from Fred Ross just a decade earlier. Out of those twelve hundred, only about two hundred paid dues. Also in 1962, Richard Chavez, the brother of César Chávez, designed the black Aztec eagle insignia that would become the symbol of the NFW and the UFW. César Chávez chose the red and black colors used by the organization.
Although still in its infant stages, the organization lent its support to a strike by workers in the rose industry in 1965. This initial protest by the young organization resulted in a failed attempt to strike against the rose industry. That same year the farm workers who worked in the Delano fields of California wanted to strike against the growers in response to the grower 's refusal to raise wages from $1.20 to $1.40 an hour, and they sought out Chávez and the National Farm Workers Association for support. The Delano agricultural workers were mostly Filipino workers affiliated with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee, a charter of the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations. The unification of these two organizations, in an attempt to boycott table grapes which were grown in the Delano fields, resulted in the creation of the United Farm Workers of America. The AFL - CIO chartered the United Farm Workers, officially combining the AWOC and the NFWA, in August 1966.
In the early history of American agriculture, farm workers experienced many failed attempts to organize agricultural laborers. In 1903, Japanese and Mexican farm workers attempted to come together to fight for better wages and better working conditions. This attempt to organize agricultural laborers was ignored and disbanded when organizations, such as the American Federation of Labor, neglected to support their efforts, often withholding assistance on the basis of race.
In 1913, the Industrial Workers of the World organized a rally at a large ranch in the rural area of Northern California which involved two thousand farm workers. This resulted in an attack against the participants of the rally by national guardsmen. As a result of the violence the two lead organizers for the Industrial Workers of the World were arrested, convicted of murder, and were sentenced to life imprisonment. It is believed that the two people arrested were wrongly convicted of the murder charges.
In the later teens and 1920s in the United States, further attempts to organize farm laborers were undertaken by spontaneous local efforts, and some which were led by communist unions. These attempts also resulted in failure because during that time employers were not required by law to involve themselves with negotiations with their workers. During this time period, Employers could also legally fire their employees if they chose to join a union.
In 1936, the National Labor Relations Act was put into effect. This legislation provided most American workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively. Agricultural workers were exempt from the protection of this law. Some believe that this labor category was excluded as a result of a political tactic to gain the support of Southern politicians in the passing of this law.
In 1941, the United States Government and the Mexican Government enacted the Bracero Program. Initially, this joint project between the United States and Mexico was established during the Second World War in order to address labor shortages by allowing "guest workers '' from Mexico to work in the American agricultural industry until the end of the crop harvest. Thousands of Mexican Nationals were brought north to work in the fields in the United States and growers used this opportunity to undercut domestic wages, and the Braceros were also utilized in breaking strikes from resident farm workers. This program was extended until 1964.
Many Mexican women in California who joined the UFW in the 1960s were already previously involved in community - based activism in the 1950s through the Community Service Organization for Latino civil rights. The racial discrimination and economic disadvantages they faced from a young age made it necessary to form networks of support like the CSO to empower Latinos in America with voter registration drives, citizenship classes, lawsuits and legislative campaigns, and political protests against police brutality and immigration policies.
While male activists held leadership roles and more authority, the women activists participated in volunteering and teaching valuable skills to individuals of the Latino community. By the 1960s, Huerta and others began to shift their attention to the labor exploitation of Latino farm workers in California and began to strike, demonstrate, and organize to fight for a myriad of issues that Mexican laborers faced. While many of the male leaders of the movement had the role of being dynamic, powerful speakers that would inspire others to join the movement, the women devoted their efforts to negotiating better working contracts with companies, organizing boycotts, rallying for changes in immigration policies, registering Latinos to vote with Spanish language ballots, and increasing pressure on legislation to improve labor relations.
Among the women who engaged in activism for labor rights, traditional and non traditional patterns of activism existed. Mexican - American women like Dolores Huerta used their education and resources arrange programs at the grassroots level, sustaining and leading members it into the labor movement. As the sister - in - law of César Chávez, Huerta co-founded the National Farmworkers Association which would become the United Farm Workers and she had immense influence over the direction that it took, breaking stereotypes of the Mexican woman in the 1960s. However, it was most common for Chicana activists and female labor union members to be involved in administrative tasks for the early stages of UFW; women like Helen Chávez were essential in these responsibilities, such as credit union bookkeeping, behind the scenes and advising her husband. Still, both women along with other Chicana activists participated in picketing with their families in the face of police intimidation and racial abuse. Keeping track of union services and membership were traditionally responsibilities given to female organizers and it was integral to the institutional survival of the UFW, but it has gone much less recognized throughout history due to the male led strikes receiving majority public attention.
In May 1966, California farm worker activist Eugene Nelson traveled to Texas to rally support for the Schenley Farms boycott. While in Houston, AFL - CIO state representatives suggested that he visit Rio Grande City on the Texas - Mexico border in the lower Rio Grande Valley. Seeing the possibilities for organizing workers in the impoverished region, he quickly set about recruiting volunteers for the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC) as both strikers and assistants. Other UFWOC activists joined Nelson in Rio Grande City, including Gilbert Padilla, Antonio Orendain, and Bill Chandler.
On June 1, Nelson led workers to strike demanding $1.25 as a minimum hourly wage, protesting La Casita Farms and others packing sheds. The activists also protested the hiring of "scab '' labor, mostly those with green card visas from Mexico, who were allowed to cross the border as day workers. In the dispute, reports and allegations of vandalism to equipment, produce, and public property caused Starr County officials, along with the support of the growers, to call for additional law enforcement, which arrived in the form of the Texas Rangers. Both county officials and rangers arrested protestors for secondary picketing, standing within 50 feet of one another, a practice illegal at the time. Allegations of brutality and questions of jurisdictional limits created national headlines in what came to be known as "La Huelga. ''
On July 4, members of UFWOC, strikers, and members of the clergy set out on a march to Austin to demand the $1.25 minimum wage and other improvements for farm workers. Press coverage intensified as the marchers made their way north in the summer heat. Politicians, members of the AFL - CIO, and the Texas Council of Churches accompanied the protestors. Gov. John Connally, who had refused to meet them in Austin, traveled to New Braunfels with then House Speaker Ben Barnes, and Attorney General Waggoner Carr to intercept the march and inform strikers that their efforts would have no effect.
Protestors arrived in Austin in time for a Labor Day rally, but no changes in law resulted. Strikes and arrests continued in Rio Grande City through 1966 into 1967. Violence increased as the spring melon crop ripened and time neared for the May harvest. In June, when beatings of two UFWOC supporters by Texas rangers surfaced, tempers flared.
At the end of June as the harvest was ending, members of the Senate Subcommittee on Migratory Labor, including Senators Harrison Williams and Edward Kennedy, arrived in the lower Rio Grande Valley to hold hearings in Rio Grande City and Edinburg, Texas. The senators took their findings back to Washington as a report on pending legislation. Subsequently, the rangers left the area and the picketing ended. On September 20, Hurricane Beulah 's devastations ruined the farming industry in the Valley for the following year. One major outcome of the strikes came in the form of a 1974 Supreme Court victory in Medrano v. Allee, limiting jurisdiction of Texas Rangers in labor disputes. Farm workers continued to organize through the 1970s on a smaller scale, under new leadership in San Juan, Texas, independent of César Chávez.
By mid-1971 the Texas campaign was well underway. In Sept. 1971, Thomas John Wakely, recent discharge from the United States Air Force joined the San Antonio office of the Texas campaign. His pay was room and board, $5.00 a week plus all of the menudo he could eat. The menudo was provided to the UFOC staff by the families of migrant workers working the Texas fields.
TJ worked for UFOC for about 2 years and his responsibilities included organizing the Grape Boycott in San Antonio. His primary target was the H.E.B grocery store chain. In addition, he attempted to organize Hispanic farm workers working the farmers market in San Antonio -- an institution at that time controlled by the corporate farms. Among his many organizing activities included an early 1972 episode where he and several other UFOC staff members who were attempting to organize warehouse workers in San Antonio were fired upon by security agents of the corporate farm owners.
In mid-1973 the San Antonio office of the UFOC was taken over by the Brown Berets. This radicalization of the San Antonio UFOC office led to the eventual collapse of the San Antonio UFOC organizing campaign.
In 1970, Chavez decided to move the union 's headquarters from Delano to La Paz, California into a former sanatorium in the Tehachapi Mountains. Whereas Chavez thought this change would aid the creation of "a national union of the poor... serving the needs of all who suffer, '' other union members objected to this distancing of the leadership away from the farmworkers.
The union was poised to launch its next major campaign in the lettuce fields in 1970 when a deal between the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and the growers nearly destroyed it. Initially the Teamsters signed contracts with lettuce growers in the Salinas Valley, who wanted to avoid recognizing the UFW. Then in 1973, when the three - year UFW grape contracts expired, the grape growers signed contracts giving the Teamsters the right to represent the workers who had been members of the UFW.
The UFW responded with strikes, lawsuits and boycotts, including secondary boycotts in the retail grocery industry. The union struggled to regain the members it had lost in the lettuce fields; it never fully recovered its strength in grapes, due in some part to incompetent management of the hiring halls it had established that seemed to favor some workers over others.
The battles in the fields became violent, with a number of UFW members killed on the picket line. The violence led the state in 1975 to enact the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act, creating an administrative agency, the ALRB, that oversaw secret ballot elections and resolved charges of unfair labor practices, like failing to bargain in good faith, or discrimination against activists. The UFW won the majority of secret ballot elections in which it participated. (1)
In the late 1970s, the leadership of the UFW was wracked by a series of conflicts, as differences emerged between Chavez and some of his former colleagues. In 1977, the Teamsters signed an agreement with the UFW promising to end their efforts to represent farm workers. (2)
In the 1980s, the membership of the UFW shrank, as did its national prominence. After taking office in the 1980s, California Governor George Deukmejian stopped enforcement of the state 's farm labor laws, resulting in farm workers losing their UFW contracts, being fired, and blacklisted. Due to internal squabbles, most of the union 's original leadership left or were forced out, except for Chavez and Huerta. By 1986, the union had been reduced to 75 contracts and had stopped organizing.
In the 1980s, the UFW joined with the AFL - CIO and other organizations for the national Wrath of Grapes campaign, re-instituting the grape boycott.
In July 2008 the farm worker Ramiro Carrillo Rodriguez, 48, died of a heat stroke. According to United Farm Workers, he was the "13th farm worker heat death since CA Governor Schwarzenegger took office '' in 2003. In 2006 California 's first permanent heat regulations were enacted but these regulations were not strictly enforced, the union contended.
César Chávez is a film released in March, 2014, directed by Diego Luna about the life of the Mexican - American labor leader who co-founded the United Farm Workers. The film stars Michael Peña as Chávez. Co-producer John Malkovich also co-stars in the role of an owner of a large industrial grape farm who leads the sometimes violent opposition to Chávez 's organizing efforts.
The grape strike officially began in Delano in September 1965. In December, union representatives traveled from California to New York, Washington, D.C., Pittsburg, Detroit, and other large cities to encourage a boycott of grapes grown at ranches without UFW contracts.
In the summer of 1966, unions and religious groups from Seattle and Portland endorsed the boycott. Supporters formed a boycott committee in Vancouver, prompting an outpouring of support from Canadians that would continue throughout the following years.
In 1967, UFW supporters in Oregon began picketing stores in Eugene, Salem, and Portland. After melon workers went on strike in Texas, growers held the first union representation elections in the region, and the UFW became the first union to ever sign a contract with a grower in Texas.
National support for the UFW continued to grow in 1968, and hundreds of UFW members and supporters were arrested. Picketing continued throughout the country, including in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Florida. The mayors of New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Buffalo, Detroit, and other cities pledged their support, and many of them altered their cities ' grape purchases to support the boycott.
In 1969, support for farm workers increased throughout North America. The grape boycott spread into the South as civil rights groups pressured grocery stores in Atlanta, Miami, New Orleans, Nashville, and Louisville to remove non-union grapes. Student groups in New York protested the Department of Defense and accused them of deliberately purchasing boycotted grapes. On May 10, UFW supporters picketed Safeway stores throughout the U.S. and Canada in celebration of International Grape Boycott Day. Cesar Chavez also went on a speaking tour along the East Coast to ask for support from labor groups, religious groups, and universities.
Mapping UFW Strikes, Boycotts, and Farm Worker Actions 1965 - 1975 shows over 1,000 farm worker strikes, boycotts, and other actions.
The UFW during Chavez 's tenure was committed to restricting immigration. Chavez and Dolores Huerta, cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the Bracero Program that existed from 1942 to 1964. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.
On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the Imperial and Coachella Valleys to the border of Mexico to protest growers ' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a "wet line '' along the United States - Mexico border to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW 's unionization efforts. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some UFW members, under the guidance of Chavez 's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.
The United Farm Workers, a working class movement, had received substantial support from the middle class, causing problems of power and control within the union. The UFW gave no structural power to farm workers, as there were no locals elected as staff. The survival of the staff was n't linked directly to membership, since they made more money from outside sources than union dues. Today, the UFW only consists of five thousand members who work in very similar low conditions as they did 40 years ago. UFW includes undocumented farmworkers as well.
The role of Cesar Chavez, the founder of UFW, was to frame his campaigns in terms of consumer safety and involving social justice, bringing benefits to the farmworker unions. One of UFW 's, along with Cesar Chavez 's, important aspects that has been overlooked is building coalitions.
The United Farm Workers allows farmworkers to help improve their working conditions and wages. The UFW embraces nonviolence in its attempt to cultivate members on political and social issues.
The union publicly adopted the principles of non-violence championed by Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
On July 22, 2005, the UFW announced that it was joining the Change to Win Federation, a coalition of labor unions functioning as an alternative to the AFL - CIO. On January 13, 2006, the union officially disaffiliated from the AFL - CIO. In contrast to other Change to Win - affiliated unions, the AFL - CIO neglected to offer the right of affiliation to regional bodies to the UFW.
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who plays the mom on wizards of waverly place | Maria Canals - Barrera - wikipedia
Maria Pilar Canals - Barrera (née Canals, born September 28, 1966) is an American actress.
Canals - Barrera co-starred in a number of short - lived sitcoms, worked as a voice actress, and appeared in several films. She is best known for her role as Theresa Russo in the Disney Channel family sitcom, Wizards of Waverly Place (2007 -- 2012). She played the role of Connie Torres in Camp Rock (2008) and Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam (2010) and co-starred as Lala Pinedo in Larry Crowne (2011). As a voice actress, she is known as Shayera Hol / Hawkgirl in Justice League and Justice League Unlimited. She also voiced Sunset Boulevardez in the Disney Channel show, The Proud Family and Paulina in the Nickelodeon show, Danny Phantom.
In 2014, Canals - Barrera began starring as Daniela in the ABC comedy series, Cristela.
Canals - Barrera was born and raised in Miami, Florida, to Cuban parents of Catalan descent. Canals - Barrera also speaks Spanish and took drama classes in junior high.
In early years, Canals - Barrera has worked extensively in theater in both Miami and Los Angeles. In 1992 she began starring on Telemundo Spanish - language telenovela Marielena. She later had the recurring role in the short - lived 1993 Fox comedy - drama series, Key West. During 1990s, Canals - Barrera also guest starred in a number of television series, such as 21 Jump Street, Murder, She Wrote, Almost Perfect, and Caroline in the City. Her first regular role was on the short - lived NBC sitcom, The Tony Danza Show in 1997.
In early 2000s, Canals - Barrera had supporting roles in films America 's Sweethearts, The Master of Disguise and Imagining Argentina. She has gained much recognition with comic book fans in recent years for her role as Hawkgirl / Shayera Hol on Bruce Timm 's Justice League (2001 -- 04) and Justice League Unlimited (2005 -- 06) series. She also had a recurring role in Static Shock as Shelly Sandoval, a news reporter, and in Danny Phantom as Danny Fenton / Phantom 's high school crush, Paulina. She also performed the voice of Mercedes "Meche '' Colomar in the 1998 video game Grim Fandango. Canals - Barrera also played incidental characters in two episodes on the TV series The Boondocks ("Grandad 's Fight '' and "Home Alone '').
From 2007 to 2012, Canals - Barrera co-starred as Theresa Russo, the mother of lead character, in the Disney Channel family sitcom, Wizards of Waverly Place. She also co-starred in Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie, a 2009 Disney Channel Original movie based on series. Canals - Barrera also appeared in the Disney Channel Original Movies Camp Rock (2008) and Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam (2010), alongside Demi Lovato in the role of her mother, Connie Torres. In 2011 she appeared opposite Tom Hanks and Julia Roberts in the romantic comedy film Larry Crowne.
In 2014, Canals - Barrera was cast as Hilda, the house manager of the country club where most of the action takes place, in the ABC soapy comedy - drama series, Members Only created by Susannah Grant. However, it got cancelled by the network before its premiere. Later in that year she joined the cast of ABC comedy series, Cristela, as Cristela Alonzo 's character sister.
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when is the lord of the rings set | Middle - earth - wikipedia
Middle - earth is the fictional setting of much of British writer J.R.R. Tolkien 's legendarium. The term is equivalent to the term Midgard of Norse mythology, describing the human - inhabited world, i.e. the central continent of the Earth in Tolkien 's imagined mythological past. Tolkien 's most widely read works, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, take place entirely in Middle - earth, and Middle - earth has also become a short - hand to refer to the legandarium and Tolkiens fictional take on the world.
Within his stories, Tolkien translated the name "Middle - earth '' as Endor (or sometimes Endórë) and Ennor in the Elvish languages Quenya and Sindarin respectively, sometimes referring only to the continent that the stories take place on, with another southern continent called the Dark Land.
Middle - earth is the north continent of Earth (Arda) in an imaginary period of the Earth 's past (Tolkien placed the end of the Third Age at about 6,000 years before his own time), in the sense of a "secondary or sub-creational reality ''. Its general position is reminiscent of Europe, with the environs of the Shire intended to be reminiscent of England (more specifically, the West Midlands, with Hobbiton set at the same latitude as Oxford).
Tolkien 's stories chronicle the struggle to control the world (called Arda) and the continent of Middle - earth: on one side, the angelic Valar, the Elves and their allies among Men; on the other, the demonic Melkor or Morgoth (a Vala fallen into evil) and his minions, mostly Orcs, Dragons and enslaved Men. In later ages, after Morgoth 's defeat and expulsion from Arda, his place was taken by his lieutenant Sauron.
The Valar withdrew from direct involvement in the affairs of Middle - earth after the defeat of Morgoth, but in later years they sent the wizards or Istari to help in the struggle against Sauron. The most important wizards were Gandalf the Grey and Saruman the White. Gandalf remained true to his mission and proved crucial in the fight against Sauron. Saruman, however, became corrupted and sought to establish himself as a rival to Sauron for absolute power in Middle - earth. Other races involved in the struggle against evil were Dwarves, Ents and most famously Hobbits. The early stages of the conflict are chronicled in The Silmarillion, while the final stages of the struggle to defeat Sauron are told in The Hobbit and in The Lord of the Rings.
Conflict over the possession and control of precious or magical objects is a recurring theme in the stories. The First Age is dominated by the doomed quest of the elf Fëanor and most of his Noldorin clan to recover three precious jewels called the Silmarils that Morgoth stole from them (hence the title The Silmarillion). The Second and Third Age are dominated by the forging of the Rings of Power, and the fate of the One Ring forged by Sauron, which gives its wearer the power to control or influence those wearing the other Rings of Power (hence the title The Lord of the Rings).
In ancient Germanic mythology, the world of Men is known by several names, such as Midgard, Middenheim, Manaheim, and Middengeard. The Old English middangeard descends from an earlier Germanic word and so has cognates in languages related to Old English such as the Old Norse word Miðgarðr from Norse mythology, transliterated to modern English as Midgard.
The term "Middle - earth ''; also commonly referred to as "middle - world, '' was therefore not invented by Tolkien. It is found throughout the Modern English period as a development of the Middle English word middel - erde (cf. modern German Mittelerde), which developed in turn, through a process of folk etymology, from middanġeard (the g being soft, i.e. pronounced like y in its modern descendant "yard ''). By the time of the Middle English period, middangeard was being written as middellærd, midden - erde, or middel - erde, indicating that the second element had been reinterpreted, based on its similarity to the word for "earth ''. The shift in meaning was not great, however: middangeard properly meant "middle enclosure '' instead of "middle - earth ''; Nevertheless, middangeard has been commonly translated as "middle - earth '' and Tolkien followed this course.
Tolkien first encountered the term middangeard in an Old English fragment he studied in 1914:
Éala éarendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended.
Hail Earendel, brightest of angels / above the middle - earth sent unto men.
This quote is from the second of the fragmentary remnants of the Crist poems by Cynewulf. The name Éarendel was the inspiration for Tolkien 's mariner Eärendil, who set sail from the lands of Middle - earth to ask for aid from the angelic powers, the Valar. Tolkien 's earliest poem about Eärendil, from 1914, the same year he read the Crist poems, refers to "the mid-world's rim ''.
The concept of middangeard was considered by Tolkien to be the same as a particular usage of the Greek word οἰκουμένη - oikoumenē (from which the word ecumenical is derived). In this usage Tolkien says that the oikoumenē is "the abiding place of men ''; by this he means it is the physical world in which Man lives out his life and destiny, as opposed to the unseen worlds, like Heaven or Hell. Tolkien wrote:
Middle - earth is... not my own invention. It is a modernization or alteration... of an old word for the inhabited world of Men, the oikoumene: middle because thought of vaguely as set amidst the encircling Seas and (in the northern - imagination) between ice of the North and the fire of the South. O. English middan - geard, mediaeval E. midden - erd, middle - erd. Many reviewers seem to assume that Middle - earth is another planet.
However, the term "Middle - earth '' is not found in Tolkien 's earliest writings about Middle - earth, dating from the early 1920s and published in The Book of Lost Tales (1983 - 4). Nor is the term used in The Hobbit (1937). Tolkien began to use the term "Middle - earth '' in the late 1930s, in place of the earlier terms "Great Lands '', "Outer Lands '', and "Hither Lands ''. The term "Middle - earth '' appears in drafts of The Lord of the Rings, and the first published appearance of the word "Middle - earth '' in Tolkien 's works is in the Prologue to that work: "... Hobbits had, in fact, lived quietly in Middle - earth for many long years before other folk even became aware of them. ''
The term Middle - earth has also come to be applied as a short - hand for the entirety of Tolkien 's legendarium, instead of the technically more appropriate, but lesser known terms Arda (which refers to the physical world) and Eä (which refers to the physical reality of creation as a whole).
This wider use is reflected in book titles such as The Complete Guide to Middle - earth, The Road to Middle - earth, The Atlas of Middle - earth, and in particular the series The History of Middle - earth, all of which cover areas outside of the strict geographical definition of the term Middle - earth. Tolkien himself used the term loosely at times.
The term "Middle - earth '' is sometimes incorrectly capitalised as "Middle - Earth '', and the hyphen is sometimes incorrectly omitted as well, as in "Middle Earth '', "Middle earth '' and "Middleearth ''.
Within the overall context of his legendarium, Tolkien 's Middle - earth was part of his created world of Arda (which includes the Undying Lands of Aman and Eressëa, removed from the rest of the physical world), which itself was part of the wider creation he called Eä.
Aman and Middle - earth are separated from each other by the Great Sea Belegaer (analogous to the Atlantic Ocean). The western continent, Aman, was the home of the Valar and the Elves called the Eldar. An uninhabited Eastern continent is also mentioned, but does not figure in the stories.
Tolkien prepared several maps of Middle - earth and of the regions of Middle - earth where his stories took place. Some were published in his lifetime, though some of the earliest maps were not published until after his death. The main maps were those published in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales.
Most of the events of the First Age took place in the subcontinent Beleriand, which was later engulfed by the ocean at the end of the First Age; the Blue Mountains at the right edge of the map of Beleriand are the same Blue Mountains that appear on the extreme left of the map of Middle - earth in the Second and Third Ages. Tolkien 's map of Middle - earth, however, shows only a small part of the world; most of the lands of Rhûn and Harad are not shown on the map, and there are also other continents.
In Tolkien 's conception, Arda (Earth), was created specifically as "the Habitation '' (Imbar or Ambar) for the Children of Ilúvatar (Elves and Men). It is envisaged in a flat Earth cosmology, with the sun, moon and stars revolving around it. Tolkien 's sketches show a disc - like face for the world which looked up to the stars. However, Tolkien 's legendarium addresses the spherical Earth paradigm by depicting a catastrophic transition from a flat to a spherical world, in which Aman was removed "from the circles of the world ''.
Middle - earth or Endor originally conformed to a largely symmetrical scheme that was marred by Melkor. The various conflicts with Melkor (as well as by the action of the Valar on one occasion) resulted in the shapes of the lands being distorted.
Originally, Arda began as a single flat world and the Valar created two lamps to illuminate it, Illuin and Ormal. The Vala Aulë forged great towers, Helcar in the furthest north, and Ringil in the deepest south. Illuin was set upon Helcar and Ormal upon Ringil. In the middle, where the light of the lamps mingled, the Valar dwelt at the island of Almaren in the midst of a Great Lake. When Melkor destroyed the Lamps of the Valar, two vast inland seas (Helcar and Ringil) and two major seas (Belegaer and the Eastern Sea) were created, but Almaren and its lake were destroyed.
The Valar left Middle - earth and went to the newly formed continent of Aman in the west, where they created their home called Valinor. To discourage Melkor from assailing Aman, they thrust the continent of Middle - earth to the east, thus widening Belegaer at its middle and raising five major mountain ranges in Middle - earth which adopted a relatively symmetrical distribution, namely the Blue, Red, Grey, Yellow Mountains and the Mountains of the Wind. This act, however, ruined the symmetry of the shape of the continents and their intervening seas.
Many centuries after Valinor was established, Melkor raised the Misty Mountains to impede the progress of the Vala Oromë as he hunted Melkor 's beasts during the period of darkness in Middle - earth prior to the awakening of the Elves.
Additional changes occurred when the Valar assaulted Utumno, some years after the Awakening of the Elves. The North - west of Middle - earth, notably the regions west of the Blue Mountains (named Beleriand) wherein Melkor met the Valar host, was "much broken ''. Belegaer, the sea between Middle - earth and Aman widened further, creating among other bays one which was the Bay of Balar, the confluence of Sirion. The highland of Dorthonion and the mountains about Hithlum were also a result of the battles.
In the central region of Middle - earth, a Great Gulf (of Belegaer) was formed (the precursor to the later Bay of Belfalas). To the far south, the Inland Sea of Ringil expanded greatly and separated the southernmost part of the continent from the mainland, in effect forming the Dark Land (Hyarmenor) and the Inner Sea, linking by straits the previously separated Belegaer and Eastern Sea.
As told in The Silmarillion, most of the events of the First Age took place in the land of Beleriand and its environs. Tolkien placed within the bounds of Beleriand the hidden Elven kingdoms of Doriath, ruled by King Thingol, and Gondolin, founded by Turgon. Also important was the fortress of Nargothrond, founded by the elf Finrod Felagund. In the Blue Mountains to the east were the great dwarf halls of Belegost and Nogrod. Beleriand was split into eastern and western sections by the great river Sirion. In East Beleriand was the river Gelion with its seven tributaries, which defined the Green - elf kingdom of Ossiriand. To the north of Beleriand lay the regions of Nevrast, Hithlum and Dor - lómin, and the Iron Mountains where Morgoth (Melkor) had his fortress of Angband. The violent struggles during the War of Wrath between the Host of the Valar and the armies of Melkor at the end of the First Age brought about the destruction of Angband, and changed the shape of Middle - earth so that most of Beleriand vanished under the sea.
The Pelóri were also raised in the early First Age, along with the Enchanted Isles, to make Valinor essentially impassable save by the fortified Calacirya.
In the Second and Third Ages, during which Tolkien set the events of the Akallabêth, The Hobbit, and The Lord of the Rings, the Western regions of Middle - earth contained the lands of Eriador, Gondor, the Misty Mountains, and the vales of the great river Anduin. Eriador was bordered by the Ered Luin or Blue Mountains to the west, which bordered the sea and the Grey Havens, also called Mithlond. To the east of Eriador lay the Misty Mountains, which ran from the far north to Isengard, home of the wizard Saruman, in the south. The Misty Mountains contained the great dwarvish hall of Khazad - dûm or Moria. Within Eriador lay originally the kingdom of Arnor, founded by men who had fled the destruction of Númenor. It later split into the kingdoms of Arthedain, Cardolan, and Rhudaur. These kingdoms too had long since passed into history by the time of The Lord of the Rings. Eriador also contained The Shire, homeland of the Hobbits, and the nearby settlement of Bree. Rivendell or Imladris, the home of the Half - elven Elrond also lay in Eriador, close to the western side of the Misty Mountains.
East of the Mountains lay the land called Rhovanion and the great river Anduin. On its western side, between Anduin and the Misty Mountains, lay the Elvish kingdom of Lothlórien, home of the elf Galadriel, and the forest of Fangorn, home of the Ents. To the east of the Anduin lay the great forest of Mirkwood, (formerly Greenwood), and further east again were the Lonely Mountain or Erebor (seized from the dwarves by the dragon Smaug), the town of Dale, Dorwinion, and the Iron Hills. South and East of the Misty Mountains was the kingdom of Rohan, inhabited by the allies of Gondor, and further south the kingdom of Gondor, founded like Arnor by men who escaped the destruction of the island of Númenor. East of Gondor, and surrounded by high mountains was Mordor, home of Sauron in his fortress of Barad - dûr.
South of Gondor lay the lands of Harad and Khand, and the port of Umbar. In the far East beyond Rhovanion was the Sea of Rhûn, on the eastern side of which dwelt the Easterling peoples. The inhabitants of all these lands were traditionally hostile to Gondor, and allied with Sauron at the time of The Lord of the Rings.
Tolkien never finalized the geography for the world associated with The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. In The Shaping of Middle - earth, volume IV of The History of Middle - earth, Christopher Tolkien published several remarkable maps, of both the original flat earth and round world, which his father had created in the latter part of the 1930s. Karen Wynn Fonstad drew from these maps to develop detailed, but non-canonical, "whole world maps '' reflecting a world consistent with the historical ages depicted in The Silmarillion, The Hobbit, and The Lord of the Rings.
Maps prepared by Christopher Tolkien and J.R.R. Tolkien for the world encompassing The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings were published as foldouts or illustrations in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales, as well as in poster format as "A Map of Middle - Earth. '' (The maps of ' Middle - earth ' only show the north - west of the continent, as indicated on the revised map published in Unfinished Tales.) Early conceptions of the maps provided in The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings were included in several volumes, including "The First Silmarillion Map '' in The Shaping of Middle - earth, "The First Map of the Lord of the Rings '' in The Treason of Isengard, "The Second Map (West) '' and "The Second Map (East) '' in The War of the Ring, and "The Second Map of Middle - earth west of the Blue Mountains '' (also known as "The Second Silmarillion Map '') in The War of the Jewels.
The Tolkien Estate maintains the position that the geographical layout of Middle - earth or any other places in the imaginary universe created by J.R.R. Tolkien was the intellectual property of J.R.R. Tolkien and subsequently is that of his heirs. The Tolkien Estate has therefore restricted the publishing of maps to those authorized by the Estate and legally pursues anyone who publishes any maps, including self - made works, on the Internet.
Tolkien described the region in which the Hobbits lived as "the North - West of the Old World, east of the Sea '', which indicates a connection to England and the north - western region of Europe (the Old World). However, as he noted in private letters, the geographies do not match, and he did not consciously make them match when he was writing (with the exception of a newly discovered annotated map, see below):
As for the shape of the world of the Third Age, I am afraid that was devised ' dramatically ' rather than geologically, or paleontologically.
I am historically minded. Middle - earth is not an imaginary world. The name is the modern form (appearing in the 13th century) of midden - erd > middel - erd, an ancient name for the oikoumene, the abiding place of Men, the objectively real world, in use specifically opposed to imaginary worlds (as Fairyland) or unseen worlds (as Heaven or Hell). The theatre of my tale is this earth, the one in which we now live, but the historical period is imaginary. The essentials of that abiding place are all there (at any rate for inhabitants of N.W. Europe), so naturally it feels familiar, even if a little glorified by enchantment of distance in time.
"... if it were ' history ', it would be difficult to fit the lands and events (or ' cultures ') into such evidence as we possess, archaeological or geological, concerning the nearer or remoter part of what is now called Europe; though the Shire, for instance, is expressly stated to have been in this region... I hope the, evidently long but undefined gap * in time between the Fall of Barad - dûr and our Days is sufficient for ' literary credibility ', even for readers acquainted with what is known as ' pre-history '. I have, I suppose, constructed an imaginary time, but kept my feet on my own mother - earth for place. I prefer that to the contemporary mode of seeking remote globes in ' space '. However curious, they are alien, and not loveable with the love of blood - kin...
In another letter, Tolkien made correspondences in latitude (not equations) between Europe and Middle - earth:
The action of the story takes place in the North - west of ' Middle - earth ', equivalent in latitude to the coastlands of Europe and the north shores of the Mediterranean... If Hobbiton and Rivendell are taken (as intended) to be at about the latitude of Oxford, then Minas Tirith, 600 miles south, is at about the latitude of Florence. The Mouths of Anduin and the ancient city of Pelargir are at about the latitude of ancient Troy.
He did confirm, however, that the Shire, the land of his Hobbit heroes, was based on England:
' The Shire ' is based on rural England and not any other country in the world...
In the Prologue to The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien writes: "Those days, the Third Age of Middle - earth, are now long past, and the shape of all lands has been changed... ''
The Appendices make several references in both history and etymology of topics ' now ' (in modern English languages) and ' then ' (ancient languages);
The year no doubt was of the same length, 1 (the footnote here reads: 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 46 seconds.) for long ago as those times are now reckoned in years and lives of men, they were not very remote according to the memory of the Earth.
Nodded to both in Appendices and The Silmarillion (with supporting information within the HoME series) there are constellations and stars that correspond to the astronomy seen in the northern hemisphere of Earth, including references to the Sun, the Moon, Orion (and his belt), Ursa Major and other planets (described as "stars ''; thus Carnil is "Mars '').
A map annotated by Tolkien, discovered in October 2015 in Pauline Baynes ' collection, places Hobbiton on the same latitude as Oxford, but also corresponds Minas Tirith with Ravenna, Italy. The author also used Belgrade, Cyprus, and Jerusalem as other reference points. (This map is the source of locations on Baynes ' poster map that are n't included on the maps printed in the books, such as Framsburg and Dorwinnion.)
In The Silmarillion the history of Arda is divided into four great time periods, known as the Ainulindalë, the Years of the Lamps, the Years of the Trees (the Valian years) and the Years of the Sun. In Middle - earth recorded history did not begin until the First Age and the Awakening of the Elves during the Years of the Trees - the time prior to that is simply known as the Beginning of Days. During the First Age the awakening of Men coincided with the first rising of the Sun and the beginning of The Years of the Sun, which have lasted from the First Age, through the Second, Third and Fourth Ages to the present day.
In Tolkien 's universe, God is called Eru Ilúvatar. Tolkien created a cosmogony in which the genesis of the world was musical: in the beginning, Ilúvatar created spirits named the Ainur and taught them to make music. After the Ainur had become proficient in their skills, Ilúvatar commanded them to make a great music based on a theme of his own design. The most powerful Ainu, Melkor (later called Morgoth or "Dark Enemy '' by the Elves), disrupted the theme. In response, Ilúvatar introduced new themes that enhanced the music beyond the comprehension of the Ainur. The foundation of Tolkien 's creation is that the movements of their song, and the conflict in themes between Melkor and Ilúvatar, laid the seeds of much of the history of the as - yet - unmade universe and the people who were to dwell therein.
Then Ilúvatar stopped the music and revealed its meaning to the Ainur through a vision. Moved, many of the Ainur felt a compelling urge to experience its events directly. Ilúvatar therefore created Eä, the universe itself, and some of the Ainur went into the universe to share in its experience. But upon arriving in Eä, the Ainur found that it was shapeless because they had entered at the beginning of time. The Ainur undertook great labours in these unnamed "ages of the stars '', in which they shaped the universe and filled it with many things far beyond the reach of Men.
In time, however, the Ainur formed Arda, the future abiding place of the Children of Ilúvatar: Elves and Men. Melkor and his followers entered Eä as well, and they set about ruining and undoing whatever the others did. The fifteen most powerful Ainur are called the Valar; Melkor was the most powerful, but Manwë was the leader. Each of the Valar was attracted to a particular aspect of the world that became the focus of their powers. Melkor was drawn to terrible extremes and violence -- bitter cold, scorching heat, earthquakes, rendings, breakings, utter darkness, burning light etc. His power was so great that at first the Valar were unable to restrain him, until the Vala Tulkas entered Eä and tipped the balance. Driven out by Tulkas, Melkor brooded in the darkness at the outer reaches of Arda. The Valar settled in Arda to watch over it and help prepare it for the awakening of the Children.
The Years of the Lamps began shortly after the Valar finished their labours in shaping Arda. Arda began as a single flat world and the Valar created two lamps to illuminate it, Illuin and Ormal. In the middle, where the light of the lamps mingled, the Valar dwelt at the island of Almaren. This period, known as the "Spring of Arda '', was a time when the Valar had ordered the World as they wished and rested upon Almaren, and Melkor lurked beyond the Walls of Night. During this time animals first appeared, and forests started to grow. The Spring was interrupted when Melkor returned to Arda, and ended completely when he destroyed the Lamps of the Valar. Melkor 's destruction of the two Lamps marked the end of the Years of the Lamps.
The Years of the Trees began after Melkor 's destruction of the two lamps, when the Valar retreated to the extreme western regions of Arda, where the Vala Yavanna made the Two Trees named Telperion and Laurelin to give light to their new homeland of Valinor in the land of Aman. The Trees illuminated Aman, leaving the rest of Arda (in what is now Middle - earth) in darkness, illuminated only by the stars.
The First Age in Tolkien 's history of Middle - earth began when the Elves awoke beside Lake Cuiviénen in the east of Endor (Middle - earth). The Elves were soon approached by the Valar, who requested that they come to Aman to live beside them. Many of the Elves were persuaded to undertake the Great Journey westwards towards Aman, but not all of them completed the journey (see Sundering of the Elves). The Valar had imprisoned Melkor, but he appeared to repent and was released on parole. He sowed great discord among the Elves and stirred up rivalry between the Elven princes Fëanor and Fingolfin. He then slew their father, King Finwë, destroyed the Two Trees themselves with the aid of Ungoliant the spider, and stole the Silmarils, three extraordinarily precious gems crafted by Fëanor that contained light of the Two Trees, from their maker 's vault.
Fëanor persuaded most of his people, the Noldor, to leave Aman in pursuit of Melkor to Beleriand, cursing him with the name Morgoth, ' Black Enemy '. He and his sons swore an oath to recover the Silmarils at any cost. Fëanor led the first of two groups of the Noldor. The second and larger group was led by Fingolfin. The Noldor stopped at the Teleri port - city, Alqualondë, but the Teleri refused to give them ships to get to Middle - earth. The first Kinslaying ensued when Fëanor and many of his followers attacked the Teleri and stole their ships. Fëanor 's host sailed on the stolen ships, leaving Fingolfin 's behind. The second group had little choice but to cross over to Middle - earth through the deadly Helcaraxë (or ' Grinding Ice ') in the far north. Subsequently, Fëanor was slain, but most of his sons survived and founded realms, as did Fingolfin and his heirs. Meanwhile, the Valar took the last two living fruit of the Two Trees and used them to create the Moon and Sun, which remained a part of Arda, but were separate from Ambar (the earthly world).
The Years of the Sun began when the Valar made the Sun, and it rose over Ambar, and thereafter time in the First Age was counted from the date of its rising. After several great battles, a Long Peace ensued for four hundred years, during which time the first Men, the Edain, entered Beleriand by crossing over the Blue Mountains. When Morgoth broke the siege of Angband, one by one, the Elven kingdoms fell, even the hidden city of Gondolin. The only measurable success achieved by Elves and Men came when Beren of the Edain and Lúthien, daughter of Thingol and Melian, retrieved a Silmaril from the crown of Morgoth. Afterward, Beren and Lúthien died, and were restored to life by the Valar with the understanding that Lúthien was to become mortal and Beren should never be seen by Men again.
Thingol quarrelled with the dwarves of Nogrod and they slew him, stealing the Silmaril. Beren waylaid the dwarves and recovered the Silmaril, which he gave to Lúthien. Soon afterwards, both Beren and Lúthien died again. The Silmaril was given to their son Dior Half - elven, who had restored the Kingdom of Doriath. The sons of Fëanor demanded that Dior surrender the Silmaril to them, and he refused. The Fëanorians destroyed Doriath and killed Dior in the second Kinslaying, but Dior 's young daughter Elwing escaped with the jewel. Three sons of Fëanor -- Celegorm, Curufin, and Caranthir -- died trying to retake the jewel.
By the end of the age, all that remained of the free Elves and Men in Beleriand was a settlement at the mouth of the River Sirion. Among them was Eärendil, who married Elwing. But the Fëanorians again demanded the Silmaril be returned to them, and after their demand was rejected they resolved to take the jewel by force, leading to the third Kinslaying. Eärendil and Elwing took the Silmaril across the Great Sea, to beg the Valar for pardon and aid. The Valar responded. Melkor was captured, most of his works were destroyed, and he was banished beyond the confines of the world into the Door of Night.
The Silmarils were recovered at a terrible cost, as Beleriand itself was broken and began to sink under the sea. Fëanor 's last remaining sons, Maedhros and Maglor, were ordered to return to Valinor. They proceeded to steal the Silmarils from the victorious Valar. But, as with Melkor, the Silmarils burned their hands and they then realized they were not meant to possess them, and that their oath was null. Each of the brothers met his fate: Maedhros threw himself with the Silmaril into a chasm of fire, and Maglor threw his Silmaril into the sea. Thus, one Silmaril ended in the sky, worn by Eärendil, a second in the earth, and the third in the sea.
At the beginning of the Second Age, the Edain were given the island of Númenor toward the west of the Great Sea as their home, while many Elves were welcomed into the West. The Númenóreans were blessed by the Valar with long life, three times that of lesser men. They became great seafarers, and, in their days of glory, came to Middle - earth to teach the lesser men great skills. However, the Númenóreans grew jealous of their immortal brethren, the Elves. At the height of their power, the Númenóreans ruled over the Men of Middle - earth, instead of helping them. After a few centuries, Sauron, Morgoth 's most powerful servant and chief captain, began to organize evil creatures in the eastern lands. He persuaded Elven smiths in Eregion to create Rings of Power, and secretly forged the One Ring to control the other Rings. But the Elves became aware of Sauron 's plan as soon as he put the One Ring on his hand, and they removed their own Rings before he could master their wills. During this time, the Shadow grew over Númenor, as kings no longer laid down their lives when they had lived to the fullest, but rather clung greedily to life. Númenor, ever thankful to the Valar and Eru in the past, now neglected to pay tribute, growing ever more restless about the Doom of Man, the curse of mortality. The people of Númenor became divided between the King 's Men, those who would see the power and dominion of Númenor grow and their gratitude towards the Elves and Valar wane, and the Faithful, who still maintained their ties with the Elves, and still paid heed to the words of Eru Ilúvatar.
With his newfound might and growing dominion over Middle - earth, Sauron claimed that he was the King of Men. Ar - Pharazôn, the last king of Númenor, thinking that none but he should have this title, sailed to Middle - earth with an army to challenge Sauron 's claim. Sauron, seeing the might of Númenor at its noontide, knew that he could not stand against them. So he allowed himself to be captured and taken back to Númenor as a hostage. Soon, Sauron 's deceit and fair - seeming words won him favour with the King. He lied to the King, and told him that Melkor, Lord of Darkness, was the true God and that Eru was but an invention of the Valar. Thus began the persecution of the Faithful, who were sacrificed in the name of Melkor. Finally, as Ar - Pharazôn grew old, Sauron, using the power of the One Ring, told the King that none, not even the Valar of Valinor, could challenge the might of Númenor, and that the King should assail Valinor, and by setting foot on the Undying Lands, achieve immortality. Ar - Pharazôn, fearing death, assembled a massive fleet and set sail for the Undying Lands. Amandil, chief of those still faithful to the Valar, remembering the embassy of Eärendil, set sail to seek mercy from the Valar. To disguise his intent, he sailed first to the east, and then sailed west, but was never heard from again. His son Elendil and grandsons Isildur and Anárion kept the Faithful out of the coming war and made preparations to flee by ship.
Before the end of the Second Age, when the Men of Númenor rebelled against the Valar due to the deceits of Sauron, Ilúvatar destroyed Númenor, separated Valinor from the rest of Arda, and formed new lands, making the world round. When the King 's forces landed on Aman, the Valar called for Ilúvatar to intervene. The world was changed, so that Aman was removed from Imbar. From that time onward, Men could no longer find Aman, but Elves seeking passage in specially hallowed ships received the grace of using the Straight Road, which led from Middle - earth 's seas to the seas of Aman. The mighty fleet of Ar - Pharazôn and the land of Númenor, were utterly destroyed, and with it the fair body of Sauron; but his spirit endured and fled back to Middle - earth. Elendil and his sons escaped to Endor and founded the realms of Gondor and Arnor.
Sauron soon rose again, but the Elves allied with the Men to form the Last Alliance and defeated him. In a siege that lasted years, Gil - galad, High King of the Elves; Elendil, the ruler of Gondor and Arnor; and Anárion, son of Elendil; were slain, as was Sauron 's body. Elendil 's other son Isildur finally cut the One Ring from Sauron 's hand with his father 's sword, diminishing Sauron 's power and making his spirit flee once again, and thus achieving victory and peace for a time. But Isildur refused to destroy the One Ring in the fires of Mount Doom, against all advice, and took it as a weregild for his father and brother. However, the Ring soon betrayed him when it abandoned him during an ambush of Orcs at the Gladden Fields; Isildur was slain and the Ring was lost in the Anduin for a time.
The Third Age saw the rise in power of the realms of Arnor and Gondor, and their decline. By the time of The Lord of the Rings, Sauron had recovered much of his former strength, and was seeking the One Ring. He learned that it was in the possession of a Hobbit and sent out the nine Ringwraiths to retrieve it. The Ring - bearer, Frodo Baggins, travelled to Rivendell, where it was decided that the Ring had to be destroyed in the only way possible: casting it into the fires of Mount Doom. Frodo set out on the quest with eight companions -- the Fellowship of the Ring. At the last moment, he failed, but with the intervention of the creature Gollum -- who was saved by the pity of Frodo and Bilbo Baggins -- the Ring was nevertheless destroyed. Frodo with his companion Sam Gamgee were hailed as heroes. Sauron was destroyed and his spirit forever dissipated.
The end of the Third Age marked the end of the dominion of the Elves and the beginning of the dominion of Men.
As the Fourth Age began, many of the Elves who had lingered in Middle - earth left for Valinor, never to return; those who remained behind would "fade '' and diminish. The Dwarves returned in large numbers to Moria and resettled it, though they eventually dwindled away as well. Under King Elessar of Gondor (Aragorn of the Dúnedain), peace was restored between Gondor and the lands to the south and east.
In this age King Elessar bans humans from entering the Shire, allowing the Hobbits to live peaceful and unmolested lives. Elessar and Queen Arwen die at almost the same time, and the kingdom is passed to his son.
Tolkien started a story to be known as The New Shadow set several generations after King Elessar in which a new evil had arisen, men playing at orcs, and which the protagonist follows one of the cultists to learn more about them, before the thirty pages of the draft abruptly stops. Tolkien never finished the story, as he regarded it merely as a "thriller ''.
The Ainur were angelic beings created by Ilúvatar. The cosmological myth called the Ainulindalë, or "Music of the Ainur '', describes how the Ainur sang for Ilúvatar, who then created Eä to give material form to their music. Many of the Ainur entered Eä, and the greatest of these were called the Valar. Melkor, the chief agent of evil in Eä, and later called Morgoth, was initially one of the Valar.
With the Valar came lesser spirits of the Ainur, called the Maiar. Melian, the wife of the Elven King Thingol in the First Age, was a Maia. There were also evil Maiar, called Umaiar, including the Balrogs and the second Dark Lord, Sauron. Sauron devised the Black Speech (Burzum) for his slaves (such as Orcs) to speak. In the Third Age, a number of the Maiar were embodied and sent to Middle - earth to help the free peoples to overthrow Sauron. These are the Istari (or Wise Ones, called Wizards by Men), including Gandalf, Saruman, Radagast, Alatar and Pallando.
The Elves are known as the first born of Ilúvatar: intelligent beings created by Ilúvatar alone. There are many different clans of Elves, but the main distinction is between the Calaquendi or Light Elves and the Moriquendi or Dark Elves. Tolkien 's work The Silmarillion tells of how the Valar came to Middle - earth shortly after the awakening of the Elves, and invited them to come and live with them in their home in the land of Aman. Those elves who accepted and began the Great Journey to Aman from their birthplace of Cuiviénen were called the Eldar or the Middle - earth Eldar. The elves who completed the journey were sometimes called the Light Elves because they saw the magical Light of the Two Trees, the source of light in Aman. Those elves who refused the offer were called the Avari, and the Eldar who tired of the long journey west and remained behind in Middle - earth were called the Dark Elves because they would never see the Light of the Two Trees. Generally Dark Elves were considered less powerful than Light Elves, but the term ' Dark ' did not imply they were in any way evil. In later years some of the Light Elves (chiefly the Noldor clan) returned to Middle - earth, mainly on a quest to retrieve precious jewels called the Silmarils, stolen from them by Morgoth.
Originally Elves all spoke the same Common Eldarin ancestral tongue, but after the long separation of thousands of years it diverged into different languages. The two main Elven languages were Quenya, spoken by the Light Elves, and Sindarin, spoken by the Sindar, the Dark Elves who stayed behind in Beleriand as mentioned above. Tolkien compared the use of Quenya in Middle - earth as like Latin, with Sindarin as the common speech. The Teleri of Valinor spoke Telerin, which was very close to Quenya but generally considered a distinct language and not a dialect.
Physically the Elves resemble humans almost identically; indeed, they are arguably the same species, as they can marry and have children (though this is extremely rare and the Half - elven are very famous as a result). However the Elves have a more ethereal and less visceral nature, and their bodies "fade '' into their spirits, to the point that any Elves alive today would be totally ghostlike and invisible to most Humans.
The Elves are very agile and quick - footed. They are generally somewhat taller than Men. They are also extremely coordinated, as is evident in The Fellowship of the Ring, when the elves walk across the rope in the woods of Lothlórien. Their eyesight is hawk - like and they are also said to glow with light. Another example is when the Fellowship take the pass of Caradhras, where Legolas of Mirkwood is able to walk across the deep snow without falling through. Though they can be killed, Elves are immortal, and when they reach maturity they appear to cease aging (though they do continue to physically age, just at a rate so slow as to be almost unperceivable, such as in Círdan 's case but Elves could age physically, though at a slower rate than Men or Dwarves, if the led extremely stressful lives, like Círdan). They are also re-embodied in Valinor if they are slain or die in an accident, and in the first and second ages, had the ability to return to Middle Earth exactly as they were previously, though they very seldom opted to do so. Their ears are pointed only to a slight extent.
In Tolkien 's writings the elves have been divided in several subgroups described in English as high elves, light - elves, fair - elves, deep elves, sea - elves, green - elves, wood - elves (sylvan elves), dark elves, grey - elves, and the special category half - elves. In the languages of the Elves there are additional subgroups under the above categories.
Men were the second born of the Children of Ilúvatar, who awoke in Middle - earth much later than the Elves and (probably) also after the Dwarves. In appearance they are much like Elves, but unlike them they are mortal, ageing and dying quickly (usually living 40 -- 80 years, though the Númenóreans lived several centuries), and also are on average less beautiful. The men involved in Tolkien 's stories are mainly the three tribes of Men who allied themselves with the Elves of Beleriand in the First Age, called the Edain. As a reward for their loyalty and suffering in the Wars of Beleriand, the descendants of the Edain were given the island of Númenor to be their home. But as described in the section on Middle - earth 's history, Númenor was eventually destroyed and a remnant of the Númenóreans established realms in the northern lands of Endor. Those who remained faithful to the Valar founded the kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor. They were then known as the Dúnedain. Other Númenórean survivors, still devoted to evil but living far to the south, became known as the Black Númenóreans. The languages spoken by Men include Adûnaic -- spoken by the Númenóreans, Westron -- The ' Common Speech ' -- represented by English, and Rohirric -- spoken by the Rohirrim -- represented in The Lord of the Rings by Old English. In the Third Age and the beginning of the Fourth, the King of Gondor is Aragorn, son of Arathorn. Other notable men in The Lord of the Rings are Théoden, Éowyn, and Éomer of Rohan, and the brothers Boromir and Faramir of Gondor. The term "Man '' is used as a gender - neutral racial description, to distinguish humans from the other human - like races of Middle - earth.
The Dúnedain, due to their more pure Númenórean heritage, tend to live longer than regular humans. But, except in a few houses, the line has weakened both by time and intermingling with the lesser peoples.
Beorn appears in The Hobbit as a huge man with the ability to transform into a bear. Beorn often left home for days at a time to fight the enemies threatening the forest people. His origins lay in the distant past; Gandalf suspected that he and his people originally came from the mountains. Beorn is the ancestor of the Beornings, who live in the north at the end of the Third Age, allied with the Woodsmen of Mirkwood.
The Dwarves are said to have been created by the Vala Aulë, who offered to destroy them when Ilúvatar confronted him. The seven Dwarf Fathers had no true life as created by Aulë, but were tied to his power. When Ilúvatar saw that Aulë had created the Dwarves in an desire to see Ilúvatar 's vision fulfilled and not out of a desire for power or domination of Aulë 's will, Ilúvatar brought true life to the seven Dwarf fathers. He forgave Aulë 's transgression and adopted the Dwarves as his own. His only condition was that they were not allowed to awaken before the Elves. Therefore, the Dwarves ' creator Aulë laid them to sleep in hidden mountain locations until the Elves awoke. These dwarves were known as the Seven Fathers of the Dwarves, who (along with their mates) went on to found the seven kindreds of Dwarves when they awoke. The first dwarf to awake was Durin the father of the Longbeards, the oldest and wisest kindred of the Dwarves, and the main focus of Tolkien 's stories. Durin founded the greatest Dwarf kingdom called Khazad - dûm, later known as Moria in the Misty Mountains. The Dwarves spread throughout northern Endor and each kindred founded its own kingdom. Only two other of these kingdoms are mentioned by Tolkien, Nogrod and Belegost in the Ered Luin or Blue Mountains. These were the home of the Firebeards and the Broadbeams, who were allies of the Elves of Beleriand against Morgoth in the First Age. The language spoken by the Dwarves is called Khuzdul, and was kept largely as a secret language for their own use. The dwarves are mortal like Men, but live much longer, usually several hundred years. A peculiarity of Dwarves is that both males and females are bearded, and thus appear identical to outsiders.
The Silmarillion introduces the Petty - dwarves who were diminutive even by dwarven standards. They had been exiled from several of the Dwarven houses. They were hunted by the elves, leading to their eventual extinction. They had other cultural differences including that they were more unsociable, and freely gave out their Khuzdul names to outsiders.
Of the races, Dwarves are the most resistant to corruption and influence of Morgoth and later Sauron. The seven rings of Power of the dwarves did not turn them to evil, but it did amplify their greed and lust for gold. The Dwarves ' resistance to corruption is perhaps explained by their origin as the creations of Aulë and not being created by or original children in Ilúvatar 's vision. It is said that very few wilfully served the side of darkness. Of those who did very little was written. Of the seven houses few fought on either side during The Last Alliance at the end of the Second Age, and is known that none from the House of Durin ever fought on the side of evil. During the early parts of the Third Age (or at least in legends of the previous), it is known that in some places wicked dwarves had made alliances with the goblins and orcs. It is suggested by Tolkien in some of his notes that of the dwarves that turned to wickedness they most likely came from the Dwarves of the far eastern mansions (and perhaps some of the nearer ones) came under the Shadow of Morgoth and turned to evil. It is however unclear if these refer to Dwarves beyond Iron Hills (the most eastern known stronghold of the Dwarves). Because Dwarves are not evil by nature, few ever served the Enemy of their own free will (though rumors of Men suggest the total was greater).
Tolkien identified Hobbits as an offshoot of the race of Men. Another name for Hobbit is ' Halfling ', as they were generally only half the size of Men (Men in those times usually grew to six feet (182.88 cm) in height, and a Hobbit would be only three (91.44 cm) or four (121.92 cm) feet tall). In their lifestyle and habits they closely resemble Men, except for their preference for living in holes underground. Although their origins and ancient history are not known, Tolkien implied that they settled in the Vales of Anduin early in the Third Age, but after a thousand years the Hobbits began migrating west over the Misty Mountains into Eriador. Eventually, many Hobbits settled in the Shire and in nearby Bree. Tolkien says that there were three kinds of Hobbit: the Stoors, Fallohides and Harfoots. The hobbits who appear most prominently in Tolkien 's stories are Bilbo Baggins and his nephew Frodo Baggins, who each have an important role in the quest to destroy the One Ring of Power forged by Sauron; another is Sméagol, who took the One Ring after it was found in the Anduin. Frodo is told by Gandalf that Sméagol was part of a Hobbit - like riverfolk, but long possession of the ring corrupted and deformed him into the creature Gollum. By the time of The Lord of the Rings Hobbits had long spoken the Mannish tongue Westron, though their dialect of Westron indicates that they formerly spoke a language akin to that of the Men of Rohan.
The Ents were shepherds of trees. They were created by Ilúvatar at the request of Yavanna, to protect trees from the depredations of Elves, Dwarves, and Men. When the Elves first awoke, they "desired to converse with all things '', and taught the Ents to speak. The Ents developed their own peculiar "Entish '' language, which was impossible for other races to learn due to its long descriptive phrases for even the smallest things. Nevertheless, the Ents could learn other races ' languages and were able to communicate with others that way. Huorns were intermediate in form between Ents and trees: Ents that were "falling asleep '' or trees that were becoming wildly active; they bore a deep antagonism toward orcs. By the time of The Lord of the Rings the Ents were a dwindling race, as the Entwives had left the Ents and disappeared. In The Lord of the Rings, the Ents, led by Treebeard, the oldest Ent, were instrumental in defeating Saruman by destroying his fortress of Isengard, and the Huorns destroyed his army of orcs.
Orcs and Trolls were evil creatures bred by Morgoth. They were not original creations but rather "mockeries '' of the Children of Ilúvatar and Ents, since only Ilúvatar has the ability to give conscious life to things. The precise origins of Orcs and Trolls are unclear, as Tolkien considered many possibilities and frequently changed his mind, leaving several inconsistent accounts. The Hobbit speaks of Goblins and Hobgoblins, and a note at the beginning of most editions explains that "orc '' and "goblin '' are synonymous, while "hobgoblin '' refers to orcs of larger size. Late in the Third Age, the Uruks or Uruk - hai appeared: a race of Orcs of great size and strength that tolerate sunlight better than ordinary Orcs.
Tolkien also mentions "Men - orcs '' and "Orc - men ''; or "half - orcs '' or "goblin - men ''. They share some characteristics with Orcs (like "slanty eyes '') but are described as looking more like men. Some appear at the battle of Helm 's Deep and in the Scouring of the Shire, where it is recalled that similar - looking men were seen earlier causing trouble in Bree.
Trolls were made of stone. The Ent Treebeard describes them in The Lord of the Rings as "mockeries of Ents, they are stupid creatures, foul mouthed and brutal ''. Daylight turned such "stone trolls '' back into stone. In "Roast Mutton '' in The Hobbit, three trolls catch Bilbo and his Dwarf companions, and plan on eating them; but they are turned back to stone by the light of dawn before they get the chance. Tolkien also describes a race of trolls bred by Sauron called the ' Olog - hai ' who were larger and stronger than ordinary trolls, and who could endure daylight. Other varieties mentioned include cave - trolls, hill - trolls, mountain - trolls (which dwarf all other troll kind), and snow - trolls. In The Hobbit, Gandalf alludes to trolls that have more than one head: "I am afraid trolls do behave like that, even those with only one head each. '' Some soldiers from Far Harad are described as Half - trolls or troll - men.
Sapient animals also appear, such as the Eagles, Huan the Great Hound from Valinor and the wolf - like Wargs. The Eagles were created by Ilúvatar along with the Ents, and the Wargs were possibly descendants of earlier werewolves, but in general the origins and nature of these animals are unclear. Giant spiders such as Shelob descended from Ungoliant, of unknown origin. Other sapient species include the Crebain, evil crows who become spies for Saruman, and the Ravens, who brought news to the dwarves. Vampires are mentioned briefly in The Silmarillion (possibly equivalent to large bats who aided the Goblins and Wargs in The Hobbit). The horse - line of the Mearas of Rohan also appear to be intelligent and understand human speech. Beorn had a number of animal friends about his house. The Badger - folk are introduced in the Adventures of Tom Bombadil. They are said to live between the Barrow - downs and the Old Forest. In one story they capture Tom Bombadil. In another poem Bombadil speaks with several local animals: Little Bird, the willow - wren; Fisher Blue, a kingfisher, Whisker - lad of the Otter - folk, and Old Swan of Elver - isle.
Stone - giants appear in The Hobbit fighting one another in the valleys of the Misty Mountains. No further reference is made to them in any other of Tolkien 's writings. In the Hobbit, Bilbo remembers stories of giants and ogres, and thinks of them when trying to solve one of Gollum 's riddles. Giants are mentioned in passing throughout The Lord of the Rings, sometimes in poetic passages. Frodo mistakes the Argonath for giants before seeing that they are just statues, and both Helm 's Deep and Minas Tirith were reputedly built by giants.
In The Two Towers, when Gandalf returns, he mentions nameless things that dwelt along the path he followed under the earth, creatures who gnaw at the roots of the world.
Dragons (or "worms '') appear in several varieties, distinguished by whether they have wings and whether they breathe fire (cold - drakes versus fire - drakes). The first of the fire - drakes (Urulóki in Quenya) was Glaurung the Golden, bred by Morgoth in Angband, and called "The Great Worm '', "The Worm of Morgoth '', and "The Father of Dragons ''. Glaurung played a decisive part in the battles of Morgoth against the Elves in the First Age, and directed the defeat of Nargothrond, but was eventually slain by Túrin. Winged dragons first appeared in the Great Battle at the end of the First Age, led by Ancalagon the Black, the mightiest of that host. In that battle he was slain by Eärendil. Gandalf avers, however, that even the fire of Ancalagon was not sufficiently hot to destroy Sauron 's One Ring.
In the Third Age lived Scatha the Worm, "the great dragon of the Ered Mithrin '' or Grey Mountains, He owned a large hoard of dwarf - treasure, but was killed by Fram of the Éothéod in the North not long after the dwarves were driven from Moria. The dwarves demanded their treasure back, but Fram gave them only a necklace made of Scatha 's teeth. Subsequently, many dwarves settled in the Grey Mountains; but dragons multiplied there, and a great cold - drake killed Dain I (whereupon his heir Thrór, Thorin 's grandfather, returned to re-establish the Kingdom Under the Mountain at Erebor). That kingdom was shortly afterwards destroyed by Smaug, a flying fire - drake, who was later killed by Bard the Bowman in The Hobbit. The Hobbit also refers in passing to "Were - worms in the Last Desert '' (in the "East of East ''), and to stone dragons.
Mewlips are legendary creatures mentioned in The Adventures of Tom Bombadil. They said to live in a fortress beyond Merlock Mountains and the Marsh of Tode (though it is not clear if these are actual places). They capture their victims and drag them down into the fortress to feast upon.
Turtle - fish are a race of giant sea turtles mentioned in The Adventures of Tom Bombadil. Fastitocalon, the last of the Turtle - fish, emulates an island, waiting for people to land on his back. Then he turns over, sending them to their deaths in the sea.
The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings are presented as Tolkien 's retelling of events depicted in the Red Book of Westmarch, which was written by Bilbo Baggins, Frodo Baggins, and other Hobbits, and corrected and annotated by one or more Gondorian scholars. Tolkien wrote extensively about the linguistics, mythology and history of the world, which provide back - story for these stories. Many of these writings were edited and published posthumously by his son Christopher.
Among them is The Silmarillion, which provides a creation story and description of the cosmology that includes Middle - earth. The Silmarillion is the primary source of information about Valinor, Númenor, and other lands. The Unfinished Tales and the multiple volumes of The History of Middle - earth include many incomplete stories and essays as well as numerous drafts of Tolkien 's Middle - earth mythology, from the earliest forms down through the last writings of his life.
Tolkien died in 1973. All further works were edited by Christopher Tolkien and published posthumously. Only The Silmarillion, Bilbo 's Last Song and The Children of Húrin are presented as finished work -- the others are collections of notes and draft versions.
In a letter to his son Christopher Tolkien, J.R.R. Tolkien set out his policy regarding film adaptations of his works: "Art or Cash ''. He sold the film rights for The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings to United Artists in 1969 after being faced with a sudden tax bill. They are currently in the hands of Middle - earth Enterprises, formerly known as Tolkien Enterprises. The Tolkien Estate retains the film rights to The Silmarillion and other works.
The first adaptation to be shown was The Hobbit in 1977, made by Rankin - Bass studios. This was initially shown on United States television.
The following year (1978), a movie entitled The Lord of the Rings was released, produced and directed by Ralph Bakshi; it was an adaptation of the first half of the story, using rotoscope animation. Although the film was relatively faithful to the story and a commercial success, its critical response (from critics, readers and non-readers alike) was mixed.
In 1980, Rankin - Bass produced a TV special covering roughly the last half of The Lord of the Rings, called The Return of the King. However, this did not follow on directly from the end of the Bakshi film.
Plans for a live - action version of The Lord of the Rings would wait until the late 1990s to be realized. These were directed by Peter Jackson and funded by New Line Cinema with backing from the New Zealand government and banking system.
The trilogy was a box office and critical success. The three films won seventeen Oscars altogether (at least one in each applicable category for a fictional, English language, live - action feature film, except in the acting categories).
The Hobbit (film series), a live - action adaptation of The Hobbit, was made as a prequel to The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, produced in New Zealand under the direction of Peter Jackson. Although Tolkien 's novel The Hobbit is a single book, unlike The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit film series is a trilogy like The Lord of the Rings film series. The films were released in December 2012, December 2013, and December 2014.
The works of Tolkien have been a major influence on role - playing games along with others such as Robert E. Howard, Fritz Leiber, H.P. Lovecraft, and Michael Moorcock. Although the most famous game to be inspired partially by the setting was Dungeons & Dragons, there have been two specifically Middle - earth based and licensed games. These are the Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game from Decipher Inc. and the Middle - earth Role Playing game (MERP) and Middle Earth the Wizards CCG from Iron Crown Enterprises.
A Middle - Earth Play - By - Mail game was originally created in 1990 by Game Systems, Inc. under license by Tolkien Enterprises and is still produced. This play - by - email game was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design 's Hall of Fame in 1997.
Simulations Publications created three war games based on Tolkien 's work. War of the Ring covered most of the events in The Lord of the Rings. Gondor focused on the battle of Pelennor Fields, and Sauron covered the Second Age battle before the gates of Mordor. The three games above were then released together as the Middle Earth game trilogy. Iron Crown Enterprises published The Fellowship of the Ring. A board game also called War of the Ring has been published by Fantasy Flight Games.
EA Games has released games based on the Jackson movies for the gaming consoles and the PC. These include the platformers The Two Towers, The Return of the King, the real - time strategy game The Battle for Middle - earth, its sequel The Battle for Middle - earth II and its expansion The Battle for Middle - earth II: The Rise of the Witch - King -- which puts you in control of the warriors of Angmar, the home of the Witch - king, and the role - playing game The Third Age. Also recently, Pandemic Studios, famous creators of the Star Wars: Battlefront series worked with EA to create The Lord of the Rings: Conquest, a game with a similar system to Battlefront. The game has mixed reviews but overall was successfully accepted. Traveller 's Tales games developed Lego The Hobbit and before that Lego The Lord of the Rings. The games were based on the films, but their worlds and characters were almost entirely made of LEGO bricks.
Book - based games (officially licensed from Tolkien Enterprises) include Vivendi 's own platformer, The Fellowship of the Ring, and Sierra 's own real - time strategy game, War of the Ring, and the many games based on The Hobbit.
To add on to that, some games take place in between Tolkien 's two major works (The Hobbit and the Lord of the Rings), such as Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor. In this game players take on the role of Talion, a slain Ranger of Gondor, trapped between life and death. He is aided by the wraith of Celebrimbor. Together they must sow chaos throughout the armies and servants of the second Dark Lord, Sauron.
Turbine (now a subsidiary of Warner Bros.) released the first Middle - earth - based graphical massively multiplayer online role - playing game (MMORPG): The Lord of the Rings Online: Shadows of Angmar in April 2007. Since then, there have been five major expansions of the game, each adding large portions of the Middle - earth landscape.
Aside from officially licensed games, many Tolkien - inspired mods, custom maps and total conversions have been made for many games, such as Warcraft III, Minecraft, Rome: Total War, Medieval II: Total War, The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion and The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.
Moreover, the Middle - Earth DEM Project seeks to create a highly detailed model of middle earth by using various middle - earth maps to map every feasible aspect of the fictional world such as rivers, vegetation and buildings for their dataset compiled for the Outerra game engine.
In addition, there are many text - based MMORPGs (known as MU * s) based on Tolkien 's Middle - earth. The oldest of these dates back to 1991, and was known as Middle - Earth MUD, run by using LPMUD. After Middle - Earth MUD ended in 1992, it was followed by Elendor and MUME (Multi Users in Middle - earth).
There are allusions to concepts similar to, or identical to Middle - earth, in other works by Tolkien, and the work of other writers. The earliest of these in modern English is the poem "The Gray Magician '' (1918) by Margaret Widdemer:
Another example is C.S. Lewis 's Space Trilogy, in which Earth is also called Middle - earth. Lewis 's novels, set around World War II (with the last novel, That Hideous Strength, taking place in post-war England), specifically bring in references to Tolkien 's legendarium (at that time largely unpublished) and treats these references as primary fact within Lewis 's fiction. Merlin, of King Arthur fame, is treated as a successor to the Atlantis magic found within "Numinor '' (Lewis 's unintentional misspelling of Númenor), and similarities can also be found in the Quenya name for Númenor, which is Atalantë, and Lewis specifically references the earth as Middle - earth twice, both in Chapter 13, "They Have Pulled Down Deep Heaven on Their Heads ''.
A small selection from the many books about Tolkien and his created world:
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who did diem brown date on road rules | Diem Brown - wikipedia
Danielle Michelle "Diem '' Brown (June 12, 1982 -- November 14, 2014) was an American television personality, philanthropist, and entertainment reporter. She was best known as a recurring cast member on the MTV reality television series The Challenge. Brown founded MedGift, a website that provides a gift registry for patients and support pages to both people experiencing illnesses and their caregivers. She was an army brat in Baumholder, Germany before her family settled in the United States. She attended high school in Roswell, Georgia and obtained her bachelor 's degree in communications from Florida State University.
Since debuting on Real World / Road Rules Challenge: Fresh Meat in 2006, Brown competed in seven additional Challenges. In her debut challenge, filmed in November 2005, she revealed that she had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer, to the surprise of both the cast and the production company. Her final season of The Challenge, Battle of the Exes II, aired in early 2015.
Fresh Meat was the twelfth season of Real World / Road Rules Challenge. Filmed in Australia, it featured two - player teams; each team had an alumnus of The Real World or Road Rules partnered with a newcomer to The Challenge (collectively known as "Fresh Meat '') who was never part of one of the two aforementioned series. Brown was partnered with Road Rules alumnus Derrick Kosinski, and the pair finished in fourth place in the competition. Brown, who was just completing her treatment for cancer, went on to compete in The Duel. She took off her wig during one of the competitions, and this has been viewed as one of the most memorable and touching Challenge moments.
Brown was an entertainment reporter and worked for the Associated Press, Sky Living, and FOXNews.com. She also blogged about her experiences battling cancer and thoughts on The Challenge for People.com and hosted the MTV.com special Surviving Cancer.
Diem was the brain child behind the website MedGift. MedGift or www.medgift.com is a not for profit, web - based application that seeks to connect those in need with those who care. MedGift 's objective is to help patients obtain support from family and friends while in treatment. She was also a patient advocate, speaking and appearing on numerous television and online shows and conferences. Brown took part in the first Stand Up to Cancer telethon as well as other charitable efforts such as MTV 's Restore the Shore telethon for Hurricane Sandy. She was chosen as one of the initial 100 groundbreaking women to be profiled on MAKERS.com in 2012.
Brown dated fellow Challenge castmember Chris "CT '' Tamburello for over a year and a half after meeting on The Duel in 2006. Brown credited Tamburello for playing a role in her remission recovery and giving her confidence. The couple competed on the same team on The Gauntlet III and were featured on the MTV documentary show MADE, on which Brown aspired to learn how to salsa dance to regain her confidence. Following their split, Brown and Tamburello competed on The Duel II as well as a team on Battle of the Exes and The Challenge: Battle of the Exes II -- they were the runners - up in the final of the original Exes.
In June 2012, after six years of remission, Brown 's ovarian cancer returned. She delayed treatment to harvest eggs before undergoing surgery to remove her ovary and receiving chemotherapy treatments. In 2013, Brown 's cancer once again went into remission. Brown ended chemotherapy in February 2013, and later competed in her seventh Challenge season, Rivals II, because she was told by doctors during her second bout with cancer that "seeing 2013 was not that likely. '' Brown and her rival partner Aneesa Ferreira finished in fourth place.
Brown was diagnosed with cancer for a third time in June 2014, but initially shared this information with only close friends. Two months later (August 2014), while filming her eighth and final Challenge competition, Battle of the Exes II in Panama, Brown collapsed on set, and was immediately airlifted to a New York hospital, where doctors performed emergency surgery. Though it was widely reported that she was diagnosed with colon cancer, Brown stated that her ovarian cancer had metastasized to her colon and stomach. Brown died on November 14, 2014. She spent her final hours in the company of friends and family.
Shortly after her death, it was revealed that Brown 's age had been misrepresented to the public. Her family supported the false information by including an incorrect age on programs distributed at her funeral, but later her sister was quoted in a People magazine article about the true facts as saying that Brown had felt that many years of her life were taken from her due to cancer and treatments, and that deducting two years was a response to those circumstances. Some media headlines and reports corrected her reported age at the time of her death in response to the later information.
In 2015 former The Challenge contestant and United States Representative Sean Duffy of Wisconsin, started the Ovarian Cancer Caucus alongside Representative Rosa DeLauro of Connecticut, an ovarian cancer survivor. In attendance were several other Challenge contestants, who came to honor Brown, who 's death Duffy said "touched our MTV reality - TV family. '' In attendance were Duffy along with his wife Rachel Campos - Duffy and her The Real World: San Francisco castmate David "Puck '' Rainey, Norman Korpi of The Real World: New York, Derrick Kosinski of Road Rules: X-Treme, and Laurel Stucky of Fresh Meat II.
Diem Brown is survived by her father and three siblings. She was predeceased by her mother.
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what episode does piccolo come back to life | List of Dragon ball Z episodes (season 9) - wikipedia
The 38 - episode ninth and final season originally ran from February 1995 to January 1996 in Japan on Fuji Television. The first English airing of the series was on Cartoon Network where Funimation Entertainment 's dub of the series ran from October 2002 to April 2003. The episodes also aired in Canada, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Australia, and the Republic of Ireland.
Funimation released the season in a box set on May 19, 2009 and announced that they would be re-releasing Dragon Ball Z in a new seven volume set called the "Dragon Boxes ''. Based on the original series masters with frame - by - frame restoration, the first set was released on November 10, 2009.
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what is cape of good hope in hindi | Cape of Good Hope - Wikipedia
The Cape of Good Hope (Afrikaans: Kaap die Goeie Hoop (ˌkɑːp di ˌχujə ˈɦʊəp), Dutch: Kaap de Goede Hoop (ˌkaːb də ˌɣudə ˈɦoːp) (listen), Portuguese: Cabo da Boa Esperança (ˈkaβu ðɐ ˈβoɐ ʃpɨˈɾɐ̃sɐ)) is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula in South Africa.
A common misconception is that the Cape of Good Hope is the southern tip of Africa. This misconception was based on the misbelief that the Cape was the dividing point between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Contemporary geographic knowledge instead states the southernmost point of Africa is Cape Agulhas about 150 kilometres (90 mi) to the east - southeast. The currents of the two oceans meet at the point where the warm - water Agulhas current meets the cold - water Benguela current and turns back on itself. That oceanic meeting point fluctuates between Cape Agulhas and Cape Point (about 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) east of the Cape of Good Hope).
When following the western side of the African coastline from the equator, however, the Cape of Good Hope marks the point where a ship begins to travel more eastward than southward. Thus, the first modern rounding of the cape in 1488 by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was a milestone in the attempts by the Portuguese to establish direct trade relations with the Far East (although Herodotus mentioned a claim that the Phoenicians had done so far earlier). Dias called the cape Cabo das Tormentas ("Cape of Storms ''; Dutch: Stormkaap), which was the original name of the "Cape of Good Hope ''.
As one of the great capes of the South Atlantic Ocean, the Cape of Good Hope has long been of special significance to sailors, many of whom refer to it simply as "the Cape ''. It is a waypoint on the Cape Route and the clipper route followed by clipper ships to the Far East and Australia, and still followed by several offshore yacht races.
The term Cape of Good Hope is also used in three other ways:
Eudoxus of Cyzicus (/ ˈjuːdəksəs /; Greek: Εὔδοξος, Eúdoxos; fl. c. 130 BC) was a Greek navigator for Ptolemy VIII, king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, who found the wreck of a ship in the Indian Ocean that appeared to have come from Gades (today 's Cádiz in Spain), rounding the Cape.
When Eudoxus was returning from his second voyage to India the wind forced him south of the Gulf of Aden and down the coast of Africa for some distance. Somewhere along the coast of East Africa, he found the remains of the ship. Due to its appearance and the story told by the natives, Eudoxus concluded that the ship was from Gades and had sailed anti-clockwise around Africa, passing the Cape and entering the Indian Ocean. This inspired him to repeat the voyage and attempt a circumnavigation of the continent. Organising the expedition on his own account he set sail from Gades and began to work down the African coast. The difficulties were too great, however, and he was obliged to return to Europe.
After this failure he again set out to circumnavigate Africa. His eventual fate is unknown. Although some, such as Pliny, claimed that Eudoxus did achieve his goal, the most probable conclusion is that he perished on the journey.
In the 1450 Fra Mauro map, the Indian Ocean is depicted as connected to the Atlantic. Fra Mauro puts the following inscription by the southern tip of Africa, which he names the "Cape of Diab '', describing the exploration by a ship from the East around 1420:
"Around 1420 a ship, or junk, from India crossed the Sea of India towards the Island of Men and the Island of Women, off Cape Diab, between the Green Islands and the shadows. It sailed for 40 days in a south - westerly direction without ever finding anything other than wind and water. According to these people themselves, the ship went some 2,000 miles ahead until - once favourable conditions came to an end - it turned round and sailed back to Cape Diab in 70 days ''.
"The ships called junks (lit. "Zonchi '') that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. They can navigate without a compass, because they have an astrologer, who stands on the side and, with an astrolabe in hand, gives orders to the navigator ". (Text from the Fra Mauro map, 09 - P25.)
Fra Mauro explained that he obtained the information from "a trustworthy source '', who traveled with the expedition, possibly the Venetian explorer Niccolò da Conti who happened to be in Calicut, India at the time the expedition left:
"What is more, I have spoken with a person worthy of trust, who says that he sailed in an Indian ship caught in the fury of a tempest for 40 days out in the Sea of India, beyond the Cape of Soffala and the Green Islands towards west - southwest; and according to the astrologers who act as their guides, they had advanced almost 2,000 miles. Thus one can believe and confirm what is said by both these and those, and that they had therefore sailed 4,000 miles ''.
Fra Mauro also comments that the account of the expedition, together with the relation by Strabo of the travels of Eudoxus of Cyzicus from Arabia to Gibraltar through the southern Ocean in Antiquity, led him to believe that the Indian Ocean was not a closed sea and that Africa could be circumnavigated by her southern end (Text from Fra Mauro map, 11, G2). This knowledge, together with the map depiction of the African continent, probably encouraged the Portuguese to intensify their effort to round the tip of Africa.
In the Early Modern Era, the first European to reach the cape was the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, who named it the "Cape of Storms '' (Cabo das Tormentas). It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as "Cape of Good Hope '' (Cabo da Boa Esperança) because of the great optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India and the East.
The Khoikhoi people lived in the cape area when the Dutch first settled there in 1652. The Khoikhoi had arrived in this area about fifteen hundred years before. The Dutch called them Hottentots, a term that has now come to be regarded as pejorative.
Dutch colonial administrator Jan van Riebeeck established a resupply camp for the Dutch East India Company some 50 km north of the cape in Table Bay on 6 April 1652 and this eventually developed into Cape Town. Supplies of fresh food were vital on the long journey around Africa and Cape Town became known as "The Tavern of the Seas ''.
On 31 December 1687 a community of Huguenots (French Protestants) arrived at the Cape of Good Hope from the Netherlands. They had escaped from France and fled to the Netherlands to flee religious persecution in France. One example was Pierre Joubert who came from La Motte - d'Aigues. The Dutch East India Company needed skilled farmers at the Cape of Good Hope and the Dutch Government saw opportunities to settle Huguenots at the Cape and sent them there. The Cape colony gradually grew over the next 150 years or so until it stretched for hundreds of kilometres to the north and north - east.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Dutch Republic was occupied by the French in 1795. Thus the Cape Colony became a French vassal and enemy of the British. Therefore, the United Kingdom invaded and occupied the Cape Colony that same year. The British relinquished control of the territory in 1803 but returned and reoccupied the Colony on 19 January 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. The Dutch ceded the territory to the British in the Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1814 The Cape was then administered as the Cape Colony and it remained a British colony until it was incorporated into the independent Union of South Africa in 1910 (now known as the Republic of South Africa).
The Portuguese government erected two navigational beacons, Dias Cross and Gama Cross, to commemorate Vasco da Gama and Bartolomeu Dias as explorers who as mentioned were the first explorers to reach the cape. When lined up, the crosses point to Whittle Rock (34 ° 21 ′ 24.63 '' S 18 ° 28 ′ 26.36 '' E / 34.3568417 ° S 18.4739889 ° E / - 34.3568417; 18.4739889), a large, permanently submerged shipping hazard in False Bay. Two other beacons in Simon 's Town provide the intersection.
The Cape of Good Hope is at the southern tip of the Cape Peninsula, about 2.3 kilometres (1.4 mi) west and a little south of Cape Point on the south - east corner. Cape Town is about 50 kilometres to the north of the Cape, in Table Bay at the north end of the peninsula. The peninsula forms the western boundary of False Bay. Geologically, the rocks found at the two capes, and indeed over much of the peninsula, are part of the Cape Supergroup, and are formed of the same type of sandstones as Table Mountain itself. Both the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Point offer spectacular scenery; the whole of the southernmost portion of the Cape Peninsula is a wild, rugged, scenic and generally unspoiled national park.
The term the Cape has also been used in a wider sense, to indicate the area of the European colony centred on Cape Town, and the later South African province. Since 1994, it has been broken up into three smaller provinces: the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and Northern Cape; parts of the province were also absorbed into the North West.
With its diverse habitat, ranging from rocky mountain tops to beaches and open sea, the Cape of Good Hope is home to at least 250 species of birds including one of the two mainland colonies of African penguins.
"Bush birds '' tend to be rather scarce because of the coarse, scrubby nature of fynbos vegetation. When flowering, however, proteas and ericas attract sunbirds, sugarbirds, and other species in search of nectar. For most of the year, there are more small birds in coastal thicket than in fynbos.
The Cape of Good Hope section of Table Mountain National Park is home to several species of antelope. Bontebok and eland are easily seen, and red hartebeest can be seen in the grazing lawns in Smitswinkel Flats. Grey rhebok are less commonly seen and are scarce, but may be observed along the beach hills at Olifantsbos. Most visitors are unlikely to ever see either Cape grysbok or klipspringer.
The Cape of Good Hope section is home to four Cape mountain zebra. They might be seen by the attentive or lucky visitor, usually in Smitswinkel Flats.
There are a wealth of small animals such as lizards, snakes, tortoises and insects. Small mammals include rock hyrax, four - striped grass mouse, water mongoose, Cape clawless otter and fallow deer.
The area offers excellent vantage points for whale watching. The southern right whale is the species most likely to be seen in False Bay between June and November. Other species are the humpback whale and Bryde 's whale. Seals, dusky dolphins and killer whales have also been seen.
The strategic position of the Cape of Good Hope between two major ocean currents, ensures a rich diversity of marine life. There is a difference between the sea life west of Cape Point and that to the east due to the markedly differing sea temperatures.
The South African Marine Living Resources Act is strictly enforced throughout the Table Mountain National Park, and especially in marine protected areas. Disturbance or removal of any marine organisms is strictly prohibited between Schusters Bay and Hoek van Bobbejaan, but is allowed in other areas during season and with relevant permits.
Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) are the mammals most intimately associated with the Cape of Good Hope. Baboons inside the Cape of Good Hope section of the park are a major tourist attraction. There are 11 troops consisting of about 375 individuals throughout the entire Cape Peninsula. Six of these 11 troops either live entirely within the Cape of Good Hope section of the park, or use the section as part of their range. The Cape Point, Kanonkop, Klein Olifantsbos, and Buffels Bay troops live entirely inside the Cape of Good Hope section of the Park. The Groot Olifantsbos and Plateau Road troops range into the park.
Chacma baboons are widely distributed across southern Africa and are classified as '' least concern '' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, the South African Parks Department states in its publication Mountains in the Sea that the baboon population on the Cape is "critically endangered. '' This is due to habitat loss, genetic isolation, and conflicts with humans. Cape baboons have been eliminated from the majority of their range across the Cape Peninsula, and the Cape of Good Hope section of Table Mountain National Park provides a sanctuary for the troops that live within its boundaries. It provides relative safety from nearby towns, where people have killed many baboons after the baboons raid their houses looking for food. Baboons are also frequently injured or killed outside of the park by cars and by electrocution on power lines. Inside the park, some management policies such as allowing barbecues and picnics in the baboon home ranges cause detriment to the troops, as they become embroiled in conflicts with guests to the park.
The Cape of Good Hope is an integral part of the Cape Floristic Kingdom, the smallest but richest of the world 's six floral kingdoms. This comprises a treasure trove of 1100 species of indigenous plants, of which a number are endemic (occur naturally nowhere else on earth). The main type of fynbos ("fine bush '') vegetation at the Cape of Good Hope is Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos, an endangered vegetation type that is endemic to the Cape Peninsula. Coastal Hangklip Sand Fynbos grows on low - lying alkaline sands and, right by the sea, small patches of Cape Flats Dune Strandveld can be found.
Characteristic fynbos plants include proteas, ericas (heath), and restios (reeds). Some of the most striking and well - known members belong to the Proteacae family, of which up to 24 species occur. These include king protea, sugarbush, tree pincushion and golden cone bush (Leucadendron laureolum).
Many popular horticultural plants like pelargoniums, freesias, daisies, lilies and irises also have their origins in fynbos.
Coordinates: 34 ° 21 ′ 24.63 '' S 18 ° 28 ′ 26.36 '' E / 34.3568417 ° S 18.4739889 ° E / - 34.3568417; 18.4739889 (Cape of Good Hope)
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