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list and explain the four written sources of american criminal law | Common law - wikipedia
Common law (also known as judicial precedent or judge - made law, or case law) is that body of law derived from judicial decisions of courts and similar tribunals. The defining characteristic of "common law '' is that it arises as precedent. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, a common law court looks to past precedential decisions of relevant courts, and synthesizes the principles of those past cases as applicable to the current facts. If a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision (a principle known as stare decisis). If, however, the court finds that the current dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous cases (called a "matter of first impression ''), and legislative statutes are either silent or ambiguous on the question, judges have the authority and duty to resolve the issue (one party or the other has to win, and on disagreements of law, judges make that decision). The court states an opinion that gives reasons for the decision, and those reasons agglomerate with past decisions as precedent to bind future judges and litigants. Common law, as the body of law made by judges, stands in contrast to and on equal footing with statutes which are adopted through the legislative process, and regulations which are promulgated by the executive branch (the interactions are explained later in this article). Stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems.
The common law -- so named because it was "common '' to all the king 's courts across England -- originated in the practices of the courts of the English kings in the centuries following the Norman Conquest in 1066. The British Empire spread its legal system to its historical colonies, many of which retain the common law system today. These "common law systems '' are legal systems that give great precedential weight to common law, and to the style of reasoning inherited from the English legal system.
Today, one - third of the world 's population lives in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law, including Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Burma, Cameroon, Canada (both the federal system and all its provinces except Quebec), Cyprus, Dominica, Fiji, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom (including its overseas territories such as Gibraltar), the United States (both the federal system and 49 of its 50 states), and Zimbabwe. Some of these countries have variants on common law systems.
The term common law has many connotations. The first three set out here are the most - common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are sometimes seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech.
The first definition of "common law '' given in Black 's Law Dictionary, 10th edition, 2014, is "The body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions; (synonym) CASELAW, (contrast) STATUTORY LAW. '' This usage is given as the first definition in modern legal dictionaries, is characterized as the "most common '' usage among legal professionals, and is the usage frequently seen in decisions of courts. In this connotation, "common law '' distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. For example, the law in most Anglo - American jurisdictions includes "statutory law '' enacted by a legislature, "regulatory law '' (in the U.S.) or "delegated legislation '' (in the U.K.) promulgated by executive branch agencies pursuant to delegation of rule - making authority from the legislature, and common law or "case law '', i.e., decisions issued by courts (or quasi-judicial tribunals within agencies). This first connotation can be further differentiated into
Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, and thus governments and private publishers publish law reports. While all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent (at varying levels and scope as discussed throughout the article on precedent), some become "leading cases '' or "landmark decisions '' that are cited especially often.
Black 's Law Dictionary 10th Ed., definition 2, differentiates "common law '' jurisdictions and legal systems from "civil law '' or "code '' jurisdictions.
By contrast, in civil law jurisdictions (the legal tradition that prevails, or is combined with common law, in Europe and most non-Islamic, non-common law countries), courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Civil law judges tend to give less weight to judicial precedent, which means that a civil law judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently (compared to a common law judge in the same circumstances), and therefore less predictably. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. The role of providing overarching principles, which in common law jurisdictions is provided in judicial opinions, in civil law jurisdictions is filled by giving greater weight to scholarly literature, as explained below.
Common law systems trace their history to England, while civil law systems trace their history through the Napoleonic Code back to the Corpus Juris Civilis of Roman law.
Black 's Law Dictionary 10th Ed., definition 4, differentiates "common law '' (or just "law '') from "equity ''. Before 1873, England had two complementary court systems: courts of "law '' which could only award money damages and recognized only the legal owner of property, and courts of "equity '' (courts of chancery) that could issue injunctive relief (that is, a court order to a party to do something, give something to someone, or stop doing something) and recognized trusts of property. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States. For most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U.S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the separate courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. Nonetheless, the historical distinction between "law '' and "equity '' remains important today when the case involves issues such as the following:
Courts of equity rely on common law principles of binding precedent.
In addition, there are several historical (but now archaic) uses of the term that, while no longer current, provide background context that assists in understanding the meaning of "common law '' today.
In one usage that is now archaic, but that gives insight into the history of the common law, "common law '' referred to the pre-Christian system of law, imported by the Saxons to England, and dating to before the Norman conquest, and before there was any consistent law to be applied. That usage is obsolete today. It is both underinclusive and overinclusive, as discussed in the section on "misconceptions ''.
"Common law '' as the term is used today in common law countries contrasts with ius commune. While historically the ius commune became a secure point of reference in continental European legal systems, in England it was not a point of reference at all.
The English Court of Common Pleas dealt with lawsuits in which the Monarch had no interest, i.e., between commoners.
Black 's Law Dictionary 10th Ed., definition 3 is "General law common to a country as a whole, as opposed to special law that has only local application. '' From at least the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King 's justice in "assizes ''. The term "common law '' was used to describe the law held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions.
A number of misconceptions of the term "common law '' exist in popular culture and non-lawyer sources.
In a common law jurisdiction several stages of research and analysis are required to determine "what the law is '' in a given situation. First, one must ascertain the facts. Then, one must locate any relevant statutes and cases. Then one must extract the principles, analogies and statements by various courts of what they consider important to determine how the next court is likely to rule on the facts of the present case. Later decisions, and decisions of higher courts or legislatures carry more weight than earlier cases and those of lower courts. Finally, one integrates all the lines drawn and reasons given, and determines "what the law is ''. Then, one applies that law to the facts.
In practice, common law systems are considerably more complicated than the simplified system described above. The decisions of a court are binding only in a particular jurisdiction, and even within a given jurisdiction, some courts have more power than others. For example, in most jurisdictions, decisions by appellate courts are binding on lower courts in the same jurisdiction, and on future decisions of the same appellate court, but decisions of lower courts are only non-binding persuasive authority. Interactions between common law, constitutional law, statutory law and regulatory law also give rise to considerable complexity.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. cautioned that "the proper derivation of general principles in both common and constitutional law... arise gradually, in the emergence of a consensus from a multitude of particularized prior decisions. '' Justice Cardozo noted the "common law does not work from pre-established truths of universal and inflexible validity to conclusions derived from them deductively '', but "(i) ts method is inductive, and it draws its generalizations from particulars ''.
The common law is more malleable than statutory law. First, common law courts are not absolutely bound by precedent, but can (when extraordinarily good reason is shown) reinterpret and revise the law, without legislative intervention, to adapt to new trends in political, legal and social philosophy. Second, the common law evolves through a series of gradual steps, that gradually works out all the details, so that over a decade or more, the law can change substantially but without a sharp break, thereby reducing disruptive effects. In contrast to common law incrementalism, the legislative process is very difficult to get started, as legislatures tend to delay action until a situation is totally intolerable. For these reasons, legislative changes tend to be large, jarring and disruptive (sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and sometimes with unintended consequences).
One example of the gradual change that typifies evolution of the common law is the gradual change in liability for negligence. The traditional common law rule through most of the 19th century was that a plaintiff could not recover for a defendant 's negligent production or distribution of a harmful instrumentality unless the two were in privity of contract. Thus, only the immediate purchaser could recover for a product defect, and if a part was built up out of parts from parts manufacturers, the ultimate buyer could not recover for injury caused by a defect in the part. In an 1842 English case, Winterbottom v. Wright, the postal service had contracted with Wright to maintain its coaches. Winterbottom was a driver for the post. When the coach failed and injured Winterbottom, he sued Wright. The Winterbottom court recognized that there would be "absurd and outrageous consequences '' if an injured person could sue any person peripherally involved, and knew it had to draw a line somewhere, a limit on the causal connection between the negligent conduct and the injury. The court looked to the contractual relationships, and held that liability would only flow as far as the person in immediate contract ("privity '') with the negligent party.
A first exception to this rule arose in 1852, in the case of Thomas v. Winchester, when New York 's highest court held that mislabeling a poison as an innocuous herb, and then selling the mislabeled poison through a dealer who would be expected to resell it, put "human life in imminent danger ''. Thomas relied on this reason to create an exception to the "privity '' rule. In, 1909, New York held in Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. that a coffee urn manufacturer was liable to a person injured when the urn exploded, because the urn "was of such a character inherently that, when applied to the purposes for which it was designed, it was liable to become a source of great danger to many people if not carefully and properly constructed ''.
Yet the privity rule survived. In Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson, (decided in 1915 by the federal appeals court for New York and several neighboring states), the court held that a car owner could not recover for injuries from a defective wheel, when the automobile owner had a contract only with the automobile dealer and not with the manufacturer, even though there was "no question that the wheel was made of dead and ' dozy ' wood, quite insufficient for its purposes. '' The Cadillac court was willing to acknowledge that the case law supported exceptions for "an article dangerous in its nature or likely to become so in the course of the ordinary usage to be contemplated by the vendor ''. However, held the Cadillac court, "one who manufactures articles dangerous only if defectively made, or installed, e.g., tables, chairs, pictures or mirrors hung on the walls, carriages, automobiles, and so on, is not liable to third parties for injuries caused by them, except in case of willful injury or fraud, ''
Finally, in the famous case of MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., in 1916, Judge Benjamin Cardozo for New York 's highest court pulled a broader principle out of these predecessor cases. The facts were almost identical to Cadillac a year earlier: a wheel from a wheel manufacturer was sold to Buick, to a dealer, to MacPherson, and the wheel failed, injuring MacPherson. Judge Cardozo held:
It may be that Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. have extended the rule of Thomas v. Winchester. If so, this court is committed to the extension. The defendant argues that things imminently dangerous to life are poisons, explosives, deadly weapons -- things whose normal function it is to injure or destroy. But whatever the rule in Thomas v. Winchester may once have been, it has no longer that restricted meaning. A scaffold (Devlin v. Smith, supra) is not inherently a destructive instrument. It becomes destructive only if imperfectly constructed. A large coffee urn (Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co., supra) may have within itself, if negligently made, the potency of danger, yet no one thinks of it as an implement whose normal function is destruction. What is true of the coffee urn is equally true of bottles of aerated water (Torgeson v. Schultz, 192 N.Y. 156). We have mentioned only cases in this court. But the rule has received a like extension in our courts of intermediate appeal. In Burke v. Ireland (26 App. Div. 487), in an opinion by CULLEN, J., it was applied to a builder who constructed a defective building; in Kahner v. Otis Elevator Co. (96 App. Div. 169) to the manufacturer of an elevator; in Davies v. Pelham Hod Elevating Co. (65 Hun, 573; affirmed in this court without opinion, 146 N.Y. 363) to a contractor who furnished a defective rope with knowledge of the purpose for which the rope was to be used. We are not required at this time either to approve or to disapprove the application of the rule that was made in these cases. It is enough that they help to characterize the trend of judicial thought.
We hold, then, that the principle of Thomas v. Winchester is not limited to poisons, explosives, and things of like nature, to things which in their normal operation are implements of destruction. If the nature of a thing is such that it is reasonably certain to place life and limb in peril when negligently made, it is then a thing of danger. Its nature gives warning of the consequences to be expected. If to the element of danger there is added knowledge that the thing will be used by persons other than the purchaser, and used without new tests then, irrespective of contract, the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to make it carefully... There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable.
Cardozo 's new "rule '' exists in no prior case, but is inferrable as a synthesis of the "thing of danger '' principle stated in them, merely extending it to "foreseeable danger '' even if "the purposes for which it was designed '' were not themselves "a source of great danger ''. MacPherson takes some care to present itself as foreseeable progression, not a wild departure. Cardozo continues to adhere to the original principle of Winterbottom, that "absurd and outrageous consequences '' must be avoided, and he does so by drawing a new line in the last sentence quoted above: "There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable. '' But while adhering to the underlying principle that some boundary is necessary, MacPherson overruled the prior common law by rendering the formerly dominant factor in the boundary, that is, the privity formality arising out of a contractual relationship between persons, totally irrelevant. Rather, the most important factor in the boundary would be the nature of the thing sold and the foreseeable uses that downstream purchasers would make of the thing.
The example of the evolution of the law of negligence in the preceding paragraphs illustrates two crucial principles: (a) The common law evolves, this evolution is in the hands of judges, and judges have "made law '' for hundreds of years. (b) The reasons given for a decision are often more important in the long run than the outcome in a particular case. This is the reason that judicial opinions are usually quite long, and give rationales and policies that can be balanced with judgment in future cases, rather than the bright - line rules usually embodied in statutes.
All law systems rely on written publication of the law, so that it is accessible to all. Common law decisions are published in law reports for use by lawyers, courts and the general public.
After the American Revolution, Massachusetts became the first state to establish an official Reporter of Decisions. As newer states needed law, they often looked first to the Massachusetts Reports for authoritative precedents as a basis for their own common law. The United States federal courts relied on private publishers until after the Civil War, and only began publishing as a government function in 1874. West Publishing in Minnesota is the largest private - sector publisher of law reports in the United States. Government publishers typically issue only decisions "in the raw, '' while private sector publishers often add indexing, editorial analysis, and similar finding aids.
In common law legal systems, the common law is crucial to understanding almost all important areas of law. For example, in England and Wales, in English Canada, and in most states of the United States, the basic law of contracts, torts and property do not exist in statute, but only in common law (though there may be isolated modifications enacted by statute). As another example, the Supreme Court of the United States in 1877, held that a Michigan statute that established rules for solemnization of marriages did not abolish pre-existing common - law marriage, because the statute did not affirmatively require statutory solemnization and was silent as to preexisting common law.
In almost all areas of the law (even those where there is a statutory framework, such as contracts for the sale of goods, or the criminal law), legislature - enacted statutes generally give only terse statements of general principle, and the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in the interstitial common law. To find out what the precise law is that applies to a particular set of facts, one has to locate precedential decisions on the topic, and reason from those decisions by analogy.
In (common law jurisdictions (in the sense opposed to "civil law ''), legislatures operate under the assumption that statutes will be interpreted against the backdrop of the pre-existing common law. As the United States Supreme Court explained in United States v Texas, 507 U.S. 529 (1993):
For example, in most U.S. states, the criminal statutes are primarily codification of pre-existing common law. (Codification is the process of enacting a statute that collects and restates pre-existing law in a single document -- when that pre-existing law is common law, the common law remains relevant to the interpretation of these statutes.) In reliance on this assumption, modern statutes often leave a number of terms and fine distinctions unstated -- for example, a statute might be very brief, leaving the precise definition of terms unstated, under the assumption that these fine distinctions will be inherited from pre-existing common law. (For this reason, many modern American law schools teach the common law of crime as it stood in England in 1789, because that centuries - old English common law is a necessary foundation to interpreting modern criminal statutes.)
With the transition from English law, which had common law crimes, to the new legal system under the U.S. Constitution, which prohibited ex post facto laws at both the federal and state level, the question was raised whether there could be common law crimes in the United States. It was settled in the case of United States v. Hudson, which decided that federal courts had no jurisdiction to define new common law crimes, and that there must always be a (constitutional) statute defining the offense and the penalty for it.
Still, many states retain selected common law crimes. For example, in Virginia, the definition of the conduct that constitutes the crime of robbery exists only in the common law, and the robbery statute only sets the punishment. Virginia Code section 1 - 200 establishes the continued existence and vitality of common law principles and provides that "The common law of England, insofar as it is not repugnant to the principles of the Bill of Rights and Constitution of this Commonwealth, shall continue in full force within the same, and be the rule of decision, except as altered by the General Assembly. ''
By contrast to statutory codification of common law, some statutes displace common law, for example to create a new cause of action that did not exist in the common law, or to legislatively overrule the common law. An example is the tort of wrongful death, which allows certain persons, usually a spouse, child or estate, to sue for damages on behalf of the deceased. There is no such tort in English common law; thus, any jurisdiction that lacks a wrongful death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful death of a loved one. Where a wrongful death statute exists, the compensation or other remedy available is limited to the remedy specified in the statute (typically, an upper limit on the amount of damages). Courts generally interpret statutes that create new causes of action narrowly -- that is, limited to their precise terms -- because the courts generally recognize the legislature as being supreme in deciding the reach of judge - made law unless such statute should violate some "second order '' constitutional law provision (cf. judicial activism).
Where a tort is rooted in common law, all traditionally recognized damages for that tort may be sued for, whether or not there is mention of those damages in the current statutory law. For instance, a person who sustains bodily injury through the negligence of another may sue for medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and / or emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement and more. These damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the tradition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of them are extinguished upon death.
In the United States, the power of the federal judiciary to review and invalidate unconstitutional acts of the federal executive branch is stated in the constitution, Article III sections 1 and 2: "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish... The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority... '' The first landmark decision on "the judicial power '' was Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). Later cases interpreted the "judicial power '' of Article III to establish the power of federal courts to consider or overturn any action of Congress or of any state that conflicts with the Constitution.
The interactions between decisions of different courts is discussed further in the article on precedent.
The United States federal courts are divided into twelve regional circuits, each with a circuit court of appeals (plus a thirteenth, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which hears appeals in patent cases and cases against the federal government, without geographic limitation). Decisions of one circuit court are binding on the district courts within the circuit and on the circuit court itself, but are only persuasive authority on sister circuits. District court decisions are not binding precedent at all, only persuasive.
Most of the U.S. federal courts of appeal have adopted a rule under which, in the event of any conflict in decisions of panels (most of the courts of appeal almost always sit in panels of three), the earlier panel decision is controlling, and a panel decision may only be overruled by the court of appeals sitting en banc (that is, all active judges of the court) or by a higher court. In these courts, the older decision remains controlling when an issue comes up the third time.
Other courts, for example, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the Supreme Court, always sit en banc, and thus the later decision controls. These courts essentially overrule all previous cases in each new case, and older cases survive only to the extent they do not conflict with newer cases. The interpretations of these courts -- for example, Supreme Court interpretations of the constitution or federal statutes -- are stable only so long as the older interpretation maintains the support of a majority of the court. Older decisions persist through some combination of belief that the old decision is right, and that it is not sufficiently wrong to be overruled.
In the UK, since 2009, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom has the authority to overrule and unify decisions of lower courts. From 1966 to 2009, this power lay with the House of Lords, granted by the Practice Statement of 1966.
Canada 's federal system, described below, avoids regional variability of federal law by giving national jurisdiction to both layers of appellate courts.
The reliance on judicial opinion is a strength of common law systems, and is a significant contributor to the robust commercial systems in the United Kingdom and United States. Because there is reasonably precise guidance on almost every issue, parties (especially commercial parties) can predict whether a proposed course of action is likely to be lawful or unlawful, and have some assurance of consistency. As Justice Brandeis famously expressed it, "in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than that it be settled right. '' This ability to predict gives more freedom to come close to the boundaries of the law. For example, many commercial contracts are more economically efficient, and create greater wealth, because the parties know ahead of time that the proposed arrangement, though perhaps close to the line, is almost certainly legal. Newspapers, taxpayer - funded entities with some religious affiliation, and political parties can obtain fairly clear guidance on the boundaries within which their freedom of expression rights apply.
In contrast, in jurisdictions with very weak respect for precedent, fine questions of law are redetermined anew each time they arise, making consistency and prediction more difficult, and procedures far more protracted than necessary because parties can not rely on written statements of law as reliable guides. In jurisdictions that do not have a strong allegiance to a large body of precedent, parties have less a priori guidance (unless the written law is very clear and kept updated) and must often leave a bigger "safety margin '' of unexploited opportunities, and final determinations are reached only after far larger expenditures on legal fees by the parties.
This is the reason for the frequent choice of the law of the State of New York in commercial contracts, even when neither entity has extensive contacts with New York -- and remarkably often even when neither party has contacts with the United States. Commercial contracts almost always include a "choice of law clause '' to reduce uncertainty. Somewhat surprisingly, contracts throughout the world (for example, contracts involving parties in Japan, France and Germany, and from most of the other states of the United States) often choose the law of New York, even where the relationship of the parties and transaction to New York is quite attenuated. Because of its history as the United States ' commercial center, New York common law has a depth and predictability not (yet) available in any other jurisdictions of the United States. Similarly, American corporations are often formed under Delaware corporate law, and American contracts relating to corporate law issues (merger and acquisitions of companies, rights of shareholders, and so on.) include a Delaware choice of law clause, because of the deep body of law in Delaware on these issues. On the other hand, some other jurisdictions have sufficiently developed bodies of law so that parties have no real motivation to choose the law of a foreign jurisdiction (for example, England and Wales, and the state of California), but not yet so fully developed that parties with no relationship to the jurisdiction choose that law. Outside the United States, parties that are in different jurisdictions from each other often choose the law of England and Wales, particularly when the parties are each in former British colonies and members of the Commonwealth. The common theme in all cases is that commercial parties seek predictability and simplicity in their contractual relations, and frequently choose the law of a common law jurisdiction with a well - developed body of common law to achieve that result.
Likewise, for litigation of commercial disputes arising out of unpredictable torts (as opposed to the prospective choice of law clauses in contracts discussed in the previous paragraph), certain jurisdictions attract an unusually high fraction of cases, because of the predictability afforded by the depth of decided cases. For example, London is considered the pre-eminent centre for litigation of admiralty cases.
This is not to say that common law is better in every situation. For example, civil law can be clearer than case law when the legislature has had the foresight and diligence to address the precise set of facts applicable to a particular situation. For that reason, civil law statutes tend to be somewhat more detailed than statutes written by common law legislatures -- but, conversely, that tends to make the statute more difficult to read (the United States tax code is an example).
The common law -- so named because it was "common '' to all the king 's courts across England -- originated in the practices of the courts of the English kings in the centuries following the Norman Conquest in 1066. Prior to the Norman Conquest, much of England 's legal business took place in the local folk courts of its various shires and hundreds. A variety of other individual courts also existed across the land: urban boroughs and merchant fairs held their own courts, as did the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and large landholders also held their own manorial and seigniorial courts as needed. Additionally, the Catholic Church operated its own court system that adjudicated issues of canon law.
The main sources for the history of the common law in the Middle Ages are the plea rolls and the Year Books. The plea rolls, which were the official court records for the Courts of Common Pleas and King 's Bench, were written in Latin. The rolls were made up in bundles by law term: Hilary, Easter, Trinity, and Michaelmas, or winter, spring, summer, and autumn. They are currently deposited in the UK National Archives, by whose permission images of the rolls for the Courts of Common Pleas, King 's Bench, and Exchequer of Pleas, from the 13th century to the 17th, can be viewed online at the Anglo - American Legal Tradition site (The O'Quinn Law Library of the University of Houston Law Center).
The doctrine of precedent developed during the 12th and 13th centuries, as the collective judicial decisions that were based in tradition, custom and precedent.
The form of reasoning used in common law is known as casuistry or case - based reasoning. The common law, as applied in civil cases (as distinct from criminal cases), was devised as a means of compensating someone for wrongful acts known as torts, including both intentional torts and torts caused by negligence, and as developing the body of law recognizing and regulating contracts. The type of procedure practiced in common law courts is known as the adversarial system; this is also a development of the common law.
The early development of case - law in the thirteenth century has been traced to Bracton 's On the Laws and Customs of England and led to the yearly compilations of court cases known as Year Books, of which the first extant was published in 1268, the same year that Bracton died. The Year Books are known as the law reports of medieval England, and are a principal source for knowledge of the developing legal doctrines, concepts, and methods in the period from the 13th to the 16th centuries, when the common law developed into recognizable form.
In 1154, Henry II became the first Plantagenet king. Among many achievements, Henry institutionalized common law by creating a unified system of law "common '' to the country through incorporating and elevating local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities, eliminating arbitrary remedies and reinstating a jury system -- citizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims. The jury reached its verdict through evaluating common local knowledge, not necessarily through the presentation of evidence, a distinguishing factor from today 's civil and criminal court systems.
Henry II developed the practice of sending judges from his own central court to hear the various disputes throughout the country. His judges would resolve disputes on an ad hoc basis according to what they interpreted the customs to be. The king 's judges would then return to London and often discuss their cases and the decisions they made with the other judges. These decisions would be recorded and filed. In time, a rule, known as stare decisis (also commonly known as precedent) developed, whereby a judge would be bound to follow the decision of an earlier judge; he was required to adopt the earlier judge 's interpretation of the law and apply the same principles promulgated by that earlier judge if the two cases had similar facts to one another. Once judges began to regard each other 's decisions to be binding precedent, the pre-Norman system of local customs and law varying in each locality was replaced by a system that was (at least in theory, though not always in practice) common throughout the whole country, hence the name "common law ''.
Henry II 's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed somewhat the power of canonical (church) courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most famously with Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The murder of the Archbishop gave rise to a wave of popular outrage against the King. Henry was forced to repeal the disputed laws and to abandon his efforts to hold church members accountable for secular crimes (see also Constitutions of Clarendon).
The English Court of Common Pleas was established after Magna Carta to try lawsuits between commoners in which the monarch had no interest. Its judges sat in open court in the Great Hall of the king 's Palace of Westminster, permanently except in the vacations between the four terms of the Legal year.
Judge - made common law operated as the primary source of law for several hundred years, before Parliament acquired legislative powers to create statutory law. It is important to understand that common law is the older and more traditional source of law, and legislative power is simply a layer applied on top of the older common law foundation. Since the 12th century, courts have had parallel and co-equal authority to make law -- "legislating from the bench '' is a traditional and essential function of courts, which was carried over into the U.S. system as an essential component of the "judicial power '' specified by Article III of the U.S. constitution. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. summarized centuries of history in 1917, "judges do and must legislate. '' There are legitimate debates on how the powers of courts and legislatures should be balanced. However, the view that courts lack law - making power is historically inaccurate and constitutionally unsupportable.
In England, judges have devised a number of rules as to how to deal with precedent decisions.
The term "common law '' is often used as a contrast to Roman - derived "civil law '', and the fundamental processes and forms of reasoning in the two are quite different. Nonetheless, there has been considerable cross-fertilization of ideas, while the two traditions and sets of foundational principles remain distinct.
By the time of the rediscovery of the Roman law in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, the common law had already developed far enough to prevent a Roman law reception as it occurred on the continent. However, the first common law scholars, most notably Glanvill and Bracton, as well as the early royal common law judges, had been well accustomed with Roman law. Often, they were clerics trained in the Roman canon law. One of the first and throughout its history one of the most significant treatises of the common law, Bracton 's De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae (On the Laws and Customs of England), was heavily influenced by the division of the law in Justinian 's Institutes. The impact of Roman law had decreased sharply after the age of Bracton, but the Roman divisions of actions into in rem (typically, actions against a thing or property for the purpose of gaining title to that property; must be filed in a court where the property is located) and in personam (typically, actions directed against a person; these can affect a person 's rights and, since a person often owns things, his property too) used by Bracton had a lasting effect and laid the groundwork for a return of Roman law structural concepts in the 18th and 19th centuries. Signs of this can be found in Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England, and Roman law ideas regained importance with the revival of academic law schools in the 19th century. As a result, today, the main systematic divisions of the law into property, contract, and tort (and to some extent unjust enrichment) can be found in the civil law as well as in the common law.
The first attempt at a comprehensive compilation of centuries of common law was by Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, in his treatise, Institutes of the Lawes of England in the 17th century.
The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765 -- 1769.
A reception statute is a statutory law adopted as a former British colony becomes independent, by which the new nation adopts (i.e. receives) pre-independence common law, to the extent not explicitly rejected by the legislative body or constitution of the new nation. Reception statutes generally consider the English common law dating prior to independence, and the precedent originating from it, as the default law, because of the importance of using an extensive and predictable body of law to govern the conduct of citizens and businesses in a new state. All U.S. states, with the partial exception of Louisiana, have either implemented reception statutes or adopted the common law by judicial opinion.
Other examples of reception statutes in the United States, the states of the U.S., Canada and its provinces, and Hong Kong, are discussed in the reception statute article.
Yet, adoption of the common law in the newly - independent nation was not a foregone conclusion, and was controversial. Immediately after the American Revolution, there was widespread distrust and hostility to anything British, and the common law was no exception. Jeffersonians decried lawyers and their common law tradition as threats to the new republic. The Jeffersonians preferred a legislatively - enacted civil law under the control of the political process, rather than the common law developed by judges that -- by design -- were insulated from the political process. The Federalists believed that the common law was the birthright of Independence: after all, the natural rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' were the rights protected by common law. Even advocates for the common law approach noted that it was not an ideal fit for the newly - independent colonies: judges and lawyers alike were severely hindered by a lack of printed legal materials. Before Independence, the most comprehensive law libraries had been maintained by Tory lawyers, and those libraries vanished with the loyalist expatriation, and the ability to print books was limited. Lawyer (later president) John Adams complained that he "suffered very much for the want of books ''. To bootstrap this most basic need of a common law system -- knowable, written law -- in 1803, lawyers in Massachusetts donated their books to found a law library. A Jeffersonian newspaper criticized the library, as it would carry forward "all the old authorities practiced in England for centuries back... whereby a new system of jurisprudence (will be founded) on the high monarchical system (to) become the Common Law of this Commonwealth... (The library) may hereafter have a very unsocial purpose. ''
Well into the 19th century, ancient maxims played a large role in common law adjudication. Many of these maxims had originated in Roman Law, migrated to England before the introduction of Christianity to the British Isles, and were typically stated in Latin even in English decisions. Many examples are familiar in everyday speech even today, "One can not be a judge in one 's own cause '' (see Dr. Bonham 's Case), rights are reciprocal to obligations, and the like. Judicial decisions and treatises of the 17th and 18th centuries, such at those of Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, presented the common law as a collection of such maxims.
Reliance on old maxims and rigid adherence to precedent, no matter how old or ill - considered, came under critical discussion in the late 19th century, starting in the United States. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. in his famous article, "The Path of the Law '', commented, "It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV. It is still more revolting if the grounds upon which it was laid down have vanished long since, and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the past. '' Justice Holmes noted that study of maxims might be sufficient for "the man of the present '', but "the man of the future is the man of statistics and the master of economics ''. In an 1880 lecture at Harvard, he wrote:
The life of the law has not been logic; it has been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges share with their fellow men, have had a good deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules by which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a nation 's development through many centuries, and it can not be dealt with as if it contained only the axioms and corollaries of a book of mathematics.
In the early 20th century, Louis Brandeis, later appointed to the United States Supreme Court, became noted for his use of policy - driving facts and economics in his briefs, and extensive appendices presenting facts that lead a judge to the advocate 's conclusion. By this time, briefs relied more on facts than on Latin maxims.
Reliance on old maxims is now deprecated. Common law decisions today reflect both precedent and policy judgment drawn from economics, the social sciences, business, decisions of foreign courts, and the like. The degree to which these external factors should influence adjudication is the subject of active debate, but it is indisputable that judges do draw on experience and learning from everyday life, from other fields, and from other jurisdictions.
As early as the 15th century, it became the practice that litigants who felt they had been cheated by the common law system would petition the King in person. For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at common law (as opposed to equity)) was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be evicted. From this developed the system of equity, administered by the Lord Chancellor, in the courts of chancery. By their nature, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years as one court countermanded the other, even though it was established by the 17th century that equity should prevail.
In England, courts of law (as opposed to equity) were combined with courts of equity by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, with equity prevailing in case of conflict.
In the United States, parallel systems of law (providing money damages, with cases heard by a jury upon either party 's request) and equity (fashioning a remedy to fit the situation, including injunctive relief, heard by a judge) survived well into the 20th century. The United States federal courts procedurally separated law and equity: the same judges could hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, and the two kinds of cases proceeded under different procedural rules. This became problematic when a given case required both money damages and injunctive relief. In 1937, the new Federal Rules of Civil Procedure combined law and equity into one form of action, the "civil action ''. Fed. R. Civ. P. 2. The distinction survives to the extent that issues that were "common law (as opposed to equity) '' as of 1791 (the date of adoption of the Seventh Amendment) are still subject to the right of either party to request a jury, and "equity '' issues are decided by a judge.
Delaware, Mississippi, and Tennessee still have separate courts of law and equity, for example, the Court of Chancery. In many states there are separate divisions for law and equity within one court.
For centuries, through the 19th century, the common law recognized only specific forms of action, and required very careful drafting of the opening pleading (called a writ) to slot into exactly one of them: Debt, Detinue, Covenant, Special Assumpsit, General Assumpsit, Trespass, Trover, Replevin, Case (or Trespass on the Case), and Ejectment. To initiate a lawsuit, a pleading had to be drafted to meet myriad technical requirements: correctly categorizing the case into the correct legal pigeonhole (pleading in the alternative was not permitted), and using specific "magic words '' encrusted over the centuries. Under the old common law pleading standards, a suit by a pro se ("for oneself, '' without a lawyer) party was all but impossible, and there was often considerable procedural jousting at the outset of a case over minor wording issues.
One of the major reforms of the late 19th century and early 20th century was the abolition of common law pleading requirements. A plaintiff can initiate a case by giving the defendant "a short and plain statement '' of facts that constitute an alleged wrong. This reform moved the attention of courts from technical scrutiny of words to a more rational consideration of the facts, and opened access to justice far more broadly.
The main alternative to the common law system is the civil law system, which is used in Continental Europe, and most of the rest of the world.
The primary contrast between the two systems is the role of written decisions and precedent.
In common law jurisdictions, nearly every case that presents a bona fide disagreement on the law is resolved in a written opinion. The legal reasoning for the decision, known as ratio decidendi, not only determines the court 's judgment between the parties, but also stands as precedent for resolving future disputes. In contrast, civil law decisions typically do not include explanatory opinions, and thus no precedent flows from one decision to the next. In common law systems, a single decided case is binding common law (connotation 1) to the same extent as statute or regulation, under the principle of stare decisis. In contrast, in civil law systems, individual decisions have only advisory, not binding effect. In civil law systems, case law only acquires weight when a long series of cases use consistent reasoning, called jurisprudence constante. Civil law lawyers consult case law to obtain their best prediction of how a court will rule, but comparatively, civil law judges are less bound to follow it.
For that reason, statutes in civil law systems are more comprehensive, detailed, and continuously updated, covering all matters capable of being brought before a court.
Common law systems tend to give more weight to separation of powers between the judicial branch and the executive branch. In contrast, civil law systems are typically more tolerant of allowing individual officials to exercise both powers. One example of this contrast is the difference between the two systems in allocation of responsibility between prosecutor and adjudicator.
Common law courts usually use an adversarial system, in which two sides present their cases to a neutral judge. In contrast, in civil law systems, criminal proceedings proceed under an inquisitorial system in which an examining magistrate serves two roles by developing the evidence and arguments for one side and then the other during the investigation phase.
The examining magistrate then presents the dossier detailing his or her findings to the president of the bench that will adjudicate on the case where it has been decided that a trial shall be conducted. Therefore, the president of the bench 's view of the case is not neutral and may be biased while conducting the trial after the reading of the dossier. Unlike the common law proceedings, the president of the bench in the inquisitorial system is not merely an umpire and is entitled to directly interview the witnesses or express comments during the trial, as long as he or she does not express his or her view on the guilt of the accused.
The proceeding in the inquisitorial system is essentially by writing. Most of the witnesses would have given evidence in the investigation phase and such evidence will be contained in the dossier under the form of police reports. In the same way, the accused would have already put his or her case at the investigation phase but he or she will be free to change her or his evidence at trial. Whether the accused pleads guilty or not, a trial will be conducted. Unlike the adversarial system, the conviction and sentence to be served (if any) will be released by the trial jury together with the president of the trial bench, following their common deliberation.
There are many exceptions in both directions. For example, most proceedings before U.S. federal and state agencies are inquisitorial in nature, at least the initial stages (e.g., a patent examiner, a social security hearing officer, and so on), even though the law to be applied is developed through common law processes.
The role of the legal academy presents a significant "cultural '' difference between common law (connotation 2) and civil law jurisdictions. In both systems, treatises compile decisions and state overarching principles that (in the author 's opinion) explain the results of the cases. In neither system are treatises considered "law, '' but the weight given them is nonetheless quite different.
In common law jurisdictions, lawyers and judges tend to use these treatises as only "finding aids '' to locate the relevant cases. In common law jurisdictions, scholarly work is seldom cited as authority for what the law is. Chief Justice Roberts noted the "great disconnect between the academy and the profession. '' When common law courts rely on scholarly work, it is almost always only for factual findings, policy justification, or the history and evolution of the law, but the court 's legal conclusion is reached through analysis of relevant statutes and common law, seldom scholarly commentary.
In contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts give the writings of law professors significant weight, partly because civil law decisions traditionally were very brief, sometimes no more than a paragraph stating who wins and who loses. The rationale had to come from somewhere else: the academy often filled that role.
The contrast between civil law and common law legal systems has become increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of jurisprudence (similar to case law but not binding) in civil law countries, and the growing importance of statute law and codes in common law countries.
Examples of common law being replaced by statute or codified rule in the United States include criminal law (since 1812, U.S. federal courts and most but not all of the States have held that criminal law must be embodied in statute if the public is to have fair notice), commercial law (the Uniform Commercial Code in the early 1960s) and procedure (the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in the 1930s and the Federal Rules of Evidence in the 1970s). But note that in each case, the statute sets the general principles, but the interstitial common law process determines the scope and application of the statute.
An example of convergence from the other direction is shown in the 1982 decision Srl CILFIT and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministry of Health (ECLI: EU: C: 1982: 335), in which the European Court of Justice held that questions it has already answered need not be resubmitted. This showed how a historically distinctly common law principle is used by a court composed of judges (at that time) of essentially civil law jurisdiction.
The former Soviet Bloc and other Socialist countries used a Socialist law system.
Much of the Muslim world uses Sharia (also called Islamic law).
The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of:
and many other generally English - speaking countries or Commonwealth countries (except the UK 's Scotland, which is bijuridicial, and Malta). Essentially, every country that was colonised at some time by England, Great Britain, or the United Kingdom uses common law except those that were formerly colonised by other nations, such as Quebec (which follows the law of France in part), South Africa and Sri Lanka (which follow Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists. Guyana and Saint Lucia have mixed Common Law and Civil Law systems.
The remainder of this section discusses jurisdiction - specific variants, arranged chronologically.
Scotland is often said to use the civil law system, but it has a unique system that combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis with an element of its own common law long predating the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 (see Legal institutions of Scotland in the High Middle Ages), founded on the customary laws of the tribes residing there. Historically, Scottish common law differed in that the use of precedent was subject to the courts ' seeking to discover the principle that justifies a law rather than searching for an example as a precedent, and principles of natural justice and fairness have always played a role in Scots Law. From the 19th century, the Scottish approach to precedent developed into a stare decisis akin to that already established in England thereby reflecting a narrower, more modern approach to the application of case law in subsequent instances. This is not to say that the substantive rules of the common laws of both countries are the same although in many matters (particularly those of UK - wide interest) they are similar.
Scotland shares the Supreme Court, with England, Wales and Northern Ireland for civil cases; the court 's decisions are binding on the jurisdiction from which a case arises but only influential on similar cases arising in Scotland. This has had the effect of converging the law in certain areas. For instance, the modern UK law of negligence is based on Donoghue v Stevenson, a case originating in Paisley, Scotland.
Scotland maintains a separate criminal law system from the rest of the UK, with the High Court of Justiciary being the final court for criminal appeals. The highest court of appeal in civil cases brought in Scotland is now the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (before October 2009, final appellate jurisdiction lay with the House of Lords).
The centuries - old authority of the common law courts in England to develop law case by case and to apply statute law -- "legislating from the bench '' -- is a traditional function of courts, which was carried over into the U.S. system as an essential component of the "judicial power '' specified by Article III of the U.S. constitution. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. summarized centuries of history in 1917, "judges do and must legislate '' (in the federal courts, only interstitially, in state courts, to the full limits of common law adjudicatory authority).
The state of New York, which also has a civil law history from its Dutch colonial days, began a codification of its law in the 19th century. The only part of this codification process that was considered complete is known as the Field Code applying to civil procedure. The original colony of New Netherland was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch. When the English captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the local settlers to keep their civil law. However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the colony was recaptured by the Dutch. When the English finally regained control of New Netherland they forced, as a punishment unique in the history of the British Empire, the English imposed common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch. This was problematic, as the patroon system of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-19th century. The influence of Roman - Dutch law continued in the colony well into the late 19th century. The codification of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law tradition in New York continued on from the Dutch days.
Under Louisiana 's codified system, the Louisiana Civil Code, private law -- that is, substantive law between private sector parties -- is based on principles of law from continental Europe, with some common law influences. These principles derive ultimately from Roman law, transmitted through French law and Spanish law, as the state 's current territory intersects the area of North America colonized by Spain and by France. Contrary to popular belief, the Louisiana code does not directly derive from the Napoleonic Code, as the latter was enacted in 1804, one year after the Louisiana Purchase. However, the two codes are similar in many respects due to common roots.
Louisiana 's criminal law largely rests on English common law. Louisiana 's administrative law is generally similar to the administrative law of the U.S. federal government and other U.S. states. Louisiana 's procedural law is generally in line with that of other U.S. states, which in turn is generally based on the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
Historically notable among the Louisiana code 's differences from common law is the role of property rights among women, particularly in inheritance gained by widows.
The U.S. state of California has a system based on common law, but it has codified the law in the manner of the civil law jurisdictions. The reason for the enactment of the California Codes in the 19th century was to replace a pre-existing system based on Spanish civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states. California and a number of other Western states, however, have retained the concept of community property derived from civil law. The California courts have treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common - law tradition, subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge - made common law. (Most notably, in the case Li v. Yellow Cab Co., 13 Cal. 3d 804 (1975), the California Supreme Court adopted the principle of comparative negligence in the face of a California Civil Code provision codifying the traditional common - law doctrine of contributory negligence.)
The United States federal government (as opposed to the states) has a variant on a common law system. United States federal courts only act as interpreters of statutes and the constitution by elaborating and precisely defining broad statutory language (connotation 1 (b) above), but, unlike state courts, do not act as an independent source of common law.
Before 1938, the federal courts, like almost all other common law courts, decided the law on any issue where the relevant legislature (either the U.S. Congress or state legislature, depending on the issue), had not acted, by looking to courts in the same system, that is, other federal courts, even on issues of state law, and even where there was no express grant of authority from Congress or the Constitution.
In 1938, the U.S. Supreme Court in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins 304 U.S. 64, 78 (1938), overruled earlier precedent, and held "There is no federal general common law, '' thus confining the federal courts to act only as interpreters of law originating elsewhere. E.g., Texas Industries v. Radcliff, 451 U.S. 630 (1981) (without an express grant of statutory authority, federal courts can not create rules of intuitive justice, for example, a right to contribution from co-conspirators). Post-1938, federal courts deciding issues that arise under state law are required to defer to state court interpretations of state statutes, or reason what a state 's highest court would rule if presented with the issue, or to certify the question to the state 's highest court for resolution.
Later courts have limited Erie slightly, to create a few situations where United States federal courts are permitted to create federal common law rules without express statutory authority, for example, where a federal rule of decision is necessary to protect uniquely federal interests, such as foreign affairs, or financial instruments issued by the federal government. See, e.g., Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States, 318 U.S. 363 (1943) (giving federal courts the authority to fashion common law rules with respect to issues of federal power, in this case negotiable instruments backed by the federal government); see also International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215 (1918) (creating a cause of action for misappropriation of "hot news '' that lacks any statutory grounding); but see National Basketball Association v. Motorola, Inc., 105 F. 3d 841, 843 -- 44, 853 (2d Cir. 1997) (noting continued vitality of INS "hot news '' tort under New York state law, but leaving open the question of whether it survives under federal law). Except on Constitutional issues, Congress is free to legislatively overrule federal courts ' common law.
Most executive branch agencies in the United States federal government have some adjudicatory authority. To greater or lesser extent, agencies honor their own precedent to ensure consistent results. Agency decision making is governed by the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946.
For example, the National Labor Relations Board issues relatively few regulations, but instead promulgates most of its substantive rules through common law (connotation 1).
The law of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are largely based on English common law because of the long period of British colonial influence during the period of the British Raj.
Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law, and had an historically independent school of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, dating from 400 BCE and the Manusmriti, from 100 CE, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. Manu 's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia. Early in this period, which finally culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire, relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition. Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear - cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character.
When India became part of the British Empire, there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were supplanted by the common law. After the failed rebellion against the British in 1857, the British Parliament took over control of India from the British East India Company, and British India came under the direct rule of the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858 to this effect, which set up the structure of British government in India. It established in Britain the office of the Secretary of State for India through whom the Parliament would exercise its rule, along with a Council of India to aid him. It also established the office of the Governor - General of India along with an Executive Council in India, which consisted of high officials of the British Government. As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has little correlation to the institutions of the pre-British era.
Post-partition, India retained its common law system. Much of contemporary Indian law shows substantial European and American influence. Legislation first introduced by the British is still in effect in modified form today. During the drafting of the Indian Constitution, laws from Ireland, the United States, Britain, and France were all synthesized to produce a refined set of Indian laws. Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and environmental law. Certain international trade laws, such as those on intellectual property, are also enforced in India.
The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa, annexed in stages in the 1960s through 1980s. In Goa, a Portuguese uniform civil code is in place, in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces and adoption.
Post-partition, Pakistan retained its common law system.
Post-partition, Bangladesh retained its common law system.
Canada has separate federal and provincial legal systems. The division of jurisdiction between the federal and provincial Parliaments is specified in the Canadian constitution.
Each province and territory is considered a separate jurisdiction with respect to common law matters. As such, only the provincial legislature may enact legislation to amend private law. Each has its own procedural law, statutorily created provincial courts and superior trial courts with inherent jurisdiction culminating in the Court of Appeal of the province. This is the highest court in provincial jurisdiction, only subject to the Supreme Court of Canada in terms of appeal of their decisions. All but one of the provinces of Canada use a common law system (the exception being Quebec, which uses a French - heritage civil law system for issues arising within provincial jurisdiction, such as property ownership and contracts).
Canadian Federal Courts operate under a separate system throughout Canada and deal with narrower subject matter than superior courts in provincial jurisdiction. They hear cases reserved for federal jurisdiction by the Canadian constitution, such as immigration, intellectual property, judicial review of federal government decisions, and admiralty. The Federal Court of Appeal is the appellate level court in federal jurisdiction and hears cases in multiple cities, and unlike the United States, the Canadian Federal Court of Appeal is not divided into appellate circuits.
Criminal law is uniform throughout Canada. It is based on the constitution and federal statutory Criminal Code, as interpreted by the Supreme Court of Canada. The administration of justice and enforcement of the criminal code are the responsibilities of the provinces.
Canadian federal statutes must use the terminology of both the common law and civil law for those matters; this is referred to as legislative bijuralism.
Nicaragua 's legal system is also a mixture of the English Common Law and Civil Law. This situation was brought through the influence of British administration of the Eastern half of the Mosquito Coast from the mid-17th century until about 1894, the William Walker period from about 1855 through 1857, USA interventions / occupations during the period from 1909 to 1933, the influence of USA institutions during the Somoza family administrations (1933 through 1979) and the considerable importation between 1979 and the present of USA culture and institutions.
Israel has a common law legal system. Its basic principles are inherited from the law of the British Mandate of Palestine and thus resemble those of British and American law, namely: the role of courts in creating the body of law and the authority of the supreme court in reviewing and if necessary overturning legislative and executive decisions, as well as employing the adversarial system. One of the primary reasons that the Israeli constitution remains unwritten is the fear by whatever party holds power that creating a written constitution, combined with the common - law elements, would severely limit the powers of the Knesset (which, following the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, holds near - unlimited power).
Roman Dutch Common law is a bijuridical or mixed system of law similar to the common law system in Scotland and Louisiana. Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions include South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Sri - Lanka and Zimbabwe. Many of these jurisdictions recognise customary law, and in some, such as South Africa the Constitution requires that the common law be developed in accordance with the Bill of Rights. Roman Dutch common law is a development of Roman Dutch law by courts in the Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions. During the Napoleonic wars the Kingdom of the Netherlands adopted the French code civil in 1809, however the Dutch colonies in the Cape of Good Hope and Sri Lanka, at the time called Ceylon, were seized by the British to prevent them being used as bases by the French Navy. The system was developed by the courts and spread with the expansion of British colonies in Southern Africa. Roman Dutch common law relies on legal principles set out in Roman law sources such as Justinian 's Institutes and Digest, and also on the writing of Dutch jurists of the 17th century such as Grotius and Voet. In practice, the majority of decisions rely on recent precedent.
Edward Coke, a 17th - century Lord Chief Justice of the English Court of Common Pleas and a Member of Parliament, wrote several legal texts that collected and integrated centuries of case law. Lawyers in both England and America learned the law from his Institutes and Reports until the end of the 18th century. His works are still cited by common law courts around the world.
The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765 -- 1769. Since 1979, a facsimile edition of that first edition has been available in four paper - bound volumes. Today it has been superseded in the English part of the United Kingdom by Halsbury 's Laws of England that covers both common and statutory English law.
While he was still on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and before being named to the U.S. Supreme Court, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. published a short volume called The Common Law, which remains a classic in the field. Unlike Blackstone and the Restatements, Holmes ' book only briefly discusses what the law is; rather, Holmes describes the common law process. Law professor John Chipman Gray 's The Nature and Sources of the Law, an examination and survey of the common law, is also still commonly read in U.S. law schools.
In the United States, Restatements of various subject matter areas (Contracts, Torts, Judgments, and so on.), edited by the American Law Institute, collect the common law for the area. The ALI Restatements are often cited by American courts and lawyers for propositions of uncodified common law, and are considered highly persuasive authority, just below binding precedential decisions. The Corpus Juris Secundum is an encyclopedia whose main content is a compendium of the common law and its variations throughout the various state jurisdictions.
Scots common law covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and previous court decisions. The legal writings used are called Institutional Texts and come mostly from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, Jus Feudale (1655) and Stair, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1681).
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2018 stanley cup playoffs best of 5 or 7 | Stanley Cup playoffs - wikipedia
The Stanley Cup playoffs (French: Les séries éliminatoires de la Coupe Stanley) is an elimination tournament in the National Hockey League consisting of four rounds of best - of - seven series. Eight teams from each of the two conferences qualify for the playoffs based on regular season points totals. The final round is commonly known as the Stanley Cup Finals, which sees the two conference champions play for the Stanley Cup.
The NHL has always used a playoff tournament to determine its champion. Its playoff system has changed over the years, from the league 's inception in 1917 when ownership of the Stanley Cup was shared between different leagues, to when the NHL took over the Cup in 1926, to the current setup today.
The Stanley Cup playoffs consists of four rounds of best - of - seven series. Each series is played in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format, meaning the team with home - ice advantage hosts games one, two, five, and seven, while their opponent hosts games three, four, and six. Games five, six, and seven are only played if needed.
Eight teams in each conference qualify for the playoffs. In the playoff series format instituted in 2014, the first, second, and third place team in each of the four divisions qualify for the playoffs automatically. Two additional teams from each conference, regardless of divisional alignment, also qualify for the playoffs by having the highest point totals out of the remaining teams in the conference. These teams are referred to as the Wild Cards. Since there is no attention paid to divisional alignment with the wild cards, it is possible for one division in each conference to have five teams in the postseason while the other has just three.
In the First Round, the teams are split into two separate brackets by division. Each bracket consists of the top three divisional qualifiers and one of the wild cards. The lower seeded wild card plays against the division winner with the best record while the other wild card plays against the other division winner, and both wild cards are de facto # 4 seeds. The other two series match the second and third place teams from the divisions.
The winners of both First Round series advance to the Second Round. The reseeding in the previous format, which ensured the top seed would play the lowest remaining seed, was discarded. The winners of these series advance to the Conference Finals and the two Conference Final winners move on to the Stanley Cup Finals.
In the first two rounds, the higher - seeded team has home - ice advantage (regardless of point record). Thereafter, it goes to the team with the better regular season record (regardless of seeding); in the case of a tie, the league 's standard tiebreaking procedure is applied. The team with home - ice advantage hosts games one, two, five, and seven, while the opponent hosts games three, four, and six (games five through seven are played if necessary).
Any ties in the standings at the end of the regular season are broken using the following protocols:
The National Hockey League has always used a playoff tournament to determine its champion, generally opening up its playoff games to a much larger number of teams, including those with a losing regular season record in some years (the most recent being the seventh and eighth seeded San Jose Sharks and Edmonton Oilers, respectively, in 1999).
From the NHL 's inception until 1920, both NHL and Pacific Coast Hockey Association teams were eligible for the Stanley Cup. The NHL 's regular season was divided into two halves, with the top team from each half moving on to the league finals, which was a two - game total goals series in 1918 and a best - of - seven series in 1919. In 1920, the Ottawa Senators were automatically declared the league champion when the team had won both halves of the regular season. The two halves format was abandoned the next year, and the top two teams faced off for the NHL championship in a two - game total goals series.
At the time, the NHL champion would later face the winners of the PCHA and, from 1921, the Western Canada Hockey League in further rounds in order to determine the Stanley Cup champion. During this time, as the rules of the NHL and those of the western leagues differ (the main difference being that NHL rules allowed five skaters while the western leagues allowed six), the rules for each game in the Stanley Cup Finals alternated between those of the NHL and the western leagues. Before the WCHL competed for the Stanley Cup, the Cup championship series a best - of - five series. Following the involvement of the WCHL, one league champion was given a bye straight to the finals (a best - of - three affair starting in 1922), while the other two competed in a best - of - three semifinal. As travel expenses were high during these times, it was often the case that the NHL champions were sent west to compete. In a dispute between the leagues in 1923 about whether to send one or both western league champions east, the winner of the PCHA / WCHL series would proceed to the Stanley Cup Finals, while the loser of the series would face the NHL champion, both series being best - of - three.
In 1924 the NHL playoffs expanded from two to three teams (with the top team getting a bye to the two - game total goal NHL finals), but because the first - place Hamilton Tigers refused to play under this format, the second and third place teams played for the NHL championship in a two - game total goals affair. The Stanley Cup Finals returned to a best - of - five format the same year.
With the merger of the PCHA and WCHL in 1925 and the merged league 's collapse in 1926, the NHL took de facto control of the Stanley Cup. While the Cup would not be formally deeded to the league until 1947, from 1926 onward the NHL playoffs and the Stanley Cup playoffs are considered synonymous. The NHL was subsequently divided into the Canadian and American divisions until the 1927 -- 28 season. For 1927, six teams qualified for the playoffs, three from each division, with the division semifinals and finals being a two - game total goals affair, and the Stanley Cup Finals becoming a best - of - five series. In 1928, the playoff format was changed so that the two teams with identical division ranking would face each other (i.e. the first place teams played each other, the second place teams play each other, and likewise for the third place teams). The first place series was a best - of - five affair, with the winner proceeding to the best - of - three Stanley Cup Finals, while the others were a two - game total goals series. The winner of the second and third place series played each other in a best - of - three series, with the winner earning the other berth to the Stanley Cup Finals. This format had a slight modification the following year, where the semifinal series became a two - game total goals affair and the Stanley Cup Finals became a best - of - five series. The two - game total goals format was abolished in 1937, with those series being changed to best - of - three affairs.
The 1930s saw the reduction of teams from ten to seven, and with it an end to the Canadian and American divisions. The Stanley Cup playoffs saw the first - and second - place teams play against each other in a best - of - seven series for one berth in the Stanley Cup Finals, while the third - to sixth - place teams battled in a series of best - of - three matches for the other berth (with the third - place team taking on the fourth - place team, and the fifth - place team against the sixth - place team). In 1939, the Stanley Cup Finals became a best - of - seven series, the format still used today.
The 1942 -- 43 season saw the removal of the New York Americans, leaving six remaining teams (known today as the "Original Six ''). Throughout this era, the first and third - place teams played in one best - of - seven semifinal, while the second and fourth - place teams played in the other best - of - seven semifinal. During this time, Detroit Red Wings fans often threw an octopus onto the ice as a good luck charm, as eight wins were required to win the Stanley Cup.
The 1967 expansion saw the number of teams double from six to 12 in the 1967 -- 68 season, and with it the creation of the Western and Eastern divisions. The playoff format remained largely the same, with all series remaining best - of - seven, and the division champions battling for the Stanley Cup. The 1970 -- 71 season, because of fan demand, brought forth the first inter-conference playoff matchup outside of the Stanley Cup Finals since the pre-war expansion, which had the winner of the second - place versus fourth - place matchup in one conference take on the winner of the first - versus third - place matchup in the other conference for a berth in the Stanley Cup Finals. The following year had one minor change to its playoff format: a stronger team would face a weaker opponent. Thus, instead of a first - place versus third - place and a second versus fourth - place matchup in the first round, the first round had the first - place versus the fourth and the second versus the third - place. This practice of having stronger teams facing weaker opposition has continued to the present day.
The 1974 -- 75 season saw another change to its playoff system to accommodate the league of 18 teams, 12 of which qualified for the playoffs. The top team from each division would earn a bye to the quarterfinal, while the second - and third - place teams from each division started their playoff run from a best - of - three preliminary round. In each round of the playoffs, the teams remaining were seeded regardless of divisional or conference alignment, with the preliminary - round series being a best - of - three affair while the remainder of the series remained best - of - seven. The 1977 -- 78 season had one minor change in its playoff format: although the second - place finishers from each division would qualify for the preliminary round, the four playoff spots reserved for the third - place teams were replaced by four wild - card spots -- spots for the four teams with the highest regular - season point total that did not finish first or second in their divisions.
With the absorption of four teams from the World Hockey Association in the 1979 -- 1980 season, a new playoff system was introduced where 16 of the league 's 21 teams would qualify for postseason play. The four division winners would qualify for the playoffs while twelve wildcard positions rounded out the sixteen teams. At the beginning of each round the teams were seeded based on their regular season point totals, with the preliminary round being a best - of - five series while all other playoff series were best - of - seven.
The 1981 -- 1982 season brought forth the return of divisional matchups, with the top four teams from each division qualifying for the playoffs. Division champions would be determined, followed by the Conference champions, who would meet in the Stanley Cup Finals. The division semifinals was a best - of - five affair until the 1986 -- 87 season, when it became a best - of - seven series, while all other series remained best - of seven.
For the 1993 -- 94 season, the league revamped its playoff structure to become conference - based rather than division - based. Eight teams in each conference qualified for the playoffs. The division first - place teams were seeded first (the team with the best record in the conference) and second in the conference playoffs and received home ice advantage for the first two rounds. The next six best teams in each conference also qualified and were seeded third through eighth. All teams played in the first round: first - place versus eighth, second versus seventh, third versus sixth and fourth versus fifth. All series were best - of - seven, but the arrangement of home games was changed for Central and Pacific division teams. Instead of the normal 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 rotation, a series involving teams from both divisions was 2 -- 3 -- 2, with the higher seeded team having the option of starting play at home or on the road (ALL teams with home - ice advantage chose to play the default 2 - 2 - 1 - 1 - 1 format, from 1995 - 1998). After each round, surviving teams were reseeded to play a conference semi-final, then a conference final. The conference winners then played each other in the Stanley Cup Finals. Home ice advantage was determined by higher seed in the first three rounds and by regular - season points of the two teams in the Stanley Cup Finals.
In 1998 -- 99, the league was re-organized into two conferences of three divisions apiece, resulting in the playoff format used through 2013. The qualifiers remained sixteen, but the seeding changed. The three first - place teams in each division qualified and were seeded first through third for the playoffs. Of the other teams in each conference, the top five finishers qualified for the fourth through eighth seedings. All teams played in the first round: first - place versus eighth, second versus seventh, third versus sixth and fourth versus fifth, by those criteria. After each round, surviving teams were reseeded to play a conference semi-final, then a conference final. Like the 1994 -- 1998 system, the conference winners then played each other in the Stanley Cup Finals, and home ice advantage was determined by higher seed in the first three rounds and by regular - season points of the two teams in the Stanley Cup Finals.
The NHL realigned into a four - division, two - conference system for the 2013 -- 14 season. Under the new postseason system, the top three teams in each division make the playoffs, with two wild - cards in each conference (for a total of eight playoff teams from each conference). The format is division - based, similar to the 1981 -- 82 system. In the First Round, the top - ranked team in the conference plays against the lowest - ranked wild - card, while the other division winner plays against the higher ranked wild - card. The second and third place teams in each division then play each other. The first round winners then meet in the Second Round. The third round will still consist of the Western Conference and Eastern Conference Finals, with those conference winners advancing to the Stanley Cup Finals.
Compared to other major professional sports leagues, playoff upsets are relatively common in the NHL. According to NHL broadcaster Darren Eliot, this is because the style of competition in the playoffs is different from the regular season: instead of playing different teams every night, the goal is to advance through four best - of - seven playoff series. The Presidents ' Trophy winner may have to go through other playoff clubs who might have a hotter goaltender, a better defensive team, or other players that pose matchup problems. If the regular season champion 's primary success was only outscoring others, they may be out of luck facing goaltenders that can shut them out. And although rare, another aspect is that the NHL leads the other leagues in game seven comebacks. Only four instances has an NHL team been able to come back from being down 0 -- 3 to win a seven - game series: the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs, the 1975 New York Islanders, the 2010 Philadelphia Flyers, and the 2014 Los Angeles Kings. There has been only one such "reverse sweep '' comeback in the MLB postseason (the 2004 Boston Red Sox) and none in the NBA playoffs.
NHL broadcaster Darren Eliot explaining the lack of success of Presidents ' Trophy winners winning the Stanley Cup.
Despite having more American - based teams than Canadian - based ones throughout much of the NHL 's existence (dating back to the Original Six era when it was two Canadian clubs to four American ones, and now 7 to 24 since 2017), there have been only two times in league history where none of the Canadian teams qualified for the postseason: 1970 and 2016. However, the 1993 Montreal Canadiens remain the last Canadian club to go all the way and win the Stanley Cup.
The Stanley Cup playoffs MVP award, the Conn Smythe Trophy is based on the entire NHL postseason instead of just the championship game or series, unlike the playoff MVP awards presented in the other major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada (the Super Bowl MVP, the NBA Finals MVP, and the World Series MVP), although in its history the trophy has never been given to someone that was not in the finals. Doug Gilmour and Peter Forsberg, in 1986 and 1999, respectively, are the only players who have topped the postseason in scoring without making it to the Finals.
NHL players have often grown beards when their team is in the playoffs, where they do not shave until their team is eliminated or wins the Stanley Cup. The tradition was started in the 1980s by the New York Islanders, and is often mirrored by the fans, as well.
At the conclusion of a playoff series, players and coaches line up and exchange handshakes with their counterparts on the opposing team, and this has been described by commentators as "one of the great traditions in sports ''. However, there have been rare occasions that individual players have refused to participate, such as Gerry Cheevers who left the ice without shaking hands with any of the Flyers in 1978, and Billy Smith who avoided handshakes as he was particularly passionate about losses. More recent examples of players refusing the handshake include the 1996 playoffs when several Detroit Red Wings players protested the dirty hit by the Colorado Avalanche 's Claude Lemieux, and in the 2008 playoffs when Martin Brodeur refused to shake Sean Avery 's hand after Avery screened him in an earlier game.
It is common among players to never touch or hoist the Prince of Wales Trophy (Eastern Conference champion) or Clarence S. Campbell Bowl (Western Conference champion) after they have won the conference finals; the players feel that the Stanley Cup is the true championship trophy and thus it should be the only trophy that they should be hoisting. There have been five recent exceptions to this -- Scott Stevens of the Devils in 2000 and 2003 and Sidney Crosby of the Penguins in 2009, 2016, and 2017. In four of these occurrences, their teams went on to win the Stanley Cup. In recent years, the captain of the winning team poses (usually looking solemn) with the conference trophy, and sometimes, the entire team poses as well.
There are many traditions and anecdotes associated with the championship trophy, the Stanley Cup.
Because the Ice Hockey World Championships are held in the same time period as the Stanley Cup playoffs, the only NHL players who can participate in the former are those on NHL teams that have been eliminated from Stanley Cup contention. This policy has been in place since a 1977 agreement between the NHL and the International Ice Hockey Federation, which allowed Team Canada to field a team in the World Championships after an - eight year absence.
Correct as of 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs
Prior to 1927 the NHL playoff champion did not receive the Stanley Cup. In most years the winning team was awarded the O'Brien Trophy but from 1915 through 1926 the NHA / NHL champion would play the PCHA / WHL champion for the Stanley Cup. The results outlined here are only those between NHL teams and do not include any Stanley Cup Finals series before 1927. For the first four years the NHL playoffs entailed the best team from the first half of the season playing a two games against the best team from the second half. The winner was the team that scored the most combined goals. There were no NHL playoffs in 1920 because Ottawa had the best record in both halves and was declared the NHL champion. Starting in 1921 the NHL scrapped the half - season scheme and had the teams with the top two records play for the league title. In 1926 the league introduced a two - game semifinal series for the second - and third - best teams to play for entry into the final against the regular season champion. The following year, with 10 teams in the league, the NHL expanded the playoffs to include six teams. The winners of the Canadian and American divisions would earn byes into the semifinal round while the remaining four would start in the quarterfinals.
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
The playoff format was altered slightly in 1929, having the two division winners play one another in the semifinal rather than the winners of the quarterfinal round. Because the NHL took charge of the NHL finals became a best - of series as the Stanley cup championship had been since 1914. A year later the Semifinal round became a best - of series with the division winners playing a five game set and the quarterfinal winners facing off in a best - of - three meeting. In 1931 the meeting between quarterfinal winners reverted to a two - game total - goal series and did n't change back for five years. The next year all series became best - of 's and two years after, in 1939, the league ended the divisional format when the Montreal Maroons suspended operations, leaving the league with only 7 teams. Instead, the top two finishers played one another in a best - of - seven semifinal round while the other four playoff teams played best - of - three series to decide the second finalist. The same year the Stanley Cup finals shifted to a best - of - seven series where it has remained ever since (as of 2018).
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
With only six teams in the league the quarterfinal round was ended and the top four finishers made the playoffs. All playoff series became best - of - sevens with the # 1 and # 3 teams playing in one semifinal while the # 2 and # 4 seeds met in the other. This arrangement remained unchanged the entire 25 - year duration of the ' Original Six ' era.
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
When the league doubled its size in 1967 they also doubled the number of playoff teams, reintroducing the quarterfinals but keeping the 1 - vs - 3 style that existed for the previous quarter - century and keeping all series as best - of - sevens. In 1971 the league altered the semifinals to pit east teams against west teams and followed that by rearranging the first round to have the top seeds play the bottom seeds in intra-conference series. Once they league 's size swelled to 18 teams an additional four teams received bids into the postseason. Starting in 1975 the division winners received byes into the second round while the remaining eight teams started in a best - of - three preliminary round with the top seed facing the lowest seed. After the opening round all teams were reseeded for the quarterfinals and semifinals regardless of their division or conference.
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
When the WHA folded in 1979 four teams were absorbed into the NHL. With 21 teams the NHL expanded the playoffs once more to include 16 with all teams starting in the preliminary round which was increased to a best - of - five series. Teams were seeded regardless of their conference or division 1 through 16 and reseeded after the first two rounds. Starting in 1982 the NHL split the playoffs into eastern - and western - conference with each conference providing 8 teams where it has remained since (as of 2018). Furthermore the NHL had the first two round being played within each division, granting the four regions one entry each into the conference finals. The divisional semifinals were expanded to seven - game - series in 1987.
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
The NHL added nine franchises from 1991 to 2000 while an additional four moving to new cities (three of those teams were WHA alumni) Despite the increase in league size the NHL playoffs remained static at 16 teams. The league did, however, change the format by dropping the divisional rounds in 1994 with the division winners receiving the top two seeds and the rest being sorted according to their records.
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
After the NHL lockout in 2004 - 05 that saw the cancellation of the first Stanley Cup final in 86 years The league went through another stable period where no new franchises were added. The playoffs as well were mostly consistent throughout the period. Only one change occurred; beginning with the 2014 playoffs the league returned to 4 divisions with the top three teams in each division making the playoffs and the two teams in each conference with the best record receiving ' wild card ' spots. The better wild card team would play the lesser division champion for each conference and vice versa.
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
The NHL added Vegas as the first expansion team in 17 years for the 2017 - 18 season. Though no adjustment occurred as far as the playoffs were concerned, the league also approved an ownership group to make a bid for a 32nd team to be located in Seattle. If approved, the team would not begin play until the 2021 - 22 season.
Numbers in table represent each team 's appearance in the playoffs
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what season did derek shepherd die in grey's anatomy | Derek Shepherd - Wikipedia
Derek Christopher Shepherd, M.D., also referred to as "McDreamy '', is a fictional surgeon from the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actor Patrick Dempsey. He made his first appearance during "A Hard Day 's Night '', which was broadcast on March 27, 2005. Derek was married to Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) for 12 years, before their divorce in 2006. Before his death in 2015, Derek was happily married to his longtime girlfriend Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). The couple are often referred to as "Mer & Der '' and they have three children together. Shepherd was formerly the Chief of Surgery at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, but abruptly resigned as chief in season 7 following the shooting. For his portrayal of Shepherd, Dempsey was nominated in 2006 and 2007 Golden Globe for the Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series Drama for the role, and the 2006 SAG Award for the Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Drama Series award.
Derek arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital as the new Head of Neurosurgery from New York City. He is a Bowdoin College graduate and attended Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons alongside his childhood best friend Mark Sloan and ex-wife Addison Montgomery and Private Practice characters Naomi Bennett and Sam Bennett. Derek was a student of Dr. Richard Webber and was enticed to come with an "offer he could n't refuse '' -- the position of Chief of Surgery, which he eventually turned down. He specializes in highly complex tumors and conditions of the brain and spine and came to Seattle Grace with a reputation for taking on "lost causes '' and "impossible '' cases that most of his peers would turn down. As an attending he is both well - liked and feared -- well - liked by patients and his scrub nurses for his compassion and gentlemanly bedside manner and feared by interns and residents who are intimidated by his reputation and high standards. He is passionate about his job and has been known to expel staff or remove interns and residents (or at least threaten them) from his service for being disrespectful about patients or if he deems their attitude to be detrimental to his patient 's well - being.
Derek first meets Meredith Grey at a bar, and soon finds out that she is an intern at Seattle Grace. They begin to have feelings for one another and it causes some awkwardness at work, particularly after her supervising resident Dr. Miranda Bailey discovers their relationship. Meredith 's housemates and fellow interns George O'Malley and Izzie Stevens both antagonized her for some time as they felt she was using her relationship with Derek to further her career. He generally tolerated them despite his dislike of sharing his living space with the interns who worked under him. While most of his family members accepted Meredith, his sister, Nancy, particularly disliked her and repeatedly called her "the slutty intern ''; as of season nine she still refuses to speak to Meredith or acknowledge her as her sister - in - law. His mother Carolyn approved as she felt Meredith 's gray perspective of life complemented Derek 's tendency to see everything in black and white.
Derek 's background was generally a mystery for the first season and source of speculation amongst his colleagues due to his sudden departure from an established and highly respected practice in New York. In the season one finale, his past eventually catches up with him when his estranged wife Addison moves to Seattle and is offered a position by Dr. Webber. Shortly thereafter, his childhood best friend Mark joins Seattle Grace as the new head of plastic surgery. Derek and Addison attempt to repair their marriage but attempts were futile. Since their divorce they have remained on amicable terms, with Addison even admonishing Meredith for breaking up with Derek in season three. In the Private Practice episode "Ex-Life '' Derek finally tells Addison that his mother never liked her in the first place. He admits to Meredith that Addison cheating on him with Mark was partly his fault as an absentee husband. Addison eventually leaves Seattle for a private practice in Los Angeles, spawning the spin - off Private Practice. In the season eight episode "If / Then '', Meredith dreams of an alternate universe where her mother never had Alzheimer 's; Derek and Addison are still married but their strained relationship and Shepherd 's disillusionment causes his career to stagnate, earning him the nicknames "Bad Shepherd '' and "McDreary ''.
When Derek is offered the Chief of Surgery position for the second time, he persuades the board to keep Dr. Webber on the staff. During the merger of Seattle Grace with Mercy West their relationship sours when Derek disagreed with Richard 's handling of the merger and Richard begins to display uncharacteristic behavior, not unnoticed by his fellow surgeons. Derek learns from Meredith that Richard has since resumed drinking and feels forced to have him removed as Chief of Surgery. With mixed feelings, Derek offers him an ultimatum: go into rehab and possibly pick up where he left off after, or quit completely.
In seasons three and four, Meredith and Derek 's relationship becomes rocky and they each take time to date other people. Derek 's plans to propose were ruined by a series of unfortunate events in season five. In the season finale, they decide to give their planned wedding to Alex and Izzie. Due to their tight schedule, they instead informally marry and Derek writes down their "promises '' on a post-it note. They legalize their marriage in season seven in order to adopt Zola, a young African orphan treated for spina bifida. They briefly separate after Meredith tampers with their Alzheimer 's trial, jeopardizing her career and tarnishing Derek 's reputation. Zola is taken away from Meredith after a social worker finds out she and Derek are living separately. In later seasons, Derek often griped about how his subsequent interns and residents -- mainly Lexie Grey, Shane Ross and Heather Brooks -- did not quite measure up to Meredith. The social worker comes back and announces they are the official parents of Zola. As Meredith nears the end of her fifth year of residency, she and Derek are torn between staying at Seattle Grace Mercy West or leaving for Boston where Derek would work at Harvard while Meredith would be at the Brigham and Women 's Hospital.
Following his rescue from the plane crash that killed Mark and Lexie, Derek learns that he may only regain 80 percent of his hand 's function. He comes to terms with the fact that his career as a surgeon may be over and is grateful that he is alive. When Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), head of orthopedic surgery, tells him a more risky surgery could give him back full function of his hand or reduce its function if it goes wrong, he agrees, accepting the possibility of never again holding a scalpel. Derek recovers well and Callie clears him to return to work, but it is still weeks later that he feels ready to operate. Derek, Callie and fellow resident Jackson Avery decide to do nerve transplant for his hand. Meredith, newly pregnant with their second child, goes behind his back and calls his sisters so they can donate a nerve to him. Lizzie (Neve Campbell), Derek 's younger sister, agrees to donate a nerve and the surgery is a success.
Derek and Meredith 's marriage is strained after he accepted an invitation from the President to participate in the Brain - Mapping Initiative. He went back on his promise to her that he would not add to his current workload in order to devote time to their two young children and allow her the chance to establish her career as a full - fledged attending. Eventually he was offered a position at the National Institutes of Health in Washington, D.C., but Meredith puts her foot down and refuses to leave her hometown and uproot their young family. His youngest sister Amelia (Caterina Scorsone) takes over his position at Grey Sloan. Meanwhile, he and Meredith fight bitterly on and off over whether they should move. After a bad argument, he accepts the job in the heat of the moment and leaves for Washington. While there, he and Meredith talk things out over the phone and come to a mutual conclusion that they both did not want to end their marriage. He tells her that just being with her, raising their children and operating on patients was more satisfying than "saving the world ''.
In season 11, Derek is involved in a fatal car accident while driving to the airport for his final trip to Washington. He is able to hear and process auditory input, but unable to speak. He is recognized by Winnie, one of the victims of a crash he assisted in earlier, who tells the surgeons that their patient 's name is Derek and that he is a surgeon as well. The hospital he was taken to was understaffed and his head injury was not detected quickly enough by the interns on duty that night. Although the neurosurgeon on call is paged multiple times, he takes too long to arrive and Derek is declared brain dead. Police arrive at Meredith 's door and take her to see Derek, where she consents to removing him from life support. At the time of his death, Meredith was pregnant with their third child. She gives birth to a daughter whom she names Ellis after her mother.
Derek was mentioned or referenced to a number of times in season 12 as the other characters struggle to cope with his sudden death. In the episode "My Next Life '', Meredith had a flashback of their first ever surgery together when a patient named Katie Bryce was admitted to the hospital with a brain aneurysm. Amelia took his death especially hard as he was the sibling she was closest to. At the end of the season, prior to her wedding to Derek 's long - time colleague Owen Hunt, Amelia goes on a nervous rant about how Derek was supposed to be the one to give her away, him having given away their three other sisters at their weddings.
When Patrick Dempsey auditioned for the role of Derek Shepherd, he was afraid that he was not going to get the part. Creator Shonda Rhimes ' first reaction was: "The very first time I met him, I was absolutely sure that he was my guy. Reading the lines of Derek Shepherd, Patrick had a vulnerable charm that I just fell for. And he had amazing chemistry with Ellen Pompeo. '' Rhimes admitted that Dempsey 's dyslexia threw her at first, particularly at the first few table readings: "I did not know about Patrick 's dyslexia in the beginning. I actually thought that he did n't like the scripts from the way he approached the readings. When I found out, I completely understood his hesitation. Now that we all know, if he is struggling with a word, the other actors are quick to step up and help him out. Everyone is very respectful. '' Isaiah Washington also auditioned for the part and when he did not get it, he said his reaction was like "I 'd been kicked in the stomach by 14 mules. '' Washington was, however, later cast as Preston Burke. Rob Lowe was also considered to portray Shepherd but turned the role down. Some of the character 's medical cases were inspired by real - life patients of Steve Giannotta, Chair of Neurological Surgery at the University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, whom Rhimes had consulted in writing for Shepherd 's storylines and patients.
In January 2014, Dempsey signed a two - year contract to remain on Grey 's Anatomy (then in its tenth season) that would ensure his presence for potential 11th and 12th seasons. However, in April 2015, Dempsey 's character was killed off while his contract was not over yet. Dempsey explained: "it just sort of evolved. It 's just kind of happened. It really was something that was kind of surprising that unfolded, and it just naturally came to be. Which was pretty good. I like the way it has all played out. '' In August 2015, Rhimes commented:
The character was later written to be a graduate of Bowdoin College, a liberal arts college in Brunswick, Maine, after an alumnus led a petition signed by over 450 students to "adopt '' the character as an alumnus. Dempsey is from Lewiston, about 18 miles (29 km) away from Brunswick, and was awarded an honorary doctorate by Bowdoin in 2013.
Rhimes describes Shepherd as typical "Prince Charming ''. He was planned to be a doctor who does n't really care about anything, who lives in his "own '' universe and has a big sex appeal. A man who is charming, devilishly handsome and the type of guy every girl dreams of, and a man that often makes the wrong decisions, and is often known as a jerk or the ultimate heartbreaker. Rhimes planned to have this kind of character from the beginning, because he was the kind of guy whom girls fall in love with and a character whose storylines could easily be changed. USA Today writer Robert Bianco said: "Derek could, at times, seem like two people, warm and funny one minute, cold and self - involved the next. Dempsey 's gift was in making those two sides seem like part of the same person, while keeping us rooting for that person as a whole. ''
With the show concluding its second season, Robert Bianco of USA Today said that Emmy voters could consider him because of the "seemingly effortless way he humanizes Derek 's ' dreamy ' appeal with ego and vanity ''. In the third season, Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger wrote that "the attempt to give the moral high ground back to McDreamy was bad. Dude, whatever happened in New York ceased to count in any kind of grievance tally once you agreed to take Addison back and give things another try. You 're the dick who cheated on her, you 're the one who knew that she found the panties, and still you act like her getting back together with Mark justifies what you did? Wow. I did n't think it was possible for me to dislike anyone on this show more than Meredith, but congratulations, big guy. ''
Debbie Chang of BuddyTV noted the character 's immaturity in the fourth season, saying: "The only character who did not make me love him was Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey). How this character is still Shonda 's golden child is beyond me. Yes, we get it. He 's tormented by his love for Meredith, but that does not give him the right to lash out at her when his clinical trial patients are dying. If things do n't go absolutely the way he wants them to, then he refuses to cooperate. How immature can this man possibly be? No amount of heavily styled hair or blue - blue - blue eyes is going to make me warm up to him unless he admits to being the needy, desperate one in the relationship. ''
Entertainment Weekly placed Shepherd in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses ''. The character was also listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Male Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's "16 Hottest Doctors On Television ''. His relationship with Meredith was included in TV Guide 's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time ''.
Victor Balta of Today listed Shepherd and Sloan 's friendship in its "TV 's best bromances ''. He called them "the most exciting couple on Grey 's, '' explaining "they 've demonstrated an easy chemistry that makes for some of the great comic relief around Seattle Grace Hospital with their banter, sage wisdom on each other 's lives, and locker room - style teasing. '' Their bromance was furthermore included in lists by About.com, BuddyTV, Cosmopolitan, Wetpaint. However, following the announcement of Dane 's upcoming departure from the show, Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald felt he and Derek "never clicked like you 'd expect friends would. Any scene they had together ranged from uncomfortable to forced. ''
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when is season 7 episode 5 of game of thrones coming out | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also adapting material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran Stark returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons. On April 25, 2017, it was reported by Daily Express that the actors ' new salary made them each earn £ 2 million ($2.6 million USD) per episode.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, and Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season. After some speculation, UFC President Dana White announced that Conor McGregor would appear in a cameo role in the seventh season. However, in January 2017, McGregor confirmed it was a rumor. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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discuss the term bible in its both sides | Bible - Wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books '') is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, it is widely considered to be the most influential and best - selling book of all time.
Many different authors contributed to the Bible. What is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups; a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint; the Hebrew Bible is known in Judaism as the Tanakh. The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first - century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of Gospels, letters, and apocalyptic writings. Among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect.
Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups. Roman Catholics, high church Anglicans and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of the Bible and sacred tradition, while Protestant churches, including Evangelical Anglicans, focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching.
The Bible has been a massive influence on literature and history, especially in the Western World, where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type. According to the March 2007 edition of Time, the Bible "has done more to shape literature, history, entertainment, and culture than any book ever written. Its influence on world history is unparalleled, and shows no signs of abating. '' As of the 2000s, it sells approximately 100 million copies annually.
The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the same word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Koinē Greek: τὰ βιβλία, translit. ta biblia "the books '' (singular βιβλίον, biblion).
Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book '', while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra "holy books '' translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια tà biblía tà ágia, "the holy books ''.
The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "paper '' or "scroll '' and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book ''. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus '', possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books '') was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books (the Septuagint). Christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 CE. The biblical scholar F.F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ('' the books ") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.
By the 2nd century BCE, Jewish groups began calling the books of the Bible the "scriptures '' and they referred to them as "holy '', or in Hebrew כִּתְבֵי הַקֹּדֶשׁ (Kitvei hakkodesh), and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy Bible '' (in Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "the Holy Scriptures '' (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía Graphḗ). The Bible was divided into chapters in the 13th century by Stephen Langton and it was divided into verses in the 16th century by French printer Robert Estienne and is now usually cited by book, chapter, and verse. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th - century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in earlier oral traditions.
The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th - century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, and it is known as the Codex Vaticanus. The oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin (Vulgate) Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, dating from the 8th century.
Professor John K. Riches, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, says that "the biblical texts themselves are the result of a creative dialogue between ancient traditions and different communities through the ages '', and "the biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers -- political, cultural, economic, and ecological -- varied enormously ''. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, says that the Old Testament is "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing. '' He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. Parallel to the solidification of the Hebrew canon (c. 3rd century BCE), only the Torah first and then the Tanakh began to be translated into Greek and expanded, now referred to as the Septuagint or the Greek Old Testament.
In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from oral traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that:
Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, but the results have not been too encouraging. The period of transmission is short: less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Mark 's Gospel. This means that there was little time for oral traditions to assume fixed form.
The Bible was later translated into Latin and other languages. John Riches states that:
The translation of the Bible into Latin marks the beginning of a parting of the ways between Western Latin - speaking Christianity and Eastern Christianity, which spoke Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and other languages. The Bibles of the Eastern Churches vary considerably: the Ethiopic Orthodox canon includes 81 books and contains many apocalyptic texts, such as were found at Qumran and subsequently excluded from the Jewish canon. As a general rule, one can say that the Orthodox Churches generally follow the Septuagint in including more books in their Old Testaments than are in the Jewish canon.
The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh. It defines the books of the Jewish canon, and also the precise letter - text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and accentuation.
The oldest extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century CE, and the Aleppo Codex (once the oldest complete copy of the Masoretic Text, but now missing its Torah section) dates from the 10th century.
The name Tanakh (Hebrew: תנ "ך ) reflects the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures, Torah ('' Teaching "), Nevi'im ('' Prophets ") and Ketuvim ('' Writings ").
The Torah (תּוֹרָה) is also known as the "Five Books of Moses '' or the Pentateuch, meaning "five scroll - cases ''.
The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the following five books:
The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of God 's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty - nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God 's covenant with the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacob 's children, the "Children of Israel '', especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.
The Torah contains the commandments of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate among traditional scholars as to whether these were all written down at one time, or over a period of time during the 40 years of the wanderings in the desert, while several modern Jewish movements reject the idea of a literal revelation, and critical scholars believe that many of these laws developed later in Jewish history). These commandments provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments (taryag mitzvot).
Nevi'im (Hebrew: נְבִיאִים , translit. Nəḇî'îm, "Prophets '') is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim נביאים ראשונים , the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim נביאים אחרונים , the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets).
The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient Israel and Judah, focusing on conflicts between the Israelites and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the LORD God '' and believers in foreign gods, and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of Israelite elites and rulers; in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.
The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:
The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the "major '' prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, collected into a single book. The collection is broken up to form twelve individual books in the Christian Old Testament, one for each of the prophets:
Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים "writings '') is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.
In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two - column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ "ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth '').
These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.
The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative '' in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.
Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra -- Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:
The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.
The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)
The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)
Other books
The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b -- 15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.
In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.
The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era.
Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title. References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE.
Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable... '' For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.
The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4: 8 -- 6: 18 and 7: 12 -- 26, Jeremiah 10: 11, Daniel 2: 4 -- 7: 28) written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.
The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE, initially in Alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well. It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.
As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon. Some of these deuterocanonical books (e.g. the Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.
Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st - century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis. Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity. Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek -- even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to Hebrew).
The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called Biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.
In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion 's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic Text. The Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion 's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek - speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin - speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing ' just ' happened. '' One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.
The canonical Ezra -- Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B '', and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A ''. 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra -- Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B '' -- the canonical Ezra -- Nehemiah -- is Theodotion 's version of this material, and "Esdras A '' is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.
Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151.
Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns ''). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων -- things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.
A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.
Significant versions of the English Christian Bible include the Douay - Rheims Bible, the Authorized King James Version, the English Revised Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Version, the New King James Version, the New International Version, and the English Standard Version.
The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.
In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th - century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages. Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545 -- 1563. It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.
Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until the 1820s. However, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament.
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:
In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:
Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:
There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.
The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:
The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes:
and some other books.
The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.
The term Pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented. The "Old Testament '' Pseudepigraphal works include the following:
Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great - grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired. However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BCE.
There arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter even more, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are "apocryphal '' are otherwise considered genuine.
The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures. '' He adds that the earliest Christians also searched those same Hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the "holy writings '' of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul 's words to Timothy (2 Timothy 3: 15), and as pointing to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfillment in Jesus himself, generating the "new covenant '' prophesied by Jeremiah.
The New Testament is the name given to the second and final portion of the Christian Bible. Jesus is its central figure.
The term "New Testament '' came into use in the second century during a controversy among Christians over whether or not the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture. The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament. Some other works which were widely read by early churches were excluded from the New Testament and relegated to the collections known as the Apostolic Fathers (generally considered orthodox) and the New Testament Apocrypha (including both orthodox and heretical works).
The New Testament is a collection of 27 books of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). These books can be grouped into:
The Gospels
Narrative literature, account and history of the Apostolic age
Pauline Epistles
Pastoral epistles
General epistles, also called catholic epistles
Apocalyptic literature, also called Prophetical
The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic / Orthodox / Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.
The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335 -- 323 BCE) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600).
The original autographs, that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the New Testament, have not survived. But historically copies exist of those original autographs, transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions. There have been some minor variations, additions or omissions, in some of the texts. When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text -- especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line -- and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text.
The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text - type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text - type (generally maximalist), and the Western text - type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.
The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46, 51, or 54 - book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27 - book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in 393 CE. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time.
The Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39 - book canon -- the number of books (though not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division -- while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books (51 books with some books combined into 46 books) as the canonical Old Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 in addition to the Catholic canon. Some include 2 Esdras. The Anglican Church also recognizes a longer canon. The term "Hebrew Scriptures '' is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while Catholics and Orthodox include additional texts that have not survived in Hebrew. Both Catholics and Protestants (as well as Greek Orthodox) have the same 27 - book New Testament Canon.
The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3: 16, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God ''.
The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament, also Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups ', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.
The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness ''. (2 Timothy 3: 16) Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:
Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture. '' Fundamentalist Christians are associated with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.
Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts, and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings. In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record. '' Most evangelical biblical scholars associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture. Among adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King - James - Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular translation.
The original texts of the Tanakh were mainly in Hebrew, with some portions in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.
The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek - speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.
The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.
According to the Latin Decretum Gelasianum (also known as the Gelasian Decree), thought to be of a 6th - century document of uncertain authorship and of pseudepigraphal papal authority (variously ascribed to Pope Gelasius I, Pope Damasus I, or Pope Hormisdas) but reflecting the views of the Roman Church by that period, the Council of Rome in 382 AD under Pope Damasus I (366 -- 383) assembled a list of books of the Bible. Damasus commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible, in the fourth century AD (although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non-canonical). In 1546, at the Council of Trent, Jerome 's Vulgate translation was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Church.
Since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for many languages have been made. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and Bible societies.
John Riches, professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the Bible:
It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self - interest, and narrow - mindedness. It has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development; and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty... It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another; yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict.
In Islam, the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted (in Arabic: tahrif); which necessitated the giving of the Qur'an to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, to correct this deviation.
Members of other religions may also seek inspiration from the Bible. For example, Rastafaris view the Bible as essential to their religion and Unitarian Universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts ''.
Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation errors.
In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses... ''
Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Greek Scriptures (or the "New Testament ''). It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology. One broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered to be the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the Bible is a historical document containing first - hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have a basis in history.
The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy (10th century BCE) and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship.
1) On December 1, 2017, the Museum of the Bible opened in Washington D.C. The museum was said to be built for all guests to understand and appreciate the existence of the Bible. Furthermore, the museum seeks to disperse historical information regarding the Bible as well as portray the significance of the Bible in a neutral way.
2) Durham Bible Museum: The Durham Bible Museum is located in Houston Texas and is known for the collection of rare Bibles around the world. Furthermore, the Durham Museum is known to have many different Bibles of various languages.
Old Bible from a Greek monastery
Imperial Bible, or Vienna Coronation Gospels from Wien (Austria), c 1500.
The Kennicott Bible, 1476
A Baroque Bible
The Bible used by Abraham Lincoln for his oath of office during his first inauguration in 1861
A miniature Bible
1866 Victorian Bible
Shelves of the Bizzell Bible Collection at Bizzell Memorial Library
Most old Bibles were illuminated, they were manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. Up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where "separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk. '' By the fourteenth century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands. Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators. These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.
The manuscript was "sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colours) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then -- if the book was to be illustrated -- it was sent to the illuminator. '' In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would "undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe 's agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation. ''
Bible from 1150, from Scriptorium de Chartres, Christ with angels
Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France Bible, 13th century
Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner (in the center in green) sends Michal back to David.
Jephthah 's daughter laments -- Maciejowski Bible (France, ca. 1250)
Coloured version of the Whore of Babylon illustration from Martin Luther 's 1534 translation of the Bible
An Armenian Bible, illuminated by Malnazar
Fleeing Sodom and Gomorrah, Foster Bible
Jonah being swallowed by the fish, Kennicott Bible, 1476
But if anyone receive not, as sacred and canonical, the said books entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition; and knowingly and deliberately contemn the traditions aforesaid; let him be anathema.
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who became the nawab of bengal after the battle of plassey | Battle of Plassey - wikipedia
Great Britain
Mughal Empire
Colonel Robert Clive
Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah
The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on 23 June 1757. The battle consolidated the Company 's presence in Bengal, which later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years.
The battle took place at Palashi (Anglicised version: Plassey) on the banks of the Bhagirathi River, about 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of Calcutta and south of Murshidabad, then capital of Bengal (now in Nadia district in West Bengal). The belligerents were the Nawab Siraj - ud - daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India Company. Siraj - ud - daulah had become the Nawab of Bengal the year before, and he ordered the English to stop the extension of their fortification. Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander in chief of the Nawab 's army, and also promised him to make him Nawab of Bengal. He defeated the Nawab at Plassey in 1757 and captured Calcutta.
The battle was preceded by the attack on British - controlled Calcutta by Nawab Siraj - ud - daulah and the Black Hole massacre. The British sent reinforcements under Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Charles Watson from Madras to Bengal and recaptured Calcutta. Clive then seized the initiative to capture the French fort of Chandernagar. Tensions and suspicions between Siraj - ud - daulah and the British culminated in the Battle of Plassey. The battle was waged during the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), and, in a mirror of their European rivalry, the French East India Company (La Compagnie des Indes Orientales) sent a small contingent to fight against the British. Siraj - ud - Daulah had a numerically superior force and made his stand at Plassey. The British, worried about being outnumbered, formed a conspiracy with Siraj - ud - Daulah 's demoted army chief Mir Jafar, along with others such as Yar Lutuf Khan, Jagat Seths (Mahtab Chand and Swarup Chand), Omichund and Rai Durlabh. Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and Yar Lutuf Khan thus assembled their troops near the battlefield but made no move to actually join the battle. Siraj - ud - Daulah 's army with 50,000 soldiers, 40 cannons and 10 war elephants was defeated by 3,000 soldiers of Col. Robert Clive, owing to the flight of Siraj - ud - daulah from the battlefield and the inactivity of the conspirators. The battle ended in 11 hours.
This is judged to be one of the pivotal battles in the control of Indian subcontinent by the colonial powers. The British now wielded enormous influence over the Nawab and consequently acquired significant concessions for previous losses and revenue from trade. The British further used this revenue to increase their military might and push the other European colonial powers such as the Dutch and the French out of South Asia, thus expanding the British Empire.
The British East India Company had a strong presence in India with the three main stations of Fort St. George in Madras, Fort William in Calcutta and Bombay Castle in western India. These stations were independent presidencies governed by a president and a council, appointed by the Court of Directors in England. The British adopted a policy of allying themselves with various princes and Nawabs, promising security against usurpers and rebels. The Nawabs often gave them concessions in return for the security. By the 18th century all rivalry had ceased between the British East India Company and the Dutch or Portuguese counterparts. The French had also established an East India Company under Louis XIV and had two important stations in India -- Chandernagar in Bengal and Pondicherry on the Carnatic coast, both governed by the presidency of Pondicherry. The French were a late comer in India trade, but they quickly established themselves in India and were poised to overtake Britain for control.
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 1748) marked the beginning of the power struggle between Britain and France and of European military ascendancy and political intervention in the Indian subcontinent. In September 1746, Mahé de La Bourdonnais landed off Madras with a naval squadron and laid siege to the port city. The defences of Madras were weak and the garrison sustained a bombardment of three days before surrendering. The terms of the surrender agreed by Bourdonnais provided for the settlement to be ransomed back for a cash payment by the British East India Company. However, this concession was opposed by Joseph François Dupleix, the governor general of the Indian possessions of the Compagnie des Indes Orientales. When Bourdonnais left India in October, Dupleix reneged on the agreement. The Nawab of the Carnatic Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan intervened in support of the British and the combined forces advanced to retake Madras, but despite vast superiority in numbers, the army was easily crushed by the French. As retaliation to the loss of Madras, the British, under Major Lawrence and Admiral Boscawen, laid siege to Pondicherry but were forced to raise it after thirty - one days. The Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle in 1748 forced Dupleix to yield Madras back to the British in return for Louisbourg and Cape Breton Island in North America.
The Treaty of Aix - La - Chapelle prevented direct hostilities between the two powers but soon they were involved in indirect hostilities as the auxiliaries of the local princes in their feuds. The feud Dupleix chose was for the succession to the positions of the Nizam of the Deccan and the Nawab of the dependent Carnatic province. The British and the French both nominated their candidates for the two posts. In both cases, Dupleix 's candidates usurped both thrones by manipulation and two assassinations. In mid-1751, the French candidate for the Nawab 's post, Chanda Sahib, laid siege to the British candidate Mohammed Ali 's last stronghold Trichinopoly, where Ali was holed up with his British reinforcements. He was aided by a French force under Charles, Marquis de Bussy.
On 1 September 1751, 280 Europeans and 300 sepoys under the command of Captain Robert Clive attacked and seized Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, finding that the garrison had fled the night before. It was hoped that this would force Chanda Sahib to divert some of his troops to wrest the city back from the British. Chanda Sahib sent a force of 4,000 Indians under Raza Sahib and 150 Frenchmen. They besieged the fort and breached the walls in various places after several weeks. Clive sent out a message to Morari Rao, a Maratha chieftain who had received a subsidy to assist Mohammed Ali and was encamped in the Mysore hills. Raza Sahib, learning of the imminent Maratha approach, sent a letter to Clive asking him to surrender in return for a large sum of money but this offer was refused. In the morning of 24 November, Raza Sahib tried to mount a final assault on the fort but was foiled in his attempt when his armoured elephants stampeded due to the British musketry. They tried to enter the fort through the breach several times but always repulsed with loss. The siege was raised the next day and Raza Sahib 's forces fled from the scene, abandoning guns, ammunition and stores. With success at Arcot, Conjeeveram and Trichinopoly, the British secured the Carnatic and Mohammed Ali succeeded to the throne of the Nawab in accordance with a treaty with the new French governor Godeheu.
Alwardi Khan ascended to the throne of the Nawab of Bengal after his army attacked and captured the capital of Bengal, Murshidabad. Alivardi 's attitude to the Europeans in Bengal is said to be strict. During his wars with the Marathas, he allowed the strengthening of fortifications by the Europeans and the construction of the Maratha Ditch in Calcutta by the British. On the other hand, he collected large amounts of money from them for the upkeep of his war. He was well - informed of the situation in southern India, where the British and the French had started a proxy war using the local princes and rulers. Alwardi did not wish such a situation to transpire in his province and thus exercised caution in his dealings with the Europeans. However, there was continual friction; the British always complained that they were prevented from the full enjoyment of the farman of 1717 issued by Farrukhsiyar. The British, however, protected subjects of the Nawab, gave passes to native traders to trade custom - free and levied large duties on goods coming to their districts -- actions which were detrimental to the Nawab 's revenue.
In April 1756, Alwardi Khan died and was succeeded by his twenty - three - year - old grandson, Siraj - ud - daulah. His personality was said to be a combination of a ferocious temper and a feeble understanding. He was particularly suspicious of the large profits made by the European companies in India. When the British and the French started improving their fortifications in anticipation of another war between them, he immediately ordered them to stop such activities as they had been done without permission. When the British refused to cease their constructions, the Nawab led a detachment of 3,000 men to surround the fort and factory of Cossimbazar and took several British officials as prisoners, before moving to Calcutta. The defences of Calcutta were weak and negligible. The garrison consisted of only 180 soldiers, 50 European volunteers, 60 European militia, 150 Armenian and Portuguese militia, 35 European artillery - men and 40 volunteers from ships and was pitted against the Nawab 's force of nearly 50,000 infantry and cavalry. The city was occupied on 16 June by Siraj 's force and the fort surrendered after a brief siege on 20 June.
The prisoners who were captured at the siege of Calcutta were transferred by Siraj to the care of the officers of his guard, who confined them to the common dungeon of Fort William known as The Black Hole. This dungeon, 18 by 14 feet (5.5 m × 4.3 m) in size with two small windows, had 146 prisoners thrust into it -- originally employed by the British to hold only six prisoners. On 21 June, the doors of the dungeon were opened and only 23 of the 146 walked out, the rest died of asphyxiation, heat exhaustion and delirium. It appears that the Nawab was unaware of the conditions in which his prisoners were held which resulted in the unfortunate deaths of most of the prisoners. Meanwhile, the Nawab 's army and navy were busy plundering the city of Calcutta and the other British factories in the surrounding areas.
When news of the fall of Calcutta broke in Madras on 16 August 1756, the Council immediately sent out an expeditionary force under Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson. A letter from the Council of Fort St. George, states that "the object of the expedition was not merely to re-establish the British settlements in Bengal, but also to obtain ample recognition of the Company 's privileges and reparation for its losses '' without the risk of war. It also states that any signs of dissatisfaction and ambition among the Nawab 's subjects must be supported. Clive assumed command of the land forces, consisting of 900 Europeans and 1500 sepoys while Watson commanded a naval squadron. The fleet entered the Hooghly River in December and met with the fugitives of Calcutta and the surrounding areas, including the principal Members of the Council, at the village of Falta on 15 December. The Members of Council formed a Select Committee of direction. On 29 December, the force dislodged the enemy from the fort of Budge Budge. Clive and Watson then moved against Calcutta on 2 January 1757 and the garrison of 500 men surrendered after offering a scanty resistance. With Calcutta recaptured, the Council was reinstated and a plan of action against the Nawab was prepared. The fortifications of Fort William were strengthened and a defensive position was prepared in the north - east of the city.
On 9 January 1757, a force of 650 men under Captain Coote and Major Kilpatrick stormed and sacked the town of Hooghly, 23 miles (37 km) north of Calcutta. On learning of this attack, the Nawab raised his army and marched on Calcutta, arriving with the main body on 3 February and encamping beyond the Maratha Ditch. Siraj set up his headquarters in Omichund 's garden. A small body of their army attacked the northern suburbs of the town but were beaten back by a detachment under Lieutenant Lebeaume placed there, returning with fifty prisoners.
Clive decided to launch a surprise attack on the Nawab 's camp on the morning of 4 February. At midnight, a force of 600 sailors, a battalion of 650 Europeans, 100 artillery - men, 800 sepoys and 6 six - pounders approached the Nawab 's camp. At 6: 00, under the cover of a thick fog, the vanguard came upon the Nawab 's advanced guard, who after firing with their matchlocks and rockets, ran away. They continued forward for some distance till they were opposite Omichund 's garden, when they heard the galloping of cavalry on their right. The cavalry came within 30 yards (27 m) of the British force before the line gave fire, killing many and dispersing the rest. The fog hampered visibility beyond walking distance. Hence, the line moved slowly, infantry and artillery firing on either side randomly. Clive had intended to use a narrow raised causeway, south of the garden, to attack the Nawab 's quarters in the garden. The Nawab 's troops had barricaded the passage. At about 9: 00, as the fog began to lift, the troops were overwhelmed by the discharge of two pieces of heavy cannon from across the Maratha Ditch by the Nawab 's artillery. The British troops were assailed on all sides by cavalry and musket - fire. The Nawab troops then made for a bridge a mile further on, crossed the Maratha Ditch and reached Calcutta. The total casualties of Clive 's force were 57 killed and 137 wounded. The Nawab 's army lost 22 officers of distinction, 600 common men, 4 elephants, 500 horses, some camels and a great number of bullocks. The attack scared the Nawab into concluding the Treaty of Alinagar with the Company on 5 February, agreeing to restore the Company 's factories, allow the fortification of Calcutta and restoring former privileges. The Nawab withdrew his army back to his capital, Murshidabad.
Concerned by the approach of de Bussy to Bengal and the Seven Years ' War in Europe, the Company turned its attention to the French threat in Bengal. Clive planned to capture the French town of Chandernagar, 20 miles (32 km) north of Calcutta. Clive needed to know whose side the Nawab would intervene on if he attacked Chandernagar. The Nawab sent evasive replies and Clive construed this to be assent to the attack. Clive commenced hostilities on the town and fort of Chandernagar on 14 March. The French had set up defences on the roads leading to the fort and had sunk several ships in the river channel to prevent passage of the men of war. The garrison consisted of 600 Europeans and 300 sepoys. The French expected assistance from the Nawab 's forces from Hooghly, but the governor of Hooghly, Nandkumar had been bribed to remain inactive and prevent the Nawab 's reinforcement of Chandernagar. The fort was well - defended, but when Admiral Watson 's squadron forced the blockade in the channel on 23 March, a fierce cannonade ensued with aid from two batteries on the shore. The naval squadron suffered greatly due to musket - fire from the fort. At 9: 00 on 24 March, a flag of truce was shown by the French and by 15: 00, the capitulation concluded. After plundering Chandernagar, Clive decided to ignore his orders to return to Madras and remain in Bengal. He moved his army to the north of the town of Hooghly.
Furthermore, Siraj - ud - Daula believed that the British East India Company did not receive any permission from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II to fortify their positions in the territories of the Nawab of Bengal.
The Nawab was infuriated on learning of the attack on Chandernagar. His former hatred of the British returned, but he now felt the need to strengthen himself by alliances against the British. The Nawab was plagued by fear of attack from the north by the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani and from the west by the Marathas. Therefore, he could not deploy his entire force against the British for fear of being attacked from the flanks. A deep distrust set in between the British and the Nawab. As a result, Siraj started secret negotiations with Jean Law, chief of the French factory at Cossimbazar, and de Bussy. The Nawab also moved a large division of his army under Rai Durlabh to Plassey, on the island of Cossimbazar 30 miles (48 km) south of Murshidabad.
Popular discontent against the Nawab flourished in his own court. The Seths, the traders of Bengal, were in perpetual fear for their wealth under the reign of Siraj, contrary to the situation under Alivardi 's reign. They had engaged Yar Lutuf Khan to defend them in case they were threatened in any way. William Watts, the Company representative at the court of Siraj, informed Clive about a conspiracy at the court to overthrow the ruler. The conspirators included Mir Jafar, paymaster of the army, Rai Durlabh, Yar Lutuf Khan and Omichund, a merchant and several officers in the army. When communicated in this regard by Mir Jafar, Clive referred it to the select committee in Calcutta on 1 May. The committee passed a resolution in support of the alliance. A treaty was drawn between the British and Mir Jafar to raise him to the throne of the Nawab in return for support to the British in the field of battle and the bestowal of large sums of money upon them as compensation for the attack on Calcutta. On 2 May, Clive broke up his camp and sent half the troops to Calcutta and the other half to Chandernagar.
Mir Jafar and the Seths desired that the confederacy between the British and himself be kept secret from Omichund, but when he found out about it, he threatened to betray the conspiracy if his share was not increased to three million rupees (£ 300,000). Hearing of this, Clive suggested an expedient to the Committee. He suggested that two treaties be drawn -- the real one on white paper, containing no reference to Omichund and the other on red paper, containing Omichund 's desired stipulation, to deceive him. The Members of the Committee signed on both treaties, but Admiral Watson signed only the real one and his signature had to be counterfeited on the fictitious one. Both treaties and separate articles for donations to the army, navy squadron and committee were signed by Mir Jafar on 4 June.
Clive testified and defended himself thus before the House of Commons of Parliament on 10 May 1773, during the Parliamentary inquiry into his conduct in India:
Omichund, his confidential servant, as he thought, told his master of an agreement made between the English and Monsieur Duprée (may be a mistranscription of Dupleix) to attack him, and received for that advice a sum of not less than four lacks of rupees. Finding this to be the man in whom the nabob entirely trusted, it soon became our object to consider him as a most material engine in the intended revolution. We therefore made such an agreement as was necessary for the purpose, and entered into a treaty with him to satisfy his demands. When all things were prepared, and the evening of the event was appointed, Omichund informed Mr. Watts, who was at the court of the nabob, that he insisted upon thirty lacks of rupees, and five per cent. upon all the treasure that should be found; that, unless that was immediately complied with, he would disclose the whole to the nabob; and that Mr. Watts, and the two other English gentlemen then at the court, should be cut off before the morning. Mr. Watts, immediately on this information, dispatched an express to me at the council. I did not hesitate to find out a stratagem to save the lives of these people, and secure success to the intended event. For this purpose we signed another treaty. The one was called the Red, the other the White treaty. This treaty was signed by every one, except admiral Watson; and I should have considered myself sufficiently authorised to put his name to it, by the conversation I had with him. As to the person who signed admiral Watson 's name to the treaty, whether he did it in his presence or not, I can not say; but this I know, that he thought he had sufficient authority for so doing. This treaty was immediately sent to Omichund, who did not suspect the stratagem. The event took place, and success attended it; and the House, I am fully persuaded, will agree with me, that, when the very existence of the Company was at stake, and the lives of these people so precariously situated, and so certain of being destroyed, it was a matter of true policy and of justice to deceive so great a villain.
On 12 June, Clive was joined by Major Kilpatrick with the rest of the army from Calcutta at Chandernagar. The combined force consisted of 613 Europeans, 171 artillery - men controlling eight field pieces and two howitzers, 91 topasses, 2100 sepoys (mainly dusadhs) and 150 sailors. The army set out for Murshidabad on 13 June. Clive sent out the Nawab 's messengers with a letter declaring his intention to march his army to Murshidabad to refer their complaints with regard to the treaty of 9 February with the principal officers of the Nawab 's government. The Indian troops marched on shore while the Europeans with the supplies and artillery were towed up the river in 200 boats. On 14 June, Clive sent a declaration of war to Siraj. On 15 June, after ordering an attack on Mir Jafar 's palace in suspicion of his alliance with the British, Siraj obtained a promise from Mir Jafar to not join the British in the field of battle. He then ordered his entire army to move to Plassey, but the troops refused to quit the city until the arrears of their pay were released. The delay caused the army to reach Plassey only by 21 June.
By 16 June, the British force had reached Paltee, 12 miles (19 km) north of which lay the strategically important town and fort of Katwa. It contained large stores of grain and military supplies and was covered by the river Aji. On 17 June, Clive despatched a force of 200 Europeans, 500 sepoys, one field piece and a small howitzer under Major Coote of the 39th Foot to capture the fort. The detachment found the town abandoned when they landed at midnight. At daybreak on 19 June, Major Coote went to the bank of the river and waved a white flag, but was met only by shot and a show of defiance by the governor. Coote split his Anglo - Indian force; the sepoys crossed the river and fired the ramparts while the Europeans crossed farther up from the fort. When the garrison saw the advancing troops, they gave up their posts and fled north. Hearing of the success, Clive and the rest of the army arrived at Katwa by the evening of 19 June.
At this juncture, Clive faced a dilemma. The Nawab had reconciled with Mir Jafar and had posted him on one flank of his army. Mir Jafar had sent messages to Clive, declaring his intention to uphold the treaty between them. Clive decided to refer the problem to his officers and held a council of war on 21 June. The question Clive put before them was whether, under the present circumstances, the army, without other assistance, should immediately cross into the island of Cossimbazar and attack the Nawab or whether they should fortify their position in Katwa and trust to assistance from the Marathas or other Indian powers. Of the twenty officers attending the council, thirteen including Clive were against immediate action, while the rest including Major Coote were in favour citing recent success and the high spirits of the troops. The council broke up and after an hour of deliberation, Clive gave the army orders to cross the Bhagirathi River (another name for the Hooghly River) on the morning of 22 June.
At 1: 00, on 23 June, they reached their destination beyond the village of Plassey. They quickly occupied the adjoining mango grove, called Laksha Bagh, which was 800 yards (730 m) long and 300 yards (270 m) wide and enclosed by a ditch and a mud wall. Its length was angled diagonally to the Bhagirathi River. A little to the north of the grove at the bank of the river stood a hunting lodge enclosed by a masonry wall where Clive took up his quarters. The grove was about a mile from the Nawab 's entrenchments. The Nawab 's army had been in place 26 hours before Clive 's. A French detachment under Jean Law would reach Plassey in two days. Their army lay behind earthen entrenchments running at right angles to the river for 200 yards (180 m) and then turning to the north - eastern direction for 3 miles (4.8 km). There was a redoubt mounted by cannon at this turning along the entrenchment. There was a small hill covered by trees 300 yards (270 m) east of the redoubt. 800 yards (730 m) towards the British position was a small tank (reservoir) and 100 yards (91 m) further south was a larger tank, both surrounded by a large mound of earth.
At daybreak on 23 June, the Nawab 's army emerged from their camp and started advancing towards the grove. Their army consisted of 30,000 infantry of all sorts, armed with matchlocks, swords, pikes and rockets and 20,000 cavalry, armed with swords or long spears, interspersed by 300 pieces of artillery, mostly 32, 24 and 18 - pounders. The army also included a detachment of about 50 French artillerymen under de St. Frais directing their own field pieces. The French took up positions at the larger tank with four light pieces advanced by two larger pieces, within a mile of the grove. Behind them were a body of 5,000 cavalry and 7,000 infantry commanded by the Nawab 's faithful general Mir madan Khan and Diwan Mohanlal. The rest of the army numbering 45,000 formed an arc from the small hill to a position 800 yards (730 m) east of the southern angle of the grove, threatening to surround Clive 's relatively smaller army. The right arm of their army was commanded by Rai Durlabh, the centre by Yar Lutuf Khan and the left arm closest to the British by Mir Jafar.
Clive watched the situation unfolding from the roof of the hunting lodge, anticipating news from Mir Jafar. He ordered his troops to advance from the grove and line up facing the larger tank. His army consisted of 750 European infantry with 100 Topasses, 2100 sepoys (dusadhs) and 100 artillery - men assisted by 50 sailors. The artillery consisted of eight 6 - pounders and two howitzers. The Europeans and Topasses were placed in the centre of the line in four divisions, flanked on both sides by three 6 - pounders. The sepoys were placed on the right and left in equal divisions. Clive posted two 6 - pounders and two howitzers behind some brick - kilns 200 yards (180 m) north of the left division of his army to oppose the French fire.
At 8: 00, the French artillery at the larger tank fired the first shot, killing one and wounding another from the grenadier company of the 39th Regiment. This, as a signal, the rest of the Nawab 's artillery started a heavy and continuous fire. The advanced field pieces of the British opposed the French fire, while those with the battalion opposed the rest of the Nawab 's artillery. Their shots did not serve to immobilize the artillery but hit the infantry and cavalry divisions. By 8: 30, the British had lost 10 Europeans and 20 sepoys. Leaving the advanced artillery at the brick kilns, Clive ordered the army to retreat back to relative shelter of the grove. The rate of casualties of the British dropped substantially due to the protection of the embankment.
At the end of three hours, there was no substantial progress and the positions of both sides had not changed. Clive called a meeting of his staff to discuss the way ahead. It was concluded that the present position would be maintained till after nightfall, and an attack on the Nawab 's camp should be attempted at midnight. Soon after the conference, a heavy rainstorm occurred. The British used tarpaulins to protect their ammunition, while the Nawab 's army took no such precautions. As a result, their gunpowder got drenched and their rate of fire slackened, while Clive 's artillery kept up a continuous fire. As the rain began to subside, Mir Madan Khan, assuming that the British guns were rendered ineffective by the rain, led his cavalry to a charge. However, the British countered the charge with heavy grape shot, mortally wounding Mir Madan Khan and driving back his men.
Siraj had remained in his tent throughout the cannonade surrounded by attendants and officers assuring him of victory. When he heard that Mir Madan was mortally wounded, he was deeply disturbed and attempted reconciliation with Mir Jafar, flinging his turban to the ground, entreating him to defend it. Mir Jafar promised his services but immediately sent word of this encounter to Clive, urging him to push forward. Following Mir Jafar 's exit from the Nawab 's tent, Rai Durlabh urged Siraj to withdraw his army behind the entrenchment and advised him to return to Murshidabad leaving the battle to his generals. Siraj complied with this advice and ordered the troops under Mohan Lal to retreat behind the entrenchment. He then mounted a camel and accompanied by 2,000 horsemen set out for Murshidabad.
At about 14: 00, the Nawab 's army ceased the cannonade and began turning back north to their entrenchments, leaving St. Frais and his artillery without support. Seeing the Nawab 's forces retiring, Major Kilpatrick, who had been left in charge of the British force while Clive was resting in the hunting lodge, recognised the opportunity to cannonade the retiring enemy if St. Frais ' position could be captured. Sending an officer to Clive to explain his actions, he took two companies of the 39th Regiment and two field pieces and advanced towards St. Frais ' position. When Clive received the message, he hurried to the detachment and reprimanded Kilpatrick for his actions without orders and commanded to bring up the rest of the army from the grove. Clive himself then led the army against St. Frais ' position which was taken at 15: 00 when the French artillery retreated to the redoubt of the entrenchment, setting up for further action.
As the British force moved towards the larger tank, it was observed that the left arm of the Nawab 's army had lingered behind the rest. When the rear of this division reached a point in a line with the northern point of the grove, it turned left and marched towards the grove. Clive, unaware that it was Mir Jafar 's division, supposed that his baggage and stores were the intended target and sent three platoons under Captain Grant and Lieutenant Rumbold and a field piece under John Johnstone, a volunteer, to check their advance. The fire of the field piece halted the advance of the division, which remained isolated from the rest of the Nawab 's army.
Meanwhile, the British field pieces began a cannonade on the Nawab 's camp from the mound of the larger tank. As a result, many of the Nawab 's troops and artillery started coming out of the entrenchment. Clive advanced half of his troops and artillery to the smaller tank and the other half to a rising ground 200 yards (180 m) to the left of it and started bombarding the entrenchment with greater efficiency, throwing the approaching trains into confusion. The Nawab 's troops shot their matchlocks from holes, ditches, hollows and from bushes on the hill east of the redoubt while St. Frais kept up his artillery fire from the redoubt. Cavalry charges were also repulsed by the British field pieces. However, the British force sustained most of its casualties in this phase.
At this point, Clive realised that the lingering division was Mir Jafar 's and concentrated his efforts at capturing the redoubt and hill east of it. Clive ordered a three - pronged attack with simultaneous attacks by two detachments on the redoubt and the hill supported by the main force in the centre. Two companies of grenadiers of the 39th Regiment, under Major Coote took the hill at 16: 30 after the enemy fled without firing a shot. Coote pursued them across the entrenchment. The redoubt was also taken after St. Frais was forced to retreat. By 17: 00, the British occupied the entrenchment and the camp left by a dispersing army. The British troops marched on and halted 6 miles (9.7 km) beyond Daudpur at 20: 00.
The British losses were estimated at 22 killed and 50 wounded. Of the killed, three were of the Madras Artillery, one of the Madras Regiment and one of the Bengal European Regiment. Of the wounded, four were of the 39th Regiment, three of the Madras Regiment, four of the Madras Artillery, two of the Bengal European Regiment, one of the Bengal Artillery and one of the Bombay Regiment. Of the losses by the sepoys, four Madras and nine Bengal sepoys were killed while nineteen Madras and eleven Bengal sepoys were wounded. Clive estimates that the Nawab 's force lost 500 men, including several key officers.
In the evening of 23 June, Clive received a letter from Mir Jafar asking for a meeting with him. Clive replied that he would meet Mir Jafar at Daudpur the next morning. When Mir Jafar arrived at the British camp at Daudpur in the morning, Clive embraced him and saluted him as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. He then advised Mir Jafar to hasten to Murshidabad to prevent Siraj 's escape and the plunder of his treasure. Mir Jafar reached Murshidabad with his troops on the evening of 24 June. Clive arrived at Murshidabad on 29 June with a guard of 200 European soldiers and 300 sepoys in the wake of rumours of a possible attempt on his life. Clive was taken to the Nawab 's palace, where he was received by Mir Jafar and his officers. Clive placed Mir Jafar on the throne and acknowledging his position as Nawab, presented him with a plate of gold rupees.
Siraj - ud - daulah had reached Murshidabad at midnight on 23 June. He summoned a council where some advised him to surrender to the British, some to continue the war and some to prolong his flight. At 22: 00 on 24 June, Siraj disguised himself and escaped northwards on a boat with his wife and valuable jewels. His intention was to escape to Patna with aid from Jean Law. At midnight on 24 June, Mir Jafar sent several parties in pursuit of Siraj. On 2 July, Siraj reached Rajmahal and took shelter in a deserted garden but was soon discovered and betrayed to the local military governor, the brother of Mir Jafar, by a man who was previously arrested and punished by Siraj. His fate could not be decided by a council headed by Mir Jafar and was handed over to Mir Jafar 's son, Miran, who had Siraj murdered that night. His remains were paraded on the streets of Murshidabad the next morning and were buried at the tomb of Alivardi Khan.
According to the treaty drawn between the British and Mir Jafar, the British acquired all the land within the Maratha Ditch and 600 yards (550 m) beyond it and the zamindari of all the land between Calcutta and the sea. Besides confirming the firman of 1717, the treaty also required the restitution, including donations to the navy squadron, army and committee, of 22,000,000 rupees (£ 2,750,000) to the British for their losses. However, since the wealth of Siraj - ud - daulah proved to be far less than expected, a council held with the Seths and Rai Durlabh on 29 June decided that one half of the amount was to be paid immediately -- two - thirds in coin and one third in jewels and other valuables. As the council ended, it was revealed to Omichund that he would receive nothing with regard to the treaty, hearing which he went insane.
As a result of the war of Plassey, the French were no longer a significant force in Bengal. In 1759, the British defeated a larger French garrison at Masulipatam, securing the Northern Circars. By 1759, Mir Jafar felt that his position as a subordinate to the British could not be tolerated. He started encouraging the Dutch to advance against the British and eject them from Bengal. In late 1759, the Dutch sent seven large ships and 1400 men from Java to Bengal under the pretext of reinforcing their Bengal settlement of Chinsura even though Britain and Holland were not officially at war. Clive, however, initiated immediate offensive operations by land and sea and defeated the much larger Dutch force on 25 November 1759 in the Battle of Chinsura. The British then deposed Mir Jafar and installed Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal. The British were now the paramount European power in Bengal. When Clive returned to England due to ill - health, he was rewarded with an Irish peerage, as Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey and also obtained a seat in the British House of Commons.
The struggle continued in areas of the Deccan and Hyderabad such as Arcot, Wandewash, Tanjore and Cuddalore, culminating in 1761 when Col. Eyre Coote defeated a French garrison under de Lally, supported by Hyder Ali at Pondicherry. The French were returned Pondicherry in 1763 by way of the Treaty of Paris but they never again regained their former stature in India. The British would, in effect, emerge as rulers of the subcontinent in subsequent years.
The Battle of Plassey and the resultant victory of the British East India company led to puppet governments instated by them in various states of India. This led to an unleashing of excesses, malpractices and atrocities by the British East India Company in the name of tax collection.
A monument was established in the battlefield, called Palashi Monument.
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how many elements are in the earth's crust | Abundance of elements in Earth 's crust - wikipedia
The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust is shown in tabulated form with the estimated crustal abundance for each chemical element shown as parts per million (ppm) by mass (10,000 ppm = 1 %).
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where is the boy scout national jamboree being held | National Scout jamboree (Boy Scouts of America) - wikipedia
The national Scout jamboree is a gathering, or jamboree, of thousands of members of the Boy Scouts of America, usually held every four years and organized by the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America. Referred to as "the Jamboree '', "Jambo '', or NSJ, Scouts from all over the nation and world have the opportunity to attend. They are considered to be one of several unique experiences that the Boy Scouts of America offers. The first jamboree was scheduled to be held in 1935 in Washington, D.C. to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Scouting, but was delayed two years after being cancelled due to a polio outbreak. The 1937 jamboree in Washington attracted 25,000 Scouts, who camped around the Washington Monument and Tidal Basin. The event was covered extensively by national media and attended by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Following the disruption of World War II, the next jamboree was not held until 1950 in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. Subsequent jamborees have been held around the country as a means to promoting Scouting nationally. From 1981 to 2010, the jamboree was located in Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia. Since 2013, jamborees are permanently held at The Summit: Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in Mount Hope, West Virginia.
A jamboree is held for approximately a week and a half and offers many activities for youth participants and the 300,000 members of the general public who visit it. Staff members generally arrive several days in advance, and depart several days after participants leave, depending on their assignments. Subcamp staff stay in the subcamps with the troops, while other staff stay in the staff camp.
The first national jamboree was held in Washington, D.C. for ten days in July 1937, attended by 25,000 Scouts, most of whom arrived by train. Region campsites were set up around the Washington Monument and Tidal Basin. The event was covered extensively by radio and newspapers. A press tent accommodated 626 news media reporters, photographers, and broadcasters. Sixty - four news releases were issued and the BSA assisted in the making of 11 newsreels and 53 magazine articles.
The three major U.S. radio networks of the time, NBC, CBS, and Mutual, had broadcasting studios near the jamboree headquarters to produce almost 19 hours of live, on - site jamboree coverage broadcast coast - to - coast. Celebrities also visited the jamboree, including well - known broadcaster Lowell Thomas and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. While at the jamboree, Scouts also attended a three - game baseball series between the Washington Senators and the Boston Red Sox at Griffith Stadium, as well as toured nearby Mount Vernon.
The National Scout jamborees have been held at a number of different locations.
Like the Boy Scouts of America 's national organization, the jamboree were originally divided into regions -- Western, Central, Southern, and Northeast. Each region was made up of five to six subcamps, with twenty in all. Each subcamp has its own latrines, shower facilities, food commissaries. Each subcamp contains a number of troops, identified by a three or four digit number depending on the location of the subcamp within the encampment. The 2005 National Scout Jamboree had 20 subcamps, identified by number and named after famous explorers (e.g. Robert Ballard, Steve Fossett, Joe Kittinger, and Will Steger.)
Effective with the 2013 Jamboree, subcamps are not operated by the regions, but by sub camps that contain contingents from different parts of the country. Separate subcamps are also maintained for adult staff and co-ed Venturers and international contingents.
National jamborees are now traditionally held two years after a World Jamboree. 2010 was a slight aberration in the schedule (which resumed in 2013) due to the 100th anniversary of BSA.
Attending the jamboree is an intensive and expensive process. Considering the logistics of having thousands of youth and their leaders concentrated in one area at one time, the Jamboree Division of the National Council coordinates the entire jamboree process. A normal Boy Scout troop can not petition to attend the jamboree as participants, instead, the local council establishes a jamboree committee which is charged with promoting and facilitating the experience to their members. Local council committees typically have volunteer members responsible for finance, fundraising, training, recruitment, transportation, touring while en route to the jamboree site, and other functions where appropriate.
Youth members sign up for the jamboree through an application process to the local council, who then places each boy into the jamboree troop. Large councils are granted multiple jamboree troops. Each troop comprises four adults (a Scoutmaster, and three assistant Scoutmasters) and 36 youth in four traditional patrols of eight boys each, plus a leadership corps of four older boys (senior patrol leader, assistant senior patrol leader, quartermaster, and scribe). Scouts must be at least 12 years old on the first day of the jamboree and at least First Class Scouts. After being assigned a jamboree troop, members are given their troop numbers, a participant 's patch for wear on the Scout 's field uniform, and the council 's Jamboree Shoulder Patch. Training and preparation for the jamboree often begins more than a year before the actual jamboree begins. Most troops require the adult leaders to obtain Basic Scoutmaster training, and some require Wood Badge, an intensive management training course offered by the BSA. Additionally, the Scoutmaster and one assistant Scoutmaster must be over 21, and another assistant Scoutmaster must be between 18 and 21 throughout the jamboree. The final assistant Scoutmaster may be any age over 18.
Youth and adult volunteer and professional Scouters provide a number of services to the jamboree by being on staff. Additionally, when the jamboree was at Fort A.P. Hill, members of the military and government services also assisted with providing services to the jamboree. Jamboree staff are given a special hat and neckerchief as tokens of their service, plus many of the different staff groups have special patches or pins that are sought after by youth and adult participants. In addition to the regional staff that provide services in subcamps and at the regional activity centers, many other staff members work in areas that serve the entire jamboree. Staff members arrive a number of days before the jamboree begins and usually depart on the same day or a few days later.
The BSA announced in June 2008 that locales interested in permanently hosting the national jamboree should submit applications to BSA. Permanent jamboree site considerations included 5,000 acres (20 km) to be donated or leased for 100 years, water, natural beauty, transportation, ability to also host World Jamborees, and use as a BSA high adventure / training center in non-jamboree years.
Goshen Scout Reservation in Virginia was selected for the new site in February 2009, but was withdrawn due to significant restrictions on land utilization and local community opposition.
The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in the New River Gorge region was chosen as the new home of the national Scout jamboree in November 2009. The purchase of the property was made possible by a $50 million gift from the S.D. Bechtel, Jr. Foundation. Other donations, including a $25 million donation from The Suzanne and Walter Scott Foundation and a gift of an undisclosed amount from Mike and Gillian Goodrich, as well as other donations, have brought the total amount of contributions for The Summit to over $100 million in under one year. A portion of the 10,000 - acre (40 km) property is a reclaimed mine site once known as Garden Grounds. It is located along the New River Gorge National River near Mount Hope, West Virginia and north of Beckley, West Virginia.
Early announcements from The Summit team at the 2010 National Scout Jamboree, and subsequently on Facebook announced that Venturing would be a part of the jamboree, not just as staff, but as participants. This marked the first appearance of Venturing at a jamboree, and the first attempt to expand the program to include the senior Scouting program of the BSA since the attempted inclusion of Exploring in 1989.
Most troops that attend the jamboree have a special patch, or series of patches, made especially for the jamboree. Once at the jamboree, Scouts trade their council 's patches for patches from across the US and even the world. At each jamboree there are always several hot patches, that everyone seems to want, usually a patch relating to something in pop culture. At the 2001 National Scout Jamboree, one of the most sought after patches were the Marvel contingent patches from Theodore Roosevelt Council in Nassau County, Long Island, New York which would also see 2 more future sets in 2005 and 2010. At the 2005 National Scout Jamboree, popular patches displayed such things as Ron Jon Surf Shop, Master Chief from Halo, Star Wars characters, Super Mario, SoBe energy drink, and the unofficial, yet still sought after, Hooters patches. The 2005 Marvel set from Theodore Roosevelt Council included the first "talking '' patch. Its OA Flap set had a chip inside that welcomed Scouts to the Jamboree and included Teddy Roosevelt 's signature cheer, "BULLY! '' The voice for this (and the 2010 set) were recorded using a pair of Nakamichi CM - 700 vintage microphones by one of the 2 designers of the patches. At the 2010 Jamboree, sought - after patches included Marvel superheroes from both Theodore Roosevelt Council and Northern New Jersey Council, Halo, Blues Brothers, the Orange County set (filled with vibrant images of surfers), the Central Florida Guitars (which made music when squeezed), the Great Salt Lake racers, and all sorts of military helicopters and planes, as well as a reappearance of the Hooters patches. Other unofficial patches included a set of Order of the Arrow pocket flaps which included designs from popular internet games, such as Farmville.
Each unit that attends the jamboree is assigned to a campsite. In front of the campsite, the troop constructed a gateway to display trademarks of their council or state. Gateways ranged from the very simple to the extremely elaborate. Complex gateways were eliminated beginning in 2013 to match World Jamboree standards of providing standard camping equipment upon arrival, thus allowing contingents to travel by air.
Typically opening and closing shows are planned that celebrate and promote Scouting brotherhood. Attended by all participants, staff, and visitors, crowds can be large in excess of 50,000 persons. Speeches are made by dignitaries. Presidents Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower, Johnson, George H.W. Bush, George W. Bush, Trump, Vice President Nixon, Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates, First Lady Nancy Reagan, and governors have all attended. Singers and bands such as The Kingston Trio, Burl Ives, the Oak Ridge Boys, the Beach Boys, Lee Greenwood, and Louise Mandrell, and Switchfoot have performed. Entertainers have included Roy Rogers and Dale Evans, Bob Hope, Danny Thomas, Sgt. Slaughter, and Dirty Jobs ' Mike Rowe in 2013. The preshow entertainment has included performances by military bands, jumping demonstrations by the Army Black Knights, flyovers and the National Jamboree Band.
On April 4, 2007, a US Court of Appeals ruled that federal support for the national jamboree may continue.
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when was the last big storm in florida | List of Florida hurricanes - Wikipedia
The List of Florida hurricanes encompasses approximately 500 tropical or subtropical cyclones that affected the state of Florida. More storms hit Florida than any other U.S. state, and since 1851 only eighteen hurricane seasons passed without a known storm impacting the state. Collectively, cyclones that hit the region have resulted in over 10,000 deaths, most of which occurring prior to the start of Hurricane Hunters flights in 1943. Additionally, the cumulative impact from the storms totaled over $141 billion in damage (2017 USD), primarily from Hurricane Andrew and hurricanes in the 2004 and 2005 seasons.
Tropical cyclones have affected Florida in every month of the year with the exceptions of January and March. Nearly one - third of the cyclones affected the state in September, and nearly three - fourths of the storms affected the state between August and October, which coincides with the peak of the hurricane season. Portions of the coastline have the lowest return period, or the frequency at which a certain intensity or category of hurricane can be expected within 86 mi (139 km) of a given location, in the country. Monroe County was struck by 26 hurricanes since 1926, which is the greatest total for any county in the United States.
In a Monthly Weather Review paper published in 1934, the U.S. Weather Bureau recognized Key West and Pensacola as the most hurricane - prone cities in the state; Key West experiences both storms developing from the western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while Pensacola has received hurricanes crossing the state as well as storms recurving in the northern Gulf of Mexico. The earliest storm to affect the state was the 1952 Groundhog Day Tropical Storm, and the latest storm to impact the state was a hurricane making landfall on December 1, 1925.
The strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall on the state was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, which crossed the Florida Keys with a pressure of 892 mbar (hPa; 26.35 inHg); it is also the strongest hurricane on record to strike the United States. Out of the ten most intense landfalling United States hurricanes, four struck Florida at peak strength.
The first recorded tropical cyclone to affect the area that is now the state of Florida occurred in 1523, when two ships and their crews were lost along the western coastline. A total 159 hurricanes are known to have affected the state prior to 1900, which collectively resulted in at least 6,504 fatalities and monetary damage of over $102 million (2017 USD). Additionally, at least 109 boats or ships were either driven ashore, wrecked, or damaged due to the storms. A strong hurricane struck northwest Florida on May 28, 1863 and is the earliest landfall during the year known in the US.
Information is sparse for earlier years due to limitations in tropical cyclone observation, though as coastlines became more populated, more data became available. The National Hurricane Center recognizes the uncertainty in both the death tolls and the dates of the events.
In the period between 1900 and 1949, 108 tropical cyclones affected the state, which collectively resulted in about $4.5 billion (2017 USD) in damage. Additionally, tropical cyclones in Florida were directly responsible for about 3,500 fatalities during the period, most of which from the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane. The 1947 season was the year with the most tropical cyclones affecting the state, with a total of 6 systems. The 1905, 1908, 1913, 1927, 1931, 1942, and 1943 seasons were the only years during the period in which a storm did not affect the state.
The strongest hurricane to hit the state during the period was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, which is the strongest hurricane on record to strike the United States. Several other major hurricanes struck the state during the period, including the 1926 Miami Hurricane, the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane, and a cyclone each in 1945 and 1949 which made landfall as a Category 4 hurricane.
In the period between 1950 and 1974, 85 tropical or subtropical cyclones impacted the state, which collectively resulted in about $7 billion (2017 USD) in damage, primarily from Hurricanes Donna and Dora. Additionally, the storms were directly responsible for 93 fatalities and indirectly for 23 more deaths. Several tropical cyclones produced over 20 inches (500 mm) of rainfall in the state, including Hurricane Easy, which is the highest total during the period. The 1969 season was the year with the most tropical cyclones affecting the state, with a total of 8 systems. The 1954 and 1967 seasons were the only years during the period in which a storm did not affect the state.
The strongest hurricane to hit the state during the period was Hurricane Donna, which was the 8th strongest hurricane on record to strike the United States. Additionally, Hurricanes Easy, King, Cleo, Isbell, and Betsy hit the state as major hurricanes.
In the period between 1975 and 1999, 83 tropical or subtropical cyclones affected the state, which collectively resulted in $51.1 billion (2017 USD) in damage, primarily from Hurricane Andrew, and 54 direct casualties. The 1985 season was the year with the most tropical cyclones affecting the state, with a total of 8 systems. Every year included at least 1 tropical cyclone affecting the state. The strongest hurricane to hit the state during the period was Hurricane Andrew, which was one of only three Category 5 hurricanes to strike the United States. Andrew, at the time, was the costliest tropical cyclone in United States history and remains the second - costliest. Additionally, Hurricanes Eloise, David, and Opal hit the state as major hurricanes.
The period from 2000 to the present was marked by several devastating North Atlantic hurricanes; as of 2017, 79 tropical or subtropical cyclones have affected the U.S. state of Florida. Collectively, cyclones in Florida over that period resulted in over $73 billion in damage (2017 USD). Additionally, tropical cyclones in Florida were responsible for 147 direct fatalities and at least 92 indirect ones during the period. Eight cyclones affected the state in both 2003 and 2005, which were the years with the most tropical cyclones impacting the state. Every year included at least one tropical cyclone affecting the state.
The strongest hurricane to hit the state during the period was Hurricane Charley, which was the strongest hurricane to strike the United States since Hurricane Andrew. Additionally, hurricanes Ivan, Jeanne, Dennis, Wilma, and Irma made landfall on the state as major hurricanes.
The following major hurricanes either made landfall on the state as a major hurricane or brought winds of Category 3 status to the state. For storms that made landfall twice or more, the maximum sustained wind speed, and hence the highest Saffir - Simpson category, at the strongest landfall is listed. Only the landfalls at major hurricane intensity are listed. A * indicates that the storm made landfall outside Florida, but brought winds of major hurricane intensity to part of the state. Storms are listed since 1851, which is the official start of the Atlantic hurricane database. Originally, hurricanes were classified by central pressure in the 20th century; however, modern practices quantify storm intensities by maximum sustained winds. United States hurricanes are still classified by central pressure from 1921 -- 1979; therefore, the maximum sustained winds in the Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT) are utilized for storms from 1921 -- 1979, since this period has not been reanalyzed by the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project.
The following is a list of hurricanes with 100 or more deaths in the state.
Lazaro Gamio of the Washington Post created a series of maps depicting the paths of all hurricanes to impact Florida from 1916 to 2015.
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when did the republican and democratic parties start | Democratic - Republican party - wikipedia
The Democratic - Republican Party was an American political party formed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in 1791 -- 1793 to oppose the centralizing policies of the new Federalist Party run by Alexander Hamilton, who was secretary of the treasury and chief architect of George Washington 's administration. From 1801 to 1825, the new party controlled the presidency and Congress as well as most states during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress and included many politicians who had been opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves "Republicans '' after their ideology, republicanism. They distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement (which became the Democratic Party in 1828) and the short - lived National Republican Party (later succeeded by the Whig Party).
The term "Democratic - Republican '' is used especially by modern political scientists for the first "Republican Party '' (as opposed to the modern Republican Party founded in 1854). It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans. Historians typically use the title "Republican Party ''. An "Anti-Administration '' faction met secretly in the national capital (Philadelphia) to oppose Hamilton 's financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism. Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a leading role in 1794 -- 1795 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain, which was then at war with France. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy. The party denounced many of Hamilton 's measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank.
The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast. It demanded states ' rights as expressed by the "Principles of 1798 '' articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers. Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election. The Federalists -- too elitist to appeal to most people -- faded away and totally collapsed after 1815. Despite internal divisions, the Republicans dominated the First Party System until partisanship itself withered away during the Era of Good Feelings after 1816.
The party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson (nominated 1796; elected 1800 -- 1801, 1804), James Madison (1808, 1812) and James Monroe (1816, 1820). By 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England. By 1824, the party was also split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions. One remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, which developed into the Whig Party by 1835.
Congressman James Madison started the party among Representatives in Philadelphia (then the national capital) as the "Republican Party ''. Then he, Jefferson and others reached out to include state and local leaders around the country, especially New York and the South. The precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate and some time by 1792 is certain. The new party set up newspapers that made withering critiques of Hamiltonianism, extolled the yeoman farmer, argued for strict construction of the Constitution, favored the French Revolution, strongly opposed Great Britain and called for stronger state governments than the Federalist Party was proposing.
The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest ''. In New York, the candidates for governor were John Jay, a Federalist; and incumbent George Clinton, who was allied with Jefferson and the Republicans. Four states ' electors voted for Clinton and one (Kentucky) for Jefferson for Vice President in opposition to incumbent John Adams as well as casting their votes for President Washington. Before 1804, electors cast two votes together without differentiation as to which office was to be filled by which candidate.
In the 1796 election, the party made its first bid for the presidency with Jefferson as its presidential candidate and Aaron Burr as its vice presidential candidate. Jefferson came in second in the electoral college (at the time, its balloting could not distinguish between President and Vice President) and became Vice President. He would become a consistent and strong opponent of the policies of the John Adams administration. Jefferson and Madison were deeply upset by the unconstitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 and they secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which called on state legislatures to nullify unconstitutional laws. However, the other states did not follow suit and several rejected the notion that states could nullify federal law. The Republican critique of federalism became wrapped in the slogan of "Principles of 1798 '', which became the hallmark of the party. The most important of these principles were states ' rights, opposition to a strong national government, distrust of the federal courts and opposition to the navy and the national bank. The party saw itself as a champion of republicanism and denounced the Federalists as supporters of monarchy and aristocracy.
The party coalesced around Jefferson, who diligently maintained extensive correspondence with like - minded Republican leaders throughout the country. Washington frequently decried the growing sense of "party '' emerging from the internal battles among Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, Adams and others in his administration. As warfare in Europe increased, the two factions increasingly made foreign policy the central political issue of the day. The Republicans wanted to maintain the 1778 alliance with France, which had overthrown the monarchy and aristocracy and become a republic. Even though Britain was by far United States ' leading trading partner, Republicans feared that increased trade would undermine republicanism. The Republicans distrusted Hamilton 's national bank and rejected his premise that a national debt was good for the country as Republicans said they were both forms of corruption. They strongly distrusted the elitism of Hamilton 's circle, denouncing it as "aristocratic ''; and they called for states ' rights lest the Federalists centralize ever more power in the national governments. The intense debate over the Jay Treaty in 1794 -- 1795 transformed those opposed to Hamilton 's policies from a loose movement into a true political party. To fight the treaty, the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns ''. However, they were defeated when Washington mobilized public opinion in favor of the treaty.
Historians have used statistical techniques to estimate the party breakdown in Congress. Many Congressmen were hard to classify in the first few years, but after 1796 there was less uncertainty.
The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians; these were slowly coalescing groups with initially considerable independent thinking and voting. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives up untill 1794 voted with Madison as much as two - thirds of the time and another quarter against him two - thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent. Albert Gallatin recalled only two caucuses on legislative policy between 1795 and 1801, one over appropriations for Jay 's Treaty and the other over the Quasi-War, but in neither case did the party decide to vote unanimously.
The new party invented some of the campaign and organizational techniques which were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize its policies. Fisher Ames, a leading Federalist, used the term "Jacobin '' to link members of Jefferson 's party to the radicals of the French Revolution. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson and wrote they were "an overmatch for any Government... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition ''.
As one historian explained: "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand ''. Outstanding propagandists included editor William Duane (1760 -- 1835) and party leaders Albert Gallatin, Thomas Cooper and Jefferson himself. Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that John J. Beckley pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand - written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Beckley told one agent: "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered ''. Beckley was the first American professional campaign manager and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states.
The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of Connecticut around 1806, which have been well documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty ''. Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total the number of taxpayers and the number of eligible voters, find out how many favored the Republicans and how many the Federalists and to count the number of supporters of each party who were not eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager and in turn were compiled and sent to the state manager. Using these lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all eligible people to town meetings and help the young men qualify to vote. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers. This highly coordinated "get - out - the - vote '' drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history.
The party 's electors secured a majority in the 1800 election, but an equal number of electors cast votes for Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The tie sent the election to the House and Federalists there blocked any choice. Hamilton, believing that Burr would be a poor choice for president, intervened and let Jefferson win, a move that would result in the collapse of the Federalist Party and Hamilton 's death four years later at the hands of Burr himself in a pistol duel. Starting in 1800 in what Jefferson called the "Revolution of 1800 '', the party took control of the presidency and both houses of Congress, beginning a quarter century of control of those institutions. A faction called "Old Republicans '' opposed the nationalism that grew popular after 1815 as they were stunned when party leaders started a Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The first official Republican Congressional Caucus meeting took place at Marache 's boarding house on May 11, 1800 in Philadelphia. The January 26, 1799 letter Thomas Jefferson wrote to Elbridge Gerry became the party 's platform.
In the Senate chamber on February 25, 1804, a "Convention of Republican members of both houses of Congress '' met. Senator Stephen Bradley presided, a Committee on Presidential Electors was formed and it was resolved that Thomas Jefferson be nominated for President and George Clinton be nominated Vice President. The party held a convention by the same name on January 23, 1808, again in the Senate chamber at 6: 00 pm on a Saturday. Senator Stephen Bradley, who was the President pro tempore of the Senate, again served as President of the convention with Representative Richard Johnson as the Secretary. A Committee on Correspondence was formed, James Madison was nominated for President and George Clinton was re-nominated for Vice President.
Legislative issues were handled by the Committee of the Whole and the elected Speaker of the House of Representatives and floor leaders, who at that time were the Chairman for the Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives and Chairman for the Committee on Finance of the Senate. The state legislatures often instructed Members of Congress how to vote on specific issues. More exactly, they "instructed '' the Senators (who were elected by the legislatures) and "requested '' the Representatives (who were elected by the people). On rare occasions a Senator resigned rather than follow instructions. The opposition Federalist Party quickly declined, suffering from a lack of leadership after the death of Hamilton and the retirement of John Adams. It revived briefly in opposition to the War of 1812, but the extremism of its Hartford Convention of 1815 utterly destroyed it as a political force.
Jefferson and Albert Gallatin focused on the danger that the public debt, unless it was paid off, would be a threat to republican values. They were appalled that Hamilton was increasing the national debt and using it to solidify his Federalist base. Gallatin was the Republican Party 's chief expert on fiscal issues and as Treasury Secretary under Jefferson and Madison worked hard to lower taxes and lower the debt, while at the same time paying cash for the Louisiana Purchase and funding the War of 1812. Burrows says of Gallatin:
His own fears of personal dependency and his small shopkeeper 's sense of integrity, both reinforced by a strain of radical republican thought that originated in England a century earlier, convinced him that public debts were a nursery of multiple public evils -- corruption, legislative impotence, executive tyranny, social inequality, financial speculation, and personal indolence. Not only was it necessary to extinguish the existing debt as rapidly as possible, he argued, but Congress would have to ensure against the accumulation of future debts by more diligently supervising government expenditures.
Fear of a large debt is a major legacy of the party. Andrew Jackson believed the national debt was a "national curse '' and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835. Politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation 's future.
In rapidly expanding western states, the Federalists had few supporters. Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership. In Pennsylvania, the Republicans were weakest around Philadelphia and strongest in Scots - Irish settlements in the west. Members came from all social classes, but came predominantly from the poor, subsistence farmers, mechanics and tradesmen. After the War of 1812, partisanship subsided across the young republic -- people called it the Era of Good Feelings. James Monroe narrowly won the party 's nomination for President in Congress over William Crawford in 1816 and defeated Federalist Rufus King in the general election.
In the early years of the party, the key central organization grew out of caucuses of Congressional leaders in Washington. However, the key battles to choose electors occurred in the states, not in the caucus. In many cases, legislatures still chose electors; and in others, the election of electors was heavily influenced by local parties that were heavily controlled by relatively small groups of officials. Without a significant Federalist opposition, the need for party unity was greatly diminished and the party 's organization faded away.
James Monroe ran under the party 's banner in the 1820 election and built support by consensus. Monroe faced no serious rival and was nearly unanimously elected by the electoral college. The party 's historic domination by the Virginian delegation faded as New York and Pennsylvania became more important. In the 1824 election, most of the party in Congress boycotted the caucus; only a small rump group backed William Crawford. The Crawford faction included most "Old Republicans '' -- those who remained committed to states ' rights and the Principles of 1798 and were distrustful of the nationalizing program promoted by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun.
Thomas Jefferson wrote on the state of party politics in the early 1820s:
An opinion prevails that there is no longer any distinction, that the republicans & Federalists are completely amalgamated but it is not so. The amalgamation is of name only, not of principle. All indeed call themselves by the name of Republicans, because that of Federalists was extinguished in the battle of New Orleans. But the truth is that finding that monarchy is a desperate wish in this country, they rally to the point which they think next best, a consolidated government. Their aim is now therefore to break down the rights reserved by the constitution to the states as a bulwark against that consolidation, the fear of which produced the whole of the opposition to the constitution at its birth. Hence new Republicans in Congress, preaching the doctrines of the old Federalists, and the new nick - names of Ultras and Radicals. But I trust they will fail under the new, as the old name, and that the friends of the real constitution and union will prevail against consolidation, as they have done against monarchism. I scarcely know myself which is most to be deprecated, a consolidation, or dissolution of the states. The horrors of both are beyond the reach of human foresight.
In the aftermath of the disputed 1824 presidential election, the separate factions took on many characteristics of parties in their own right. Adams ' supporters, in league with Clay, favored modernization, banks, industrial development and federal spending for roads and other internal improvements, which the Old Republicans and the Jackson men usually opposed. Writing in his personal journal on December 13, 1826, President Adams noted the difficulty he faced in attempting to be nonpartisan in appointing men to office:
And it is upon the occasion of appointments to office that all the wormwood and the gall of the old party hatred ooze out. Not a vacancy to any office occurs but there is a distinguished federalist started and pushed home as a candidate to fill it -- always well qualified, sometimes in an eminent degree, and yet so obnoxious to the Republican party that he can not be appointed without exciting a vehement clamor against him and against the Administration. It becomes thus impossible to fill any appointment without offending one - half the community -- the federalists, if their associate is overlooked; the Republicans, if he is preferred.
Presidential electors were now all chosen by direct election, except in South Carolina, where the state legislatures chose them. White manhood suffrage was the norm throughout the West and in most of the East as well. The voters thus were much more powerful, and to win their votes required complex party organization. Under the leadership of Martin Van Buren, a firm believer in political organization, the Jacksonians built strong state and local organizations throughout the country. The Old Republicans, or "Radicals '', mostly supported Jackson and joined with supporters of incumbent Vice President Calhoun in an alliance. President Adams was defeated by Andrew Jackson in the election of 1828.
Political parties were new in the United States, and people were not accustomed to having formal names for them. There was no single, official name for the party. Party members generally called themselves "Republicans '' and voted for what they called the "Republican party '', "republican ticket '' or "republican interest ''. Jefferson and Madison often used the terms "republican '' and "Republican party '' in their letters. The 1804 Convention of Republican members of Congress that renominated Jefferson described itself as a "regular republican caucus ''. The name Democratic - Republican was used by contemporaries only occasionally.
The term "republican '' was in widespread usage from the 1770s to describe the type of government the break - away colonies wanted to form: a republic of three separate branches of government derived from some principles and structure from ancient republics; especially the emphasis on civic duty and the opposition to corruption, elitism, aristocracy and monarchy. The word is used in the United States Constitution.
A split appeared in the then Republican party during the 1824 elections (at the end of the Monroe administration). When the election was thrown to the House of Representatives, Henry Clay backed John Quincy Adams to deny the presidency to Andrew Jackson, a longtime political rival. Jackson defeated Adams in 1828 and in the next election the first Democratic national convention took place in Baltimore, Maryland on May 21 -- 23, 1832. It nominated Andrew Jackson for a second term and he went on to win the presidential election.
The Adams / Clay alliance became the basis of the National Republican Party, a rival to the Jackson 's Democracy and one of the successors of the Democratic - Republican Party. This party favored a higher tariff in order to protect U.S. manufacturers, as well as public works, especially roads. Many former members of the defunct Federalist Party, including Daniel Webster, joined the party. After Clay 's defeat by Jackson in the 1832 presidential election, the National Republicans were absorbed into the Whig Party, a diverse group of Jackson opponents. Taking a leaf from the Jacksonians, the Whigs tended to nominate non-ideological war heroes as their presidential candidates. The Whig party fell apart in the 1850s over the question of whether to allow the expansion of slavery into new territories.
The modern Republican Party was formed in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery. Many former Whig party leaders (such as Abraham Lincoln -- modern Republican Party supporters still sometimes refer to themselves as "the party of Lincoln '') and former Free Soil Party leaders joined the newly formed anti-slavery party. The party sought to combine Jefferson 's ideals of liberty and equality with Clay 's program of using an active government to modernize the economy.
Four United States Presidents were elected following a process that selected them as a national nominee of the Democratic - Republican party:
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who built the first really efficient steam engine that could be used for numerous tasks | History of the steam engine - wikipedia
The first recorded rudimentary steam engine was the aeolipile described by Heron of Alexandria in 1st - century Roman Egypt. Several steam - powered devices were later experimented with or proposed, such as Taqi al - Din 's steam jack, a steam turbine in 16th - century Ottoman Egypt, and Thomas Savery 's steam pump in 17th - century England. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen 's atmospheric engine became the first commercially successful engine using the principle of the piston and cylinder, which was the fundamental type steam engine used until the early 20th century. The steam engine was used to pump water out of coal mines
During the Industrial Revolution, steam engines started to replace water and wind power, and eventually became the dominant source of power in the late 19th century and remaining so into the early decades of the 20th century, when the more efficient steam turbine and the internal combustion engine resulted in the rapid replacement of the steam engines. The steam turbine has become the most common method by which electrical power generators are driven. Investigations are being made into the practicalities of reviving the reciprocating steam engine as the basis for the new wave of advanced steam technology.
The earliest known rudimentary steam engine and reaction steam turbine, the aeolipile, is described by a mathematician and engineer named Heron of Alexandria (Heron) in 1st century Roman Egypt, as recorded in his manuscript Spiritalia seu Pneumatica. Steam ejected tangentially from nozzles caused a pivoted ball to rotate. Its thermal efficiency was low. This suggests that the conversion of steam pressure into mechanical movement was known in Roman Egypt in the 1st century. Heron also devised a machine that used air heated in an altar fire to displace a quantity of water from a closed vessel. The weight of the water was made to pull a hidden rope to operate temple doors. Some historians have conflated the two inventions to assert, incorrectly, that the aeolipile was capable of useful work.
According to William of Malmesbury, in 1125, Reims was home to a church that had an organ powered by air escaping from compression "by heated water '', apparently designed and constructed by professor Gerbertus.
Among the papers of Leonardo da Vinci dating to the late 15th century is the design for a steam - powered cannon called the Architonnerre which works by the sudden influx of hot water into a sealed red hot cannon.
A rudimentary impact steam turbine was described in 1551 by Taqi al - Din, a philosopher, astronomer and engineer in 16th century Ottoman Egypt, who described a method for rotating a spit by means of a jet of steam playing on rotary vanes around the periphery of a wheel. A similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by John Wilkins in 1648. These devices were then called "mills '' but are now known as steam jacks. Another similar rudimentary steam turbine is shown by Giovanni Branca, an Italian engineer, in 1629 for turning a cylindrical escapement device that alternately lifted and let fall a pair of pestles working in mortars. The steam flow of these early steam turbines, however, was not concentrated and most of its energy was dissipated in all directions. This would have led to a great waste of energy and so they were never seriously considered for industrial use.
In 1605 French mathematician Florence Rivault in his treatise on artillery wrote on his discovery that water, if confined in a bombshell and heated, would explode the shells.
In 1606, the Spaniard, Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont demonstrated and was granted a patent for a steam powered water pump. The pump was successfully used to drain the inundated mines of Guadalcanal, Spain.
"The discoveries that, when brought together by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, resulted in the steam engine were: ''
In 1643 Evangelista Torricelli conducted experiments on suction lift water pumps to test their limits, which was about 32 feet (Atmospheric pressure is 32.9 feet or 10.03 meters. Vapor pressure of water lowers theoretical lift height.). He devised an experiment using a tube filled with mercury and inverted in a bowl of mercury (a barometer) and observed an empty space above the column of mercury, which he theorized contained nothing, that is, a vacuum.
Influenced by Torricelli, Otto von Guericke invented a vacuum pump by modifying an air pump used for pressurizing an air gun. Guericke put on a demonstration in 1654 in Magdeburg, Germany, where he was mayor. Two copper hemispheres were fitted together and air was pumped out. Weights strapped to the hemispheres could not pull them apart until the air valve was opened. The experiment was repeated in 1656 using two teams of 8 horses each, which could not separate the Magdeburg hemispheres.
Gaspar Schott was the first to describe the hemisphere experiment in his Mechanica Hydraulico - Pneumatica (1657).
After reading Schott 's book, Robert Boyle built an improved vacuum pump and conducted related experiments.
Denis Papin became interested in using a vacuum to generate motive power while working with Christiaan Huygens and Gottfried Leibniz in Paris in 1663. Papin worked for Robert Boyle from 1676 to 1679, publishing an account of his work in Continuation of New Experiments (1680) and gave a presentation to Royal Society in 1689. From 1690 on Papin began experimenting with a piston to produce power with steam, building model steam engines. He experimented with atmospheric and pressure steam engines, publishing his results in 1707.
In 1663 Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions which described a method for raising water between floors employing a similar principle to that of a coffee percolator. His system was the first to separate the boiler (a heated cannon barrel) from the pumping action. Water was admitted into a reinforced barrel from a cistern, and then a valve was opened to admit steam from a separate boiler. The pressure built over the top of the water, driving it up a pipe. He installed his steam - powered device on the wall of the Great Tower at Raglan Castle to supply water through the tower. The grooves in the wall where the engine was installed were still to be seen in the 19th century. However, no one was prepared to risk money for such a revolutionary concept, and without backers the machine remained undeveloped.
Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner 's Friend. '' It employed both vacuum and pressure. These were used for low horsepower service for a number of years.
Thomas Newcomen was a merchant who dealt in cast iron goods. Newcomen 's engine was based on the piston and cylinder design proposed by Papin. In Newcomen 's engine steam was condensed by water sprayed inside the cylinder, causing atmospheric pressure to move the piston. Newcomen 's first engine installed for pumping in a mine in 1712 at Dudley Castle in Staffordshire.
Denis Papin (22 August 1647 -- c. 1712) was a French physicist, mathematician and inventor, best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the pressure cooker. In the mid-1670s Papin collaborated with the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens on an engine which drove out the air from a cylinder by exploding gunpowder inside it. Realising the incompleteness of the vacuum produced by this means and on moving to England in 1680, Papin devised a version of the same cylinder that obtained a more complete vacuum from boiling water and then allowing the steam to condense; in this way he was able to raise weights by attaching the end of the piston to a rope passing over a pulley. As a demonstration model the system worked, but in order to repeat the process the whole apparatus had to be dismantled and reassembled. Papin quickly saw that to make an automatic cycle the steam would have to be generated separately in a boiler; however, he did not take the project further. Papin also designed a paddle boat driven by a jet playing on a mill - wheel in a combination of Taqi al Din and Savery 's conceptions and he is also credited with a number of significant devices such as the safety valve. Papin 's years of research into the problems of harnessing steam was to play a key part in the development of the first successful industrial engines that soon followed his death.
The first steam engine to be applied industrially was the "fire - engine '' or "Miner 's Friend '', designed by Thomas Savery in 1698. This was a pistonless steam pump, similar to the one developed by Worcester. Savery made two key contributions that greatly improved the practicality of the design. First, in order to allow the water supply to be placed below the engine, he used condensed steam to produce a partial vacuum in the pumping reservoir (the barrel in Worcester 's example), and using that to pull the water upward. Secondly, in order to rapidly cool the steam to produce the vacuum, he ran cold water over the reservoir.
Operation required several valves; when the reservoir was empty at the start of a cycle a valve was opened to admit steam. The valve was closed to seal the reservoir and the cooling water valve turned on to condense the steam and create a partial vacuum. A supply valve was opened, pulling water upward into the reservoir, and the typical engine could pull water up to 20 feet. This was closed and the steam valve reopened, building pressure over the water and pumping it upward, as in the Worcester design. The cycle essentially doubled the distance that water could be pumped for any given pressure of steam, and production examples raised water about 40 feet.
Savery 's engine solved a problem that had only recently become a serious one; raising water out of the mines in southern England as they reached greater depths. Savery 's engine was somewhat less efficient than Newcomen 's, but this was compensated for by the fact that the separate pump used by the Newcomen engine was inefficient, giving the two engines roughly the same efficiency of 6 million foot pounds per bushel of coal (less than 1 %). Nor was the Savery engine very safe because part of its cycle required steam under pressure supplied by a boiler, and given the technology of the period the pressure vessel could not be made strong enough and so was prone to explosion. The explosion of one of his pumps at Broad Waters (near Wednesbury), about 1705, probably marks the end of attempts to exploit his invention.
The Savery engine was less expensive than Newcomen 's and was produced in smaller sizes. Some builders were manufacturing improved versions of the Savery engine until late in the 18th century. Bento de Moura Portugal, FRS, introduced an ingenious improvement of Savery 's construction "to render it capable of working itself '', as described by John Smeaton in the Philosophical Transactions published in 1751.
It was Thomas Newcomen with his "atmospheric - engine '' of 1712 who can be said to have brought together most of the essential elements established by Papin in order to develop the first practical steam engine for which there could be a commercial demand. This took the shape of a reciprocating beam engine installed at surface level driving a succession of pumps at one end of the beam. The engine, attached by chains from other end of the beam, worked on the atmospheric, or vacuum principle.
Newcomen 's design used some elements of earlier concepts. Like the Savery design, Newcomen 's engine used steam, cooled with water, to create a vacuum. Unlike Savery 's pump, however, Newcomen used the vacuum to pull on a piston instead of pulling on water directly. The upper end of the cylinder was open to the atmospheric pressure, and when the vacuum formed, the atmospheric pressure above the piston pushed it down into the cylinder. The piston was lubricated and sealed by a trickle of water from the same cistern that supplied the cooling water. Further, to improve the cooling effect, he sprayed water directly into the cylinder.
The piston was attached by a chain to a large pivoted beam. When the piston pulled the beam, the other side of the beam was pulled upward. This end was attached to a rod that pulled on a series of conventional pump handles in the mine. At the end of this power stroke, the steam valve was reopened, and the weight of the pump rods pulled the beam down, lifting the piston and drawing steam into the cylinder again.
Using the piston and beam allowed the Newcomen engine to power pumps at different levels throughout the mine, as well as eliminating the need for any high - pressure steam. The entire system was isolated to a single building on the surface. Although inefficient and extremely heavy on coal (compared to later engines), these engines raised far greater volumes of water and from greater depths than had previously been possible. Over 100 Newcomen engines were installed around England by 1735, and it is estimated that as many as 2,000 were in operation by 1800 (including Watt versions).
John Smeaton made numerous improvements to the Newcomen engine, notably the seals, and by improving these was able to almost triple their efficiency. He also preferred to use wheels instead of beams for transferring power from the cylinder, which made his engines more compact. Smeaton was the first to develop a rigorous theory of steam engine design of operation. He worked backward from the intended role to calculate the amount of power that would be needed for the task, the size and speed of a cylinder that would provide it, the size of boiler needed to feed it, and the amount of fuel it would consume. These were developed empirically after studying dozens of Newcomen engines in Cornwall and Newcastle, and building an experimental engine of his own at his home in Austhorpe in 1770. By the time the Watt engine was introduced only a few years later, Smeaton had built dozens of ever - larger engines into the 100 hp range.
While working at the University of Glasgow as an instrument maker and repairman in 1759, James Watt was introduced to the power of steam by Professor John Robison. Fascinated, Watt took to reading everything he could on the subject, and independently developed the concept of latent heat, only recently published by Joseph Black at the same university. When Watt learned that the University owned a small working model of a Newcomen engine, he pressed to have it returned from London where it was being unsuccessfully repaired. Watt repaired the machine, but found it was barely functional even when fully repaired.
After working with the design, Watt concluded that 80 % of the steam used by the engine was wasted. Instead of providing motive force, it was instead being used to heat the cylinder. In the Newcomen design, every power stroke was started with a spray of cold water, which not only condensed the steam, but also cooled the walls of the cylinder. This heat had to be replaced before the cylinder would accept steam again. In the Newcomen engine the heat was supplied only by the steam, so when the steam valve was opened again the vast majority condensed on the cold walls as soon as it was admitted to the cylinder. It took a considerable amount of time and steam before the cylinder warmed back up and the steam started to fill it up.
Watt solved the problem of the water spray by removing the cold water to a different cylinder, placed beside the power cylinder. Once the induction stroke was complete a valve was opened between the two, and any steam that entered the cylinder would condense inside this cold cylinder. This would create a vacuum that would pull more of the steam into the cylinder, and so on until the steam was mostly condensed. The valve was then closed, and operation of the main cylinder continued as it would on a conventional Newcomen engine. As the power cylinder remained at operational temperature throughout, the system was ready for another stroke as soon as the piston was pulled back to the top. Maintaining the temperature was a jacket around the cylinder where steam was admitted. Watt produced a working model in 1765.
Convinced that this was a great advance, Watt entered into partnerships to provide venture capital while he worked on the design. Not content with this single improvement, Watt worked tirelessly on a series of other improvements to practically every part of the engine. Watt further improved the system by adding a small vacuum pump to pull the steam out of the cylinder into the condenser, further improving cycle times. A more radical change from the Newcomen design was closing off the top of the cylinder and introducing low - pressure steam above the piston. Now the power was not due to the difference of atmospheric pressure and the vacuum, but the pressure of the steam and the vacuum, a somewhat higher value. On the upward return stroke, the steam on top was transferred through a pipe to the underside of the piston ready to be condensed for the downward stroke. Sealing of the piston on a Newcomen engine had been achieved by maintaining a small quantity of water on its upper side. This was no longer possible in Watt 's engine due to the presence of the steam. Watt spent considerable effort to find a seal that worked, eventually obtained by using a mixture of tallow and oil. The piston rod also passed through a gland on the top cylinder cover sealed in a similar way.
The piston sealing problem was due to having no way to produce a sufficiently round cylinder. Watt tried having cylinders bored from cast iron, but they were too out of round. Watt was forced to use a hammered iron cylinder. The following quotation is from Roe (1916):
"When (John) Smeaton first saw the engine he reported to the Society of Engineers that ' neither the tools nor the workmen existed who could manufacture such a complex machine with sufficient precision ' ''
Watt finally considered the design good enough to release in 1774, and the Watt engine was released to the market. As portions of the design could be easily fitted to existing Newcomen engines, there was no need to build an entirely new engine at the mines. Instead, Watt and his business partner Matthew Boulton licensed the improvements to engine operators, charging them a portion of the money they would save in reduced fuel costs. The design was wildly successful, and the Boulton and Watt company was formed to license the design and help new manufacturers build the engines. The two would later open the Soho Foundry to produce engines of their own.
In 1774 John Wilkinson invented a boring machine with the shaft holding the boring tool supported on both ends, extending through the cylinder, unlike the then used cantilevered borers. With this machine he was able to successfully bore the cylinder for Boulton and Watt 's first commercial engine in 1776.
Watt never ceased improving his designs. This further improved the operating cycle speed, introduced governors, automatic valves, double - acting pistons, a variety of rotary power takeoffs and many other improvements. Watt 's technology enabled the widespread commercial use of stationary steam engines.
Humphrey Gainsborough produced a model condensing steam engine in the 1760s, which he showed to Richard Lovell Edgeworth, a member of the Lunar Society. Gainsborough believed that Watt had used his ideas for the invention; however James Watt was not a member of the Lunar Society at this period and his many accounts explaining the succession of thought processes leading to the final design would tend to belie this story.
Power was still limited by the low pressure, the displacement of the cylinder, combustion and evaporation rates and condenser capacity. Maximum theoretical efficiency was limited by the relatively low temperature differential on either side of the piston; this meant that for a Watt engine to provide a usable amount of power, the first production engines had to be very large, and were thus expensive to build and install.
Watt developed a double - acting engine in which steam drove the piston in both directions, thereby increasing the engine speed and efficiency. The double - acting principle also significantly increased the output of a given physical sized engine.
Boulton & Watt developed the reciprocating engine into the rotative type. Unlike the Newcomen engine, the Watt engine could operate smoothly enough to be connected to a drive shaft -- via sun and planet gears -- to provide rotary power along with double - acting condensing cylinders. The earliest example was built as a demonstrator and was installed in Boulton 's factory to work machines for lapping (polishing) buttons or similar. For this reason it was always known as the Lap Engine. In early steam engines the piston is usually connected by a rod to a balanced beam, rather than directly to a flywheel, and these engines are therefore known as beam engines.
Early steam engines did not provide constant enough speed for critical operations such as cotton spinning. To control speed the engine was used to pump water for a water wheel, which powered the machinery.
As the 18th century advanced, the call was for higher pressures; this was strongly resisted by Watt who used the monopoly his patent gave him to prevent others from building high - pressure engines and using them in vehicles. He mistrusted the boiler technology of the day, the way they were constructed and the strength of the materials used.
The important advantages of high - pressure engines were:
The disadvantages were:
The main difference between how high - pressure and low - pressure steam engines work is the source of the force that moves the piston. In the engines of Newcomen and Watt, it is the condensation of the steam that creates most of the pressure difference, causing atmospheric pressure (Newcomen) and low - pressure steam, seldom more than 7 psi boiler pressure, plus condenser vacuum (Watt), to move the piston. In a high - pressure engine, most of the pressure difference is provided by the high - pressure steam from the boiler; the low - pressure side of the piston may be at atmospheric pressure or connected to the condenser pressure. Newcomen 's indicator diagram, almost all below the atmospheric line, would see a revival nearly 200 years later with the low pressure cylinder of triple expansion engines contributing about 20 % of the engine power, again almost completely below the atmospheric line.
The first known advocate of "strong steam '' was Jacob Leupold in his scheme for an engine that appeared in encyclopaedic works from around 1725. Various projects for steam propelled boats and vehicles also appeared throughout the century one of the most promising being Nicolas - Joseph Cugnot 's who demonstrated his "fardier '' (steam wagon), in 1769. Whilst the working pressure used for this vehicle is unknown, the small size of the boiler gave insufficient steam production rate to allow the fardier to advance more than a few hundred metres at a time before having to stop to raise steam. Other projects and models were proposed, but as with William Murdoch 's model of 1784, many were blocked by Boulton and Watt.
This did not apply in the US, and in 1788 a steamboat built by John Fitch operated in regular commercial service along the Delaware River between Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Burlington, New Jersey, carrying as many as 30 passengers. This boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour, and traveled more than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a commercial success, as this route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. In 1802 William Symington built a practical steamboat, and in 1807 Robert Fulton used a Watt steam engine to power the first commercially successful steamboat.
Oliver Evans in his turn was in favour of "strong steam '' which he applied to boat engines and to stationary uses. He was a pioneer of cylindrical boilers; however Evans ' boilers did suffer several serious boiler explosions, which tended to lend weight to Watt 's qualms. He founded the Pittsburgh Steam Engine Company in 1811 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company introduced high - pressure steam engines to the riverboat trade in the Mississippi watershed.
The first high - pressure steam engine was invented in 1800 by Richard Trevithick.
The importance of raising steam under pressure (from a thermodynamic standpoint) is that it attains a higher temperature. Thus, any engine using high - pressure steam operates at a higher temperature and pressure differential than is possible with a low - pressure vacuum engine. The high - pressure engine thus became the basis for most further development of reciprocating steam technology. Even so, around the year 1800, "high pressure '' amounted to what today would be considered very low pressure, i.e. 40 - 50 psi (276 - 345 kPa), the point being that the high - pressure engine in question was non-condensing, driven solely by the expansive power of the steam, and once that steam had performed work it was usually exhausted at higher - than - atmospheric pressure. The blast of the exhausting steam into the chimney could be exploited to create induced draught through the fire grate and thus increase the rate of burning, hence creating more heat in a smaller furnace, at the expense of creating back pressure on the exhaust side of the piston.
On 21 February 1804, at the Penydarren ironworks at Merthyr Tydfil in South Wales, the first self - propelled railway steam engine or steam locomotive, built by Richard Trevithick, was demonstrated.
Around 1811 Richard Trevithick was required to update a Watt pumping engine in order to adapt it to one of his new large cylindrical Cornish boilers. When Trevithick left for South America in 1816, his improvements were continued by William Sims. In a parallel, Arthur Woolf developed a compound engine with two cylinders, so that steam expanded in a high - pressure cylinder before being released into a low - pressure one. Efficiency was further improved by Samuel Groase, who insulated the boiler, engine, and pipes.
Steam pressure above the piston was increased eventually reaching 40 psi (0.28 MPa) or even 50 psi (0.34 MPa) and now provided much of the power for the downward stroke; at the same time condensing was improved. This considerably raised efficiency and further pumping engines on the Cornish system (often known as Cornish engines) continued to be built new throughout the 19th century. Older Watt engines were updated to conform.
The take - up of these Cornish improvements was slow in textile manufacturing areas where coal was cheap, due to the higher capital cost of the engines and the greater wear that they suffered. The change only began in the 1830s, usually by compounding through adding another (high - pressure) cylinder.
Another limitation of early steam engines was speed variability, which made them unsuitable for many textile applications, especially spinning. In order to obtain steady speeds, early steam powered textile mills used the steam engine to pump water to a water wheel, which drove the machinery.
Many of these engines were supplied worldwide and gave reliable and efficient service over a great many years with greatly reduced coal consumption. Some of them were very large and the type continued to be built right down to the 1890s.
The Corliss steam engine (patented 1849) was called the greatest improvement since James Watt. The Corliss engine had greatly improved speed control and better efficiency, making it suitable to all sorts of industrial applications, including spinning.
Corliss used separate ports for steam supply and exhaust, which prevented the exhaust from cooling the passage used by the hot steam. Corliss also used partially rotating valves that provided quick action, helping to reduce pressure losses. The valves themselves were also a source of reduced friction, especially compared to the slide valve, which typically used 10 % of an engine 's power.
Corliss used automatic variable cut off. The valve gear controlled engine speed by using the governor to vary the timing of the cut off. This was partly responsible for the efficiency improvement in addition to the better speed control.
The Porter - Allen engine, introduced in 1862, used an advanced valve gear mechanism developed for Porter by Allen, a mechanic of exceptional ability, and was at first generally known as the Allen engine. The high speed engine was a precision machine that was well balanced, achievements made possible by advancements in machine tools and manufacturing technology.
The high speed engine ran at piston speeds from three to five times the speed of ordinary engines. It also had low speed variability. The high speed engine was widely used in sawmills to power circular saws. Later it was used for electrical generation.
The engine had several advantages. It could, in some cases, be directly coupled. If gears or belts and drums were used, they could be much smaller sizes. The engine itself was also small for the amount of power it developed.
Porter greatly improved the fly - ball governor by reducing the rotating weight and adding a weight around the shaft. This significantly improved speed control. Porter 's governor became the leading type by 1880.
The efficiency of the Porter - Allen engine was good, but not equal to the Corliss engine.
The uniflow engine was the most efficient type of high - pressure engine. It was invented in 1911 and was used in ships, but was displaced by steam turbines and later marine diesel engines.
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are the blue lagoon characters brother and sister | The Blue Lagoon (novel) - wikipedia
The Blue Lagoon is a romance novel written by Henry De Vere Stacpoole and was first published by T. Fisher Unwin in 1908. It is the first novel of the Blue Lagoon trilogy, which also includes The Garden of God (1923) and The Gates of Morning (1925). The novel has inspired several film adaptations, most notably The Blue Lagoon starring Brooke Shields as Emmeline and Christopher Atkins as Richard ("Dicky '' in the book).
The story centers on two cousins, Dicky and Emmeline Lestrange, who are marooned with a galley cook on an island in the South Pacific following a shipwreck. The galley cook, Paddy Button, assumes responsibility for the children and teaches them how to survive, cautioning them to avoid the "arita '' berries, which he calls "the never - wake - up berries. ''
Two - and - a-half years after the shipwreck, Paddy dies following a drinking binge. The children survive on their resourcefulness and the bounty of their remote paradise. They live in a hut and spend their days fishing, swimming, diving for pearls, and exploring the island.
As the years pass, Dicky and Emmeline grow into physically mature young adults and begin to fall in love. Ignorant of their human sexuality, they do not understand or know how to express their physical attraction to one another. Eventually, they consummate their relationship. The author, Henry De Vere Stacpoole, describes their sexual encounter as having been "conducted just as the birds conduct their love affairs. An affair absolutely natural, absolutely blameless, and without sin. It was a marriage according to nature, without feast or guests. ''
Dicky becomes very attentive toward Emmeline, listening to her stories and bringing her gifts. Over several months they make love often and eventually Emmeline becomes pregnant. The couple does not understand the physical changes happening to Emmeline 's body and have no knowledge of childbirth. When the day comes for delivery, Emmeline disappears into the forest and returns with a child. They discover over time that the baby requires a name and they call him Hannah because they have only ever known an infant called by that name.
Dicky and Emmeline teach Hannah how to swim, fish, throw spears, and play in the mud. They survive a violent tropical cyclone and other natural hazards of island life.
Back in San Francisco, Arthur, Dicky 's father and Emmeline 's uncle, believes the two are still alive and is determined to find them, after recognizising a child 's tea set belonging to Emmeline which was retrieved by a whaler on an island. Arthur finds a captain willing to take him to the island and they set out.
Meanwhile, Dicky, Emmeline, and Hannah row their lifeboat to the place where they had once lived with Paddy as children. Emmeline breaks a branch off the deadly arita plant as Dicky cuts bananas on the shore. While in the boat with her son, Emmeline fails to notice that Hannah has tossed one of the oars into the sea. The tide comes in and sweeps the boat into the lagoon, leaving Emmeline and Hannah stranded. As Dicky swims to them, he is pursued by a shark. Emmeline strikes the shark with the remaining oar, earning Dicky time to climb into the boat safely.
Although they are not far from shore, the trio can not get back without the oars and they are unable to retrieve them from the water because of the shark. The boat is then caught in the current and drifts out to sea; all the while Emmeline still grasps the arita branch.
Sometime later, Arthur 's ship comes across the lifeboat and finds the three unconscious but still breathing. The arita branch is now bare save for one berry. Arthur asks, "Are they dead? '' and the captain replies, "No, sir. They are asleep. '' The ambiguous ending leaves it uncertain whether or not they can be revived.
Four films have been based on this novel:
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when is season 7 of suits coming out | Suits (season 7) - wikipedia
The seventh season of the American legal drama Suits was ordered on August 3, 2016, and started airing on USA Network in the United States July 12, 2017. The season has five series regulars playing employees at the fictional Pearson Specter Litt law firm in Manhattan: Gabriel Macht, Patrick J. Adams, Rick Hoffman, Meghan Markle, and Sarah Rafferty. Gina Torres is credited as the sixth regular only for the episodes that she appears in, following her departure last season.
The season featured the 100th episode of the series, which was directed by Patrick J. Adams and aired August 30, 2017. To celebrate the series ' milestone, the main cast (including Gina Torres) and creator Aaron Korsh came together at ATX Television Festival for a live read - through of the series ' pilot script. They were joined by Abigail Spencer and Nick Wechsler to read for the episode 's guest stars.
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who's logo at the end of avengers | Untitled Avengers film - wikipedia
The untitled Avengers film, colloquially referred to as Avengers 4, is an upcoming American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is intended to be the direct sequel to 2018 's Avengers: Infinity War, as well as the sequel to 2012 's Marvel 's The Avengers and 2015 's Avengers: Age of Ultron and the twenty - second film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, with a screenplay by the writing team of Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely, and features an ensemble cast with many actors from previous MCU films.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 2. The Russo brothers came on board to direct in April 2015 and by May, Markus and McFeely signed on to script the film. In July 2016, Marvel removed the film 's title, referring to it simply as Untitled Avengers film. Filming began in August 2017 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, shooting back - to - back with Avengers: Infinity War, and ended in January 2018. Additional filming took place in the Downtown and Metro Atlanta areas.
The untitled Avengers film is scheduled to be released in the United States on May 3, 2019, in IMAX and 3D.
Additionally, Letitia Wright reprises her role as Shuri, and Hiroyuki Sanada has been cast in an undisclosed role. Avengers co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo in the film.
In October 2014, Marvel announced a two - part sequel to Age of Ultron, titled Avengers: Infinity War. Part 1 was scheduled to be released on May 4, 2018, with Part 2 scheduled for May 3, 2019. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct both parts of Avengers: Infinity War, with back - to - back filming expected to begin in 2016. Also in the month, Kevin Feige said the films would be two, distinct films "because they (have) such shared elements, it felt appropriate... to (subtitle the films) like that. But I would n't call it one story that 's cut in half. I would say it 's going to be two distinct movies. '' By May 2015, Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely signed on to write the screenplays for both parts of the film. The following May, the Russos revealed that they would be retitling the two films, to further remove the misconception that the films were one large film split in two, with Joe stating, "The intention is we will change (the titles), we just have n't come up with (them) yet. '' In July 2016, Marvel removed the film 's title, simply referring to it as Untitled Avengers film. Feige and the Russo brothers indicated the title was being withheld because it would give away plot details for this film and Infinity War, with Feige suggesting the title would be revealed at the end of 2018.
Principal photography began on August 10, 2017, under the working title Mary Lou 2, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with Trent Opaloch serving as director of photography. The film, along with Infinity War, were shot using IMAX / Arri 2D cameras, thus marking the first time that a Hollywood feature film was shot entirely with IMAX digital cameras. Also in the month, filming occurred in The Gulch area of Downtown Atlanta, near the Five Points MARTA station, and Piedmont Park. Feige stated that the films were originally scheduled to be filmed simultaneously but instead decided to shoot them back - to - back explaining, "We 're doing them one right after another. It became too complicated to cross-board them like that, and we found ourselves -- again, something would always pay the price. We wanted to be able to focus and shoot one movie and then focus and shoot another movie. '' Anthony Russo originally felt it made more sense to shoot the films simultaneously due to financial and logistical reasons considering the large number of cast members, even though each part is its own distinct film, and suggested that "some days we 'll be shooting the first movie and some days we 'll be shooting the second movie. Just jumping back and forth. '' Production wrapped on January 11, 2018, although additional filming is scheduled to take place in Edinburgh and Glasgow, Scotland in July 2018, with additional reshoots scheduled from mid-2018 until September 2018 in Atlanta and New York City.
In June 2016, Alan Silvestri, who composed the score for The Avengers, was revealed to be returning to score both Infinity War and the untitled sequel.
The untitled Avengers film is scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on April 26, 2019, and United States on May 3, 2019, in IMAX and 3D.
Germain Lussier of io9 spoke to the approach Marvel might have to take in marketing the film, given the end of Infinity War, which sees many established characters die. He questioned if those characters would appear on posters and in toy campaigns, and if the actors portraying them would participate in press events leading up to the film 's release. Lussier felt Disney and Marvel could focus on the original Avengers team members, who make up the majority of the living characters, but noted it would be more beneficial to show the return of the dead characters, which would "build a mystery and curiosity about how they come back. It could create a whole new level of interest about the film while having all the stars front and center, as they should be ''. In June 2018, Feige spoke to this, stated that these dead characters would not be featured in any marketing for the film, though the decision regarding that could change. He presented "exclusive glimpses '' from the film at CineEurope, including a scene featuring Tony Stark and Scott Lang, and said that the official marketing campaign for the film would begin at the end of 2018 with the announcement of the film 's title then.
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what was the role of the elizabethan privy council | Elizabethan government - wikipedia
England under Elizabeth I 's reign, the Elizabethan Era, was ruled by the very structured and complicated Elizabethan government. It was divided into the national bodies (the monarch, Privy Council, and Parliament), the regional bodies (the Council of the North and Council of the Marches), the county, community bodies and the court system.
Elizabeth I had a very tough time gaining power, this was because her dad, Henry VIII, wanted a male heir so the family name would continue. When Henry finally got his male heir, Edward VI, he became the new successor. However when Henry died Edward was only 9 years old, and so he had advisers who ran the country for him. But at the age of 15 Edward dies, Mary I becomes the first female Queen, and takes the name of ' bloody Mary '. She took this name because of all the protestants she executed for being of a different religion. When Mary dies, Elizabeth becomes Queen however that was n't the end of the hardship.
The monarch of England during the Elizabethan Era was Queen Elizabeth I and her family.
The government was very much a personal monarchy with ministers. The monarch 's personality determined the style, intensity, and efficiency.
Back then, the monarch was a ruler, unlike the modern monarchs who are more like figureheads. The monarch was the ultimate decider and was able to determine issues of national religion, when Parliament would sit and what it would discuss, when and if the country would go to war, matters of education, welfare of the citizens, what food they could eat, and what clothes they could wear. She also had various counselors and officials to aid her rule. The queen could choose who would help her govern.
The Divine Right of Kings gave the monarch the image of a Demigod. This strengthened authority made going against the monarch considered a sin. Not obeying the queen was considered treason and was punishable by death. The queen had the power to send one to prison and order executions.
All laws required her consent to be passed. Generally, she could not pass laws herself -- she had to draw up a Bill and put it forward to Parliament. However, she could make Royal Proclamations without Parliament 's consent.
Even with this much power, the monarch was not above the law, and she could be brought to court.
Elizabeth is considered by many to be one of England 's best monarchs. She was wise and just, chose good advisers and was n't dominated by them, dealt with the stubbornly resistant Parliaments without being tyrannous, and was skilled at compromising in both religious and political matters. She ruled for 45 years and was the sixth and last of the Tudor dynasty.
Sir William Cecil (named Lord Burghley in 1571) was her chief adviser and supervised the whole administration. He was also Secretary of State from 1558 to 1572 and Lord Treasurer from 1572 to his death in 1598. Sir Francis Walsingham was famous for uncovering many Catholic plots against Elizabeth; he filled in as Secretary of State from 1572 to his death in 1590. Sir Robert Cecil, second son of Sir William Cecil, was Secretary of State in 1596 and master of Court of Wards after a clash with Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex. He then became dominant in the government.
Sir Nicholas Bacon, Sir Francis Bacon, Sir Francis Knollys, and Sir Walter Mildmay were important bureaucrats of Elizabeth.
Along with these, she had many favourites. Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester was Elizabeth 's most important favourite during the first thirty years of her reign. He was most influential at court and one of the chief privy councillors. In 1585 - 1587, he commanded the English army in the Netherlands, and was appointed Governor - General of the Netherlands in 1586 by the Dutch (against Elizabeth 's wishes); he gave up his post in December 1587, and was appointed general of the armies to repel the Spanish invasion in 1588, but died shortly after. Sir Christopher Hatton, another favourite, became captain of her bodyguard in 1572, her spokesman in the House of Commons, and was made Lord Chancellor in 1587 despite little legal training, he was also an eminent privy councillor. Sir Walter Raleigh was such a favourite that he was showered with gifts, including the right to take possession of land in the New World, where he organised the exploration of what would be Virginia.
The Privy Council was Elizabeth 's group of advisers. Its main purpose was to give numerous different opinions and the monarch decided on the issue at hand. (However, the advice was often ignored; the Council still carried out her wishes.) Routine administration was usually left to the Council. It was involved in matters of religion, military, the queen 's security, economics, and the welfare of the citizens. It dealt with both matters of national and individual interest, issued proclamations in the queen 's name, and supervised law and enforcement.
The Council could make decisions, but the monarch could veto anything without question.
Who was in it depended on who the queen wanted there. However, certain powerful noblemen were necessary in the Council so that their and their realms ' interests were represented so that a rebellion would be avoided. Believing that more members (and therefore more different opinions) would cause more problems, Elizabeth dropped the previous member count of 50 to 19 and eventually 11 by 1597. The Counselors employed assistants who did most of the work.
At first, they met only 3 times a week; by the end of Elizabeth 's reign, they met almost every day.
The Secretary of State led the Council. Sir William Cecil effectively led it; he was wise, cautious, cooperative with Elizabeth, trusted above all others, Elizabeth 's personal secretary, and chief adviser until his death, and therefore very influential; due to his great administrative ability, he had the reputation of one of the greatest English statesmen -- historians have even debated whether the success of Elizabeth 's rule was more due to Sir William Cecil or Elizabeth. His son was also a member of Queen Elizabeth 's Privy council.
The group of representatives, called Parliament, was divided into the House of Lords (or the Upper House), which consisted of nobility and higher clergy such as bishops and archbishops, and the House of Commons (or the Lower House), which consisted of common people.
Unlike the modern British Parliament, it had much less power, no Prime Minister or cabinet, and no political parties.
The main function of Parliament was dealing with financial matters (taxation and granting the queen money). Generally, the monarch paid for daily administration with ordinary revenues (customs, feudal dues, and sales of land) while Parliament covered extraordinary expenditures (such as war) with taxation. However, taxation did n't supply enough for military expenditures; therefore, more land was sold along with probably illegal scheming. Parliament was also used for passing laws. 438 laws were passed under Elizabeth 's reign. They were either public, in which case they applied to all, or private, in which case they only applied to certain people. Only another Parliament could undo one. They required approval by both houses thrice and the queen. However, the queen could make Royal Proclamations without Parliament 's consent. Another purpose of Parliament was to advise. Nonetheless, Elizabeth was almost never interested in Parliament 's advice.
Elections occurred only for the House of Commons. Who was in Parliament depended mainly on who was supported by the important local people. Only those that were male and received a certain annual income could vote.
The monarch decided when Parliament was to be called. In total, Elizabeth only called Parliament thirteen times, 11 of which were to ask for money.
Local governments were important in Tudor England.
Royal representatives (Justices of the Peace, Sheriffs, and Lords Lieutenant) were appointed in every county; they ensured that the queen 's commands and laws were obeyed.
Regional governments helped oversee parts of England that the Privy Council could not supervise. The Council of the North, which resided in York, oversaw Northern England, while the Council of the Marches, which resided in Ludlow, oversaw Wales and some border counties.
Manors were run by nobility and gentry. Land was power at the time; those with land received payments from the tenants on their land and from their workers. Thus they had significant wealth and influence. They also had responsibilities, for they were meant to aid the monarch by governing their land. Local grievances were taken to the lord of the manor; on the other hand, tenants were loyal to him -- if called upon, they were obliged to go to war. The lord 's views tended to greatly influence those of his largely uneducated tenants.
Each city and town had its own government, headed by a mayor as well.
The courts made up the judicial system of Elizabethan England.
The most important courts were the Great Sessions Courts or the Assizes, which were held twice a year in each county, and the Quarter Sessions Courts, which were held four times in a year. These two dealt with most crimes. The Assizes was famous for its power to inflict harsh punishments.
Unimportant crimes were handled by the Petty Sessions Courts, Manor Courts, and town courts. Civil cases were dealt with by various courts, depending on the person 's monetary status; the wealthy were tried by the Star Chamber, one of the highest profile courts which consisted of mostly Privy Counselors. The Court of Chancery also judged criminal cases, the Exchequer of Pleas dealt with financial suits, the Court of Requests with the poor ("the court of the poor man 's causes, '' as it was known), Church Courts with religious and moral cases, and other specific courts with other specific matters.
Committers of high treason and other serious crimes received the death sentence (often handled by the queen). Often a violent death sentence in the case of high treason involving being hanged, taken down before dead, dragged face downward through the streets, and then hacked into four pieces or quartered only to have the remains displayed in a public place to discourage others from committing treason. Those of lesser crimes were sent to prison or the stocks. Uses of the pillory, ducking stool, the Brank, The Drunkards Cloak, Burning, the Wheel and other forms of punishment and torture were also common during this time.
A strict aristocracy helped Elizabeth maintain the dominance of her reign. She also has thousands of guards enforcing the city and the castle in case of any riots. If riots were to happen, there would be fireballs made of rock strewn and shot at the rioters.
Elizabethan government concerning foreign policy is often accused of being affected by factionalism. This appears true in the later secion of her reign, post-Armada, when factions led by the Earl of Essex, and the Cecils, argued over which way the war against Spain should proceed. Essex, keen for glory and prestige, favored an expensive land based military strategy, whilst the Cecil faction advocated a cheaper moderate naval strategy. Due to the conflicting factions no policy was explicitly followed and each side frequently tried to undermine the others, resulting in a confused foreign policy.
Faction pre-Armada is harder to analyze. The traditional view put forward by Read and Neale, suggests that William Cecil (later Lord Burghley) was continually in faction against Robert Dudley, over issues such as marriage and most importantly intervention in the Netherlands. Revisionist historian Adams defines faction as "one group of people employed in direct opposition to another. '' It is on this premise that historians such as John Guy argue there was no true faction in the Council at this stage, disagreements were primarily over individual opinions, and judgements over how to proceed; all councilors, after the removal of conservative Norfolk, were agreed that Elizabeth should look to further and protect the Protestant cause. Leicester and Walsingham saw intervention in the Netherlands as the best way to achieve this, whilst Cecil was more moderate.
The Elizabethan Era is famous for its playwrights (William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson) that thrived during this period; Francis Drake, the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world; and Sir Walter Raleigh 's exploration of the New World. The stability and structure of the government helped to allow the arts to flourish and prompted other achievements in exploration.
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list of longest winning streaks in mlb history | List of Major League Baseball longest winning streaks - wikipedia
This is a list of the longest team winning streaks or unbeaten streaks in Major League Baseball history. Streaks started at the end of one season are carried over into the following season. The lists below include streaks that consist entirely of regular - season games, streaks from the predecessor National Association (1871 -- 1875), streaks of playoff games and World Series games, and streaks that include both regular - season and postseason games.
The 1916 New York Giants hold the record for the longest unbeaten streak in MLB history at 26, with a tie in - between the 14th and 15th win. The record for the longest winning streak by an American League team is held by the 2017 Cleveland Indians at 22. The Chicago Cubs franchise has won 21 games twice, once in 1880 when they were the Chicago White Stockings and once in 1935.
The longest winning streak consisting only of playoff games stands at 12 consecutive wins, by the 1927, 1928 and 1932 New York Yankees (who swept the World Series all three seasons) and tied by the 1998 -- 99 Yankees. For streaks that have included both regular and postseason games, the 1970 and 1971 Baltimore Orioles hold the top two positions with 17 and 16 consecutive victories, respectively.
Several entries in the table are denoted as including ties. In the early days of baseball, a game that was postponed due to weather or darkness was replayed from the beginning (instead of being resumed from that point), but all statistics from the game were counted. In official records, the game is unofficial but is listed as a tie.
This list contains the top 30 streaks consisting entirely of regular - season games.
Denotes season in which team won a pennant in the American Association
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason games.
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of World Series games.
(tie)
This list includes streaks that involve both regular season games and games which occurred in the postseason.
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason series. For the purpose of this list, one - game wild card matchups, such as the 2012 Cardinals ' win, and the Giants ' wild card wins in 2014 and 2016, are counted.
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who sings mommy's alright daddy's alright | Surrender (Cheap Trick song) - wikipedia
"Surrender '' is a single by Cheap Trick released in June 1978 from the album Heaven Tonight. It was the first Cheap Trick single to enter the Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at number 62. Its success in Japan, as well as the success of its preceding singles "Clock Strikes Ten '' and "I Want You to Want Me '', paved the way for Cheap Trick 's famous concerts at Nippon Budokan in Tokyo in April 1978 that were recorded for the group 's most popular album Cheap Trick at Budokan.
Rolling Stone deemed it "the ultimate Seventies teen anthem '' and ranked it # 471 on its list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The song originates from 1976, as like many other Cheap Trick songs it was played in concert before its release.
"Surrender '' is composed in B - flat major, with a key change to B major following the instrumental intro, and a key change to C major after the second time of the chorus.
"Surrender '' is a late 1970s teen anthem, describing the relations between the baby boomer narrator and his G.I. generation parents. His mother, having served in the Women 's Army Corps (WAC) in the Philippines, frequently warns him about the girls he will meet, as he will never know what diseases he will catch from them. The narrator describes how his parents are weirder and hipper than many teens would believe. For example, the narrator describes how he discovers his "mom and dad are rolling on the couch '' and listening to his Kiss records late at night ("rolling numbers, rock - and - rolling, got my Kiss records out '').
In the 2007 book Shake Some Action: The Ultimate Power Pop Guide, a section on Cheap Trick featured reviews on the top 20 stand - out tracks from the band. One track included was "Surrender '', where the author John M. Borack wrote "A no - brainer selection, to be sure, but since I believe that it 's clinically impossible to get tired of this rock and roll funhouse, it belongs here. A stone classic for the ages. ''
The song was featured in the film Pixels. It was also used in the film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and it was featured in its soundtrack. It appeared in the season / series finale "Elegy Part: 2 '' of Training Day. The song was also featured in EA 's video game Skate.
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different types of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks | Igneous rock - wikipedia
Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire), or magmatic rock, is one of the three main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet 's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Solidification into rock occurs either below the surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks. Igneous rock may form with crystallization to form granular, crystalline rocks, or without crystallization to form natural glasses.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up 90 -- 95 % of the top 16 km of the Earth 's crust by volume. Igneous rocks form about 15 % of the Earth 's current land surface. Most of the Earth 's oceanic crust is made of igneous rock.
Igneous rocks are also geologically important because:
In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either intrusive (plutonic and hypabyssal) or extrusive (volcanic).
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of a planet, surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock); the magma cools slowly and, as a result, these rocks are coarse - grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, laccoliths, sills and dikes. When the magma solidifies within the earth 's crust, it cools slowly forming coarse textured rocks, such as granite, gabbro, or diorite.
The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called batholiths) may occupy huge areas of the Earth 's surface.
Intrusive igneous rocks that form at depth within the crust are termed plutonic (or abyssal) rocks and are usually coarse - grained. Intrusive igneous rocks that form near the surface are termed subvolcanic or hypabyssal rocks and they are usually medium - grained. Hypabyssal rocks are less common than plutonic or volcanic rocks and often form dikes, sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, or phacoliths.
Extrusive igneous rocks, also known as volcanic rocks, are formed at the crust 's surface as a result of the partial melting of rocks within the mantle and crust. Extrusive igneous rocks cool and solidify quicker than intrusive igneous rocks. They are formed by the cooling of molten magma on the earth 's surface. The magma, which is brought to the surface through fissures or volcanic eruptions, solidifies at a faster rate. Hence such rocks are smooth, crystalline and fine - grained. Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock and forms lava flows, lava sheets and lava plateaus. Some kinds of basalt solidify to form long polygonal columns. The Giant 's Causeway in Antrim, Northern Ireland is an example.
The molten rock, with or without suspended crystals and gas bubbles, is called magma. It rises because it is less dense than the rock from which it was created. When magma reaches the surface from beneath water or air, it is called lava. Eruptions of volcanoes into air are termed subaerial, whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed submarine. Black smokers and mid-ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity.
The volume of extrusive rock erupted annually by volcanoes varies with plate tectonic setting. Extrusive rock is produced in the following proportions:
Magma that erupts from a volcano behaves according to its viscosity, determined by temperature, composition, crystal content and the amount of silica. High - temperature magma, most of which is basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. Long, thin basalt flows with pahoehoe surfaces are common. Intermediate composition magma, such as andesite, tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have a viscosity similar to thick, cold molasses or even rubber when erupted. Felsic magma, such as rhyolite, is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. Volcanoes with rhyolitic magma commonly erupt explosively, and rhyolitic lava flows are typically of limited extent and have steep margins, because the magma is so viscous.
Felsic and intermediate magmas that erupt often do so violently, with explosions driven by the release of dissolved gases -- typically water vapour, but also carbon dioxide. Explosively erupted pyroclastic material is called tephra and includes tuff, agglomerate and ignimbrite. Fine volcanic ash is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits, which can often cover vast areas.
Because lava usually cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is usually fine - grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals after extrusion, the resulting rock may be mostly glass (such as the rock obsidian). If the cooling of the lava happened more slowly, the rock would be coarse - grained.
Because the minerals are mostly fine - grained, it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral constituents of fine - grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field.
Igneous rocks are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, mineralogy, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body.
The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed. Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends on the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock. Feldspars, quartz or feldspathoids, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas are all important minerals in the formation of almost all igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential in almost all igneous rocks and are called accessory minerals. Types of igneous rocks with other essential minerals are very rare, and these rare rocks include those with essential carbonates.
In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present. Rocks containing quartz (silica in composition) are silica - oversaturated. Rocks with feldspathoids are silica - undersaturated, because feldspathoids can not coexist in a stable association with quartz.
Igneous rocks that have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one.
An igneous rock with larger, clearly discernible crystals embedded in a finer - grained matrix is termed porphyry. Porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma crystallizes as finer - grained, uniform material.
Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of texture and composition. Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains or crystals of which the rock is composed.
Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks. The texture of volcanic rocks, including the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of mineral grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a tuff, a pyroclastic lava or a simple lava.
However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine - grained groundmass or from airfall tuffs, which may be formed from volcanic ash.
Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope. Plutonic rocks also tend to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics. Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance porphyritic margins to large intrusive bodies, porphyry stocks and subvolcanic dikes (apophyses). Mineralogical classification is most often used to classify plutonic rocks. Chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, e.g. "olivine - bearing picrite '' or "orthoclase - phyric rhyolite ''.
Igneous rocks can be classified according to chemical or mineralogical parameters.
Chemical: total alkali - silica content (TAS diagram) for volcanic rock classification used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable:
Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks that are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance:
An idealized mineralogy (the normative mineralogy) can be calculated from the chemical composition, and the calculation is useful for rocks too fine - grained or too altered for identification of minerals that crystallized from the melt. For instance, normative quartz classifies a rock as silica - oversaturated; an example is rhyolite. In an older terminology, silica oversaturated rocks were called silicic or acidic where the SiO was greater than 66 % and the family term quartzolite was applied to the most silicic. A normative feldspathoid classifies a rock as silica - undersaturated; an example is nephelinite.
In 1902, a group of American petrographers proposed that all existing classifications of igneous rocks should be discarded and replaced by a "quantitative '' classification based on chemical analysis. They showed how vague, and often unscientific, much of the existing terminology was and argued that as the chemical composition of an igneous rock was its most fundamental characteristic, it should be elevated to prime position.
Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution -- the hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species -- were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock - forming minerals which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes, e.g., quartz feldspars, olivine, akermannite, Feldspathoids, magnetite, corundum, and so on, and the rocks are divided into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these minerals to one another.
For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas. The most important criterion is the phenocryst species, followed by the groundmass mineralogy. Often, where the groundmass is aphanitic, chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock.
Mineralogic contents -- felsic versus mafic
For intrusive, plutonic and usually phaneritic igneous rocks (where all minerals are visible at least via microscope), the mineralogy is used to classify the rock. This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock.
The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according to both their composition and mode of occurrence.
For a more detailed classification see QAPF diagram.
Granite is an igneous intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and predominately quartz plus potassium - rich feldspar plus sodium - rich plagioclase) and phaneritic, subeuhedral texture (minerals are visible to the unaided eye and commonly some of them retain original crystallographic shapes).
The Earth 's crust averages about 35 kilometers thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 -- 10 kilometers beneath the oceans. The continental crust is composed primarily of sedimentary rocks resting on a crystalline basement formed of a great variety of metamorphic and igneous rocks, including granulite and granite. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt and gabbro. Both continental and oceanic crust rest on peridotite of the mantle.
Rocks may melt in response to a decrease in pressure, to a change in composition (such as an addition of water), to an increase in temperature, or to a combination of these processes.
Other mechanisms, such as melting from a meteorite impact, are less important today, but impacts during the accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of our early Earth was probably an ocean of magma. Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces.
Decompression melting occurs because of a decrease in pressure.
The solidus temperatures of most rocks (the temperatures below which they are completely solid) increase with increasing pressure in the absence of water. Peridotite at depth in the Earth 's mantle may be hotter than its solidus temperature at some shallower level. If such rock rises during the convection of solid mantle, it will cool slightly as it expands in an adiabatic process, but the cooling is only about 0.3 ° C per kilometer. Experimental studies of appropriate peridotite samples document that the solidus temperatures increase by 3 ° C to 4 ° C per kilometer. If the rock rises far enough, it will begin to melt. Melt droplets can coalesce into larger volumes and be intruded upwards. This process of melting from the upward movement of solid mantle is critical in the evolution of the Earth.
Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges. It also causes volcanism in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor. There, it is variously attributed either to the rise of mantle plumes (the "Plume hypothesis '') or to intraplate extension (the "Plate hypothesis '').
The change of rock composition most responsible for the creation of magma is the addition of water. Water lowers the solidus temperature of rocks at a given pressure. For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers, peridotite begins to melt near 800 ° C in the presence of excess water, but near or above about 1,500 ° C in the absence of water. Water is driven out of the oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones, and it causes melting in the overlying mantle. Hydrous magmas composed of basalt and andesite are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process. Such magmas, and those derived from them, build up island arcs such as those in the Pacific Ring of Fire. These magmas form rocks of the calc - alkaline series, an important part of the continental crust.
The addition of carbon dioxide is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than the addition of water, but genesis of some silica - undersaturated magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions. In the presence of carbon dioxide, experiments document that the peridotite solidus temperature decreases by about 200 ° C in a narrow pressure interval at pressures corresponding to a depth of about 70 km. At greater depths, carbon dioxide can have more effect: at depths to about 200 km, the temperatures of initial melting of a carbonated peridotite composition were determined to be 450 ° C to 600 ° C lower than for the same composition with no carbon dioxide. Magmas of rock types such as nephelinite, carbonatite, and kimberlite are among those that may be generated following an influx of carbon dioxide into mantle at depths greater than about 70 km.
Increase in temperature is the most typical mechanism for formation of magma within continental crust. Such temperature increases can occur because of the upward intrusion of magma from the mantle. Temperatures can also exceed the solidus of a crustal rock in continental crust thickened by compression at a plate boundary. The plate boundary between the Indian and Asian continental masses provides a well - studied example, as the Tibetan Plateau just north of the boundary has crust about 80 kilometers thick, roughly twice the thickness of normal continental crust. Studies of electrical resistivity deduced from magnetotelluric data have detected a layer that appears to contain silicate melt and that stretches for at least 1,000 kilometers within the middle crust along the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Granite and rhyolite are types of igneous rock commonly interpreted as products of the melting of continental crust because of increases in temperature. Temperature increases also may contribute to the melting of lithosphere dragged down in a subduction zone.
Most magmas only entirely melt for small parts of their histories. More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles. Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve.
As magma cools, minerals typically crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). As minerals crystallize, the composition of the residual melt typically changes. If crystals separate from the melt, then the residual melt will differ in composition from the parent magma. For instance, a magma of gabbroic composition can produce a residual melt of granitic composition if early formed crystals are separated from the magma. Gabbro may have a liquidus temperature near 1,200 ° C, and the derivative granite - composition melt may have a liquidus temperature as low as about 700 ° C. Incompatible elements are concentrated in the last residues of magma during fractional crystallization and in the first melts produced during partial melting: either process can form the magma that crystallizes to pegmatite, a rock type commonly enriched in incompatible elements. Bowen 's reaction series is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma.
Magma composition can be determined by processes other than partial melting and fractional crystallization. For instance, magmas commonly interact with rocks they intrude, both by melting those rocks and by reacting with them. Magmas of different compositions can mix with one another. In rare cases, melts can separate into two immiscible melts of contrasting compositions.
There are relatively few minerals that are important in the formation of common igneous rocks, because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements that combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks. The chemistry of igneous rocks is expressed differently for major and minor elements and for trace elements. Contents of major and minor elements are conventionally expressed as weight percent oxides (e.g., 51 % SiO, and 1.50 % TiO). Abundances of trace elements are conventionally expressed as parts per million by weight (e.g., 420 ppm Ni, and 5.1 ppm Sm). The term "trace element '' is typically used for elements present in most rocks at abundances less than 100 ppm or so, but some trace elements may be present in some rocks at abundances exceeding 1,000 ppm. The diversity of rock compositions has been defined by a huge mass of analytical data -- over 230,000 rock analyses can be accessed on the web through a site sponsored by the U.S. National Science Foundation (see the External Link to EarthChem).
The word "igneous '' is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "of fire ''. Volcanic rocks are named after Vulcan, the Roman name for the god of fire. Intrusive rocks are also called "plutonic '' rocks, named after Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld.
Volcanic rocks: Subvolcanic rocks: Plutonic rocks:
Komatiite, Picrite basalt Kimberlite, Lamproite Peridotite
Basalt Diabase (Dolerite) Gabbro
Andesite Micro diorite Diorite
Dacite Micro granodiorite Granodiorite
Rhyolite Micro granite, Aplite Granite
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one of the heros of the trojan war | List of Trojan War characters - wikipedia
This is a list of mythological characters who appear in narratives concerning the Trojan War.
* See Catalogue of Ships
This table lists characters killed during the war, and who was responsible for their deaths.
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union general that marched from atlanta to savannah | Sherman 's March to the Sea - wikipedia
William J. Hardee
Sherman 's March to the Sea (also known as the Savannah Campaign) was a military campaign of the American Civil War conducted through Georgia from November 15 until December 21, 1864, by Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman of the Union Army. The campaign began with Sherman 's troops leaving the captured city of Atlanta on November 15 and ended with the capture of the port of Savannah on December 21. His forces followed a "scorched earth '' policy, destroying military targets as well as industry, infrastructure, and civilian property and disrupting the Confederacy 's economy and its transportation networks. The operation broke the back of the Confederacy and helped lead to its eventual surrender. Sherman 's bold move of operating deep within enemy territory and without supply lines is considered to be one of the major achievements of the war.
Sherman 's "March to the Sea '' followed his successful Atlanta Campaign of May to September 1864. He and the Union Army 's commander, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, believed that the Civil War would come to an end only if the Confederacy 's strategic, economic, and psychological capacity for warfare were decisively broken. Sherman therefore planned an operation that has been compared to the modern principles of scorched earth warfare, or total war. Although his formal orders (excerpted below) specified control over destruction of infrastructure in areas in which his army was unmolested by guerrilla activity, he recognized that supplying an army through liberal foraging would have a destructive effect on the morale of the civilian population it encountered in its wide sweep through the state.
The second objective of the campaign was more traditional. Grant 's armies in Virginia continued in a stalemate against Robert E. Lee 's army, besieged in Petersburg, Virginia. By moving in Lee 's rear and performing a massive turning movement against him, Sherman could possibly increase pressure on Lee, allowing Grant the opportunity to break through, or at least keep Southern reinforcements away from Virginia.
The campaign was designed by Grant and Sherman to be similar to Grant 's innovative and successful Vicksburg Campaign and Sherman 's Meridian Campaign, in that Sherman 's armies would reduce their need for traditional supply lines by "living off the land '' after consuming their 20 days of rations. Foragers, known as "bummers '', would provide food seized from local farms for the Army while they destroyed the railroads and the manufacturing and agricultural infrastructure of Georgia. In planning for the march, Sherman used livestock and crop production data from the 1860 census to lead his troops through areas where he believed they would be able to forage most effectively. The twisted and broken railroad rails that the troops heated over fires and wrapped around tree trunks and left behind became known as "Sherman 's neckties ''. As the army would be out of touch with the North throughout the campaign, Sherman gave explicit orders, Sherman 's Special Field Orders, No. 120, regarding the conduct of the campaign. The following is an excerpt from the general 's orders:
... IV. The army will forage liberally on the country during the march. To this end, each brigade commander will organize a good and sufficient foraging party, under the command of one or more discreet officers, who will gather, near the route traveled, corn or forage of any kind, meat of any kind, vegetables, corn - meal, or whatever is needed by the command, aiming at all times to keep in the wagons at least ten day 's provisions for the command and three days ' forage. Soldiers must not enter the dwellings of the inhabitants, or commit any trespass, but during a halt or a camp they may be permitted to gather turnips, apples, and other vegetables, and to drive in stock of their camp. To regular foraging parties must be instructed the gathering of provisions and forage at any distance from the road traveled.
V. To army corps commanders alone is entrusted the power to destroy mills, houses, cotton - gins, &c., and for them this general principle is laid down: In districts and neighborhoods where the army is unmolested no destruction of such property should be permitted; but should guerrillas or bushwhackers molest our march, or should the inhabitants burn bridges, obstruct roads, or otherwise manifest local hostility, then army commanders should order and enforce a devastation more or less relentless according to the measure of such hostility.
VI. As for horses, mules, wagons, &c., belonging to the inhabitants, the cavalry and artillery may appropriate freely and without limit, discriminating, however, between the rich, who are usually hostile, and the poor or industrious, usually neutral or friendly. Foraging parties may also take mules or horses to replace the jaded animals of their trains, or to serve as pack - mules for the regiments or brigades. In all foraging, of whatever kind, the parties engaged will refrain from abusive or threatening language, and may, where the officer in command thinks proper, give written certificates of the facts, but no receipts, and they will endeavor to leave with each family a reasonable portion for their maintenance.
VII. Negroes who are able - bodied and can be of service to the several columns may be taken along, but each army commander will bear in mind that the question of supplies is a very important one and that his first duty is to see to them who bear arms...
The march was made easier by able assistants such as Orlando Metcalfe Poe, chief of the bridge building and demolition team. Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman selected Poe as his chief engineer in 1864. Poe oversaw the burning of Atlanta, for which action he was honored by Sherman. Poe directly supervised the dismantling of all buildings and structures in Atlanta that could have provided any military value to the Rebels once Sherman abandoned the city; rail depots, roundhouses, arsenals and storage areas were manually disassembled and the combustible materials then destroyed by controlled fires (however, Poe was incensed at the level of uncontrolled arson by marauding soldiers not of his unit which resulted in heavy damage to civilian homes.) He served in this capacity past the fall of Atlanta to the end of the war. Dozens of river crossings, poor or non-existent roads and the extensive swamps of southern Georgia would have fatally slowed Sherman 's force had not Poe 's skills as leader of the bridge, road and pontoon building units kept the army moving. He also continued to supervise destruction of Confederate infrastructure. Promoted by Sherman by two steps in rank to colonel after the fall of Savannah, he continued in that capacity in the war 's concluding Carolinas Campaign as Sherman headed northwards from Savannah to link up with Grant and the Army of the Potomac in Virginia and to cut another swath through South and North Carolina.
Sherman, commanding the Military Division of the Mississippi, did not employ his entire army group in the campaign. Confederate Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood was threatening Sherman 's supply line from Chattanooga, and Sherman detached two armies under Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas to deal with Hood in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign. For the Savannah Campaign, Sherman 's remaining force of 62,000 men (55,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, and 2,000 artillerymen manning 64 guns) was divided into two columns for the march:
The Confederate opposition from Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee 's Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida was meager. Hood had taken the bulk of forces in Georgia on his campaign to Tennessee in hopes of diverting Sherman to pursue him. Considering Sherman 's military priorities however, this tactical maneuver by his enemy to get out of his force 's path was welcomed to the point of remarking, "If he will go to the Ohio River, I 'll give him rations. '' There were about 13,000 men remaining at Lovejoy 's Station, south of Atlanta. Maj. Gen. Gustavus W. Smith 's Georgia militia had about 3,050 soldiers, most of whom were boys and elderly men. The Cavalry Corps of Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler, reinforced by a brigade under Brig. Gen. William H. Jackson, had approximately 10,000 troopers. During the campaign, the Confederate War Department brought in additional men from Florida and the Carolinas, but they never were able to increase their effective force beyond 13,000.
Both U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and General Ulysses S. Grant had serious reservations about Sherman 's plans. Still, Grant trusted Sherman 's assessment and on November 2, 1864, he sent Sherman a telegram stating simply, "Go as you propose. '' The 300 - mile (480 km) march began on November 15. Sherman recounted in his memoirs the scene when he left at 7 a.m. the following day:
... We rode out of Atlanta by the Decatur road, filled by the marching troops and wagons of the Fourteenth Corps; and reaching the hill, just outside of the old rebel works, we naturally paused to look back upon the scenes of our past battles. We stood upon the very ground whereon was fought the bloody battle of July 22d, and could see the copse of wood where McPherson fell. Behind us lay Atlanta, smouldering and in ruins, the black smoke rising high in air, and hanging like a pall over the ruined city. Away off in the distance, on the McDonough road, was the rear of Howard 's column, the gun - barrels glistening in the sun, the white - topped wagons stretching away to the south; and right before us the Fourteenth Corps, marching steadily and rapidly, with a cheery look and swinging pace, that made light of the thousand miles that lay between us and Richmond. Some band, by accident, struck up the anthem of "John Brown 's Body ''; the men caught up the strain, and never before or since have I heard the chorus of "Glory, glory, hallelujah! '' done with more spirit, or in better harmony of time and place.
Sherman 's personal escort on the march was the 1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment, a unit made up entirely of Southerners who remained loyal to the Union.
The two wings of the army attempted to confuse and deceive the enemy about their destinations; the Confederates could not tell from the initial movements whether Sherman would march on Macon, Augusta, or Savannah. Howard 's wing, led by Kilpatrick 's cavalry, marched south along the railroad to Lovejoy 's Station, which caused the defenders there to conduct a fighting retreat to Macon. The cavalry captured two Confederate guns at Lovejoy 's Station, and then two more and 50 prisoners at Bear Creek Station. Howard 's infantry marched through Jonesboro to Gordon, southwest of the state capital, Milledgeville. Slocum 's wing, accompanied by Sherman, moved to the east, in the direction of Augusta. They destroyed the bridge across the Oconee River and then turned south.
The first real resistance was felt by Howard 's right wing at the Battle of Griswoldville on November 22. Confederate Maj. Gen. Wheeler 's cavalry struck Brig. Gen. Kilpatrick 's, killing one, wounding two and capturing 18. The infantry brigade of Brig. Gen. Charles C. Walcutt arrived to stabilize the defense, and the division of Georgia militia launched several hours of badly coordinated attacks, eventually retreating with about 1,100 casualties (of which about 600 were prisoners), versus the Union 's 100.
At the same time, Slocum 's left wing approached the state capital at Milledgeville, prompting the hasty departure of Governor Joseph Brown and the state legislature. On November 23, Slocum 's troops captured the city and held a mock legislative session in the capitol building, jokingly voting Georgia back into the Union.
Several small actions followed. Wheeler and some infantry struck in a rearguard action at Ball 's Ferry on November 24 and November 25. While Howard 's wing was delayed near Ball 's Bluff, the 1st Alabama Cavalry (a Federal regiment) engaged Confederate pickets. Overnight, Union engineers constructed a bridge 2 miles (3.2 km) away from the bluff across the Oconee River, and 200 soldiers crossed to flank the Confederate position. On November 25 -- 26 at Sandersville, Wheeler struck at Slocum 's advance guard. Kilpatrick was ordered to make a feint toward Augusta before destroying the railroad bridge at Brier Creek and moving to liberate the Camp Lawton prisoner of war camp at Millen. Kilpatrick slipped by the defensive line that Wheeler had placed near Brier Creek, but on the night of November 26 Wheeler attacked and drove the 8th Indiana and 2nd Kentucky Cavalry away from their camps at Sylvan Grove. Kilpatrick abandoned his plans to destroy the railroad bridge and he also learned that the prisoners had been moved from Camp Lawton, so he rejoined the army at Louisville. At the Battle of Buck Head Creek on November 28, Kilpatrick was surprised and nearly captured, but the 5th Ohio Cavalry halted Wheeler 's advance, and Wheeler was later stopped decisively by Union barricades at Reynolds 's Plantation. On December 4, Kilpatrick 's cavalry routed Wheeler 's at the Battle of Waynesboro.
More Union troops entered the campaign from an unlikely direction. Maj. Gen. John G. Foster dispatched 5,500 men and 10 guns under Brig. Gen. John P. Hatch from Hilton Head, hoping to assist Sherman 's arrival near Savannah by securing the Charleston and Savannah Railroad. At the Battle of Honey Hill on November 30, Hatch fought a vigorous battle against G.W. Smith 's 1,500 Georgia militiamen, 3 miles (4.8 km) south of Grahamville Station, South Carolina. Smith 's militia fought off the Union attacks, and Hatch withdrew after suffering about 650 casualties, versus Smith 's 50.
Sherman 's armies reached the outskirts of Savannah on December 10 but found that Hardee had entrenched 10,000 men in favorable fighting positions, and his soldiers had flooded the surrounding rice fields, leaving only narrow causeways available to approach the city. Sherman was blocked from linking up with the U.S. Navy as he had planned, so he dispatched cavalry to Fort McAllister, guarding the Ogeechee River, in hopes of unblocking his route and obtaining supplies awaiting him on the Navy ships. On December 13, William B. Hazen 's division of Howard 's wing stormed the fort in the Battle of Fort McAllister and captured it within 15 minutes. Some of the 134 Union casualties were caused by torpedoes, a name for crude land mines that were used only rarely in the war.
Now that Sherman had contact with the Navy fleet under Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren, he was able to obtain the supplies and siege artillery he required to invest Savannah. On December 17, he sent a message to Hardee in the city:
I have already received guns that can cast heavy and destructive shot as far as the heart of your city; also, I have for some days held and controlled every avenue by which the people and garrison of Savannah can be supplied, and I am therefore justified in demanding the surrender of the city of Savannah, and its dependent forts, and shall wait a reasonable time for your answer, before opening with heavy ordnance. Should you entertain the proposition, I am prepared to grant liberal terms to the inhabitants and garrison; but should I be forced to resort to assault, or the slower and surer process of starvation, I shall then feel justified in resorting to the harshest measures, and shall make little effort to restrain my army -- burning to avenge the national wrong which they attach to Savannah and other large cities which have been so prominent in dragging our country into civil war.
Hardee decided not to surrender but to escape. On December 20, he led his men across the Savannah River on a makeshift pontoon bridge. The next morning, Savannah Mayor Richard Dennis Arnold, with a delegation of aldermen and ladies of the city, rode out (until they were unhorsed by fleeing Confederate cavalrymen) to offer a proposition: The city would surrender and offer no resistance, in exchange for General Geary 's promise to protect the city 's citizens and their property. Geary telegraphed Sherman, who advised him to accept the offer. Arnold presented him with the key to the city, and Sherman 's men, led by Geary 's division of the XX Corps, occupied the city the same day.
Sherman telegraphed to President Lincoln, "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the City of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty guns and plenty of ammunition, also about twenty - five thousand bales of cotton. '' On December 26, the president replied in a letter:
Many, many thanks for your Christmas gift -- the capture of Savannah. When you were leaving Atlanta for the Atlantic coast, I was anxious, if not fearful; but feeling that you were the better judge, and remembering that ' nothing risked, nothing gained ' I did not interfere. Now, the undertaking being a success, the honor is all yours; for I believe none of us went farther than to acquiesce. And taking the work of Gen. Thomas into the count, as it should be taken, it is indeed a great success. Not only does it afford the obvious and immediate military advantage; but, in showing to the world that your army could be divided, putting the stronger part to an important new service, and yet leaving enough to vanquish the old opposing force of the whole -- Hood 's army -- it brings those who sat in darkness, to see a great light. But what next? I suppose it will be safer if I leave Gen. Grant and yourself to decide. Please make my grateful acknowledgements to your whole army, officers and men.
The March attracted a huge number of refugees, to whom Sherman assigned land with his Special Field Orders No. 15. These orders have been depicted in popular culture as the origin of the supposed "40 acres and a mule '' promise.
From Savannah, after a month - long delay for rest, Sherman marched north in the spring through the Carolinas, intending to complete his turning movement and combine his armies with Grant 's against Robert E. Lee. After a successful two - month campaign, Sherman accepted the surrender of General Joseph E. Johnston and his forces in North Carolina on April 26, 1865.
Letter, Sherman to Henry W. Halleck, December 24, 1864.
Sherman 's scorched earth policies have always been highly controversial, and Sherman 's memory has long been reviled by many Southerners. Slaves ' opinions varied concerning the actions of Sherman and his army. Some who welcomed him as a liberator chose to follow his armies. Jacqueline Campbell has written, on the other hand, that some slaves looked upon the Union army 's ransacking and invasive actions with disdain. They often felt betrayed, as they "suffered along with their owners, complicating their decision of whether to flee with or from Union troops. '' A Confederate officer estimated that 10,000 liberated slaves followed Sherman 's army, and hundreds died of "hunger, disease, or exposure '' along the way.
The March to the Sea was devastating to Georgia and the Confederacy. Sherman himself estimated that the campaign had inflicted $100 million (about $1.4 billion in 2010 dollars) in destruction, about one fifth of which "inured to our advantage '' while the "remainder is simple waste and destruction. '' The Army wrecked 300 miles (480 km) of railroad and numerous bridges and miles of telegraph lines. It seized 5,000 horses, 4,000 mules, and 13,000 head of cattle. It confiscated 9.5 million pounds of corn and 10.5 million pounds of fodder, and destroyed uncounted cotton gins and mills. Military historians Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones cited the significant damage wrought to railroads and Southern logistics in the campaign and stated that "Sherman 's raid succeeded in ' knocking the Confederate war effort to pieces '. '' David J. Eicher wrote that "Sherman had accomplished an amazing task. He had defied military principles by operating deep within enemy territory and without lines of supply or communication. He destroyed much of the South 's potential and psychology to wage war. ''
Union soldiers sang many songs during the March, but it is one written afterward that has come to symbolize the campaign: "Marching Through Georgia '', written by Henry Clay Work in 1865. Sung from the point of view of a Union soldier, the lyrics detail the freeing of slaves and punishing the Confederacy for starting the war. Sherman came to dislike the song, in part because he was never one to rejoice over a fallen foe, and in part because it was played at almost every public appearance that he attended. It was widely popular among US soldiers of 20th - century wars.
Hundreds of African Americans drowned trying to cross in Ebenezer Creek north of Savannah while trying to follow Sherman 's Army in its March to the Sea. In 2011 a historical marker was erected there by the Georgia Historical Society to commemorate the African Americans who had risked so much for freedom.
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who did prince write nothing compares to you for | Nothing Compares 2 U - wikipedia
"Nothing Compares 2 U '' is a song written and composed by Prince for one of his side projects, The Family, for the eponymous album The Family. It was later made famous by Irish recording artist Sinéad O'Connor, whose arrangement was released as the second single from her second studio album, I Do Not Want What I Have n't Got. This version, which O'Connor co-produced with Nellee Hooper, became a worldwide hit in 1990. Its music video, which has been described as iconic, was shot and received heavy rotation on MTV. Its lyrics explore feelings of longing from an abandoned lover 's point of view.
In 1985, The Family, a funk band created as an outlet to release more of Prince 's music, released their first and only album, the self - titled The Family. "Nothing Compares 2 U '' appeared on the album but it was not released as a single, and received little recognition.
Prince performed the song as a live duet with Rosie Gaines, subsequently released on his 1993 compilations The Hits / The B - Sides and The Hits 1, and the 2006 Ultimate Prince compilation. Prince also recorded a solo version of the song for his concert film, Rave Un2 the Year 2000, as well as for his 2002 live album, One Nite Alone... Live!
The power ballad became a worldwide hit, topping charts in O'Connor's native Ireland, Australia, Austria, Canada, Germany, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It also became a top - five single in France and a top - 20 in Denmark. The single was certified platinum in Austria and the United Kingdom, and gold in Germany and Sweden.
In the United States it spent four weeks at the top of the Billboard Hot 100, keeping Jane Child 's "Do n't Wanna Fall In Love '' from reaching the top spot for three of them; in addition, it was a number - one in Billboard Alternative Songs chart, and reached number two on Billboard Adult Contemporary chart (held off the top position by "This Old Heart of Mine '' by Rod Stewart for three weeks). It became the third best - selling single of 1990, the 82nd best - selling single of the 1990s, and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in April 1990. The song 's popularity sent I Do Not Want What I Have n't Got to the top of the Billboard 200 where it stayed for six consecutive weeks.
Directed by John Maybury, the clip consists mostly of a closeup on Sinéad O'Connor's face and her different stages of sadness and even anger as she sings the lyrics; the rest consists of her walking through an area of Paris known as the Parc de Saint - Cloud. Toward the end of the video, two tears roll down her face, one on each cheek. O'Connor has stated that her tears were real. She did not intend to cry but then thought "I should let this happen. '' She explained that the tears were triggered by thoughts of her mother who died in a car accident in 1985. She said she learned to channel her emotions with a singing style called "bel canto '' which she compares to extreme acting methods. In the middle and at the very end of the video there is a shot from O'Connor's photo session for the I Do Not Want What I Have n't Got album cover.
The clip won three "Moonmen '' at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards: Video of the Year (O'Connor became the first female artist to be awarded with it), Best Female Video and Best Post-Modern Video. It was nominated for Breakthrough Video, Viewer 's Choice and International Viewer 's Choice during the ceremony. The video also became the subject for many parodies and spoofs, such as Gina Riley 's parody "Nothing Is There '' on Fast Forward, referring to the fact that O'Connor tended to shave her head bald.
Speaking about her relationship with Prince in an interview with Norwegian station NRK in November 2014 O'Connor said, "I did meet him a couple of times. We did n't get on at all. In fact, we had a punch - up. '' She continued: "He summoned me to his house after ' Nothing Compares 2 U. ' I made it without him. I 'd never met him. He summoned me to his house -- and it 's foolish to do this to an Irish woman -- he said he did n't like me saying bad words in interviews. So I told him to fuck off. '' O'Connor said: "He got quite violent. I had to escape out of his house at five in the morning. He packed a bigger punch than mine. ''
Nothing Compares 2 U
Jump in the River
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who plays mrs dunbar on rules of engagement | Rules of Engagement (TV series) - wikipedia
Rules of Engagement is an American sitcom that ran on CBS from February 5, 2007, to May 20, 2013, originally airing as a mid-season replacement. The series was produced by Adam Sandler 's Happy Madison Productions in association with CBS Television Studios and Sony Pictures Television (SPT controls the North American rights while CBS controls the international rights).
The show received negative reviews throughout its run. Despite this, it always earned reasonably good ratings, helping the show reach 100 episodes (typically the minimum for syndication) over seven seasons.
Two couples and their single friend deal with the complications of dating, commitment and marriage. It looks at different relationships in various stages, starring Patrick Warburton and Megyn Price as a long - married couple, Oliver Hudson and Bianca Kajlich as newly engaged sweethearts, and David Spade and Adhir Kalyan (the latter added in season 3) as their still - single friends. They often gather to enjoy a meal and discuss their issues at "The Island Diner ''.
The show was heavily promoted by CBS during Super Bowl XLI and launched the following night, the first of seven episodes in its first season. The pilot episode remains the highest rated episode of the show. The series was renewed for a second season, which began as a mid-season replacement for The New Adventures of Old Christine on Monday, September 24, 2007, with production halted after nine episodes on November 6, 2007, in the wake of a writers ' strike. After the strike ended, CBS announced that the show would return April 14, 2008, with a further six episodes.
Seasons three and four were both mid-season entries launched in March 2009 and March 2010. On May 18, 2010, it was announced that CBS had renewed Rules of Engagement for a 5th season. It was later announced that this season would start in September, in contrast to its usual midseason start, and received an expanded 24 - episode order. (The fifth season was the first and only season to have a full - season order.) The first 15 episodes aired on Monday nights, usually in the 8: 30 pm Eastern / 7: 30 pm Central time slot following How I Met Your Mother. Then on February 24, 2011, the series moved to Thursdays at 8: 30 pm Eastern / 7: 30 pm Central, following The Big Bang Theory, after the cancellation of $ h *! My Dad Says. On January 31, 2011, CBS ordered an additional two episodes of the series to prepare for the possibility of Two and a Half Men going into hiatus following Charlie Sheen 's real - life issues, taking the episode order to 26. Two of these episodes were held back and aired as part of the sixth season.
On May 17, 2011, the series was renewed for a sixth season to begin airing in fall 2011. One day later, CBS announced that Rules of Engagement would move to Saturday nights at 8: 00 pm Eastern / 7: 00 pm Central as part of the network 's new Comedytime Saturday block; the first time in six years that an original CBS program would air on that night. It also marked the fourth night on which the series would air, with it previously airing on Mondays, Wednesdays (two airings), and Thursdays. On October 7, 2011, however, it was announced that Rules of Engagement would move back to its 8: 30PM EST Thursday timeslot following The Big Bang Theory, replacing new sitcom How to Be a Gentleman which was moved to the new Saturday time slot. The episode order was cut from the original 18, down to 13 (plus two unaired episodes from season five) on November 14, 2011.
Effective January 12, 2012, CBS removed Rules of Engagement from its Thursday lineup, replacing it with the new sitcom Rob starring Rob Schneider. Rules would return to its Thursday 8: 30 PM time slot on March 29, after Rob had finished airing its 8 - episode order, resulting in a total of 15 episodes in season 6.
On May 21, 2012, CBS renewed Rules of Engagement for a seventh season of 13 episodes to air mid-season, bringing the total number of produced episodes to 100. Season 7 began airing on Mondays at 8: 30, starting February 4, 2013.
On May 10, 2013, Rules of Engagement was cancelled by CBS after seven seasons and 100 episodes. The series finale episode aired on May 20, 2013.
In June 2011, the series was picked up for syndication by local affiliates, The CW Plus, and WGN America, making its debut on September 10, 2012. On Wednesday, January 2, 2013, the series began airing weekdays on TBS at 2 / 1c. Shortly thereafter, it moved to the early morning hour of 6 A.M. throughout the week. As of May 2016, the series has left the line - up entirely. All 7 seasons are available for streaming on Netflix.
In Canada, the series is syndicated on CMT.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment owns the rights to release DVDs in Region 1. The fifth season of the series was made available beginning February 7, 2012, exclusively as a made - on - demand release from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, in conjunction with amazon.com. Similarly, the sixth season received a MOD release from online retailers, on October 2, 2012. The seventh and final season has not yet been released on DVD and it is unknown whether the series will see completion on DVD. However, the entire series is available to purchase and download from amazon.com and the iTunes Store.
Paramount Pictures, in conjunction with CBS Home Entertainment, began releasing the series on DVD internationally in 2011. Season One was released in the UK (Region 2 DVD) on April 4, 2011. In region 4, the entire series has been released, as individual season sets.
Note: Following the events of Charlie Sheen 's departure from Two and a Half Men, CBS ordered an additional two episodes for Rules of Engagement 's fifth season, bringing the total number of episodes to 26 from the initial 24 ordered. Despite the episodes, "Scavenger Hunt '' and "Cheating, '' airing during the sixth season, they were originally produced for the fifth season, and are included in the fifth season collection. Therefore, the sixth season 's DVD release features the 13 episodes produced over that time period, versus the 15 that were broadcast by CBS.
Polish channel TVN started filming its own version of the show, called Reguły Gry (literally meaning Rules of the Game in Polish). It premiered on 16 February 2012 on TVN sister channel TVN 7 as its first original production.
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when does neverwinter nights enhanced edition come out | Neverwinter Nights - wikipedia
Neverwinter Nights is a third - person role - playing video game developed by BioWare. Interplay Entertainment was originally set to publish the game, but financial difficulties led to it being taken over by Infogrames, who released the game under their Atari brand of titles. It was released on Microsoft Windows on June 18, 2002. BioWare later released a free Linux client in June 2003, requiring a purchased copy of the game to play. MacSoft released a Mac OS X port in August 2003.
Neverwinter Nights is set in the fantasy world of the Forgotten Realms campaign setting, with the game mechanics based on the Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition rules. The game engine was designed around an Internet - based model for running a massively multiplayer online game (MMOG), which would allow end users to host game servers. The intent was to create a potentially infinite massively multiplayer game framework. This game was named after the original Neverwinter Nights online game, the first graphical massively multiplayer online role - playing game (MMORPG), which operated from 1991 to 1997 on AOL.
The original release of Neverwinter Nights includes the game engine, a game campaign that can be played as single player or in multiplayer mode, and on Windows releases, the Aurora toolset used for creating custom content that would run in the same engine. Three expansion packs were subsequently released for the game: Shadows of Undrentide in June 2003; Hordes of the Underdark in December 2003; and Kingmaker in November 2004. BioWare then began selling premium modules through an online store in late 2004. The game 's success led to a sequel, Neverwinter Nights 2, released on October 31, 2006.
The original scenario supplied with the Neverwinter Nights game engine is known as the official campaign. It comprises approximately sixty hours of gameplay. The gameplay centers on the development of a player character (PC) through adventuring, who ultimately becomes the hero of the story. The PC is tasked with defeating a powerful cult, collecting four reagents required to stop a plague, and finally thwarting an attack on the city of Neverwinter, located along the Sword Coast of Faerûn, in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting of Dungeons & Dragons. The first and final chapters of the official campaign deal with the city of Neverwinter itself, but the lengthy mid-story requires the player to venture into the surrounding countryside and travel northward to the city of Luskan. Along the way, many optional side quests are made available.
As in the Dungeons & Dragons tabletop game, the first thing a player must do is create a new character. The game provides a set of ready - made characters, or the player may create one from scratch. A series of panels are presented for selection of the character 's gender, race, character class, alignment, ability scores (such as strength and intelligence), specialized abilities called skills and feats, in - game appearance, and name. This process grants significant allowance for customization; one can be, for example, an outdoorsman (ranger) or a healer (cleric), then choose skills and feats that would work well with that class in the game.
Following a small prelude, there are four chapters in the original game, with each chapter following part of the general storyline. Within each chapter, there are many quests, subquests, and mini-storylines provided to the player. Depending on the specific quests completed, and the unique items kept, some storylines are continued throughout the entire game, such as the Henchman 's or Aribeth 's tales. Completing many of the side quests will give the player 's character more experience and special items, making them improve more rapidly and continue to make the game easier as the player progresses. These improvements come in the form of levels earned through experience points, with each level providing the protagonist with a set of enhancements as selected by the player.
The game 's mechanics are based on the Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition rule set; the outcome of most actions, such as combat and skills usage, are randomly determined by dice rolls. For example, when a fighter attacks, the computer would digitally "roll '' a 20 - sided die (called a d20 in - game) to determine if he hits the target. On a success, another die is rolled to determine the damage dealt, with powerful weapons assigned to dice with a greater number of sides, due to their ability to do more damage. Although the outcome of nearly all actions is determined by dice rolls, the player does not see them, with the results calculated in the background. However, the player has the option to display the outcomes of these rolls. The player can control the game almost entirely via the mouse.
A robust multiplayer component separates Neverwinter Nights from previous Dungeons & Dragons games, as this allows players to play on many different servers hosting games. Depending on hardware and bandwidth, each server can support up to ninety - six players on the same server application, plus Dungeon Masters (DM) to run the games, if desired. Neverwinter Nights game modules are run in a variety of genres and themes, including persistent worlds (which are similar to MUD), combat arenas (player versus player modules), whole servers dedicated to sexually oriented roleplay, and simple social gatherings similar to a chat room. BioWare requires that these persistent worlds be free of charge, primarily for reasons of copyright law.
Because Neverwinter Nights lacks a global chat function aside from the supported GameSpy, players typically join pickup games through the game 's multiplayer interface, or schedule games in advance with friends. Matchmaking sites can facilitate scheduling of games, and the experience is much like traditional pen - and - paper roleplaying games. Persistent worlds do this work for them by inviting players to visit their website and continue to roleplay there.
An important feature of Neverwinter Nights is the Dungeon Master Client: a tool that allows an individual to take the role of the Dungeon Master, who guides the players through the story and has complete control of the server. Previous games such as Vampire: The Masquerade -- Redemption, based on the printed gamebooks by White Wolf Publishing, utilized this feature to a limited extent. When it was released, Neverwinter Nights was viewed as the first successful implementation of the feature. The DM Client allows players to participate in regular campaigns, while also allowing persistent world servers to flourish by permitting the DMs of those servers to take control of non-player characters (NPC) in mid-game for added realism and flexibility. The Dungeon Master Client also permits the user to spawn and control masses of monsters and NPC much in the same way as units would be controlled in a real time strategy game.
Neverwinter Nights ships with the Aurora toolset, which allows players to create custom modules for the game. These modules may take the form of online multiplayer worlds, single player adventures, character trainers or technology demos. Additionally, several third party utilities have further expanded the community 's ability to create custom content for the game. By the end of 2002, there were over 1,000 custom adventures available.
Custom content creators are known as builders in the Neverwinter Nights community. The Aurora toolset allows builders to create map areas using a tile system; the appearance and surface textures of the area are defined by the area 's selected tileset. Builders can overlay placeable objects onto areas, and use the built - in scripting language NWScript, which is based on the C programming language, to run cut scenes, quests, mini-games and conversations. Third party utilities allow builders to create custom content for most aspects of the game, ranging from new playable races and character classes to new tilesets, monsters and equipment. Custom content is added to the game in the form of hakpaks. Builders have used the Aurora toolset in combination with hakpaks to create playing experiences beyond the scope of the original campaign. Additionally, the Aurora toolset has allowed for the creation of a number of ongoing persistent worlds modules.
Despite the game 's age, the Neverwinter Nights custom content community remains active. The community, mostly centered on the Neverwinter Vault, has created over 4,000 modules for the game, among them, many award - winning adventures and series such as Dreamcatcher. The Aurora toolset is not available for the Linux and Macintosh versions of Neverwinter Nights. The open source project neveredit aims to port the toolset features to these platforms. The game 's module - making legacy was continued by Neverwinter Nights 2.
The story begins with the player character (PC), under the guidance of Lady Aribeth, being sent to recover four creatures (dryad, intellect devourer, yuan - ti, and cockatrice), known collectively as the Waterdhavian creatures. The Waterdhavian creatures are needed to make a cure for the Wailing Death, a plague that is sweeping the city of Neverwinter and forcing a quarantine. With the help of Fenthick Moss, Aribeth 's love interest, and Desther, Fenthick 's friend, the main character is able to retrieve the creatures. As they collect the creatures, they are attacked by mysterious assassins from a cult that is behind the spreading of the plague.
As the cure is being made, Castle Neverwinter is attacked by the minions of Desther, who betrays the heroes. Desther takes the completed cure and escapes the castle, with the hero and Fenthick in pursuit. When they catch up to Desther, he surrenders after a short battle. Desther is sentenced to burn at the stake, and Fenthick, despite being unaware of Desther 's true intentions, is sentenced to hang. The protagonist meets up with Aribeth, and they begin searching for the cult responsible for the plague and the attack on Neverwinter. With the help of Aarin Gend, Neverwinter 's spymaster, the main character retrieves the diaries of dead cultists and letters from a person named Maugrim, which convince Aribeth that the cult 's headquarters are in Luskan. Aribeth goes ahead to Luskan, and the hero follows after speaking once more to Gend.
After arriving in Luskan, the protagonist hears rumors that Aribeth is joining with the cultists. These fears are confirmed when she is found meeting with Maugrim and Morag, Queen of the Old Ones. They seek a group of magical relics called the Words of Power. The main character retrieves all of the Words of Power except for one held by the cult. The hero discovers that the Words open a portal to a pocket world inside the Source Stone, where Morag and the other Old Ones are. The protagonist confronts Aribeth, and depending on how the meeting is handled, she either surrenders to the main character or they are forced to kill her. The hero battles Maugrim for the final Word, then uses the Words to enter the Source Stone and battle with Morag. After Morag 's death, the protagonist escapes the Stone as the world inside it implodes.
A posting at the Neverwinter Nights 2 Vault on June 4, 2008 contained information from what appeared to be original Neverwinter Nights documentation. At the BioWare forums, Neverwinter Lead Designer Rob Bartel confirmed that the "series of excerpts from the game 's design doc '' were not a hoax. When asked if the plans were altered due to time constraints, Bartel referenced various legal difficulties that the company was working through.
Neverwinter Nights: Shadows of Undrentide (SU) was released in June 2003. It added five prestige classes, sixteen new creatures (two of them available as additional familiars), three new tilesets, more than thirty new feats, more than fifty new spells, and additional scripting abilities for those using the Aurora toolkit. The expansion pack features a story line concerning a student sent out to recover some stolen magical objects. The story begins in the Silver Marches, eventually moving toward the desert of Anauroch and the old Netherese city of Undrentide.
Neverwinter Nights: Hordes of the Underdark (HU) was released in December 2003. It increased the maximum character level to 40, and added a number of spells and items appropriate to such characters, as well as adding further tilesets, prestige classes, feats, and abilities, and compatibility with the Intel Pentium 4 Processor, which was unsupported in previous versions. The story continued where Shadows of Undrentide ended, with a character of at least 15th level, and led into the vast subterranean world known as the Underdark. The first chapter of the story took place in the Undermountain dungeon beneath the city of Waterdeep.
Neverwinter Nights: Kingmaker was released in November 2004, and features three premium modules: the award - winning Kingmaker, Shadowguard, and Witch 's Wake.
Atari and BioWare helped to promote and release free downloadable hakpaks, models, and tileset expansion packs, which greatly expanded the possibilities of mod - making.
The Players Resource Consortium (PRC) was released in early December 2003, and is a group of hakpaks adding classes, races, skills, and spells to the game. The PRC has roughly three times the number of prestige classes the original game had. It also adds dozens of epic spells, and many normal spells that make better use of BioWare 's Aurora engine. Psionic powers have also been included.
The Community Expansion Pack (CEP), originally released in March 2004 (last updated in January 2017), is based on the Neverwinter Nights community 's fan - made material. This freely downloadable expansion was compiled by members of the community. It combines a selection of previously released custom content into one group of hakpaks.
In late 2004, BioWare launched its online store and started selling what it called "premium modules '' as part of its digital distribution program. This initiative was led by BioWare 's Live Team Lead Designer, Rob Bartel. These smaller - scale adventures introduced new storylines and gameplay, and include new music and art that BioWare integrated into later patches to the core game. According to BioWare, the revenue generated by sales of the premium modules would be used to support their fan community and provide ongoing updates and improvements to the game. The modules that are sold in the BioWare store require an active Internet connection to play, even when played in single player mode. The modules in the Kingmaker expansion were stripped of this requirement, but are only available for Windows systems. The modules included with Neverwinter Nights Diamond Edition do not require Internet access to play. In August 2009, BioWare discontinued its selling of premium modules due to a request made by Atari. Atari has not yet provided any alternative means to acquire the modules.
On June 16, 2011, the Neverwinter Nights digital rights management (DRM) authentication server was temporarily taken down as a reaction by Electronic Arts to the Neverwinter Nights store being hacked and customer data stolen. Premium modules which were purchased via BioWare 's store could not be played during that time because they could not connect to the server to validate the purchase, though DRM - free modules were unaffected. The exact duration of the temporary outage has not been documented. The modules Kingmaker, Shadowguard, and Witch 's Wake were sold as part of the Diamond Edition package. The modules Infinite Dungeons, Pirates of the Sword Coast, and Wyvern Crown of Cormyr were only sold with DRM.
Premium modules were eventually discontinued. Three premium modules were known to be in development before cancellation. Two of them ended up being free downloads, while the third, a planned sequel to Witch 's Wake, was never released.
Atari released subsequent editions of the game following its first release in 2002. These editions are:
Atari also re-released the game and both expansion packs in the following collections:
Beamdog announced the upcoming release of Neverwinter Nights: Enhanced Edition on November 20, 2017. This version will include fixes made by the community since the last official release, graphic improvements, premium modules, and a return to a multiplayer server list that was lost when Gamespy was shut down. A digital deluxe version will include the soundtrack and the rest of the premium modules. A pre-release version was made available to purchase on November 21. Neverwinter Nights: Enhanced Edition officially launched on Steam on March 27, 2018.
For the launch of Neverwinter Nights, publisher Infogrames shipped 1 million copies to stores, with half allocated to North America and the rest to international markets. In an experimental move, the company priced the game at $55, an increase over the $50 typical of computer games at the time. CNN Money columnist Chris Morris reported that "gamers complained loudly about '' this decision. The game proceeded to sell 125,000 copies by June 27, after its release on the 18th. It debuted at # 1 on The NPD Group 's computer game sales chart during the June 16 - 22 period, and held the position for two weeks, before being displaced by Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos. However, Neverwinter Nights continued to place in the chart 's top 10 consistently for its first three months of release. By July 23, the game 's global sales had surpassed 200,000 units. NPD reported North American sales of 330,000 copies by late December, which brought in revenues of $18 million.
Greg Zeschuk remarked in June 2003 that Neverwinter Nights had sold above 1 million copies, before the release of its first expansion pack. In the United States alone, the game sold 510,000 copies and earned $23.2 million by August 2006. At that time, Edge declared it the country 's 26th - best - selling computer game released since January 2000. It also received a "Silver '' sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association, which indicates sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Combined global sales of Neverwinter Nights and its expansion packs surpassed 2.6 million units by early 2005; by August 2006, the games totaled 1.3 million sales in the United States alone. Discounting its expansions, the original Neverwinter Nights ultimately sold 2.2 million copies, as of 2007.
In general, Neverwinter Nights met with positive reviews, receiving "universal acclaim '' according to Metacritic. GameSpot referred to it as "one of those exceedingly rare games that has a lot to offer virtually everyone, even if they are n't already into RPGs '', and praised it for its campaign, its Aurora toolset, and its graphics. PC Gamer US called it "a total package -- a PC gaming classic for the ages '', and said that its "storyline (is) as persuasive as any I 've encountered in a fantasy roleplaying game ''. Chris Chan of New Straits Times said, "Neverwinter Nights is every role - playing gamer 's dream ''. Allgame found that the game 's story was "humdrum '' and "mediocre ''. Mark Meadows of The Wisconsin State Journal agreed, saying the game was too focused on technical details. Victor Godinez of Knight Ridder / Tribune News Service did not care for the turn - based combat system, preferring to have direct control. He also said the controls were difficult to use occasionally.
GamePro noted the game 's graphics as being "gorgeous '' and its sound as "untouchable '', and GameZone likewise praised its visuals, specifically mentioning its combat animation and spell effects as being well done. GameSpy was n't as impressed by the graphics, saying "The biggest, and arguably the only, glaring flaw in the game, is its graphics. You can tell that this game has been in development for five years (...) ''; however, they praised its voice acting and music. Godinez agreed, and also liked the game 's audio, noting in particular the scraps of conversation that can be heard in the background throughout the city.
Allgame praised Neverwinter Night 's DM tools, calling the game 's level creation options "impressive '' and the multiplayer options "great ''. GamePro thought that Neverwinter Nights is the closest that any video game has come to accurately representing the full Dungeons & Dragons rules, a statement further reinforced by Greg Kasavin of GameSpot, who said that "Neverwinter Nights is n't the first Dungeons & Dragons game for the computer to make use of the pen - and - paper game 's 3rd Edition rules, but it 's the first to implement them so well ''. GameZone said that the Aurora Toolset was one of the "best features '' of the game. John Breeden II of The Washington Post said including the tool set was "smartest thing Bioware did ''. He went on to say that giving such tools to the players became more commonplace, but was a bold move at the time of the game 's release. Chan commented, "you could use the Aurora tools to create a dream world ''.
Peter Suciu of Newsweek magazine called Neverwinter Nights "possibly the richest fantasy PC experience ever created. '' According to GameSpy, "Neverwinter 's contribution to D&D gaming is always a hot topic and a source of argument. ''
Neverwinter Nights was named the best computer role - playing game of 2002 by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences (AIAS), PC Gamer US and GameSpot. RPG Vault declared it "Product of the Year '', while Computer Games Magazine ranked it the year 's second - best computer game across all genres. The latter publication 's editors wrote that the "single - player game is merely passable '', but they highly praised Neverwinter Nights ' content - creation tools, and argued that the game is "what computer role - playing games should have been all along ''.
The game won special awards for its technology from Computer Games, the Game Developers Choice Awards (GDCA) and RPG Vault, the latter two for its network programming and Aurora Toolset, respectively. Aurora was also a nominee in the AIAS 's "PC Simulation '' category. RPG Vault 's staff hailed the tool as "an unprecedented combination of power, flexibility and ease of use. '' Neverwinter Nights received further nominations in the AIAS 's special categories for "Innovation in PC Gaming '' and "Game Design '', and in RPG Vault 's categories for music and writing, but lost these to other titles. However, it did win RPG Vault 's "Outstanding Achievement in Community Building '' prize.
Neverwinter Nights was a runner - up for the "Role - Playing Game of the Year '' awards of Computer Gaming World, IGN, GameSpy and RPG Vault, all of which went to The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind. The editors of Computer Gaming World wrote that Neverwinter Nights "gave gamers a fabulous toolset for creating their own adventures -- too bad the single - player campaign prompted a staffwide shrugging of shoulders. '' It was also nominated as the overall best computer game of 2002 by GameSpot, PC Gamer US and the AIAS, and as the year 's best game on any platform by the GDCA. These prizes went variously to Warcraft III, Battlefield 1942 and Metroid Prime.
IGN ranked Neverwinter Nights No. 4 on their list of "The Top 11 Dungeons & Dragons Games of All Time '' in 2014. Ian Williams of Paste rated the game # 4 on his list of "The 10 Greatest Dungeons and Dragons Videogames '' in 2015.
Since the original release of Neverwinter Nights, several in - game portraits have been modified in patches due to their having been copied from outside sources. In another instance, the Canadian Red Cross complained to BioWare about the appearance of the Red Cross symbol on the in - game item "Healer 's Kit '', as part of a long - running attempt to discourage outside usage of the symbol. This resulted in the Red Cross symbol being removed from the Healer 's Kit through patches.
Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, a role - playing video game based in the Star Wars universe, was also released by BioWare using a modified version of the Aurora engine of Neverwinter Nights, called the Odyssey Engine. The sequel, Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords, also used it. Because of this, modders have been able to modify these games using some Neverwinter Nights modding tools. The Witcher, a role - playing video game by CD Projekt Red, is also based on the Aurora engine of Neverwinter Nights. BioWare used Neverwinter Nights and its toolset to develop prototypes and mock - ups of various areas and scenarios for Dragon Age: Origins.
A sequel to Neverwinter Nights, Neverwinter Nights 2, was developed by Obsidian Entertainment, a company with a long history with BioWare. According to BioWare, the change of developer was due to BioWare 's business with other titles, such as Mass Effect and Dragon Age: Origins. Neverwinter Nights 2 shipped in November 2006.
On August 23, 2010, Atari announced Cryptic Studios would be developing Neverwinter, an online role - playing game based on the book series of the same name by R.A. Salvatore. It is based on Wizards of the Coast 's global property Dungeons & Dragons rules and feature the titular city Neverwinter. It was scheduled for an early 2013 release, and was ultimately released on June 20, 2013.
Neverwinter Nights has been used by colleges and universities for a variety of educational purposes. It has been used at West Nottinghamshire College in the United Kingdom as a means of delivering key skills and of showing IT designers how to understand the coding in the game. The Synthetic Worlds Initiative at Indiana University has used it as a basis for the creation of Arden: The World of Shakespeare, where Shakespeare 's dramatic history of Richard III and The War of the Roses can be interactively explored. The game and the Aurora toolset were also used at Macquarie University in Australia. The University of Alberta has offered a video game design course which uses Neverwinter Nights and the Aurora Toolset as the platform for teaching and course projects. The University of Minnesota has used the game to teach journalism students how to gather facts and information for news events with a modified modern setting for the game that involves interviewing witnesses and doing library research; in a modified game, students would work in pairs putting together a story about a train accident that causes a toxic chemical spill. Neverwinter Nights has also been used as an interface for some Moodle activity types.
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who said to whom mangal bhavan a amangal hari | Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia
Ramcharitmanas (Devanāgarī: श्रीरामचरितमानस, IAST: ŚrīRāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the language Awadhi, composed by the 16th - century Indian bhakti poet Goswami Tulsidas (c. 1532 -- 1623). Ramcharitmanas literally means "Lake of the deeds of Rama ''. Ramcharitmanas is considered as one of the greatest works of Hindi literature, Indian literature as well as of the world literature. The work has variously been acclaimed as "the living sum of Indian culture '', "the tallest tree in the magic garden of medieval Indian poetry '', "the greatest book of all devotional literature '' and "the best and most trustworthy guide to the popular living faith of the Indian people ''.
Divisions
Sama vedic
Yajur vedic
Atharva vedic
Vaishnava puranas
Shaiva puranas
Tulsidas (the Sanskrit name of Tulsidas can be transliterated in two ways. Using the IAST transliteration scheme, the name is written as Tulasīdāsa, as pronounced in Sanskrit. Using the Hunterian transliteration scheme, it is written as Tulsidas or Tulsīdās, as pronounced in Hindi). Tulsidas was a great scholar of Sanskrit. However, he wanted the story of Rama to be accessible to the general masses and not just the Sanskrit - speaking elite. In order to make the story of Rama as accessible to the layman as to the scholar, Tulsidas chose to write in Awadhi, a local dialect of Hindi which was in vogue as the language of general parlance in large parts of north India during the composition of the work. Tradition has it that Tulsidas had to face a lot of criticism from the sanskrit scholars of Varanasi for being a bhasha (vernacular) poet. However, Tulsidas remained steadfast in his resolve for simplifying the knowledge contained in the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Puranas to the common people. Subsequently, his work was accepted by all.
Ramcharitmanas, made available the story of Rama to the common man to sing, meditate and perform on. The writing of Ramcharitmanas also heralded many a cultural tradition, most significantly that of the tradition of Ramlila, the dramatic enactment of the text. Ramcharitmanas is considered by many as a work belonging to the Saguna school of the Bhakti movement in Hindi literature.
Tulsidas began writing the Ramcharitmanas in Ayodhya in Vikram Samvat 1631 (1574 CE). The exact date is stated within the poem as being the ninth day of the month of Chaitra, which is the birthday of Rama, Rama Navami. Ramcharitmanas was composed at Ayodhya, Varanasi & Chitrakoot. India was under the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar (1556 - 1605 CE) during this period. This also makes Tulsidas a contemporary of William Shakespeare.
The Ramcharitmanas is written in vernacular Awadhi language, The core of the work is considered by some to be a poetic retelling of the events of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana by Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is centered on the narrative of Rama, the scion of the family tree of king Raghu of the Sun Dynasty. Rama was the crown prince of Ayodhya and is considered in Hindu tradition as the seventh Avatar of Vishnu. However, the Ramacharitmanas is by no means a word - to - word copy of the Valmiki Ramayana nor an abridged re-telling of the latter. Ramcaritmanas has elements from many other Ramayanas written earlier in Sanskrit and other Indian dialects as well as stories from Puranas. Tulsidas himself never writes Ramcharitmanas as being a retelling of Valmiki Ramayana. He calls the epic Ramcharitmanas as the story of Rama, that was stored in the mind (Mānasa) of Shiva before he narrated the same to His wife Parvati. Tulsidas claims to have received the story through his guru, Narharidas. Tulsidas was a naive (Acheta) child and the story was stored in his mind (Mānasa) for long before he wrote it down as Ramcharitmanas. Some understand this passage of the Ramcharitmanas to mean that Tulsidas at first could not grasp the story fully as he was a naïve young boy. His guru graciously repeated it again and again so that he could understand and remember it. Then he narrated the story and named it Ramcharitmanas as Shiva himself called it. The epic poem is, therefore, also referred to as Tulsikrit Ramayana (literally, The Ramayana composed by Tulsidas).
The Ramcharitmanas is a masterpiece of vernacular literature. Some believe it to represent a challenge to the dominance of high - class Brahmanical Sanskrit, echoing the revolt of Buddha against Brahmanical elitism. However, this interpretation appears faulty as Tulsidas himself was a brahmin and often talks very highly of the Brahmins in Ramcharitmanas and other books written by him. It was the attempt of Tulsidas to reconcile the different stories of Rama and to bring the story within the reach of the common man.
Ramcharitmanas consists of seven Kāndas (literally "books '' or "episodes '', cognate with cantos). Tulsidas compared the seven Kāndas of the epic to seven steps leading into the holy waters of Lake Manasarovar "which purifies the body and the soul at once ''.
The first two parts, Bāl Kāṇḍ (Childhood Episode) and Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ (Ayodhya Episode), make up more than half of the work. The other parts are Araṇya Kāṇḍ (Forest Episode), Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ (Kishkindha Episode), Sundar Kāṇḍ (Pleasant Episode), Laṅkā Kāṇḍ (Lanka Episode), and Uttar Kāṇḍ (Later Episode). The work is primarily composed in the Chaupai metre (four - line quatrains), separated by the Doha metre (two - line couplets), with occasional Soratha and various Chhand metres.
Every chapter of the Ramcharitmanas begins with an invocation or Mangalācharaņ. It is customary of the Indian tradition of writing that the author begins a new book with invocation to the Gods to ensure that the sankalpa is finished unhindered. The first three or four verses of each Kānd are typically in the form of invocations.
Bāl Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn honouring the goddess Saraswati and the god Ganesha, the deities related to knowledge, wisdom, speech and auspiciousness.
Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ begins with the famous verse dedicated to the god Shiva: May He in whose lap shines forth the Daughter of the mountain king, who carries the celestial stream on His head, on whose brow rests the crescent moon, whose throat holds poison and whose breast is support of a huge serpent, and who is adorned by the ashes on His body, may that chief of gods, the Lord of all, the Destroyer of the universe, the omnipresent Śhiva, the moon - like Śańkara, ever protect me. ''
Araṇya Kāṇḍ 's first verse again extols Shiva: I reverence Bhagavan Śańkara, the progeny of Brahmā, the very root of the tree of piety, the beloved, devotee of King Śri Rama, the full moon that brings joy to the ocean of wisdom, the sun that opens the lotus of dispassion, the wind that disperses the clouds of ignorance, who dispels the thick darkness of sin and eradicates the threefold agony and who wipes off all calumny and obloquy.
Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ commences with the following verse: Lovely as a jasmine and a blue lotus, of surpassing strength, repositories of wisdom, endowed with natural grace, excellent bowmen, hymned by the Vedas, and lovers of the cow and Brāhmaņas, who appeared in the form of mortal men through their own Māyā (deluding potency) as the two noble scions of Raghu, the armours of true dharma, friendly to all and journeying in quest for Sita, may they both grant us Devotion.
Sundar Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn in the praise of Rama: I adore the Lord of the universe bearing the name of Rama, the chief of the Raghu 's line and the crest - jewel of kings, the mine of compassion, the dispeller of all sins, appearing in human form through His Māyā (deluding potency), the greatest of all gods, knowable through Vedānta (the Upanishads), constantly worshipped by Brahmā (the Creator), Śhambhu (Śivā), and Śeşa (the serpent - god), the one who bestows of supreme peace in the form of final beatitude, placid, eternal, beyond the ordinary means of cognition, sinless and all - pervading.
Laṅkā Kāṇḍ begins with this hymn: I adore Śri Rama, the supreme Deity, the object of worship even by Śivā (the destroyer of Kāma, the God of Love), the Dispeller of the fear of rebirth, the lion to quell the mad elephant in the form of Death, the Master of Yogīs, attainable through immediate knowledge, the storehouse of good qualities, unconquerable, attributeless, immutable, beyond the realm of Māyā, the Lord of celestials, intent on killing the evil - doers, the only protector of the Brāhmaņas, beautiful as a cloud laden with moisture, who has lotus like eyes and appeared in the form of an earthly king.
Uttar Kāṇḍ begins with the following hymn: I unceasingly extol Śri Ramā, the praiseworthy lord of Jānakī (Sītā, Janakā 's daughter and the wife of Rama), the chief of Raghu 's line, possessed of a form greenish blue, the color of the neck of a peacock and adorned with an insignia of Brahmā pada, the lotus - foot, which testifies to His being the greatest of all gods - rich in splendour, clad in yellow robes, lotus - eyed, ever - propitious, holding a bow and arrow in His hands, riding an aerial car named Puşpakā, accompanied by a host of monkeys and waited upon by His own brother Lakşmaņa.
Tulsidas ends every chapter in a similar manner describing the ending in the Sanskrit language.
Every Kānd is formally concluded by Goswami Tulsidas. The following is an example of the ending of Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ:
Translation: "Thus ends the fourth descent into the Mānasa lake of Sri Rama 's exploits, that eradicates all the impurities of the kali age. '' All the other Kāndas are concluded in the same way where the word caturthah is substituted, according to the Kānd being concluded.
Ramcharitmanas is structured around three separate conversations. The conversations happen between Shiva and Parvati, Sages Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya and finally Kakbhushundi and the king of birds, Garuda. Some scholars are of the opinion that there is also an underlying personal conversation between Tulsidas and Lord Rama all through the text of Ramcharitmanas.
The Child Episode
Tulsidas begins the story with an invocation to various deities, his guru, and saints who have preceded him and those who will succeed him in the future. Homage is paid to Valmiki for bringing the Ramayana to the devotees of Rama. Next are introduced and praised the various characters of the epic beginning with the birthplace of Rama, the holy city of Ayodhya. Praises are bestowed on Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya and Rama 's father, and his queens Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. Tulsidas then praises King Janaka, the father - in - law of Rama), and his family. He goes on to praise the brothers of Rama - Bharata, Lakshman & Shatrughna and sings the glories of Hanuman, the constant companion to Rama, Sugriva, the monkey king and Jambavan, the leader of bears. Next, the characters of Sita and Rama are introduced.
The story of Ramcharitmanas is then underway. It begins with the meeting of two sages - Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya. Bharadwaj asks Yajnavalkya to narrate in detail the story of Rama. Yajnavalkya begins with how Shiva came about retelling the story of Rama to his wife Parvati. (The great story of Sati 's self - immolation, the destruction of her father Daksha 's sacrifice, the rebirth of Sati as Parvati and her marriage to Shiva). Shiva explains five different reasons as to why Rama incarnated on earth in different ages Kalpa (aeon). Each of these stories is discussed in detail, with the primary message being that Rama incarnated on earth to protect the righteous who follow the path of Dharma. The story then moves to the birth of Ravana and his brothers. Post this point, the narration is done at different times by Shiva, Yajnavalkya, Kakbhushundi and Tulsidas.
The story now moves to the abode of Brahma where Brahma and the other Hindu Devas are found mulling on the ways to rid the earth of Ravana and his excesses. Unable to find a solution, they pray to Shiva and ask him for his guidance on where to find the supreme God who will come to their rescue. Shiva tells them that they do n't need to go anywhere to find the Supreme God for He resides in the hearts of his devotees. All the Devas then Pray to the supreme Brahman to rid the earth of the demons wreaking havoc on men as well as Devas. Brahman shows compassion to all and announces in an Akashvani that He will be born in the Sun Dynasty to save the Devas and His devotees from the demons.
The story then moves to Ayodhya. One fine day, Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya, realizes that he has become old and still issueless... He conveys his distress to sage Vasistha, the family guru, and seeks the way forward. Vasistha comforts Dasharatha and tells him that he will have four sons. Vasistha requests Shringi Rishi to perform the Putrakām yajna (vedic yajna for the birth of sons). Tulsidas states that the birth of Rama and his brothers took place on the ninth day of the Chaitra month. It was the fortnight of the moon, known as the shukla period.
The story then moves on and Rama and His brothers are now grown - up boys. The sage Vishvamitra arrives at Dashratha 's royal court where the King receives his eminent guest with great honour. Sage Vishvamitra lived in the forest and was performing great sacrifices. However, the demons Maricha and Subahu would always desecrate the ceremonial offerings. He knew that Rama had taken birth on earth to protect his devotees and so he decided to visit Dashratha to ask him a favour. The sage asks the king to let his sons accompany him to the forest. Reluctantly the king agrees. Rama knew before hand the intention of Vishvamitra in asking him to come along with him. He asures the sage that he would obey his commands. Lakshman kills Subahu and Rama kills Maricha, the dreaded demons.
The story then moves to the deliverance of Ahalya. Rama, Lakshman and Vishvamitra venture on a journey and reach the beautiful kingdom of the Videhas, Mithila. The king of Mithila, Janaka, welcomes the great sage and asks him who are the two boys accompanying him... Janaka is overcome by great emotion as he is able to sense the true nature of their mission... The brothers then set out to discover the beautiful city and visit Janaka 's garden. This is an important section of the manās as it portrays the first meeting of Rama and Sita...
In the meanwhile, King Janaka arranges a swayamvara ceremony for his daughter Sita. A swayamvara ceremony is a Vedic ritual in which a prospective bride selects her groom from among a group of suitors who attend the ceremony. Sita falls in love with Rama at first sight in Janaka 's garden and prays to Gauri that she may get Rama as her husband. King Janaka sends a messenger to invite Rama, Laksman and Sage Vishvamitra to attend the swayamvara. Janaka puts a condition to identify the right groom for Sita. The great bow of Shiva by the name of Pinaka was kept in the arena. Any suitor who would be able to string Pinaka would be married to Sita. Many princes try but fail to even nudge the mammoth bow. This causes great distress to Janaka who wonders aloud if the earth has become devoid of brave men. This statement of Janaka angers Lakshman who retorts that no one talks in this vein, when a gathering like this, has the presence of scions of the Sun Dynasty. Rama gently nudges him to keep calm as Vishwamitra asks him to break the bow and make Janaka happy once again... Rama steps in and effortlessly lifts and strings the divine bow. In a swift move, he breaks the bow. The breaking of Pinaka causes a great noise that disturbs the great sage Parashurama in his meditation and he storms into the swayamvara arena in great anger vowing to kill whoever had dared to break the bow of lord Shiva. Lakshman enters into an argument with Parashurama paying scant respect to the sage who was known for his bursts of anger and was known to slay whoever dared to oppose him. Ultimately, Rama brings him around. Parashurama comes to know the real nature of lord Rama as the ultimate Brahman, pays his respects and leaves for the forests for meditation. Sita places the wreath of victory around the neck of Rama in accordance with the rules of the swayamvara and is thus wedded to him.
However, Sita being his beloved daughter, Janaka desires to conduct a grand marriage of Sita and Rama in accordance with both Vedic and laukik (traditional) customs. Janaka dispatches messengers to Ayodhya to inform Dashratha and his family about the marriage of Rama and Sita and invites them for the formal consummation of marriage ceremony. Dashratha starts with a great marriage procession, consisting of Rama 's family, friends and well wishers in addition to Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma and all Devas who take up human form and depart for Mithila.
After a grand wedding, the kind of which had never been witnessed in the universe, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya where there was a great celebration and much rejoicing.
The Ayodhya Episode
Ayodhya was described as being like a heaven on earth ever since Rama and Sita came back from Mithila. As King Dasaratha was getting old, he wanted to install his son Rama as Prince regent... He took a decision to start the ceremonies for his crowning, the next day itself. The Devas however became very concerned at the prospect of Rama remaining in Ayodhya, and not pursuing the wicked Ravana, and vanquishing him... something had to happen if Rama were to embark on his mission to rid the world of Ravana. They approached Goddess Saraswati for help.
King Dashratha has three wives. Queen Kaushalya is the principle queen and the mother of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi is the mother of Bharata and Queen Sumitra is the mother of Lakshman and Shatrughna. Saraswati decides to influence the mind of one of Queen Kaikeyi 's maid servants named Manthara. Manthara 's mind harbors evil intentions and she begins to talk to Queen Kaikeyi in harsh and conceited tones. She finds faults with Kaikeyi for being supportive of the king 's plan of installing Rama, as Prince Regent when her own mind tells her that Bharata would clearly be a greater king. At that time Bharata is in Kaikeya country visiting his uncle and so he is unaware of what is happening in Ayodhya. Slowly Queen Kaikeyi 's mind is poisoned. Manthara reminds Queen Kaikeyi of the two boons that the King had promised her. Kaikeyi enters the private room in the royal palace, where the King gives audience to his queens, and awaits Dashratha. Dashratha is greatly alarmed and concerned that Kaikeyi is sitting in the sulking chamber, while the entire population of Ayodhya is greatly happy and eagerly anticipating the coronation of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi speaks harshly to Dashratha, which surprises the king. She reminds him of the two boons he promised her and to his bewilderment, asks him to install her son Bharata as Prince Regent and send Rama into forest for 14 years. Queen Kaikeyi is unmoved by Dashratha 's lamentations and finally the king emotionally breaks down. The king 's assistant Sumantra sends for Rama with a request to meet his father.
Queen Kaikeyi speaks to Rama and explains to him the boons that she had asked of His father. Rama is actually the Supreme Personality of Godhead incarnated on earth, yet He accepts His step mother 's request and decides to leave the kingdom as it serves his purpose as well... The people of Ayodhya remonstrate against Queen Kaikeyi who firmly believes that she is doing the right thing. Rama attempts to dissuade Lakshman and Sita from joining him but is unable to do so. The scene becomes very emotional as Rama, Sita and Lakshman greet their mothers before finally going to Dashratha to take leave of him. Dashratha attempts, in vain, to try to talk Sita out of joining Rama in the forest.
The residents of Ayodhya ca n't spare the thought of being away from Rama and decide to join him in the forest. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and Sumantra go incognito and in the dead of the night leave the city and move into the forest. They leave for a place called Sringaverapur after which they meet Guha, the Nishad king. They arrive at Prayag, the holy city where the Rivers Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati meet. Rama meets with the Sage Bharadwaj at his ashram. Rama is overwhelmed with the reception and love shown by the people inhabiting the banks of the Yamuna. Rama then meets Sage Valmiki, the author of the Ramayan at Chitrakoot dham. Valmiki recognises the true opulence of Rama and sings His praises. At this point Tulsidas takes great care to describe the beauty of the land of Chitrakoot with some inspiring poetry.
Rama asks Sumantra to return to Ayodhya which saddens Sumantra. He not only wants to stay with Rama, he is also afraid of going back only to face the anger and wrath of the citizens of Ayodhya. Rama persuades him to go back. On returning to Ayodhya, Sumantra meets Dashratha, who asks him the whereabouts of Rama. The pain of separation from Rama is too much for Dashratha who passes away crying Rama 's name.
Sage Vashishtha knows that Rama will not return to the kingdom and so immediately sends an envoy to call Bharata and Shatrughna back to Ayodhya. Bharata learns of all that has happened and chastises his mother, Queen Kaikeyi. He is greatly pained and blames himself for Rama leaving Ayodhya. He accuses her of bringing ruin to the family. Shatrughna comes across Manthara and beats her in rage. They approach Queen Kaushalya and see her in a sorry state. Bharata begs for her forgiveness and loudly laments while the Queen attempts to pacify him. She asks him to carry out his duty and rule Ayodhya, but Bharata can not bear the thought of sitting on the throne with his father dead and his brothers in exile in the forest. The cremation of King Dashratha takes place. Bharata and Shatrughna decide to go into the forest and ask Rama to return to Ayodhya and take the throne. Many citizens as well as the royal family, who have been grieving ever since Rama had left them, decide to join the brothers.
The Nishads see the approaching royal party and become suspicious. Guha approaches Bharata to understand his motive for bringing such a large party to the forest. He assumes that Bharata has some sinister motive. Bharata shows his love for Rama and Guha is moved to tears by his love for his brother. The royal procession then moves forward to Chitrakoot. Lakshman sees the huge army of people with Bharata and immediately begins to chastise Bharata. Rama counters this by praising the greatness of Bharata, leaving Lakshman feeling sorry for his harsh words. Bharata finally arrives at Chitrakoot where the brothers are all reunited once again. They collectively mourn the passing of their father and perform his Shraddha (obsequies) along with Sage Vashistha leading the ceremony.
Despite all of Bharata 's convincing, Rama is true to the word given to his father and step mother Kaikeyi, and vows that he will fulfill her wish. Bharata says that he simply can not sit on the throne while Rama wanders in the forest. He asks Rama for his sandals, which he would place at the throne and would only act as Rama 's representative and not as a full - fledged king. With much sorrow and hurt, Bharata leaves Rama and returns to Ayodhya. He decides that he would not live in the kingdom while Rama is in exile and so lives like a hermit in a nearby town called Nandigram.
The Forest Episode
Rama, Sita and Lakshman wander in the forest and come across the hermitage of a sage called Atri. Atri sees them approaching and is overcome with great joy. Sita is embraced by Atri 's wife, Anasuya. Anusuya talks to Sita at length about the duties of a devoted wife.
Rama, Sita and Lakshman venture further into the forest and encounter Viradha. Viradha attempts to capture Sita. Rama kills him by burying him in a ditch. They then visit the ashram of Sage Sarabhanga. Rama asks him of where he should go for shelter in the forest. He is advised to visit the sage Sutiksna. As Rama approaches Sutiksna, the latter comes out of his meditation. He tells Rama that he had been awaiting his arrival, and had even turned down the offer of entering the heavenly planets.
Continuing on their journey through the forest, they meet with Sage Agastya where Rama pays his respect to the sage. Agastya gifts divine weapons to Rama and advises him to venture further into the forest and into the region of Dandaka. Rama meets with the eagle, Jatayu. Rama, Sita and Lakshman take up abode at Panchavati and build a beautiful ashram, as per the advice of Agastya. Laksman becomes nostalgic of the past and begins to talk harshly about Kaikeyi. Rama pacifies him and explains that it is sinful to speak of his mother in such a way.
The story takes a new turn, as Rama, Sita and Lakshman are approached by the sister of the demon - king Ravana, called Surpanakha. She immediately takes a liking to Rama and falls in love with him. She disguises herself and talks to Rama in sweet tones. Rama rejects her advances explaining that he is already married and advises her to approach Laksman as he is unmarried. However, Laksman also rejects her advances. Surpanakha takes it as a great insult to be spurned like this, and attempts to hurt Sita. Laksman takes hold of his sword and lops off Surpanakha 's ear lobes and nose. Feeling humiliated, Surpanakha leaves the forest and goes to the abode of her brothers Khara, Dusana and Trisira. They are angry at the treatment meted out to their sister and leave with the intention of killing Rama. All three brothers are vanquished by Rama.
Surpanakha is greatly upset and visits Ravana at his residence in Lanka. She explains all that has happened, after which Ravana calls for his old friend Maricha. Ravana hatches a plot and asks Maricha to disguise himself as a golden deer, so that Ravana may then kidnap Sita. Maricha has already felt the power of Rama (as mentioned in Bālakāṇḍa) and is apprehensive, however, he thinks that he is going to die either way since Ravana will kill him in rage for refusing him. Ravana and Marich immediately leave for Rama 's forest abode. Maricha takes his position and instantly Sita is attracted by his deer form. Rama knows that Ravana 's intentions and orders Sita to place her shadow (Maya Sita) in her place, while she would hide in the fire. She asks Rama time and time again to hunt for the deer and bring it to her. Rama runs after the deer and is soon quite a far distance away from the ashram. Rama releases an arrow and hits the deer. Impersonating Rama 's voice, Marich shouts out to Laksman to help him. Maya Sita (hereafter called simply Sita) hears the cry and orders Laksman to go help his brother. Ravana, while posing as a begging minstrel, uses this opportunity to forcibly kidnap Sita from the ashram. Jatayu, the eagle, sees Ravana 's sinful act and attempts to fight with him, but Ravana has too much power and cuts off Jatayu 's wings and leaves him for dead. Rama and Lakshman return to find the ashram empty. They anxiously set out to find Sita and find the severely wounded eagle. Jatayu dies in Rama 's lap and receives liberation. As they continue to look for Sita they come across the hermitage of Shabari. Tulsidas says that Shabari washes the feet of Ram with tears from her eyes and feeds him half eaten wild berries to ensure he gets only sweet ones. She is given liberation by Rama.
The brothers then head towards the Pampasarovar lake.
The Kiśkindhā Region Episode
High up in the Rishyamuk mountains, Sugriva sees Rama and Laksman at the foothills. He consults Hanuman as to whether he thinks they have been sent by his brother Bali. Hanuman disguises himself as a Brahmin and approaches the brothers. Hanuman recognises the true nature of Rama as God - incarnation and surrenders himself to his Holy feet. He tells the brothers that his king, Sugriva, wishes to extend his friendship to Them and will help Them to find Sita. Rama asks Sugriva why he resides in the mountains instead of Kishkindha, where Sugriva tells of his feud with his brother Bali. Rama sympathises with Sugriva and decides to help Sugriva in return for the latter 's help in finding Sita. Ram kills Bali and installs Sugriva as king of Kishkindha and Angada, Bali 's son, as prince regent. Sugriva becomes too attached to his new regal lifestyle and forgets about his agreement with Rama, which fills Rama with great anger. Rama asks Laksman to bring Sugriva to him. Laksman enters the royal court and threatens to burn the entire city to ashes. Sugriva is gravely worried and asks Hanuman to pacify him. Laksman escorts Sugriva to Rama and upon seeing Him, Sugriva falls as His feet and begs forgiveness.
Sugriva immediately orders the gathering of the region 's bear and monkey community. Armies of bears and monkeys are dispatched north, south east and west to search for Sita. Rama knew that only Hanuman was really capable of finding Sita. He asks Hanuman to narrate the agony of separation from her and then hands over his ring. Hanuman is joined by Angad, Nala, Kesari and Jambavan as well as many others as they head to the south. As the army approach the coast, Jambavan and Angad see a cave by the shore of the ocean. The cave is occupied by Sampati (who is actually Jatayu 's older brother). There is a conversation during which Angad explains that Jatayu died serving Rama and thereafter Sampati narrates his biography. He tells the monkeys that he is sure that Sita is captive in Ashok Vatika in Lanka. The island is 400 miles away and requires someone who is able to jump the distance. Jambavan deduces that Hanuman is the only one capable of the task.
The Pleasant Episode
Hanuman takes Jambavan 's suggestion and immediately takes off for Lanka. He climbs onto the mountain and using it as a pivot, launches himself into the air. He meets Surasa, the mother of serpents and passes her test. The ocean demoness tries to capture Hanuman, thinking of him as a bird. He quickly kills her and then lands on the shore of the ocean in Lanka. He sees beautiful lush gardens, groves, lakes and reservoirs. Hanuman takes a minute form and, remembering Rama, enters Lanka. He is accosted by the demon Lankini whom he hits with his fist and causes her to fall to the ground.
Hanuman flies through the various palaces and gardens for his search of Sita, and amongst all the demonic activities going on in Lanka, Hanuman sees a palace where Sri Hari 's name is being chanted. He is drawn towards the palace and decides to visit the inhabitant. The palace belongs to Ravana 's brother, Vibhishan. Hanuman narrates Rama katha (story) and then introduces himself. Hanuman proceeds to Ashok Vatika where he finally sees Sita. He positions himself on a branch of a tree, under which Sita was sitting, and contemplates his next move. He sees Ravana walk towards Sita and beg her to glance at least once toward him. She simply looks at a blade of grass to insult him. Ravana threatens to behead Sita but is calmed down by his wife, Mandodari. Hanuman has to use all his powers of calm not to react to Ravana 's threats. When all is quiet again, Hanuman begins to sing the glory of Rama in sweet tones. He then approaches Sita and explains who he is. He presents the ring lord Rama had given him and Sita is overjoyed. She blesses Hanuman with many kind words and boons.
Hanuman tells Sita that he is hungry and asks for her permission to eat fruits from the grove. He not only eats but manages to destroy large parts of it. He easily kills one of Ravana 's sons, prince Aksaya. Indrajit arrives in the grove and Hanuman allows himself to be captured. He is brought in front of the king of Lanka, Ravana. Ravana orders his death, however, Vibhishan reminds him that Hanuman is an envoy and can not be killed according to religious principle. Ravana decides to humiliate Hanuman by setting his tail on fire. Large amounts of clothes are tied to his tail and soaked in oil. Hanuman chants the name of Rama and his tail begins to get longer, and more cloth and oil is used. He changes from his small form into a gigantic form and decides to torch alight the whole of Lanka.
He returns to the ocean to extinguish his tail and then goes to Sita to reassure her that the next time she sees him, it will be with Rama. He bids farewell to Sita and leaps back towards Angad and Jambavan. The monkey army then ventures back to where Sugriva, Rama and Lakshman are waiting. On arrival Hanuman explains all that happened and immediately an army is prepared to go south towards Lanka.
Meanwhile, in Lanka, both Mandodari and Vibhishan ask Ravana to hand Sita back to Rama. Ravana takes great exception to this suggestion and begins to insult Vibhishan particularly. He tells him he has no need for a weakling like him and that he is no longer needed. Vibhishan decides to join Rama at Kishkindha. Vibhishan falls at Ram 's feet and asks him for protection. The army deliberate over how to cross the ocean to Lanka. The deity of the seas tells Rama of the boon obtained by the monkey brothers Nila and Nala, and that they have the power to build a bridge to link the seashore to Lanka.
The Lanka Episode
Jambavan asks the monkeys Nala and Nila to begin work on building the bridge across the sea. The Mānas states that entire mountain ranges were used by Nala and Nila to complete their objective. Rama remembers Lord Shiva and decides to install a shrine for Rameswaram. Upon completion, the army of Rama begins to cross the bridge and arrives at Lanka, taking camp on Mount Suvela. Ravana hears of the advances of Rama 's army and feels greatly agitated. Mandodari asks Ravana to return Sita to Rama as she fears for her husband 's life. Ravana is dismissive of Rama 's power and pacifies his wife. Next, Ravana 's son Prahasta attempts to reinforce his mothers sentiments, but all to no avail.
Rama fires a warning shot from his retreat in Suvela. The arrow strikes Ravana 's crown and royal umbrella. Mandodari once again attempts to convince Ravana of handing Sita back to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama asks Jambavan what should be done. Jambavan suggests that they send Angada, as messenger, to give Ravana a chance to return Sita. On reaching Ravana 's court, Angada explains he is the ambassador of Rama, and tells Ravana that he still has time to save himself from destruction. Ravana insults Angada and his refusal to comply makes war inevitable.
The war begins with great ferocity as Ravana loses half of his army on the first day. Indrajit, Ravan 's son, is required to enter the battle far earlier than he expected. He severely wounds Lakshman with his special weapon, the Saang. Hanumanji is ordered to fetch the doctor of Lanka called Sushena. Sushena tells Rama that there exists a herb called Sanjivani which can only be found in the Himalayan mountains. It is the only hope to save Lakshman. Hanuman immediately reassures Rama that he shall find this herb. As Hanuman is about to leave, Ravana orders the demon Kalanemi to impede him. However, Hanuman kills Kalanemi with ease. Hanuman reaches the mountain and ca n't find the herb. In his frustration he decides to take the entire mountain to Lanka.
Hanuman makes good speed towards Lanka when suddenly he is shot by an arrow as he approaches Nandigram. Hanuman is mistaken to be a demon by Bharat. Hanuman falls to the ground together with the great hill. Hanuman regains consciousness and recognizes that Bharata is Rama 's brother. He continues on to Lanka where he delivers the Sanjivani herb and Sushena treats Lakshman. Rama embraces Hanuman with great pride and affection. Ravan takes the news of Lakshman 's recovery very badly and decides to awaken his brother Kumbhakarna. Kumbhakarna kills indiscriminantly and wreaks much havoc. Rama releases an arrow which kills him instantly. The death of his brother scares Ravan greatly. Indrajit hastily tries to arrange a ceremony to receive great boons and powers but is interrupted by Hanuman and Angada. Lakshman takes up arms against Indrajit and kills him. Rama throws numerous arrows at Ravana but is unable to kill him. He asks Vibhishan on how to kill his brother after which Rama finally kills Ravana. The war is over.
Ravana 's funeral takes place and Vibhishan is crowned the king of Lanka. Hanuman carries the happy news to Sita in Ashok vatika. Finally Rama and Sita are reunited. Rama and the army prepare to depart Lanka and return towards Ayodhya. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and the senior monkeys travel back in Ravana 's flying vehicle, Pushpak Vimaan.
The Epilogue
It is now the day before Rama is to return to Ayodhya after serving his exile. Bharata is anxious that his brother still has n't arrived. The Mānas mentions that Bharata had passed his days shedding tears for fourteen years in Nandigram. Hanuman meets Bharata telling him of the arrival of Rama, Sita and Laksman. Bharata rushes to Ayodhya to tell the citizens of the great news. As the Pushpak Vimaan landed in Ayodhya the citizens shouted chants of ' Glory be to Ramchandra '. Rama, Sita and Laksman collectively touch the feet of the sage Vashishta on arriving in Ayodhya and thereafter greet all that have gathered in the assembly. Lastly Rama meets Bharata with great affection and love. Rama 's coronation takes place and he is finally crowned king of Ayodhya. Shiva arrives to glorify the festivities further and asks Rama of the boon that he may have firm and undeviating devotion of Rama 's feet.
In conclusion to the tale, Rama has twin sons named Lava and Kusha. The other brothers each have two sons as well. It is mentioned that great sages like Nārad and Sanaka visit Ayodhya to meet with Rama and to see his great city.
In the subsequent passages of Uttar Kānd the biography of Saint Kakbhushundi is given, followed by a description of what is to be expected in the current age of Kaliyuga. Shiva ends his narration of the Rama Katha to Parvati as does Kakbhushundi to Garuda. It is not mentioned whether Yajnavalkya finishes his recitation to Bharadwaj. Finally, Goswami Tulsidas concludes his retelling of the Shri Ramcharitmanas. The Rudrastakam in Sanskrit is a part of this Kanda.
During the Bālakāṇḍa, it is mentioned that Shiva is retelling the story of Rama (Rama Katha) to his spouse Parvati. During this retelling, Shiva explains as many as five reasons why Rama incarnated on earth.
The brothers Jay and Vijay are the two favoured gate keepers of Hari. Due to a curse, by the Brahmin Sanaka and his three brothers, Jay and Vijay were born in the species of the demons. One took the birth of Hiranyakashipu and the other was born as Hiranyaksha. The Supreme incarnated Himself as Varaha in order to kill Hiranyaksha, while incarnating as Narasimha to kill Hiranyakashipu. Even though these brothers are killed by Hari Himself, they do not attain liberation as the Brahman 's had cursed them to three births and so were reborn as the powerful demons Ravana and Kumbhakarna. Hari took a human incarnation, as Rama, to kill Ravana and Kumbhakarna.
Nārad Muni was wandering in Himalayan mountains and begins to think about Vishnu. He instantly falls into a deep meditative trance. Seeing the sage 's state, Indra becomes apprehensive as he sees Nārad 's trance as a threat to his own position as the chief of demigods in heaven. Indra asks Kamadeva to disturb Nārad 's trance. He creates an illusion of fragrant flowers, delightful breezes and such. Heavenly damsels are called but all this has no effect on the sage. Kamadeva accepts defeat and falls at Nārad 's feet, addressing him with deep humility. He recalls all that happened to Shiva and becomes puffed up with pride of his defeating of Kamadeva. Shiva admonishes him not to repeat the story to Hari.
Nārad visits Vishnu at his abode, and unable to control his pride, re-tells his episode with Kamadeva, ignoring all that Shiva had advised. Vishnu further fans Nārad 's pride by telling him that his steadfast vow of celibacy is so strong that he can never be smitten. Nārad then departs Vishnu 's abode. Hari tells Laksmi that he has a plan and sets his illusory powers (maya) into operation. As Nārad departs Vaikuntha, Vishnu creates a beautiful illusory city with illusionary inhabitants. The city is ruled by King Sheelanidhi, who has a beautiful daughter called Vishvamohini. Nārad is intrigued with the city and decides to visit the king. Nārad sees the king 's daughter and falls in love with her. The king explains that he wishes to marry his daughter to a suitable man. Nārad devises a plot to get the princess to choose him.
Nārad approaches Hari and asks him for the gift of great beauty. Vishnu says that he will do only that which is beneficial to Nārad. The sage is glad at heart and thinks that with Vishnu 's favour, the princess will surely choose him. In reality the Hari had made Nārad look hideous. The entire royal court is aware of Nārad 's appearance, but says nothing. The princess filled with rage as soon as she sees Nārad 's ugly form and completely ignores him. He sees a reflection of his face in water and is consumed with rage. He instantly goes back to Vaikuntha and begins to speak to Hari in ugly tones. He curses Hari, "You made me look like a monkey; therefore You shall have monkeys for Your mates. And as You have grievously wronged me, so shall You suffer the pangs of separation from Your wife ''. Hari accepts Nārad 's curse and instantly withdraws his illusionary spell.
Nārad realises that there is no city and there is no Visvamohini, and is dismayed at what he has done. He begs Vishnu to invalidate his curse. Hari explains that it was His will and advises Nārad to chant his name to absolve himself of any sin. Nārad returns to his abode chanting the praises of Ram.
Svayambhuva Manu had Shatarupa as his wife. Manu ruled the earth for many years and carried out the Lord 's commandments. He longed to devotion to Hari and decides to give up rulership to his son so that he can retire to the forest with Satarupa and meditate upon the Lord. Manu and Satarupa settle at the banks of the Sarayu river and devoutly repeat the twelve - syllable Mantra, calling out to who is the source of many Brahmas, Vishnus and Shivas emanate. Some commentators indicate that the twelve - syllable mantra is the Vishnu mantra (Oṃ Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya). Rambhadracharya comments that the twelve - letter mantra is the coupled mantra for Sita and Rama.
Manu and Shatarupa first sacrifice food and then water and are finally willing to sacrifice air. Brahma, Hari and Shiva call on Manu but Manu and Satarupa are resolute and do not swerve on their sacrifices. A great voice from the heavens tells Manu, in sweet tones, to ask for a boon. Rama and Sita approach Manu in a beautiful form, which leaves Manu overcome with emotion. Manu explains now that he and Satarupa have seen the Lord 's lotus feet, all their desires have been met. Manu has one longing but does n't know how to ask the Lord. Finally he asks, "O gracious Lord, I tell You my sincere wish: I would have a son like You. I have nothing to conceal from You. ''
The Lord announces that it shall be, however, where would he find a son like Himself? The Lord tells Manu that He Himself would be a son to him. The Lord then asks Satarupa of her wish. She says that she greatly likes the boon received by her husband and wants the same. Bowing at the Lord 's feet, Manu then asks one more favour. He asks that he be dependent on which is granted. The Lord then commands the couple to dwell in Indra 's capital in heaven.
The Lord explains that after some time Manu would be born as the king of Ayodhya, Dashrath and Satarupa as Kausalya. He would then manifest Himself in the royal household as their son. He reassured the couple that their desire would be accomplished.
Prior to the birth of Rama, Muni Bharadwaja is told the story of King Pratapbhanu by Yajnavalkya. There is a kingdom called Kaikay where Satyaketu is king. He has two sons, Pratapbhanu and Arimardana and rules his kingdom with his prime minister Dharamaruchi. Satyaketu abdicates and hands the reign to Pratapbhanu, who becomes conqueror of the world.
Once Pratapbhanu goes into the forest to hunt and sees a wild boar. The boar is actually the demon Kalaketu in disguise who runs away from the king. Pratapbhanu gives chase deeper into the forest. Pratapbhanu chases for many miles and becomes thirsty. He approaches a fake saints ashram, where the resident fake saint wants to hurt and insult Pratapbhanu due to a previous incident. Pratapbhanu does n't recognise the saint, who begins to sweet talk the king and says that by pure love, he wishes to impart boons onto the king. The king asks to be invicible and never ageing, which the fake saint grants, but with the condition that he needs to win favour of all Brahmans. The fake saint advises that the king arrange the cooking of holy food (prasadam) to feed the bramanas, who would surely be in his favour for such an act of kindness. The fake saint 's real intention is to trap the king and repay him for his old grievances.
The fake saint asks the king to go rest, and that he would arrange the feast for the bramanas using his mystic powers. Pratapbhanu waits for three days for the fake saint. Kalaketu, now disguised as a priest, approaches the King in his court and says that he has been sent to cook the holy food. The entire brahmana community is invited. A heavenly voice from above warns the brahmanas that the food is unpure and they should run away immediately. They curse the king that he, his kingdom and entire family are wiped from the face of earth. They also curse that he be born a demon in his next life. The heavenly voice says that the brahmana 's curse is ill thought, as Pratapbhanu is not to blame. Since their curse can not be taken back, the voice says that it is the Brahmana community that will bare the brunt of the evil of his next life.
Pratapbhanu is distraught and quickly goes to his kitchen to find Kalaketu. The king is pained and cries as he realises Kalaketu has vanished. The brahmanas feel sorry for Pratapbhanu and tell him that his evil next life will be ended by Supreme Vishnu himself. As per the curse, Pratapbhanu, Arimardam and Dharmaruchi are all killed as other neighbouring kings invade Kaikay.
Pratapbhanu is reborn as Ravan, Arimardam is reborn as Kumbhkarna and Dharmaruchi as Vibhishan. All three take great penances and are approached by Brahma and Shiva and are asked for any boon. Ravan asks that no one should be able to kill me except the tribes of man and monkeys. Kumbhkarna asks for uninterrupted sleep for periods of six months. Vibhishan asks for unshakeable love for the feet of Vishnu.
The story of how Shiva came about retelling Ramkatha to his consort Parvati is retold in great detail within the Bālakāṇḍa. This part of the story is narrated by Sant Yajnavalkya to Bharadvaj Muni.
In the age of Treta, Shiva, accompanied by His consort Bhavani Sati, went to visit Rishi Agastya. The Rishi being pleased with Shiva 's visit, began to narrate the eternal story of Ram. Shiva listens with great pleasure and then they return towards Their abode. Around these exact days Ram had descended on earth and was wondering the Dandaka forest with Sita and Lakshman. Shiva ponders how he can catch sight of Ram. He finally sees Ram, who is frantically searching for Sita, and instantly joins his palms and prays "Glory to the Redeemer of the universe, who is Truth, Consciousness and Bliss ''. Sati can not recognise Ram and wonders why her Supreme Shiva is praising a mortal. Shiva is the knower of all truth and instantly reads Sati 's thoughts. He advises her to not harbour such doubts and accept that she had seen Ram, whom Agastya had praised earlier. He finally says that if she is still not convinced then she should seek to verify this truth herself. Shiva observes as Sati takes the guise of Sita. Ram and Lakshman instantly see through Sati 's disguised and asks about Shiva 's whereabouts. Sati feels very uncomfortable and heads towards Shiva, thinking of how she is going to explain her folly of questioning His word.
Shiva asks her to tell the truth of how she tested Ram. Sati is unable to tell the truth and says that she did not test Ram, but praised his as You had. Sati forgets that Shiva knows all that has happened and is disappointed that she was disguised as his Sita. He decides that Sati is too chaste to abandon and it is a sin to continue to be her Husband and so from then he has no connection with Sati in her current body. Sati concludes that Shiva has come to know everything and feels very foolish for having tried deceiving Him. Shiva sits under a banyan tree and enters into a long trance. Sati feel extremely sorry but accepts that providence is repaying her for her sins. Many years pass and Shiva finally ends his trance whilst praising Ram. Sati bows down at Shiva 's feet, after which he seats Sati opposite him and he begins to tell stories of Vishnu 's exploits.
While Shiva is narrating the stories of Vishnu, the air is filled with celestial beings. Sati asks Shiva what the occasion is. Shiva explains that Her father Daksha has organised a great sacrifice where many demigods were invited. All except Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were invited as Daksha had developed a hatred towards the Gods. Sati thinks of Her father and asks if She may visit him at this time. Shiva says that they have no formal invite and that all of Sati 's sisters are invited but because of his animosity towards Shiva, Her father has not invited us. Shiva tries to reason with Sati, that no good can come of Her attending, but Tulsidas explains that a daughters ties to her father are very strong.
When she reaches her father 's abode, no one welcomes Her apart from Her mother. Daksha does not even acknowledge Her and actually burns with anger that She has turned up uninvited. Sati looks around and sees no oblations set apart for Shiva and the lack of respect of her father causes Her mind to rage with great anger. She faces Her father 's court and announces that Shiva is the father of the universe and the beneficent of all. It is the same Shiva that Her father vilifies. She burns Her body with the fires of Yoga. Her guards are beaten and thrashed. When Shiva came to know this, he sends Virabhadra, who wreaks havoc of the sacrifice and Daksha is slain. As Sati is about to die, She asks Lord Hari of the boon that she be devoted to Shiva 's feet in successive births. She is reborn as Parvati, the daughter of Himachal and Mena.
Years after the birth of Parvati, Nārad Muni visits her parents Himachal and Mena. Himachal asks Nārad what the future holds for his daughter. Nārad says that Parvati will be adorned with good traits and win unfailing love of her husband. She will remain ever united with him and bring great glory upon her parents. The only drawback is that her husband will be an ascetic with matted hair who is naked and of hideous accoutrements. Himachal and Mena become disconsolate while Parvati is greatly pleased, as she senses from Nārad 's words that her boon from Vishnu is coming true. Nārad explains to Himachal that the only person who shows the virtues as described by him is Shiva. Parvati 's parents are immediately uplifted and as Nārad leaves, he asks Parvati to fix Her thoughts on Hari and practice austerity. The young Parvati enters the forest and performs great penances in order to obtain Shiva. Her body thins greatly due to her self - mortification after which Brahma declares that she should cease her severe penances as Shiva would soon be hers. History had produced many great sages, but none had performed such penances as this. Brahma instructs that her father would soon come for her and that she should return home with him.
Ever since Sati had quit her body, Shiva had begun chanting Ram 's name and entered into a great trance. Through his mystic power, Ram asks Shiva to marry Parvati. Shiva says that this is not a justifiable request but the word of a master can not be set aside and must be obeyed. Shiva remains in his great trance. Around that time the demon Tāraka was causing distress and was in full flourish. Brahma declares that the son of Shiva will kill Tāraka, but for this to happen His wedding with Parvati needs to be arranged and for that to happen, Shiva 's trance has to be broken. It is decided that the God of Love should be sent to awaken Shiva. He fires five arrows of flowers at Shiva 's breast, the trance is broken and Shiva awakens. Shiva is enraged and, through his third eye, reduces Love to ashes. Love 's consort Rati faints as soon as she hears of her husband 's demise. Seeing the helpless woman, Shiva foretells that her husband will now be called bodiless and shall dominate all without a body form. When Krishna descends on earth, her husband would be born as His son Pradyumna. Thereafter Brahma and other gods approach Shiva and declare that they wish to witness His wedding with their own eyes. Remembering Vishnu 's early request, Shiva gladly agrees and Brahma proceeds to arrange the marriage.
Shiva has no real family and so his attendants begin to adorn Him for His wedding to Parvati. His hair is formed into a crown with serpents forming a crest. Serpents form His earrings, bracelets and adorn his neck and He is smeared in ashes and has lion 's skin wrapped around His loins. He heads the wedding procession and Vishnu and Brahma, as well as a host of spirits, gandharavs and danavs follow behind. After the wedding, Parvati and Shiva return to Kailash where Parvati asks questions around Rama 's divinity. Here Shiva begins his narration of Ram Leela.
On the ninth day of the Chaitra month, the Manas describes that the Sun is at its meridian and the climate is neither cold nor hot. There is a cool, soft and fragrant breeze. The woods are full of blossom and the rivers or in full flow. Brahma deduces that the time for Ram 's birth is approaching and the heavenly beings all crowd over the skies to glimpse sight of the auspicious moment. The sky resounds of music and song as the heavenly beings offer their praises to the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Here begins one of the most famous chhands from the Manas, the Ram Janam Stuti. The stuti begins with the appearance of Ram. Mother Kaushalya 's is filled with joy as she marvels over Ram 's dark complexion and his four armed form. He is adorned with jewels and a garland of Sylvan flowers and is described as being an ocean of beauty. Kaushalya joins her palms and prays. "O Infinite, How can I praise You! The Vedas and Puranas reveal you to be the repository of all virtues. You are the Lord of Laksmi and the lover of all of Your devotees and have appeared for my good. Every pore of Your body contains multitudes of universes and the thought that You stayed in my womb is truly staggering. '' Ram smiles and exhorts Kaushalya by telling her the charming account of her previous birth so that she can accept Him as her own child. Kaushalya asks Ram to give up His current superhuman form and to start to indulge in childish sports that are dear to a mother 's heart. Ram, described as the Lord of immortals, immediately becomes an infant and begins to cry.
Tulsidas concludes that whoever sings this Stuti attains the abode of Lord Vishnu and never falls into the well of mundane existence. The Stuti has therefore been immortalised and it is a popular prayer sung on the occasion of Ram 's birthday.
Ahalya, the wife of Rishi Gautam, was a beautiful woman. Indra, king of the gods, was tempted and decided to seduce her with trickery. Early morning Rishi Gautam when the dawn had arrived go down to the nearby Ganges for his usual morning bath. While the Rishi was bathing at the river, Indra assumed Gautam 's form and visited Ahalya, fooling her into thinking he was her husband. When Gautam returned, he encountered Indra, emerging from his hut in his (Gautam 's) form. Spiritually powerful, Gautam employed his divine vision to see the whole episode. Enraged, he cursed Indra with impotence. Losing his potency, Indra lost heaven to demons and sat prayerfully in a lotus flower for thousands of years in order to repent. Rishi Gautam, in a blind rage, also cursed his wife, Ahalya, to turn into a boulder. Innocent of any intentional wrongdoing, Ahalya begged for forgiveness. Gautam relented somewhat and said that when Ram is incarnated, he will bless her and break her curse.
Ram, while going to Mithila for Sita Svayamvar along with Sage Vishwamitra and Laksman, stopped at the, then - uninhabited, hermitage of Rishi Gautam. Vishwamitra narrated Ahalya 's story to Ram, and asked him to free her. Ram touched the boulder with his foot and Ahalya was immediately released from the curse. She fell to Ram 's feet and washed his feet with her tears. She felt that her curse had become her fortune as she got the opportunity to seek Ram 's refuge in person. She then returned to her husband 's place.
Many scholars have commented on the sudden ending to the Manas. Valmiki 's Uttar Kānd goes into great detail about Sita going into the forest, as a result of disapproving gossip of the citizens of Ayodhya, during the rule of Ram over Ayodhya. Sitaji asks mother Earth to receive her and Ram leaves His human form and returns to His celestial abode. Tulsidas decides not to mention these at all. The Katha Kar Morari Bapu has mentioned in many of his retellings of Ram Katha, that Tulsidasji did n't want to end the Manas in heartache for Sita. Tulsidas refers to Sita as his mother (as well as the mother of the entire universe) many times in the poem and so, on an emotional level, this becomes very understandable. She has endured enough pain throughout the Manas and so ends his retelling at a relatively happy moment. It is said that there are some Vaishnav devotees who will only recite the Bālakāṇḍa of the Manas, as this is seen as the happiest period of Ram and Sita 's lila on earth. However, Ramchritmans at few places do make reference of Sita 's abandonment, birth of lav - kush and Ram 's demise to his abode. These stories thus can be said to have mentioned in brief.
An unpublished English poetic translation of Ramcharitmanas is provided by (Late) Binda Prasad Khattri of New Market, Banda, Uttar Pradesh. Apparently, the translation can be sung essentially in the same way and with the same rhythm as the original Hindi work.
Frederick Growse translated the Ramcharitmanas into English under the title The Ramayan of Tulsidas during the nineteenth century. His translation remains in print.
The English commentary by Morari Bapu, Mangal Ramayan, is an English composition of one of his orrated Ram Katha commentaries. The book contains all the translations of prayers, Doha, Chaupais, and Chandan sung by Bapu, as well as an in - depth disccusion behind the meanings of the poetry.
Tulsi Manas Mandir
Notes
References
Online sources
Bibliography
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nice work if you can get it character descriptions | Nice Work If You Can Get it (musical) - wikipedia
Nice Work If You Can Get It is a musical featuring songs by George and Ira Gershwin, with a book written by Joe DiPietro, and based on material by Guy Bolton and P.G. Wodehouse. Nice Work premiered on Broadway in April 2012.
The musical was initially produced in 2001 at the Goodspeed Opera House titled They All Laughed!, with the book by Joe DiPietro and direction by Christopher Ashley. The musical received "mixed notices '' according to Frank Rizzo, writing in the Hartford Courant. New collaborators and producers then became involved.
A workshop was held in November 2007, featuring Harry Connick, Jr. and Erin Dilly. At that time, the show was titled Heaven on Earth. The musical was first scheduled to debut at the Colonial Theatre in Boston, running from December 2008 through January 2009. The production was expected to open on Broadway in Spring 2009, with Harry Connick, Jr. However, in 2008 it was announced that the musical was "officially postponed '', due to a change in the producing team; Connick ultimately left the project.
Preview performances began on Broadway at the Imperial Theatre on March 29, 2012 with the opening on April 24, 2012. Directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall, the cast starred Matthew Broderick (Jimmy Winter) and Kelli O'Hara (Billie Bendix). Additional cast included Judy Kaye as Estonia Dulworth, The Duchess of Woodford; Michael McGrath as Cookie McGee; Jennifer Laura Thompson as Eileen Evergreen; Terry Beaver as Senator Max Evergreen; Robyn Hurder as Jeannie Muldoon; Stanley Wayne Mathis as Chief Berry; Chris Sullivan as Duke Mahoney and Estelle Parsons as Millicent Winter, the mother of Jimmy. In December 2012, Blythe Danner took over for Parsons as Millicent Winter, and on April 2, 2013, Jessie Mueller assumed the role of Billie, replacing O'Hara. The production closed on June 15, 2013, after 27 previews and 478 regular performances.
A US national tour of the musical started September 2, 2014 at the Music Hall at Fair Park in Dallas, Texas, and ran, with an extended break for the winter holidays, until March 22, 2015. It finished at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa, California.
The Australian premiere, a non-replica production directed by Roger Hodgman for The Production Company, played at the State Theatre, Arts Centre Melbourne from August 15 to 23, 2015. It featured Rohan Browne, Esther Hannaford, Christie Whelan - Browne, John Wood, Gina Riley, George Kapiniaris, and Nicki Wendt.
Act I It 's 1927, in the midst of a riotous bachelor party for the oft - married Jimmy Winter ("Sweet and Lowdown ''). Outside, a trio of bootleggers -- Cookie, Billie and Duke -- are trying to figure out where to hide the 400 cases of gin they have stashed on their boat. As a stranger approaches, Duke and Cookie rush off. A drunken Jimmy staggers and comes across the pants - wearing Billie and is immediately smitten. He explains his plight -- he must marry someone respectable or his mother will disinherit him, so he 's marrying someone he does n't truly love. Billie is n't all that interested in his tale of woe, until he reveals that he has a huge Long Island beach house that he never uses, so she swipes his wallet to discover the address. Jimmy assumes Billie is falling for him, but Billie insists that love is for suckers. Jimmy vehemently disagrees ("Nice Work If You Can Get It ''). Jimmy passes out, and Billie focuses on this interesting man unconscious on the ground before her ("Nice Work If You Can Get It - Reprise ''). Cookie and Duke rush back on, and Billie tells them that she found a place to store their bootleg -- a Long Island beach house. A police whistle pierces the air, and the bootleggers scatter. Senator Max Evergreen and Chief Berry enter, along with Duchess Estonia Dulworth, who has brought along her Vice Squad and vows to rid society of its greatest evil ("Demon Rum '').
The next morning, Billie, Cookie and Duke have stored their 400 cases of gin in the cellar of Jimmy 's ritzy beach house. Eileen Evergreen, the finest interpreter of modern dance in the world, enters with Jimmy. They were married that morning, and they are on their honeymoon, though Eileen has yet to allow Jimmy to touch her. Cookie, disguised as a butler, enters and they naturally assume he 's their servant. They send him off, and Eileen tells Jimmy that she 's ready for the honeymoon shenanigans to begin -- as soon as she takes a bath. She exits into the house as Billie enters, stunned to see Jimmy. Jimmy has no memory of meeting her last night, and as Jimmy flirts with her, Billie confesses that she 's never been kissed. Strictly for educational purposes, Jimmy kisses Billie, and she realizes what she 's been missing ("Someone to Watch Over Me '').
Four and a half hours later, Eileen is still bathing ("Delishious ''). In the ritzy living room, Cookie and Billie devise a plan for Billie to distract Jimmy from the 400 cases of gin in his cellar. Billie runs off as Jimmy enters, followed by a gaggle of chorus girls who invite him for a group swim, which Jimmy almost accepts ("I 've Got to be There ''). Eileen enters with a flourish, and just as she is about to let Jimmy touch her, he receives a telegram revealing that his last wife has refused to sign the annulment, and an irate Eileen storms off to get her father. That night in Jimmy 's ritzy bedroom, Billie breaks in and tries to seduce him, badly ("Treat Me Rough ''). Chief Berry, who has been pursuing Billie, barges in to arrest her. But Jimmy convinces him that Billie is actually his newest wife ("Let 's Call the Whole Thing Off '') and Billie and Jimmy are forced to spend the whole night together in his bedroom.
The next morning, Jeannie, a happy - go - lucky chorus girl, comes upon Duke, a lug from New Jersey, and mistakes him for an actual English Duke. Duke, who is perpetually nervous around women, tries to escape, but Jeannie does everything in her power to get him to notice her ("Do it Again '').
In the ritzy living room, Jimmy and Billie realize that they are hopelessly in love ("'S Wonderful '') But Eileen returns with her father -- the ultra-conservative Senator Evergreen -- and her aunt -- the Duchess Estonia Dulworth -- to demand that Jimmy and Eileen have a legal wedding. Jimmy has no choice but to marry Eileen, and Billie pretends to be a cockney maid so she can stick around and guard the bootleg. As Eileen beelines towards the cellar to get the wedding china, Jimmy and Cookie frantically distract the wedding party away from the basement ("Fascinating Rhythm '') as the curtain falls.
Act II On the ritzy terrace, the Vice Squad and Chorus Girls revel ("Lady Be Good ''). Billie enters and realizes she 'll never be as happy as the dancing revelers around her ("But Not For Me ''). Cookie and Duke enter and, since they 're all now disguised as servants, they plot how they can get the impending wedding luncheon over and done with as quickly as possible. The Duchess barrels on to instruct Cookie in the finer points of luncheon preparation. She insists on hiring a string quartet for entertainment, but Cookie has other ideas ("By Strauss '' / "Sweet and Lowdown - Reprise '').
As Billie sets the ritzy luncheon table, Jimmy makes one last attempt to appease her ("Do, Do, Do ''). But Billie will have none of it. As the luncheon begins, Cookie and Duke frantically serve the luncheon guests, and the Duchess continues to annoy Cookie, who spikes her lemonade with Gin. Billie entertains them all with a cockney song ("Hangin ' Around With You '') which mainly serves as an excuse to keep pouring hot soup on Jimmy 's lap. But Billie accidentally pours some steaming soup onto Eileen, who immediately fires her. The Duchess, now happily drunk, defends Billie and reveals a deep secret as she grabs onto Cookie, climbs on the luncheon table and swings from a chandelier ("Looking for a Boy ''). After he drags off the Duchess, an angry Jimmy calls Billie a common criminal, and they realize that they can never be together. Jimmy goes to prepare for his wedding, as Jeannie enters looking for Duke, who Billie accidentally reveals is n't a real duke. Jeannie is furious, so Duke tries to win her over with a poem ("Blah Blah Blah ''), but Jeannie rushes away.
In the ritzy bedroom, Cookie is dressing Jimmy for his wedding as Billie enters to return his wallet. Jimmy and Billie both realize that this is the last time they 'll ever see each other ("Will You Remember Me? '').
The Chorus Girls and Vice Squad set up the wedding ("I 've Got To Be There - Reprise ''). As Senator Evergreen presides, Eileen makes her very grand entrance ("I 've Got a Crush on You ''). But just before vows are exchanged, Cookie and Duke rush in, pretending to be Prohibition Agents, though Chief Berry quickly enters and reveals their true identities. As they 're arrested, Jeannie rushes in and proclaims her love for Duke, then the now sober Duchess proclaims her love for Cookie. Still, Senator Evergreen insists the bootleggers must be arrested, but Jimmy 's mother, Millicent, makes an appearance, revealing the true nature of her son 's heritage -- Senator Evergreen is Jimmy 's father. The senator proclaims the day a joyous one and all are free to pursue their new and surprising loves. Jimmy realizes that Billie has rushed to the boathouse to sail away forever, and he rushes to swear his devotion to her. Millicent follows and reveals that she happens to be the biggest rum - runner on Long Island, and she 'd like Billie to marry her son and take over her business. Billie happily accepts ("Someone to Watch Over Me - Reprise ''). And on the ritzy terrace under a starry night, love has blossomed, the bootleg is opened and the company celebrates their new found joy ("They All Laughed! '').
Reviews of the Broadway production were mixed to positive. Ben Brantley, in his New York Times review, wrote: "Every now and then, a bubble of pure, tickling charm rises from the artificial froth of "Nice Work if You Can Get It, '' the pastiche of a 1920s musical featuring songs by George and Ira Gershwin. Most of this show, which opened on Tuesday night at the Imperial Theater, registers as a shiny, dutiful trickle of jokes and dance numbers performed by talented people who do n't entirely connect with the whimsy of a bygone genre. (...) But then, all at once, there 's a moment of delicate ridiculousness, of utterly credible improbability, that signals what Kathleen Marshall, the production 's director and choreographer, must have been aiming for. ''
The USA Today reviewer wrote: "(...) director / choreographer Kathleen Marshall and a stellar cast ensure that the show is as charming in execution as it is disheartening in theory. (...) For every sharp line, there are a couple that will make you wince -- or would, if they were n't delivered with such disarming spirit and skill. (...) Broderick fares predictably well in the kind of role he does best: a sweetly deadpan social doofus. O'Hara proves once again that there 's pretty much nothing she ca n't do on stage. (...) (T) he excellent Judy Kaye, playing a smug Prohibition advocate, sips spiked lemonade and gets flamboyantly frisky. ''
The Newsday reviewer wrote: "Kathleen Marshall (...) has put together a rowdy, dopey - smart, dance - driven screwball comedy that never shies from the extravagant edge of clunky silliness. Kelli O'Hara and Matthew Broderick may not seem a likely romantic couple. But their different styles -- her crisp and sublime professionalism, his sleepy - faced cunning naiveté and low - watt skills -- spark unexpected chemistry. At least they are very sweet together. Joe DiPietro (...) has used some outlines of "Oh, Kay, '' a genuine Prohibition fluff ball from 1926, for his new story. He switches the power of the illegal - hooch gang from the guys to a plucky woman in guy 's clothes -- O'Hara. ''
An original Broadway cast recording was recorded in May 2012 for the Shout! Factory label and distributed by Sony Records. The album was released in September 2012.
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where did the dove peace symbol come from | Doves as symbols - wikipedia
Doves, usually white in color, are used in a lot of settings as symbols of love, peace or as messengers. Doves appear in the symbolism of Judaism, Christianity and Paganism, and of both military and pacifist groups.
In ancient Mesopotamia, doves were prominent animal symbols of Inanna - Ishtar, the goddess of love, sexuality, and war. Doves are shown on cultic objects associated with Inanna as early as the beginning of the third millennium BC. Lead dove figurines were discovered in the temple of Ishtar at Aššur, dating to the thirteenth century BC, and a painted fresco from Mari, Syria shows a giant dove emerging from a palm tree in the temple of Ishtar, indicating that the goddess herself was sometimes believed to take the form of a dove. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim releases a dove and a raven to find land; the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.
In the ancient Levant, doves were used as symbols for the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah. The ancient Greek word for "dove '' was peristerá, which may be derived from the Semitic phrase peraḥ Ištar, meaning "bird of Ishtar ''. In classical antiquity, doves were sacred to the Greek goddess Aphrodite, who absorbed this association with doves from Inanna - Ishtar. Aphrodite frequently appears with doves in ancient Greek pottery. The temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwest slope of the Athenian Acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks and votive offerings of small, white, marble doves were discovered in the temple of Aphrodite at Daphni. During Aphrodite 's main festival, the Aphrodisia, her altars would be purified with the blood of a sacrificed dove. Aphrodite 's associations with doves influenced the Roman goddesses Venus and Fortuna, causing them to become associated with doves as well.
According to the biblical story (Genesis 8: 11), a dove was released by Noah after the flood in order to find land; it came back carrying a freshly plucked olive leaf (Hebrew: עלה זית alay zayit), a sign of life after the Flood and of God 's bringing Noah, his family and the animals to land. Rabbinic literature interpreted the olive leaf as "the young shoots of the Land of Israel '' or the dove 's preference for bitter food in God 's service, rather than sweet food in the service of men.
The Talmud compares the spirit of God to a dove that hovers over the face of the waters.
In post-biblical Judaism, souls are envisioned as bird - like (Bahir 119), a concept that may be derived from the Biblical notion that dead spirits "chirp '' (Isa. 29: 4). The Guf, or Treasury of Souls, is sometimes described as a columbarium, a dove cote. This connects it to a related legend: the "Palace of the Bird 's Nest '', the dwelling place of the Messiah 's soul until his advent (Zohar II: 8a -- 9a). The Vilna Gaon explicitly declares that a dove is a symbol of the human soul (Commentary to Jonah, 1). The dove is also a symbol of the people Israel (Song of Songs Rabbah 2: 14), an image frequently repeated in Midrash.
The use of a dove and olive branch as a symbol of peace originated with the early Christians, who portrayed the act of baptism accompanied by a dove holding an olive branch in its beak and also used the image on their sepulchres.
Christians derived the symbol of the dove and olive branch from Greek thought, including its use of the symbol of the olive branch, and the story of Noah and the Flood. Although Jews never used the dove as a symbol of peace, it acquired that meaning among early Christians, confirmed by St Augustine of Hippo in his book On Christian Doctrine and became well established.
In Christian Iconography, a dove also symbolizes the Holy Spirit, in reference to Matthew 3: 16 and Luke 3: 22 where the Holy Spirit is compared to a dove at the Baptism of Jesus.
The early Christians in Rome incorporated into their funerary art the image of a dove carrying an olive branch, often accompanied by the word "Peace ''. It seems that they derived this image from the simile in the Gospels, combining it with the symbol of the olive branch, which had been used to represent peace by the Greeks and Romans. The dove and olive branch also appeared in Christian images of Noah 's ark. The fourth century Vulgate translated the Hebrew alay zayit (leaf of olive) in Genesis 8: 11 as Latin ramum olivae (branch of olive). By the fifth century, Augustine of Hippo wrote in On Christian Doctrine that "perpetual peace is indicated by the olive branch (oleae ramusculo) which the dove brought with it when it returned to the ark ''.
In the earliest Christian art, the dove represented the peace of the soul rather than civil peace, but from the third century it began to appear in depictions of conflict in the Old Testament, such as Noah and the Ark, and in the Apocrypha, such as Daniel and the lions, the three young men in the furnace, and Susannah and the Elders.
Before the Peace of Constantine (313 AD), in which Rome ceased its persecution of Christians following Constantine 's conversion, Noah was normally shown in an attitude of prayer, a dove with an olive branch flying toward him or alighting on his outstretched hand. According to Graydon Snyder, "The Noah story afforded the early Christian community an opportunity to express piety and peace in a vessel that withstood the threatening environment '' of Roman persecution. According to Ludwig Budde and Pierre Prigent, the dove referred to the descending of the Holy Spirit rather than the peace associated with Noah. After the Peace of Constantine, when persecution ceased, Noah appeared less frequently in Christian art.
Medieval illuminated manuscripts, such as the Holkham Bible, showed the dove returning to Noah with a branch. Wycliffe 's Bible, which translated the Vulgate into English in the 14th century, uses "a braunche of olyue tre with greene leeuys '' ("a branch of olive tree with green leaves '') in Gen. 8: 11. In the Middle Ages, some Jewish illuminated manuscripts also showed Noah 's dove with an olive branch, for example, the Golden Haggadah (about 1420).
Doves are often associated with the concept of peace and pacifism. They often appear in political cartoons, on banners and signs at events promoting peace (such as the Olympic Games, at various anti-war / anti-violence protests, etc.), and in pacifist literature. A person who is a pacifist is sometimes referred to as a dove (similarly, in American politics, a person who advocates the use of military resources as opposed to diplomacy can be referred to as a hawk). Picasso 's lithograph, La Colombe (The Dove), a traditional, realistic picture of a pigeon, without an olive branch, was chosen as the emblem for the World Peace Council in Paris in April 1949. The dove became a symbol for the peace movement and the ideals of the Communist Party and was used in Communist demonstrations of the period. At the 1950 World Peace Congress in Sheffield, Picasso said that his father had taught him to paint doves, concluding, "I stand for life against death; I stand for peace against war. '' At the 1952 World Peace Congress in Berlin, Picasso 's Dove was depicted in a banner above the stage. Anti-communists had their own take on the peace dove: the group Paix et Liberté distributed posters titled La colombe qui fait BOUM (the dove that goes BOOM), showing the peace dove metamorphosing into a Soviet tank.
The rock dove is, due to its relation to the homing pigeon and thus communications, the main image in the crest of the Tactical Communications Wing, a body within the Royal Air Force. Below the crest is the wing 's motto, "Ubique Loquimur '' or "We Speak Everywhere ''.
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who did kentucky beat in 2012 ncaa tournament | 2012 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2012 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament was a single - elimination tournament involving 68 schools playing to determine the national champion of men 's NCAA Division I college basketball. It began on March 13, 2012, and concluded with the championship game on April 2 at the Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans.
The Final Four consisted of Kentucky, making their second appearance in the Final Four under John Calipari, Louisville, making their second appearance under Rick Pitino and first since 2005, Kansas, making their first appearance since winning the 2008 national championship under head coach Bill Self by defeating Calipari 's Memphis team, and Ohio State, making their first appearance since their runner - up finish in 2007 and second under coach Thad Matta.
Kentucky defeated Kansas 67 - 59 to win their first national championship since Tubby Smith led the team there in 1998. This was Calipari 's first national championship in four trips to the Final Four, having previously gone there with Kentucky in 2011, Memphis in 2008 and Massachusetts in 1996.
Upsets were once again the story of the tournament in 2012, and for the first time ever two # 15 seeds won in the same tournament. In the South Region, # 15 Lehigh of the Patriot League defeated # 2 Duke. In the West Region, # 15 Norfolk State of the MEAC, making their first ever NCAA tournament appearance, defeated # 2 Missouri. In addition to this, Ohio won a game as a double digit seed for the second time in four tournaments as the # 13 seed Bobcats defeated # 4 seed Michigan to advance to the third round of the Midwest Region. A team from the First Four games also won in the Round of 64 for the second consecutive year as South Florida defeated Midwest # 5 seed Temple, setting up a # 12 vs. # 13 matchup that Ohio won.
Virginia Commonwealth, a Final Four team from 2011 as an # 11 seed, made the 2012 tournament as a # 12 seed and once again made the round of 32 by defeating South # 5 seed Wichita State. The South Region saw four double digit seeds win in their opening games, as Colorado and Xavier joined VCU and Lehigh as victors. Xavier advanced to the Sweet Sixteen, where they were defeated by Baylor.
Despite the upsets, all four top seeds advanced to the Sweet Sixteen for the first time since 2009. Three made it to the Elite Eight, as only Michigan State of the West Region lost. Kentucky was the only one to advance to the Final Four as Syracuse and North Carolina lost in their regional finals.
Two teams made their first NCAA tournament appearances in school history: MEAC champion Norfolk State and Summit League champion South Dakota State. Ivy League champion Harvard made its first appearance since 1946.
All four teams from the state of Ohio (Cincinnati, Ohio, Ohio State, and Xavier) made it to the Sweet 16, marking the first time in tournament history any state has been represented by four teams in the round of 16. This tournament was also the first tournament since 1985 to feature no teams in the Sweet 16 from the Mountain or Pacific Time Zones.
It is also the first tournament ever that both national semifinals and the national championship game were regular season rematches.
A total of 68 teams entered the tournament. Thirty out of 31 automatic bids were given to the teams that won their conference tournament. The remaining automatic bid was awarded to the Ivy League regular season champion since they do not hold a conference tournament. The remaining 37 teams were granted "at - large '' bids, which were extended by the NCAA Selection Committee on March 11.
Eight teams -- the four lowest - seeded automatic qualifiers and the four lowest - seeded at - large teams -- will play in the First Four (the successor to what had been popularly known as "play - in games '' through the 2010 tournament). The winners of these games will advance to the main draw of the tournament.
For the first time ever, the Selection Committee publicly disclosed the overall rankings for each team, which are listed below.
The following are the sites selected to host each round of the 2012 tournament:
The Final Four returned to the Superdome for the fifth time overall and first time since before Hurricane Katrina; it is scheduled to host again in 2022. The tournament saw two new arenas in previous host cities. For the first time since 1991, the tournament returned to the city of Louisville at its new KFC Yum! Center, the downtown home of the Louisville Cardinals and successor venue to Freedom Hall. And for the first time in ten years, the city of Pittsburgh hosted the tournament, this time at Consol Energy Center, which replaced the Civic Arena as Pittsburgh 's main arena. As of 2018, this is the most recent year hosting for the Dome at America 's Center, the Greensboro Coliseum, The Pit and Talking Stick Resort Arena; of these, only the Greensboro Coliseum has been selected thus far for a future site, in 2020.
The following teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2012 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's tournament (except for the Ivy League, whose regular - season champion received the automatic bid).
Team names are those used on CBSsports.com scoreboards and team pages.
Automatic bids to the tournament were granted for winning a conference championship tournament, except for the automatic bid of the Ivy League given to the regular season champion. Seeds listed were seeds within the conference tournaments. Runners - up in bold face were given at - large berths.
* See First Four.
All other conferences have only one bid (see Automatic Bids) NOTE: Teams in bold represent the conference 's automatic bid.
The Selection Committee also announced the last four teams out of the tournament as part of the Hardcore Brackets special following announcement of the teams. In order, they were Oral Roberts, Miami (Florida), Nevada, and Drexel. Oral Roberts, Nevada, and Drexel were automatically selected, as regular - season champions, for berths in the National Invitation Tournament, while Miami was also selected for a berth by the NIT Selection Committee.
* -- Denotes overtime period
Unless otherwise noted, all times listed are Eastern Daylight Time (UTC - 04)
Both games on March 13 saw historic comebacks:
In addition, the March 13 session was notable for the attendance of Barack Obama, president of the United States, and David Cameron, prime minister of Great Britain. Cameron was in the U.S. for bilateral political and economic talks with Obama.
Regional all - tournament team: Quincy Acy, Baylor; Anthony Davis, Kentucky; Doron Lamb, Kentucky; Christian Watford, Indiana.
Regional most outstanding player: Michael Kidd - Gilchrist, Kentucky
Regional all - tournament team: Bradley Beal, Florida; Gorgui Dieng, Louisville; Draymond Green, Michigan State; Peyton Siva, Louisville.
Regional most outstanding player: Chane Behanan, Louisville
Regional all - tournament team: Scoop Jardine, Syracuse; Lenzelle Smith, Jr., Ohio State; Jordan Taylor, Wisconsin; Deshaun Thomas, Ohio State.
Regional most outstanding player: Jared Sullinger, Ohio State
Regional all - tournament team: Walter Offutt, Ohio; Tyshawn Taylor, Kansas; Jeff Withey, Kansas; Tyler Zeller, North Carolina.
Regional most outstanding player: Thomas Robinson, Kansas
Final Four all - tournament team: Anthony Davis, Kentucky; Michael Kidd - Gilchrist, Kentucky; Doron Lamb, Kentucky; Thomas Robinson, Kansas; Tyshawn Taylor, Kansas
Final Four most outstanding player: Anthony Davis, Kentucky
2012 marked the second year of a 14 - year partnership between CBS Sports and Turner Broadcasting cable networks TBS, TNT and truTV to cover the entire tournament under the NCAA March Madness banner. CBS aired the Final Four and championship rounds for the 31st consecutive year.
Dial Global Sports (formerly Westwood One) and SiriusXM have live broadcasts of all 67 games.
All tournament sites continued to use the uniform courts that were first introduced tournament - wide in 2010, except for a slight variation at the East Regionals in Boston at the TD Garden, where a parquet floor court pattern similar to that used by the hometown Boston Celtics was used.
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got to love you by sean paul ft alexis jordan | Got 2 Luv U - wikipedia
"Got 2 Luv U '' is the first single from Jamaican recording artist Sean Paul 's fifth studio album Tomahawk Technique. The song features vocals from American singer Alexis Jordan. It was released on 19 July 2011 by Atlantic Records. The song was featured in 2012 film Magic Mike.
Sean Paul co-wrote the song with OneRepublic lead singer Ryan Tedder and Norwegian production duo Stargate. Production was also handled by Stargate. Tedder originally wrote and recorded the song as a break - up song called "Not To Love You '' (uploads of this version can be found on YouTube). However, when it was given to Sean Paul and Alexis Jordan, the song was changed into a love song. The "N '' in "Not '' was changed to a "G '' to make the word "Got '', thus creating its current title. Also, Paul wrote and recorded two new verses to replace Tedder 's original first two verses, while Jordan sings Tedder 's original chorus and third verse with different lyrics.
The video was filmed on 29 August 2011 at the Hard Rock Cafe in Las Vegas and the Vanity Nightclub that is under the same ownership as the Hard Rock Cafe hotel. The music video was uploaded to YouTube on 15 September 2011 at a total length of three minutes and thirty - four seconds. It was directed by Ben Mor. As of July 2016 the music video has over 225 Million Views.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where is the lake house in the movie the lake house | The lake house (film) - wikipedia
The Lake House is a 2006 American romantic drama directed by Alejandro Agresti and starring Keanu Reeves, Sandra Bullock and Christopher Plummer. It was written by David Auburn. The film is a remake of the South Korean motion picture Il Mare (2000). The story centers on an architect living in 2004 and a doctor living in 2006. The two meet via letters left in a mailbox at the lake house they have both lived in at separate points in time; they carry on correspondence over two years, remaining separated by their original difference of two years.
This film reunites Reeves and Bullock for the first time since they co-starred in Speed in 1994.
In 2006, Dr. Kate Forrester (Sandra Bullock) is leaving a lake house that she has been renting in Madison, Wisconsin to move to Chicago. Kate leaves a note in the mailbox for the next tenant to forward her mail, adding that the paint - embedded pawprints on the path leading to the house were already there when she arrived.
Two years earlier in 2004, Alex Wyler (Reeves), an architect, arrives at the lake house and finds Kate 's letter in the mailbox. The house is neglected, with no sign of paw prints anywhere. During the subsequent restoration of the house, a dog runs through Alex 's paint and leaves fresh paw prints right where Kate said they would be. Baffled, Alex writes back, asking how Kate knew about the paw prints since the house was unoccupied until he arrived. On Valentine 's Day 2006, Kate witnesses a traffic accident near Daley Plaza and tries to save the male victim, unsuccessfully. She impulsively drives back to the lake house, finds Alex 's letter and writes back.
Both Alex and Kate continue passing messages to each other via the mailbox, and each watches its flag go up and down as the message leaves and the reply arrives as they wait at the mailbox. They cautiously look around each time the flag changes, hoping to somehow spot the other. It is in vain as they are alone at the mailbox. They then discover that they are living exactly two years apart. Their correspondence takes them through several events, including Alex finding a book, Jane Austen 's Persuasion, at a railway station where Kate said she would have lost it, and Alex taking Kate on a walking tour of his favorite places in Chicago via an annotated map that he leaves in the mailbox. Alex eventually meets Kate at her boyfriend 's party but he does n't mention their exchange of letters to her because she did not "know '' him at that time. She later remembered the meeting as a vague memory in the past. For Alex, the meeting happened in the present but for Kate, it had already taken place in the past without her knowing that it was Alex.
As Alex and Kate continue to write each other, they decide to try to meet again. Alex makes a reservation at the Il Mare restaurant for March 2007 -- two years into Alex 's future, but only a day away for Kate. Kate goes to the restaurant but Alex fails to show. Heartbroken, Kate asks Alex not to write her again, recounting the accident a year before. Both Alex and Kate leave the lake house, continuing on with their separate lives.
On Valentine 's Day 2006 for Alex, Valentine 's Day 2008 for Kate, he returns to the lake house after something about the day triggers a memory. Meanwhile, Kate goes to an architect to review the renovation plans for a house she wants to buy. A drawing of the lake house on the conference room wall catches her attention and upon asking, Henry Wyler informs her the artist was his brother, Alex, and Kate realizes that this was the same Alex with whom she had been corresponding. She also learns that Alex was killed in a traffic accident exactly two years ago to the day and realizes why he never showed up for their date - he was the man who died in Daley Plaza.
Rushing to the lake house, Kate frantically writes a letter telling Alex she loves him, but begs him not to try to find her if he loves her back. Wait two years, she says, and come to the lake house instead. Meanwhile, Alex has gone to Daley Plaza to look for Kate.
At the lake house, Kate drops to her knees sobbing, fearing that she has arrived too late to stop Alex. After a long pause, the mailbox flag finally lowers; Alex has picked up her note. Not long afterwards, a familiar mint - green truck pulls up. She walks forward smiling as the driver, clad in jeans and a familiar tan jacket, approaches. She and Alex kiss and walk toward the lake house.
The film is set and filmed in the Chicago area. The lake house itself was built on what is called Maple Lake, located within the Maple Lake Forest Preserve off of 95th Street in the southwest suburbs of Chicago. After filming the house was removed and a simple fishing dock was put in its place. The downtown scenes are in The Loop. The scenes where Kate and Morgan go to Henry 's office, and Kate 's dramatic exit down the stairs, were filmed at the Chicago Architecture Foundation. The scene where Henry and Alex talk on the street after being in their father 's office was filmed on the 400 block of South Michigan Ave, in front of the Fine Arts Building and the Auditorium Theater. Other filming locations include Aurora, Illinois (now the Madison Park community) and Riverside, Illinois, a small town on the outskirts of Chicago that is known for its historic houses, and several Frank Lloyd Wright buildings. The railway station in the movie is the real station of Riverside, and the bridge that Alex crosses while chasing Jack is called the "Swinging Bridge ''; it crosses the Des Plaines River. The scene where Kate gets stood - up is in Millennium Park at the Park Grill. The bar scene in the Loop where Kate is seen sitting on the barstool, speaking with the woman at the wooden bar, is the real "Millers Pub '' located at 134 S Wabash Ave, Chicago, IL 60603.
The Lake House: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released in 2006.
Songs appearing in the film, but not on the soundtrack include:
The film trailer also features the song "Somewhere Only We Know '' by the band Keane. It is available on the album Hopes and Fears.
In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $13.6 million, ranking fourth in the United States box office. As of October 1, 2006, the movie has grossed $52,330,111 domestically, and $114,830,111 worldwide.
On September 26, 2006, the movie became the first to be simultaneously released on DVD, Blu - ray Disc and HD DVD (courtesy of Warner Home Video).
According to the website Rotten Tomatoes, 35 % of the critics gave the movie a positive review, resulting in an aggregated rating of "rotten ''.
USA Today critic Claudia Puig wrote, "The Lake House is one of the more befuddling movies of recent years. The premise makes no sense, no matter how you turn it around in your head. ''
Roger Ebert, while pointing out the movie 's logical inconsistencies, wrote, "Never mind, I tell you, never mind! '' Ebert gave a positive review (3.5 stars out of 4) noting, "What I respond to in the movie is its fundamental romantic impulse. ''
On August 18, 2006, Reeves and Bullock won a Teen Choice Award for "Choice Liplock '' for The Lake House.
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what does l and c stand for in ice skating | ISU judging system - wikipedia
The ISU Judging System (or the International Judging System (IJS)), occasionally referred to as the Code of Points (COP) system, is the scoring system currently used to judge the figure skating disciplines of men 's and ladies ' singles, pair skating, ice dance, and synchronized skating. It was designed and implemented by the International Skating Union (ISU), the ruling body of the sport. This system of scoring is used in all international competitions sanctioned by the ISU, including the Olympic Games. The ISU Judging System replaced the previous 6.0 system in 2004. This new system was created in response to the 2002 Winter Olympics figure skating scandal, in an attempt to make the scoring system more objective and less vulnerable to abuse.
Figure skating was formerly judged on a 6.0 scale. This scale is sometimes called "the old scale '', or "old system ''. Skaters were judged on "technical merit '' (in the free skate), "required elements '' (in the short program), and "presentation '' (in both programs). The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0 and were used to determine a preference ranking, or "ordinal '', separately for each judge; the judges ' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The highest scoring individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.
In 2004, after the judging controversy during the 2002 Winter Olympics, the ISU adopted the New Judging System (NJS), or Code of Points, which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics.
Under the ISU Judging System, the base value of each element performed by the skater is identified by the Technical Panel. The purpose of this panel is to identify all of the elements performed by the skater in real time as they happen. The panel is also responsible for: any "technical errors '' to jumps; identifying falls of the skater; and any "levels of difficulty '' performed in Spins and Steps.
The Technical Panel is comprised of the following five people:
The judging panel 's primary purpose is to grade the quality of each individual technical element performed by the skater (known as the Grade of Execution or GOE), and the five Program Component Scores for each segment of the competition. The five component scores replaced the "presentation mark '' in the old 6.0 system. At most international events and other large National Championships (such as the U.S. Championships) there are nine judges, but at smaller competitions the panel might consist of between four and seven judges. An odd number of judges was needed to break ties in the old 6.0 system, but this is no longer necessary with averaging marks in the ISU Judging System.
The evaluation of the Grade of Execution (GOE) for each technical element has clear guidelines from the ISU; it ranges from a "base value '' of 0, to as high as + 3 and as low as -- 3. In order to award a positive GOE, a judge needs to identify a certain number of "positive bullets '' with almost no reductions. Two positive bullets are needed for a GOE of + 1, four bullets for a + 2, and six for a + 3. In the case of a negative GOE, a judge must be able to support the reduction from the published list of reductions. As the skater performs each element, the judges evaluate all phases of the element, possibly weighing both positive and negative aspects of the element in order to determine a final GOE. To aid in the process of evaluating only the quality of an element, while ignoring the difficulty of the element, the judges are simply shown the element codes on their screens; they do not see the levels of difficulty awarded by the Technical Panel. The judges must be able to support every mark that they have awarded in case they are questioned by the referee after the event.
The five program component scores are skating skills, transitions, performance, composition, and interpretation. Each mark has individual characteristics to be evaluated and they are scored from 0.25 to 10.00 in quarter - point increments. This scale from zero to ten is an absolute scale, so if 6.00 is considered "above average '' then each judge 's understanding of a 6.00 should remain the same throughout an event and their judging careers.
The judging panel consists of up to nine judges and one referee. The Technical Panel sends the element codes to the judges ' computers for marking. For each element, all of the judges award a mark for Grade of Execution (GOE) that is an integer between -- 3 and + 3. The GOE mark is then translated into a value using the Scale of Value (SOV) table which is published regularly by ISU Communications. The GOE values from the nine judges are averaged using the "trimmed mean '' procedure, where the highest and lowest values are discarded and an average is calculated from the remaining seven values. This average value (which may be positive or negative) is finally added to the base value to produce the judging panel 's overall score for the element.
Judges also mark the Program Components, which are: Skating Skills; Transitions / Linking Footwork; Performance and Execution; Composition and Choreography; and Interpretation and Timing. These Components are marked on a scale of 0.25 -- 10 with 0.25 increments and averaged using the same "trimmed mean '' procedure that was used for averaging the GOE marks. Judges also have the power to input majority deductions such as Music Violations and Costume / Prop Violations. The Referee inputs other deductions such as Time Violations, Interruption in Excess and Costume Failures.
The number and type of elements in a skating program really depends on the event and on the level of competition. At the senior international level, single and pairs short programs contain eight technical elements. The actual eight elements are detailed for single skaters in ISU rule 310. Each skater must attempt one combination jump, two solo jumps, three spins, and two skating sequences. The eight elements required for a senior pairs short program include two lifts, one side - by - side jump, one throw jump, one side - by - side spin, one pair spin, one step sequence, and one death spiral (ISU rule 313).
Senior level free programs have 14 elements for pairs, 13 elements for men, and 12 elements for ladies. The details of the elements are given by ISU rules 520 and 521 (2008 version). Pairs must perform 4 lifts, 4 jumps, 3 spins (including 1 death spiral), 1 step sequence, and 1 spiral sequence. Men must perform 8 jumps, 3 spins, 1 step sequence, and 1 choreographic step sequence. Ladies must perform 7 jumps, 3 spins, 1 step sequence and 1 spiral sequence. NOTE: Beginning with the 2010 - 2011 season, the ' choreographic step sequence and spiral sequence ' was replaced with the ' choreographic sequence '.
The panel 's points for each Program Component are multiplied by a factor depending on the event. For singles and pair skating, the factor is uniform for all components, as follows:
The factors in Ice Dance are different for each Program Component and depend on the dance type.
Following an event, the complete judges ' scores are published in a document referred to as a protocol. This document uses specific notations as described below.
If a skater attempts more than the allowed number of a certain type of element in a program, then the element is still described and called as such by the technical controller, but receives a base value of 0 as well as a GOE of 0, regardless of how the judges have marked it. On ISU protocol sheets, elements that have been nullified by this are denoted by an asterisk (*) next to the element name. In free skating, for jumps executed twice as solo jumps, the second jump is marked as + REP and receives 70 % of its base value. Jump elements performed after the halfway point of a program are marked with x and receive a 10 % bonus added to their base value. If a jump has been called as having an unclear take - off edge, that jump is marked with! and receives a -- 1 to -- 2 GOE depending on severity; if a jump has been called as having an incorrect take - off edge (for example, an inside edge on the take - off of a Lutz jump), that jump is marked with e and receives a -- 2 or -- 3 GOE depending on the severity of the edge fault. Jumps that are under - rotated are marked with < or < < depending on the degree of turns completed on the ice instead of in mid-air. < indicates that a jump had less than a 1⁄2 turn but more than a 1⁄4 turn completed on the ice, reducing the base value to 70 % of its original value. < < indicates a severe under - rotation (a 1⁄2 turn or more) and the jump is valued as if it had one less rotation (e.g. a triple would receive the value of a double).
Jumps that are executed in combination or sequence are marked as a single element, with a base mark equal to the sum of the base marks for the individual jumps. However, a combination or sequence can be downgraded -- marked with + COMBO (combinations in the short program) or + SEQ (combinations and sequences in the free skate) -- in which case the sum of the base values of the jumps is reduced by 80 %.
Every Spring / Summer the ISU releases rule updates which includes a current Scale of Values (SOV) for different types of elements. One is released for Singles / Pairs and another for Ice Dance.
The level of a spin or footwork sequence is denoted by the number following the element abbreviation. The number of rotations on a jump is denoted by the number preceding the element abbreviation. For example, 3A denotes a triple axel, while SlSt4 denotes a level four straight line step sequence. ChSt and ChSq are step sequences and spiral sequences that have no level and a fixed base value.
Ice dance judging is similar to pairs and singles, but uses a separate set of rules and table of values. In the compulsory dance, steps are specified and "elements '' are defined for each dance as subsets of the prescribed steps. For compulsory dance only, there is no program component score given for transitions and choreography. Instead there is a timing (TI) program component that is exclusive to the compulsory dance, leaving only four program components in the compulsory dance. In the original dance there are 5 marked technical elements. In the free dance, there are 9 marked technical elements. Unlike singles and pair skating, the different program components are weighted differently in each segment of the competition. The highest factored component (s) in each segment are skating skills and timing in the compulsory dance, interpretation in the original dance, and transitions in the free dance. The exact values of these factors are listed in ISU Rule 543.1 k.
Under the ISU judging system, the highest score a skater earns in a career is known as a personal best. An ISU Personal Best is a score set at a competition run under the auspices of the International Skating Union. Only certain events count for personal best scores. National - level events do not count towards personal bests.
Unlike an ISU Personal Best score, which is the highest score set over a lifetime, the season 's best score is the highest score earned by a skater in a season. Season 's best scores help determine the fields to the ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating.
The following are the highest scores that have been earned under Code of Points since its inception. It does not differentiate for changes made to the system. The ISU only recognizes best scores set at international competitions run under ISU rules, not at national competitions.
For more complete lists, see list of highest scores in figure skating and list of highest junior scores in figure skating.
Men: Top 10 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for men 's combined total, short program and free skating.
Ladies: Top 10 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for ladies ' combined total, short program and free skating.
Pairs: Top 10 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for pairs ' combined total, short program and free skating.
The Compulsory Dance and Original Dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the Short Dance.
Ice dance: Top 10 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for ice dance combined total, short dance and free dance.
For a complete list of the junior record holders, see list of current junior record holders.
Men: Top 4 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for junior men 's combined total, short program and free skating.
Ladies: Top 4 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for junior ladies ' combined total, short program and free skating.
Pairs: Top 4 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for junior pairs ' combined total, short program and free skating.
Ice Dance: Top 4 highest total score
See also: Progression of record scores for junior ice dance combined total, short dance and free dance.
Like gymnastics and diving competitions, judging in figure skating is inherently subjective. Although there may be general consensus that one skater "looks better '' than another, it is difficult to get agreement on what it is that causes one skater to be marked as 5.5 and another to be 5.75 for a particular program component. As judges, coaches, and skaters get more experience with the new system, more consensus may emerge. However, for the 2006 Olympics there were cases of 1 to 1.5 point differences in component marks from different judges. This range of difference implies that "observer bias '' determines about 20 % of the mark given by a judge. Averaging over many judges reduces the effect of this bias in the final score, but there will remain about a 2 % spread in the average artistic marks from the randomly selected subsets of judges.
Aside from intra-expert subjectivity, skating is very open to misjudgement from everyday spectators who only see skating casually, e.g. every four years at the Olympics. A skater 's jump may look perfect, but the general public will not be aware that the competitor landed on an incorrect edge, therefore receiving fewer points for an element, resulting in the appearance of haphazard or biased judging.
The IJS aims to make the judging of figure skating competitions more consistent with judging systems used in sports like diving and gymnastics. It also includes features intended to make judging more resistant to pressure by special interests. However, there is debate as to whether the new system is in fact an improvement over the old 6.0 system.
Initially under the new ISU rules, the judges ' marks were anonymous, which removed any public accountability of the judges for their marks. However, problems with this system came to the forefront during the Sochi Olympics in 2014, and in June 2016 the ISU Congress voted to abolish anonymous judging altogether.
While the IJS has minimized the number of ties and the need for multiple tiebreaks, as there were under the old 6.0 system, ties do still occur for both overall score and also for single segments of the competition.
In 2008, the International Skating Union ruled to reduce the number of judges from 12 to 9. Ottavio Cinquanta cited economic difficulties as the prime reason for this change. Because the top and bottom extreme scores are dropped, the scores of 7 judges will determine the outcome of competitions.
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why does the rydberg equation work for hydrogen and not helium | Rydberg formula - wikipedia
The Rydberg formula is used in atomic physics to describe the wavelengths of spectral lines of many chemical elements. It was formulated by the Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg, and presented on 5 November 1888.
In 1880, Rydberg worked on a formula describing the relation between the wavelengths in spectral lines of alkali metals. He noticed that lines came in series and he found that he could simplify his calculations by using the wavenumber (the number of waves occupying the unit length, equal to 1 / λ, the inverse of the wavelength) as his unit of measurement. He plotted the wavenumbers (n) of successive lines in each series against consecutive integers which represented the order of the lines in that particular series. Finding that the resulting curves were similarly shaped, he sought a single function which could generate all of them, when appropriate constants were inserted.
First he tried the formula: n = n 0 − C 0 m + m ′ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle n = n_ (0) - (\ frac (C_ (0)) (m + m '))), where n is the line 's wavenumber, n is the series limit, m is the line 's ordinal number in the series, m ' is a constant different for different series and C is a universal constant. This did not work very well.
Rydberg was trying: n = n 0 − C 0 (m + m ′) 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle n = n_ (0) - (\ frac (C_ (0)) (\ left (m + m ' \ right) ^ (2)))) when he became aware of Balmer 's formula for the hydrogen spectrum λ = h m 2 m 2 − 4 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ lambda = (hm ^ (2) \ over m ^ (2) - 4)) In this equation, m is an integer and h is a constant (not to be confused with the later Planck 's constant).
Rydberg therefore rewrote Balmer 's formula in terms of wavenumbers, as n = n 0 − 4 n 0 m 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle n = n_ (0) - (4n_ (0) \ over m ^ (2))).
This suggested that the Balmer formula for hydrogen might be a special case with m ′ = 0 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle m ' = 0 \!) and C 0 = 4 n 0 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle C_ (0) = 4n_ (0) \!), where n 0 = 1 h (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle n_ (0) = (\ frac (1) (h))), the reciprocal of Balmer 's constant (this constant h is written B in the Balmer equation article, again to avoid confusion with Planck 's constant).
The term C was found to be a universal constant common to all elements, equal to 4 / h. This constant is now known as the Rydberg constant, and m ' is known as the quantum defect.
As stressed by Niels Bohr, expressing results in terms of wavenumber, not wavelength, was the key to Rydberg 's discovery. The fundamental role of wavenumbers was also emphasized by the Rydberg - Ritz combination principle of 1908. The fundamental reason for this lies in quantum mechanics. Light 's wavenumber is proportional to frequency 1 λ = f c (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ frac (1) (\ lambda)) = (\ frac (f) (c))), and therefore also proportional to light 's quantum energy E. Thus, 1 λ = E h c (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ frac (1) (\ lambda)) = (\ frac (E) (hc))). Modern understanding is that Rydberg 's findings were a reflection of the underlying simplicity of the behavior of spectral lines, in terms of fixed (quantized) energy differences between electron orbitals in atoms. Rydberg 's 1888 classical expression for the form of the spectral series was not accompanied by a physical explanation. Ritz 's pre-quantum 1908 explanation for the mechanism underlying the spectral series was that atomic electrons behaved like magnets and that the magnets could vibrate with respect to the atomic nucleus (at least temporarily) to produce electromagnetic radiation, but this theory was superseded in 1913 by Niels Bohr 's model of the atom.
In Bohr 's conception of the atom, the integer Rydberg (and Balmer) n numbers represent electron orbitals at different integral distances from the atom. A frequency (or spectral energy) emitted in a transition from n to n therefore represents the photon energy emitted or absorbed when an electron makes a jump from orbital 1 to orbital 2.
Later models found that the values for n and n corresponded to the principal quantum numbers of the two orbitals.
Where
By setting n 1 (\ displaystyle n_ (1)) to 1 and letting n 2 (\ displaystyle n_ (2)) run from 2 to infinity, the spectral lines known as the Lyman series converging to 91 nm are obtained, in the same manner:
The formula above can be extended for use with any hydrogen - like chemical elements with
where
It 's important to notice that this formula can be directly applied only to hydrogen - like, also called hydrogenic atoms of chemical elements, i.e. atoms with only one electron being affected by an effective nuclear charge (which is easily estimated). Examples would include He, Li, Be etc., where no other electrons exist in the atom.
But the Rydberg formula also provides correct wavelengths for distant electrons, where the effective nuclear charge can be estimated as the same as that for hydrogen, since all but one of the nuclear charges have been screened by other electrons, and the core of the atom has an effective positive charge of + 1.
Finally, with certain modifications (replacement of Z by Z − 1, and use of the integers 1 and 2 for the ns to give a numerical value of ⁄ for the difference of their inverse squares), the Rydberg formula provides correct values in the special case of K - alpha lines, since the transition in question is the K - alpha transition of the electron from the 1s orbital to the 2p orbital. This is analogous to the Lyman - alpha line transition for hydrogen, and has the same frequency factor. Because the 2p electron is not screened by any other electrons in the atom from the nucleus, the nuclear charge is diminished only by the single remaining 1s electron, causing the system to be effectively a hydrogenic atom, but with a diminished nuclear charge Z − 1. Its frequency is thus the Lyman - alpha hydrogen frequency, increased by a factor of (Z − 1). This formula of f = c / λ = (Lyman - alpha frequency) ⋅ (Z − 1) is historically known as Moseley 's law (having added a factor c to convert wavelength to frequency), and can be used to predict wavelengths of the K (K - alpha) X-ray spectral emission lines of chemical elements from aluminum to gold. See the biography of Henry Moseley for the historical importance of this law, which was derived empirically at about the same time it was explained by the Bohr model of the atom.
For other spectral transitions in multi-electron atoms, the Rydberg formula generally provides incorrect results, since the magnitude of the screening of inner electrons for outer - electron transitions is variable and not possible to compensate for in the simple manner above.
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what were the causes of the latin revolution | Spanish American wars of Independence - wikipedia
Independentist states victory
The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America with the aim of political independence that took place during the early 19th century, after the French invasion of Spain during Europe 's Napoleonic Wars.
These conflicts started in 1809 with short - lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito in opposing the government of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. In 1810, numerous new juntas appeared across the Spanish domains in the Americas when the Central Junta fell to the French invasion. Although various regions of Spanish America objected to many crown policies, "there was little interest in outright independence; indeed there was widespread support for the Spanish Central Junta formed to lead the resistance against the French. '' While some Spanish Americans believed that independence was necessary, most who initially supported the creation of the new governments saw them as a means to preserve the region 's autonomy from the French. Over the course of the next decade, the political instability in Spain and the absolutist restoration under Ferdinand VII convinced many Spanish Americans of the need to formally establish independence from the mother country.
These conflicts were fought both as irregular warfare and conventional warfare, and as wars of national liberation and civil wars. The conflicts among the colonies and with Spain eventually resulted in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south to Mexico in the north in the first third of the 19th century. Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish -- American War in 1898. The new republics from the beginning abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition, and noble titles. Slavery was not abolished immediately but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century. Criollos (those of Spanish descent born in the New World) and mestizos (those of mixed American Indian and Spanish blood or culture) replaced Spanish - born appointees in most political governments. Criollos remained at the top of a social structure that retained some of its traditional features culturally, if not legally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions.
The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in the former French colony of St - Domingue, Haiti, and the transition to independence in Brazil. Brazil 's independence, in particular, shared a common starting point with that of Spanish America, since both conflicts were triggered by Napoleon 's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil in 1807. The process of Latin American independence took place in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment and that influenced all of the Atlantic Revolutions, including the earlier revolutions in the United States and France. A more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this era.
Political independence was not necessarily the foreordained outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. "There was little interest in outright independence. '' As historians R.A. Humphreys and John Lynch note, "it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. '' Since "by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, '' because Spanish American independence did occur, explanations for why it came about have been sought.
There are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from "kingdoms '' with independent standing with the crown to "colonies '' subordinate to Spain. In an effort to better control the administration and economy of the overseas possessions the Crown reintroduced the practice of appointing outsiders, almost all peninsulars, to the royal offices throughout the empire. This meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crown 's upending of long - standing practices of creole access to office holding.
The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. Later in the eighteenth century the crown sought to decrease the privileges (fueros) of the clergy, restricting clerical authority to spiritual matters and undermining the power of parish priests, who often acted as agents of the crown in rural parishes. By desacralizing power and frontal attacks on the clergy, the crown, according to William B. Taylor, undermined its own legitimacy, since parish priests had been traditionally the "natural local representatives of their Catholic king. ''
In the economic sphere, the crown sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, mainly in the form of mortgages for haciendas owned by the elites. The Act of Consolidation simultaneously threatened the wealth of the church, whose capital was mainly lent for mortgages, as well as threatening the financial well - being of elites, who depended on mortgages for acquiring and keeping their estates. Shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. The crown also sought to gain access to benefices elite families set aside to support a priest, often their own family members, by eliminating these endowed funds (capellanías) that the lower clergy depended on disproportionately. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos.
The reforms had mixed results. In some areas -- such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain -- the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. In other areas, the changes in the crown 's economic and administrative policies led to tensions with locals, which at times erupted into open revolts, such as the Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada and the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in Peru.
The loss of high offices to Criollos and the eighteenth - century revolts in Spanish South America were the direct causes of the wars of independence, which took place decades later, but they have been considered important elements of the political background in which the wars took place.
Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire and a homegrown Spanish American Enlightenment. The political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors.
The Peninsular War was the trigger for conflicts in Spanish America in the absence of a legitimate monarch. The Peninsular War began an extended period of instability in the worldwide Spanish monarchy that lasted until 1823. Napoleon 's capture of the Bourbon monarchs precipitated a political crisis in Spain and Spanish America. Although the Spanish world almost uniformly rejected Napoleon 's plan to place his brother, Joseph, on the throne, there was no clear solution to the lack of a king. Following traditional Spanish political theories on the contractual nature of the monarchy (see Philosophy of Law of Francisco Suárez), the peninsular provinces responded to the crisis by establishing juntas. The move, however, led to more confusion, since there was no central authority and most juntas did not recognize the claim of some juntas to represent the monarchy as a whole. The Junta of Seville, in particular, claimed authority over the overseas empire, because of the province 's historic role as the exclusive entrepôt of the empire.
This impasse was resolved through negotiations between the several juntas in Spain counted with the participation of the Council of Castile, which led to the creation of a main government: the "Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies '' on September 25, 1808. It was agreed that the kingdoms of the peninsula would send two representatives to this Supreme Central Junta, and that the overseas kingdoms would send one representative each. These kingdoms were defined as "the viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico), Peru, New Granada, and Buenos Aires, and the independent captaincies general of the island of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Chile, Province of Venezuela, and the Philippines. '' This plan was criticized for providing unequal representation to Spanish America; nevertheless, throughout the end of 1808 and early 1809, the regional capitals elected candidates, whose names were forwarded to the capitals of the viceroyalties or captaincies general. Several important and large cities were left without direct representation in the Supreme Junta. In particular Quito and Chuquisaca, which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms, resented being subsumed in the larger Viceroyalty of Peru. This unrest led to the establishment of juntas in these cities in 1809, which were eventually quashed by the authorities within the year. An unsuccessful attempt at establishing a junta in New Spain was also stopped.
The escape to Cádiz and the dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta on January 29, 1810, because of the reverses suffered after the Battle of Ocaña by the Spanish forces paid with Spanish American money, set off another wave of juntas being established in the Americas. French forces had taken over southern Spain and forced the Supreme Junta to seek refuge in the island - city of Cádiz.
The Supreme Junta replaced itself with a smaller, five - man council, called the Regency, or the Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies. Next, in order to establish a more legitimate government system, the Regency called for the convening of an "extraordinary and general Cortes of the Spanish Nation '': the "Cádiz Cortes ''. The plan for the election of the Cortes, based on provinces, and not kingdoms, was more equitable and provided more time to determine what would be considered an overseas province. The Cádiz Cortes was the first national assembly to claim sovereignty in Spain. It represented the abolition of the old kingdoms. The opening session was held on 24 September 1810, in the building now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes under the siege of French army. It met as one body and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.
Most Spanish Americans saw no reason to recognize a rump government that was under the threat of being captured by the French at any moment, and began to work for the creation of local juntas to preserve the region 's independence from the French. Junta movements were successful in New Granada (Colombia), Venezuela, Chile and Río de la Plata (Argentina). Less successful, though serious movements, also occurred in Central America. Ultimately, Central America, along with most of New Spain, Quito (Ecuador), Peru, Upper Peru (Bolivia), the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands remained in control of royalists for the next decade and participated in the Spanish Cortes effort to establish a liberal government for the Spanish Monarchy.
The creation of juntas in Spanish America, such as the Junta Suprema de Caracas on April 19, 1810, set the stage for the fighting that would afflict the region for the next decade and a half. Political fault lines appeared, and were often the causes of military conflict. On the one hand the juntas challenged the authority of all royal officials, whether they recognized the Regency or not. On the other hand, royal officials and Spanish Americans who desired to keep the empire together were split between liberals, who supported the efforts of the Cortes, and conservatives (often called "absolutists '' in the historiography), who did not want to see any innovations in government. Finally, although the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king, Ferdinand VII, their creation provided an opportunity for people who favored outright independence to promote their agenda publicly and safely. The proponents of independence called themselves patriots, a term which eventually was generally applied to them.
The idea that independence was not the initial concern is evidenced by the fact that few areas declared independence in the years after 1810. The congresses of Venezuela and New Granada did so in 1811 and also Paraguay in same year (14 and 15 of May 1811). Some historians explain the reluctance to declare independence as a "mask of Ferdinand VII '': that is, that patriot leaders felt that they needed to claim loyalty to the deposed monarch in order to prepare the masses for the radical change that full independence eventually would entail. Nevertheless, even areas such as Río de la Plata and Chile, which more or less maintained de facto independence from the peninsular authorities, did not declare independence until quite a few years later, in 1816 and 1818, respectively. Overall, despite achieving formal or de facto independence, many regions of Spanish America were marked by nearly continuous civil wars, which lasted well into the 1820s. In Mexico, where the junta movement had been stopped in its early stages by a coalition of Peninsular merchants and government officials, efforts to establish a government independent of the Regency or the French took the form of rebellion, under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo. Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811, but a resistance movement continued, which declared independence from Spain in 1813. In Central America, attempts at establishing juntas were also put down, but resulted in significantly less violence. The Caribbean islands, like the Philippines on the other side of the world, were relatively peaceful. Any plots to set up juntas were denounced to the authorities early enough to stop them before they gained widespread support.
Major cities and regional rivalry played an important role in the wars. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority -- and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority (as in the cases of New Granada and Río de la Plata) -- initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units should replace the empire, and there were no new national identities to replace the traditional sense of being Spaniards. The original juntas of 1810 appealed first to a sense of being Spanish, which was counterposed to the French threat; second, to a general American identity, which was counterposed to the Peninsula lost to the French; and third, to a sense of belonging to the major cities or local province, the patria in Spanish. More often than not, juntas sought to maintain a province 's independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of whether some cities or provinces were to be subordinate to others as they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in South America. This rivalry also led some regions to adopt the opposite political cause to that chosen by their rivals. Peru seems to have remained strongly royalist in large part because of its rivalry with Río de la Plata, to which it had lost control of Upper Peru when the latter was elevated to a viceroyalty in 1776. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain formal control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars.
Underlying social and racial tensions also had a great impact on the nature of the fighting. Rural areas were pitted against urban centers, as grievances against the authorities found an outlet in the political conflict. This was the case with Hidalgo 's peasant revolt, which was fueled as much by discontent over several years of bad harvests as with events in the Peninsular War. Hidalgo was originally part of a circle of liberal urbanites in Querétaro, who sought to establish a junta. After this conspiracy was discovered, Hidalgo turned to the rural people of the Mexican Bajío to build his army, and their interests soon overshadowed those of the urban intellectuals. A similar tension existed in Venezuela, where the Spanish immigrant José Tomás Boves formed a powerful, though irregular, royalist army out of the Llaneros, mixed - race slave and plains people, by attacking the white landowning class. Boves and his followers often disregarded the command of Spanish officials and were not concerned with actually re-establishing the toppled royal government, choosing instead to keep real power among themselves. Finally, in the back country of Upper Peru, the republiquetas kept the idea of independence alive by allying with disenfranchised members of rural society and native groups, but were never able to take the major population centers.
Increasingly violent confrontations developed between Spaniards and Spanish Americans, but this tension was often related to class issues or fomented by patriot leaders to create a new sense of nationalism. After being incited to rid the country of the gachupines (a disparaging term for Peninsulares), Hidalgo 's forces indiscriminately massacred hundreds of Criollos and Peninsulares who had taken refuge at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato. In Venezuela during his Admirable Campaign, Simón Bolívar instituted a policy of a war to the death, in which royalist Spanish Americans would be purposely spared but even neutral Peninsulares would be killed, in order to drive a wedge between the two groups. This policy laid the ground for the violent royalist reaction under Boves. Often though, royalism or patriotism simply provided a banner to organize the aggrieved, and the political causes could be discarded just as quickly as they were picked up. The Venezuelan Llaneros switched to the patriot banner once the elites and the urban centers became securely royalist after 1815, and it was the royal army in Mexico that ultimately brought about that nation 's independence.
By 1815 the general outlines of which areas were controlled by royalists and pro-independence forces were established and a general stalemate set in the war. In areas where royalists controlled the main population centers, most of the fighting by those seeking independence was done by isolated guerrilla bands. In New Spain, the two main guerrilla groups were led by Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca. In northern South America, New Granadan and Venezuelan patriots, under leaders such as Simón Bolívar, Francisco de Paula Santander, Santiago Mariño, Manuel Piar and José Antonio Páez, carried out campaigns in the vast Orinoco River basin and along the Caribbean coast, often with material aid coming from Curaçao and Haiti. Also, as mentioned above, in Upper Peru, guerrilla bands controlled the isolated, rural parts of the country.
In March 1814, following with the collapse of the First French Empire, Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne. This signified an important change, since most of the political and legal changes made on both sides of the Atlantic -- the myriad of juntas, the Cortes in Spain and several of the congresses in the Americas, and many of the constitutions and new legal codes -- had been made in his name. Before entering Spanish territory, Ferdinand made loose promises to the Cortes that he would uphold the Spanish Constitution. But once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from conservatives in the general population and the hierarchy of the Spanish Catholic Church; so, on May 4, he repudiated the Constitution and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders on May 10. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He restored the former legal codes and political institutions and promised to convene a new Cortes under its traditional form (with separate chambers for the clergy and the nobility), a promise never fulfilled. News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months, depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain.
Ferdinand 's actions constituted a definitive de facto break both with the autonomous governments, which had not yet declared formal independence, and with the effort of Spanish liberals to create a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions. Such a government was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain, Central America, the Caribbean, Quito, Peru, Upper Peru and Chile. Yet the news of the restoration of the "ancien régime '' did not initiate a new wave of juntas, as had happened in 1809 and 1810, with the notable exception of the establishment of a junta in Cuzco demanding the implementation of the Spanish Constitution. Instead most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. In fact, in areas of New Spain, Central America and Quito, governors found it expedient to leave the elected constitutional ayuntamientos in place for several years in order to prevent conflict with the local society. Liberals on both sides of the Atlantic, nevertheless, continued to conspire to bring back a constitutional monarchy, ultimately succeeding in 1820. The most dramatic example of transatlantic collaboration is perhaps Francisco Javier Mina 's expedition to Texas and northern Mexico in 1816 and 1817.
Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined the guerrilla movements. However, Ferdinand 's actions did set areas outside of the control of the crown on the path to full independence. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of 1810, and even moderates there, who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown, now saw the need to separate from Spain if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted.
During this period, royalist forces made advances into New Granada, which they controlled from 1815 to 1819, and into Chile, which they controlled from 1814 to 1817. Except for royalist areas in the northeast and south, the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810, unlike neighboring Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the region several times. To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized in 1815 the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World, consisting of 10,500 troops and nearly sixty ships. (See, Spanish reconquest of New Granada.) Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada, its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito, and Peru and were lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war. More importantly, the majority of the royalist forces were composed, not of soldiers sent from the peninsula, but of Spanish Americans.
Overall, Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units, once they were deployed in the Americas. Since each European soldier casualty was replaced by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example, Pablo Morillo, commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent to South America, reported that he had only 2,000 European soldiers under his command in 1820; in other words, only half the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. It is estimated that in the Battle of Maipú only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers, in the Battle of Carabobo about a fifth, and in the Battle of Ayacucho less than 1 % was European.
The American militias reflected the racial make - up of the local population. For example, in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white (español), 5,378 Casta and 980 Indigenous soldiers.
Towards the end of this period the pro-independence forces made two important advances. In the Southern Cone, a veteran of the Spanish army with experience in the Peninsular War, José de San Martín, became the governor of the Province of Cuyo. He used this position to begin organizing an army as early as 1814 in preparation for an invasion of Chile. This was an important change in strategy after three United Provinces campaigns had been defeated in Upper Peru. San Martín 's army became the nucleus of the Army of the Andes, which received crucial political and material support in 1816 when Juan Martín de Pueyrredón became Supreme Director of the United Provinces. In January 1817, San Martín was finally ready to advance against the royalists in Chile. Ignoring an injunction from the congress of the Río de la Plata not to move against Chile, San Martín together with General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, later Supreme Director of Chile, led the Army over the Andes in a move that turned the tables on the royalists. By February 10, San Martín had control of northern and central Chile, and a year later, after a war with no quarter, the south. With the aid of a fleet under the command of former British naval officer Thomas Cochrane, Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared that year. San Martín and his allies spent the next two years planning an invasion of Peru, which began in 1820.
In northern South America, after several failed campaigns to take Caracas and other urban centers of Venezuela, Simón Bolívar devised a similar plan in 1819 to cross the Andes and liberate New Granada from the royalists. Like San Martín, Bolívar personally undertook the efforts to create an army to invade a neighboring country, collaborated with pro-independence exiles from that region, and lacked the approval of the Venezuelan congress. Unlike San Martín, however, Bolívar did not have a professionally trained army, but rather a quickly assembled mix of Llanero guerrillas, New Granadan exiles led by Santander and British recruits. From June to July 1819, using the rainy season as cover, Bolívar led his army across the flooded plains and over the cold, forbidding passes of the Andes, with heavy losses -- a quarter of the British Legion perished, as well as many of his Llanero soldiers, who were not prepared for the nearly 4,000 - meter altitudes -- but the gamble paid off. By August Bolívar was in control of Bogotá and its treasury, and gained the support of many in New Granada, which still resented the harsh reconquest carried out under Morillo. Nevertheless, Santander found it necessary to continue the policy of the "war to the death '' and carried out the execution of thirty - eight royalist officers who had surrendered. With the resources of New Granada, Bolívar became the undisputed leader of the patriots in Venezuela and orchestrated the union of the two regions in a new state called Colombia (Gran Colombia).
To counter the advances the pro-independence forces had made in South America, Spain prepared a second, large, expeditionary force in 1819. This force, however, never left Spain. Instead, it became the means by which liberals were finally able to reinstate a constitutional regime. On January 1, 1820, Rafael Riego, commander of the Asturias Battalion, headed a rebellion among the troops, demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution. His troops marched through the cities of Andalusia with the hope of extending the uprising to the civilian population, but locals were mostly indifferent. An uprising, however, did occur in Galicia in northern Spain, and from there it quickly spread throughout the country. On March 7, the royal palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General Francisco Ballesteros, and three days later, on March 10, the besieged Ferdinand VII, now a virtual prisoner, agreed to restore the Constitution.
Riego 's Revolt had two significant effects on the war in the Americas. Militarily, the large numbers of reinforcements, which were especially needed to retake New Granada and defend the Viceroyalty of Peru, would never arrive. Furthermore, as the royalists ' situation became more desperate in region after region, the army experienced wholesale defections of units to the patriot side. Politically, the reinstitution of a liberal regime changed the terms under which the Spanish government sought to engage the insurgents. The new government naively assumed that the insurgents were fighting for Spanish liberalism and that the Spanish Constitution could still be the basis of reconciliation between the two sides. The government implemented the Constitution and held elections in the overseas provinces, just as in Spain. It also ordered military commanders to begin armistice negotiations with the insurgents with the promise that they could participate in the restored representative government.
In effect, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 adopted by the Cortes de Cadiz served as the basis for independence in New Spain and Central America, since in both regions it was a coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states. The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America. Elections were held, local governments formed and deputies sent to the Cortes. Among liberals, however, there was fear that the new regime would not last; and conservatives and the Church worried that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti-clerical legislation. This climate of instability created the conditions for the two sides to forge an alliance. This alliance coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind Agustín de Iturbide, a colonel in the royal army, who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by Vicente Guerrero.
In January 1821, Iturbide began peace negotiations with Guerrero, suggesting they unite to establish an independent New Spain. The simple terms that Iturbide proposed became the basis of the Plan of Iguala: the independence of New Spain (now to be called the Mexican Empire) with Ferdinand VII or another Bourbon as emperor; the retention of the Catholic Church as the official state religion and the protection of its existing privileges; and the equality of all New Spaniards, whether immigrants or native - born. The following month the other important guerrilla leader, Guadalupe Victoria, joined the alliance, and on March 1 Iturbide was proclaimed head of a new Army of the Three Guarantees. The representative of the new Spanish government, Superior Political Chief Juan O'Donojú, who replaced the previous viceroys, arrived in Veracruz on July 1, 1821, but he found that royalists held the entire country except for Veracruz, Mexico City and Acapulco. Since at the time that O'Donojú had left Spain, the Cortes was considering greatly expanding the autonomy of the overseas Spanish possessions, O'Donojú proposed to negotiate a treaty with Iturbide on the terms of the Plan of Iguala. The resulting Treaty of Córdoba, which was signed on August 24, kept all existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, in force until a new constitution for Mexico could be written. O'Donojú became part of the provisional governing junta until his death on October 8. Both the Spanish Cortes and Ferdinand VII rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, and the final break with the mother country came on May 19, 1822, when the Mexican Congress conferred the throne on Itrubide.
Central America gained its independence along with New Spain. On September 15, 1821, an Act of Independence was signed in Guatemala City which declared Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) independent from Spain. The regional elites supported the terms of the Plan of Iguala and orchestrated the union of Central America with the Mexican Empire in 1821. Two years later, following Iturbide 's downfall, the region, with the exception of Chiapas, peacefully seceded from Mexico on July 1, 1823, establishing the Federal Republic of Central America. The new state existed for seventeen years, centrifugal forces pulling the individual provinces apart by 1840.
Unlike in New Spain and Central America, in South America independence was spurred by the pro-independence fighters who had held out for the past half decade. José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar inadvertently led a continent - wide pincer movement from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the Spanish American nations on that continent. After securing the independence of Chile in 1818, San Martín concentrated on building a naval fleet in the Pacific to counter Spanish control of those waters and reach the royalist stronghold of Lima. By mid-1820 San Martín had assembled a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships under the command of Admiral Cochrane. The fleet set sail from Valparaíso to Paracas in southern Peru. On September 7, the army landed at Paracas and successfully took Pisco. After this, San Martín, waiting for a generalized Peruvian revolt, chose to avoid direct military confrontation. San Martín hoped that his presence would initiate an authentic Peruvian revolt against Spanish rule, believing that otherwise any liberation would be ephemeral. In the meantime, San Martín engaged in diplomacy with Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela, who was under orders from the constitutional government to negotiate on the basis of the 1812 Constitution and to maintain the unity of the Spanish Monarchy. However, these efforts proved fruitless, since independence and unity of the monarchy could not be reconciled, so the army sailed in late October to a better strategic position in Huacho, in northern Peru. During the next few months, successful land and naval campaigns against the royalists secured the new foothold, and it was at Huacho that San Martín learned that Guayaquil (in Ecuador) had declared independence on October 9.
Bolívar, learning about the collapse of the Cádiz expedition, spent the year 1820 preparing a liberating campaign in Venezuela. Bolívar was aided by Spain 's new policy of seeking engagement with the insurgents, which Morillo implemented, renouncing to the command in chief, and returning to Spain. Although Bolívar rejected the Spanish proposal that the patriots rejoin Spain under the Spanish Constitution, the two sides established a six - month truce and the regularization of the rules of engagement under the law of nations on November 25 and 26. The truce did not last six months. It was apparent to all that the royalist cause had been greatly weakened by the lack of reinforcements. Royalist soldiers and whole units began to desert or defect to the patriots in large numbers. On January 28, 1821, the ayuntamiento of Maracaibo declared the province an independent republic that chose to join the new nation - state of Gran Colombia. Miguel de la Torre, who had replaced Morillo as head of the army, took this to be a violation of the truce, and although the republicans argued that Maracaibo had switched sides of its own volition, both sides began to prepare for renewed war. The fate of Venezuela was sealed when Bolívar returned there in April leading an army of 7,000 from New Granada. At the Battle of Carabobo on June 24, the Gran Colombian forces decisively defeated the royalist forces, assuring control of Venezuela save for Puerto Cabello and guaranteeing Venezuelan independence. Bolívar could now concentrate on Gran Colombia 's claims to southern New Granada and Quito.
In Peru, on January 29, 1821, Viceroy Pezuela was deposed in a coup d'état by José de la Serna, but it would be two months before San Martín moved his army closer to Lima by sailing it to Ancón. During the next few months San Martín once again engaged in negotiations, offering the creation of an independent monarchy; but La Serna insisted on the unity of the Spanish monarchy, so the negotiations came to nothing. By July La Serna judged his hold on Lima to be weak, and on July 8 the royal army abandoned the coastal city in order to reinforce positions in the highlands, with Cuzco as new capital of the viceroyalty. On the 12th San Martín entered Lima, where he was declared "Protector of the Country '' on July 28, an office which allowed him to rule the newly independent state.
To ensure that the Presidency of Quito became a part of Gran Colombia and did not remain a collection of small, divided republics, Bolívar sent aid in the form of supplies and an army under Antonio José de Sucre to Guayaquil in February 1821. For a year Sucre was unable to take Quito, and by November both sides, exhausted, signed a ninety - day armistice. The following year, at the Battle of Pichincha on May 24, 1822, Sucre 's Venezuelan forces finally conquered Quito; Gran Colombia 's hold on the territory was secure. The following year, after a Peruvian patriot army was destroyed in the Battle of Ica, San Martín met with Simón Bolívar in Guayaquil on July 26 and 27. Thereafter San Martín decided to retire from the scene. For the next two years, two armies of Rioplatense (Argentinian), Chilean, Colombian and Peruvian patriots were destroyed trying to penetrate the royalist bastion in the Andean regions of Peru and Upper Peru. A year later a Peruvian congress resolved to make Bolívar head of the patriot forces in the country. An internecine conflict between La Serna and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, which was an extension of the Liberal Triennium, proved to be the royalists ' undoing. La Serna lost control of half of his best army by the beginning of 1824, giving the patriots an opportunity.
Under the command of Bolívar and Sucre, the experienced veterans of the combined army, mainly Colombians, destroyed a royalist army under La Serna 's command in the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. La Serna 's army was numerically superior but consisted of mostly new recruits. The only significant royalist area remaining on the continent was the highland country of Upper Peru. Following the Battle of Ayacucho, the royalist troops of Upper Peru under the command of Olañeta surrendered after he died in Tumusla on April 2, 1825. Bolívar tended to favor maintaining the unity of Upper Peru with Peru, but the Upper Peruvian leaders -- many former royalists, like Casimiro Olañeta, nephew of General Olañeta -- gathered in a congress under Sucre 's auspices supported the country 's independence. Bolívar left the decision to Sucre, who went along with the congress. Sucre proclaimed Upper Peru 's independence in the city which now bears his name on August 6, bringing the main wars of independence to an end.
As it became clear that there was to be no reversal of Spanish American independence, several of the new states began to receive international recognition. Early, in 1822, the United States recognized Chile, the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Peru, Gran Colombia, and Mexico. Britain waited until 1825, after the Battle of Ayacucho, to recognize Mexico, Gran Colombia, and Río de la Plata. Both nations recognized more Spanish American states in the next few years.
The Spanish coastal fortifications in Veracruz, Callao and Chiloé were the footholds that resisted until 1825 and 1826 respectively. In the following decade, royalist guerrillas continued to operate in several countries and Spain launched a few attempts to retake parts of the Spanish American mainland. In 1827 Colonel José Arizabalo started an irregular war with Venezuelan guerrillas, and Brigadier Isidro Barradas led the last attempt with regular troops to reconquer Mexico in 1829. The Pincheira brothers moved to Patagonia and remained there as royalist outlaws until defeated in 1832. But efforts like these did not reverse the new political situation.
The increasing irrelevance of the Holy Alliance after 1825 and the fall of the Bourbon dynasty in France in 1830 during the July Revolution eliminated the principal support of Ferdinand VII in Europe, but it was not until the king 's death in 1833 that Spain finally abandoned all plans of military reconquest, and in 1836 its government went so far as to renounce sovereignty over all of continental America. During the course of the 19th century, Spain would recognize each of the new states. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish -- American War in 1898.
The nearly decade and a half of wars greatly weakened the Spanish American economies and political institutions, which hindered the region 's potential economic development for most of the nineteenth century and resulted in the enduring instability the region experienced. Independence destroyed the de facto trade bloc that was the Spanish Empire - Manila galleons and Spanish treasure fleets in particular. After independence, trade among the new Spanish American nations was less than it had been in the colonial period. Once the ties were broken, the small populations of most of the new nations provided little incentive to entice Spanish American producers to recreate the old trade patterns. In addition, the protection against European competition, which the Spanish monopoly had provided to the manufacturing sectors of the economy, ended. Due to expediency, protective tariffs for these sectors, in particular textile production, were permanently dropped and foreign imports beat out local production. This greatly affected Native communities, which in many parts of Spanish America, specialized in supplying finished products to the urban markets, albeit using pre-industrial techniques. The wars also greatly affected the principal economic sector of the region, mining. Silver production in Bolivia halved after independence and it dropped by three quarters in Mexico. Cities dependent on seaborne trade like Valdivia plunged into depression as the intracolonial trade system collapsed.
Foreign trade policies varied among the new countries, some like the United Provinces of Río de la Plata and Peru applied initially protectionist policies while Chile was more open to foreign trade while still applying a kind of neomercantilism.
To compensate for the lack of capital, foreign investment -- in particular from Great Britain -- was courted, but it was not sizable enough to initiate an economic recovery. Finally the new nations entered the world economy after the end of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when the economies of Europe and the United States were recovering and aggressively seeking new markets to sell their products after more than two decades of disruption. Ultimately Spanish America could only connect to the world markets as an exporter of raw materials and a consumer of finished products.
In addition to improving the economy, the lower social classes also had to be integrated into the new body politic, although they often got few rewards from independence. The political debate seeking answers to these questions was marked by a clash -- at times on the battlefield -- between liberalism and conservatism. Conservatives sought to maintain the traditional social structures in order to ensure stability; liberals sought to create a more dynamic society and economy by ending ethnically - based social distinctions and freeing property from economic restrictions. In its quest to transform society, liberals often adopted policies that were not welcome by Native communities, who had benefited from unique protections afforded to them by traditional Spanish law.
Independence, however, did initiate the abolition of slavery in Spanish America, as it was seen as part of the independence struggle, since many slaves had gained their manumission by joining the patriot armies. In areas where slavery was not a major source of labor (Mexico, Central America, Chile), emancipation occurred almost immediately after independence was achieved. In areas where slavery was a main labor source (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina), emancipation was carried out in steps over the next three decades, usually first with the creation of free - womb laws and programs for compensated emancipation. By the early 1850s, slavery had been abolished in the independent nations of Spanish America.
Women were not simply spectators throughout the Independence Wars of Latin America. Many women took sides on political issues and joined independence movements in order to participate on many different levels. Women could not help but act as caring relatives either as mother, sister, wives or daughters of the men who were fighting. Women created political organizations and organized meetings and groups to donate food and supplies to the soldiers.
Some women supported the wars as spies, informants and combatants. Manuela Sáenz was a long term lover of Simón Bolívar and acted as his spy and confidante and was secretary of his archive. She saved his life on two occasions, nursed wounded soldiers and has even been believed some historians to have fought in a few battles. Sáenz followed Bolívar and his army through the independence wars and became to be known in Latin America as the "mother of feminism and women 's emancipation and equal rights. '' Bolívar himself was a supporter of women 's rights and suffrage in Latin America. It was Bolívar who allowed for Sáenz to become the great pioneer of women 's freedom. He wanted to set the women of Latin America free from the oppression and inferiority of what the Spanish regime had established. Bolívar even made Sáenz a Colonel of the Colombian Army due to her heroics which caused controversy because there were no women in the army at the time. Another woman who gained prominence in the fight for independence was Juana Azurduy de Padilla, a mixed - race woman who fought for independence in the Río de la Plata region. Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner posthumously promoted her to the rank of general.
According to gender stereotypes, women were not meant to be soldiers; only men were supposed to engage in fighting and conflict. There were still plenty of women present on the battlefields to help rescue and nurse soldiers. Some women fought alongside their husbands and sons on the battlefield. The majority of women assumed supportive and non-competitive roles such as fundraising and caring for the sick. Revolution for women meant something different than for men. Women saw revolution as a way to earn equal rights, such as voting, and to overcome the suppression of subordination of women to men. Women were usually identified as victims during the independence wars since the women of Latin America were forced to sacrifice for the cause. The ideals of womanhood meant that women must sacrifice what the situation required such as a mother sacrificing her son or a virgin knowing she might be sacrificing motherhood or marriage due to the loss of many young men. This view meant that women were meant to contribute to independence in a supportive role while leaving the combat and politics in the hands of the men.
Independence also did not result in stable political regimes, save in a few countries. First, the new nations did not have well - defined identities, but rather the process of creating identities was only beginning. This would be carried out through newspapers and the creation of national symbols, including new names for the countries ("Mexico '', "Colombia '', "Ecuador '', "Bolivia '', "Argentina ''), that broke with the past. In addition, the borders were not firmly established, and the struggle between federalism and centralism, which began in independence, continued throughout the rest of the century. Two large states that emerged from the wars -- Gran Colombia and the Federal Republic of Central America -- collapsed after a decade or two, and Argentina would not consolidate politically until the 1860s.
The wars destroyed the old civilian bureaucracy that had governed the region for centuries, as institutions such as the audiencias were eliminated and many Peninsular officials fled to Spain. The Catholic Church, which had been an important social and political institution during the colonial period, initially came out weakened by the end of the conflicts. As with government officials, many Peninsular bishops abandoned their dioceses and their posts were not filled for decades until new prelates could be created and relations between the new nations and the Vatican were regularized. Then as the Church recovered, its economic and political power was attacked by liberals.
Despite the fact that the period of the wars of independence itself was marked by a rapid expansion of representative government, for several of the new nations the nineteenth century was marked by militarism because of the lack of well - defined political and national institutions. The armies and officers that came into existence during the process of independence wanted to ensure that they got their rewards once the struggle was over. Many of these armies did not fully disband once the wars were over and they proved to be one of the stabler institutions in the first decades of national existence. These armies and their leaders effectively influenced the course of political development. Out of this new tradition came the caudillos, strongmen who amassed formal and informal economic, military and political power in themselves.
National Wars, Battles and Revolts
Mexico
Central America
Liberators and Other Independence Leaders
Royalist leaders
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when does the first day of christmas begin | Twelve Days of Christmas - wikipedia
The Twelve Days of Christmas, also known as Twelvetide, is a festive Christian season celebrating the Nativity of Jesus Christ. In most Western ecclesiastical traditions, "Christmas Day '' is considered the "First Day of Christmas '' and the Twelve Days are 25 December -- 5 January, inclusive. For many Christian denominations; for example, the Anglican Communion and Lutheran Church, the Twelve Days are identical to Christmastide, but for others, e.g., the Roman Catholic Church, "Christmastide '' lasts longer than the Twelve Days of Christmas.
Because the Armenian Apostolic Church and Armenian Catholic Church celebrate the Birth and Baptism of Christ on the same day, they do not have a series of twelve days between a feast of Christmas and a feast of Epiphany.
The Oriental Orthodox, other than the Armenians, the Eastern Orthodox, and the Eastern Catholics who follow the same traditions do have the interval of twelve days between the two feasts. If they use the Julian Calendar, they celebrate Christmas on what is for them 25 December, but is 7 January of the Gregorian Calendar, and they celebrate Epiphany on what is for them 6 January, but is 19 January of the Gregorian Calendar.
For the Eastern Orthodox, both Christmas and Epiphany are among the Twelve Great Feasts that are only second to Easter in importance.
The period between Christmas and Epiphany is fast - free. During this period one celebration leads into another. The Nativity of Christ is a three - day celebration: the formal title of the first day (i. e. Christmas Eve) is "The Nativity According to the Flesh of our Lord, God and Saviour Jesus Christ '', and celebrates not only the Nativity of Jesus, but also the Adoration of the Shepherds of Bethlehem and the arrival of the Magi; the second day is referred to as the "Synaxis of the Theotokos '', and commemorates the role of the Virgin Mary in the Incarnation; the third day is known as the "Third Day of the Nativity '', and is also the feast day of the Protodeacon and Protomartyr Saint Stephen. 29 December is the Orthodox Feast of the Holy Innocents. The Afterfeast of the Nativity (similar to the Western octave) continues until 31 December (that day is known as the Apodosis or "leave - taking '' of the Nativity).
The Saturday following the Nativity is commemorated by special readings from the Epistle (1 Tim 6: 11 - 16) and Gospel (Matt 12: 15 - 21) during the Divine Liturgy. The Sunday after the Nativity has its own liturgical commemoration in honour of "The Righteous Ones: Joseph the Betrothed, David the King and James the Brother of the Lord ''.
Another of the more prominent festivals that are included among the Twelve Great Feasts is that of the Circumcision of Christ on 1 January. On this same day is the feast day of Saint Basil the Great, and so the service celebrated on that day is the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil.
On 2 January begins the Forefeast of the Theophany. The Eve of the Theophany on 5 January is a day of strict fasting, on which the devout will not eat anything until the first star is seen at night. This day is known as Paramony (Greek Παραμονή "Eve ''), and follows the same general outline as Christmas Eve. That morning is the celebration of the Royal Hours and then the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil combined with Vespers, at the conclusion of which is celebrated the Great Blessing of Waters, in commemoration of the Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River. There are certain parallels between the hymns chanted on Paramony and those of Good Friday, to show that, according to Orthodox theology, the steps that Jesus took into the Jordan River were the first steps on the way to the Cross. That night the All - Night Vigil is served for the Feast of the Theophany.
Within the Twelve Days of Christmas, there are celebrations both secular and religious.
Christmas Day, if it is considered to be part of the Twelve Days of Christmas and not as the day preceding the Twelve Days, is celebrated by Christians as the liturgical feast of the Nativity of the Lord. It is a public holiday in many nations, including some where the majority of the population is not Christian. On this see the articles on Christmas and Christmas traditions.
26 December is "St. Stephen 's Day '', a feast day in the Western Church. In Great Britain and its former colonies, it is also the secular holiday of Boxing Day. In some parts of Ireland it is denominated "Wren Day ''.
New Year 's Eve on 31 December is the feast of Pope St. Sylvester I and is known also as "Silvester ''. The transition that evening to the new year is an occasion for secular festivities in many nations, and in several languages is known as "St. Sylvester Night '' ("Notte di San Silvestro '' in Italian, "Silvesternacht '' in German, "Réveillon de la Saint - Sylvestre '' in French, and "סילבסטר '' in Hebrew).
New Year 's Day on 1 January is an occasion for further secular festivities or for rest from the celebrations of the night before. In the Roman Rite of the Roman Catholic Church, it is the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, liturgically celebrated on the Octave Day of Christmas. It has also been celebrated, and still is in some denominations, as the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ, because according to Jewish tradition He would have been circumcised on the eighth day after His Birth, inclusively counting the first day and last day. This day, or some day proximate to it, is also celebrated by the Pope and Roman Catholics as World Day of Peace.
In many nations, e.g., the United States, the Solemnity of Epiphany is transferred to the first Sunday after 1 January, which can occur as early as 2 January. That solemnity, then, together with customary observances associated with it, usually occur within the Twelve Days of Christmas, even if these are considered to end on 5 January rather than 6 January.
Other Roman Catholic liturgical feasts on the General Roman Calendar that occur within the Octave of Christmas and therefore also within the Twelve Days of Christmas are the Feast of St. Stephen, Proto - Martyr on 26 December; Feast of St. John, Apostle and Evangelist on 27 December; the Feast of the Holy Innocents on 28 December; Memorial of St. Thomas Becket, Bishop and Martyr on 29 December; and the Feast of the Holy Family of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph on the Sunday within the Octave of Christmas or, if there is no such Sunday, on 30 December. Outside the Octave, but within the Twelve Days of Christmas, there are the feast of Sts. Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus on 2 January and the Memorial of the Holy Name of Jesus on 3 January.
Other saints are celebrated at a local level.
The Second Council of Tours of 567 noted that, in the area for which its bishops were responsible, the days between Christmas and Epiphany were, like the month of August, taken up entirely with saints ' days. Monks were therefore in principle not bound to fast on those days. However, the first three days of the year were to be days of prayer and penance so that faithful Christians would refrain from participating in the idolatrous practices and debauchery associated with the new year celebrations. The Fourth Council of Toledo (633) ordered a strict fast on those days, on the model of the Lenten fast.
In England in the Middle Ages, this period was one of continuous feasting and merrymaking, which climaxed on Twelfth Night, the traditional end of the Christmas season. In Tudor England, Twelfth Night itself was forever solidified in popular culture when William Shakespeare used it as the setting for one of his most famous stage plays, titled Twelfth Night. Often a Lord of Misrule was chosen to lead the Christmas revels.
Some of these traditions were adapted from the older pagan customs, including the Roman Saturnalia and the Germanic Yuletide. Some also have an echo in modern - day pantomime where traditionally authority is mocked and the principal male lead is played by a woman, while the leading older female character, or ' Dame ', is played by a man.
The early North American colonists brought their version of the Twelve Days over from England, and adapted them to their new country, adding their own variations over the years. For example, the modern - day Christmas wreath may have originated with these colonials. A homemade wreath would be fashioned from local greenery and fruits, if available, were added. Making the wreaths was one of the traditions of Christmas Eve; they would remain hung on each home 's front door beginning on Christmas Night (1st night of Christmas) through Twelfth Night or Epiphany morning. As was already the tradition in their native England, all decorations would be taken down by Epiphany morning and the remainder of the edibles would be consumed. A special cake, the king cake, was also baked then for Epiphany.
Many in the UK and other Commonwealth nations still celebrate some aspects of the Twelve Days of Christmas. Boxing Day, 26 December, is a national holiday in many Commonwealth nations. Victorian era stories by Charles Dickens, and others, particularly A Christmas Carol, hold key elements of the celebrations such as the consumption of plum pudding, roasted goose and wassail. These foods are consumed more at the beginning of the Twelve Days in the UK.
Twelfth Night is the last day for decorations to be taken down, and it is held to be bad luck to leave decorations up after this. This is in contrast to the custom in Elizabethan England, when decorations were left up until Candlemas; this is still done in some other Western European countries such as Germany.
In the United States, Christmas Day is a holiday for Christians and for some non-Christians.
The traditions of the Twelve Days of Christmas have been nearly forgotten in the United States. Contributing factors include the popularity of the stories of Charles Dickens in nineteenth - century America, with their emphasis on generous giving; introduction of secular traditions in the 19th and 20th centuries, e.g., the American Santa Claus; and increase in the popularity of secular New Year 's Eve parties. Presently, the commercial practice treats the Solemnity of Christmas, 25 December, the first day of Christmas, as the last day of the "Christmas '' marketing season, as the numerous "after - Christmas sales '' that commence on 26 December demonstrate. The commercial calendar encourages the error that the Twelve Days of Christmas terminate on Christmas Day and therefore begin on 14 December.
Many American Christians still celebrate the traditional liturgical seasons of Advent and Christmas, especially Amish, Anglo - Catholics, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Mennonites, Methodists, Moravians, Orthodox Christians, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics. In Anglicanism, the designation of the "Twelve Days of Christmas '' is used liturgically in the Episcopal Church in the US, having its own invitatory antiphon in the Book of Common Prayer for Matins.
Christians who celebrate the Twelve Days may give gifts on each of them, with each of the Twelve Days representing a wish for a corresponding month of the new year. They may feast on traditional foods and otherwise celebrate the entire time through the morning of the Solemnity of Epiphany. Contemporary traditions include lighting a candle for each day, singing the verse of the corresponding day from the famous The Twelve Days of Christmas, and lighting a yule log on Christmas Eve and letting it burn some more on each of the twelve nights. For some, the Twelfth Night remains the night of the most festive parties and exchanges of gifts. Some households exchange gifts on the first (25 December) and last (5 January) days of the Twelve Days. As in former times, the Twelfth Night to the morning of Epiphany is the traditional time during which Christmas trees and decorations are deposed.
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carper's patterns of knowing to analyze the situation | Carper 's fundamental ways of knowing - wikipedia
In healthcare, Carper 's fundamental ways of knowing is a typology that attempts to classify the different sources from which knowledge and beliefs in professional practice (originally specifically nursing) can be or have been derived. It was proposed by Barbara A. Carper, a professor at the College of Nursing at Texas Woman 's University, in 1978.
The typology identifies four fundamental "patterns of knowing '':
The emphasis on different ways of knowing is presented as a tool for generating clearer and more complete thinking and learning about experiences, and broader self - integration of classroom education. As such it helped crystallize Johns ' (1995) framework for reflective investigation to develop reflective practice.
The typology has been seen as leading a reaction against over-emphasis on just empirically derived knowledge, so called "scientific nursing '', by emphasising that attitudes and actions that are perhaps more personal and more intuitive are centrally important too, and equally fit for discussion.
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who has the lowest attendance in the nba | List of Attendance figures at domestic professional sports leagues - Wikipedia
The table below lists domestic professional sports leagues from around the world by total attendances for the last completed season for which data is available. The following points should be considered:
* Seating room only
The leagues are segregated between those which normally would play in an outdoor stadium as opposed to those leagues that use indoor arenas. Some outdoor league stadiums are equipped with either retractable or non-retractable roofs where weather conditions (such as rain or extreme heat / cold) would not allow a game to be played or watched effectively, comfortably or safely without such cover. The tables are sorted by average attendance, with a minumum of 2,000.
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what needed to be added to the constitution before it could be ratified | Article Five of the United states Constitution - wikipedia
Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the Constitution, the nation 's frame of government, may be altered. Altering the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment or amendments and subsequent ratification. Amendments may be proposed either by the Congress with a two - thirds vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a convention of states called for by two - thirds of the state legislatures. To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either -- as determined by Congress -- the legislatures of three - quarters of the states or state ratifying conventions in three - quarters of the states. The vote of each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state 's population or length of time in the Union.
Additionally, Article V temporarily shielded certain clauses in Article I from being amended. The first clause in Section 9, which prevented Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves prior to 1808, and the fourth clause in that same section, a declaration that direct taxes must be apportioned according to state populations, were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. It also shields the first clause of Article I, Section 3, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate, from being amended, though not absolutely.
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
Thirty - three amendments to the United States Constitution have been approved by the Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Twenty - seven of these amendments have been ratified and are now part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states and are not part of the Constitution. Four of these amendments are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it. All totaled, approximately 11,539 measures to amend the Constitution have been proposed in Congress since 1789 (through December 16, 2014).
Article V provides two methods for amending the nation 's frame of government. The first method authorizes Congress, "whenever two - thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary '' (a two - thirds of those members present -- assuming that a quorum exists at the time that the vote is cast -- and not necessarily a two - thirds vote of the entire membership elected and serving in the two houses of Congress), to propose Constitutional amendments. The second method requires Congress, "on the application of the legislatures of two - thirds of the several states '' (presently 34), to "call a convention for proposing amendments ''.
When the 1st Congress considered a series of constitutional amendments, it was suggested that the two houses first adopt a resolution indicating that they deemed amendments necessary. This procedure was not used. Instead, both the House and the Senate proceeded directly to consideration of a joint resolution, thereby implying that both bodies deemed amendments to be necessary. Also, when initially proposed by James Madison, the amendments were designed to be interwoven into the relevant sections of the original document. Instead, they were approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification as supplemental additions (codicils) appended to it. Both these precedents have been followed ever since.
Regarding the amendment process crafted during the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Madison, in The Federalist No. 43, wrote:
It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.
Each time the amendment process has been initiated since 1789, the first method has been used. All 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification originated in the Congress. The second method, the convention option, which Alexander Hamilton (writing in The Federalist No. 85) believed would serve as a barrier "against the encroachments of the national authority '', has yet to be successfully invoked, although not for lack of activity in the states.
Three times in the 20th century, concerted efforts were undertaken by proponents of particular amendments to secure the number of applications necessary to summon an Article V Convention. These included conventions to consider amendments to (1) provide for popular election of U.S. Senators; (2) permit the states to include factors other than equality of population in drawing state legislative district boundaries; and (3) to propose an amendment requiring the U.S. budget to be balanced under most circumstances. The campaign for a popularly elected Senate is frequently credited with "prodding '' the Senate to join the House of Representatives in proposing what became the Seventeenth Amendment to the states in 1912, while the latter two campaigns came very close to meeting the two - thirds threshold in the 1960s and 1980s, respectively.
Once approved by Congress, the joint resolution proposing a constitutional amendment does not require Presidential approval before it goes out to the states. While Article I Section 7 provides that all federal legislation must, before becoming Law, be presented to the President for his or her signature or veto, Article V provides no such requirement for constitutional amendments approved by Congress, or by a federal convention. Thus the president has no official function in the process. In Hollingsworth v. Virginia (1798), the Supreme Court affirmed that it is not necessary to place constitutional amendments before the President for approval or veto.
After being officially proposed, either by Congress or a national convention of the states, a constitutional amendment must then be ratified by three - fourths of the states. Congress is authorized to choose whether a proposed amendment is sent to the state legislatures or to state ratifying conventions for ratification. Amendments ratified by the states under either procedure are indistinguishable and have equal force as part of the Constitution. Of the 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification, the state convention method has been used for only one, the Twenty - first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933. This was also one of only four times that Congress has placed the mode of ratification in the body of an amendment rather than in accompanying legislation; the others being the Eighteenth, Twentieth, and Twenty - second Amendments. In United States v. Sprague (1931), the Supreme Court affirmed the authority of Congress to decide how each individual constitutional amendment is ratified, in accordance with the options provided in Article V and the equal validity of amendments properly ratified in either fashion. The Court had earlier, in Hawke v. Smith (1920), ruled the ratification of the proposed Nineteenth Amendment (which Congress had sent to the state legislatures for ratification) by the Legislature of Ohio could not be referred to the electors (voters) of the state, and that the Ohio Constitution, in requiring such a referendum, was inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution.
An amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution when it is ratified by the necessary number of states, rather than on the later date when its ratification is certified. No further action by Congress or anyone is required. On three occasions, Congress has, after being informed that an amendment has reached the ratification threshold, adopted a resolution declaring the process successfully completed. Such actions, while perhaps important for political reasons, are, constitutionally speaking, unnecessary.
Presently, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of 1 U.S. Code § 106b. The Archivist officially notifies the states, by a registered letter to each state 's Governor, that an amendment has been proposed. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state 's legislature (or ratifying convention). When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state 's action. Upon receiving the necessary number of state ratifications, it is the duty of the Archivist to issue a certificate proclaiming a particular amendment duly ratified and part of the Constitution. The amendment and its certificate of ratification are then published in the Federal Register and United States Statutes at Large. This serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.
The Constitution is silent on the issue of whether or not Congress may limit the length of time that the states have to ratify constitutional amendments sent for their consideration. It is also silent on the issue of whether or not Congress, once it has sent an amendment that includes a ratification deadline to the states for their consideration, can extend that deadline.
The practice of limiting the time available to the states to ratify proposed amendments began in 1917 with the Eighteenth Amendment. All amendments proposed since then, with the exception of the Nineteenth Amendment and the (still pending) Child Labor Amendment, have included a deadline, either in the body of the proposed amendment, or in the joint resolution transmitting it to the states. The ratification deadline "clock '' begins running on the day final action is completed in Congress. An amendment may be ratified at any time after final congressional action, even if the states have not yet been officially notified.
In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court upheld Congress 's power to prescribe time limitations for state ratifications and intimated that clearly out of date proposals were no longer open for ratification. Granting that it found nothing express in Article V relating to time constraints, the Court yet allowed that it found intimated in the amending process a "strongly suggest (ive) '' argument that proposed amendments are not open to ratification for all time or by States acting at widely separate times. The court subsequently, in Coleman v. Miller (1939), modified its opinion considerably. In that case, related to the proposed Child Labor Amendment, it held that the question of timeliness of ratification is a political and non-justiciable one, leaving the issue to Congress 's discretion. It would appear that the length of time elapsing between proposal and ratification is irrelevant to the validity of the amendment. Based upon this precedent, the Archivist of the United States proclaimed the Twenty - seventh Amendment as having been ratified when it surpassed the "three fourths of the several states '' plateau for becoming a part of the Constitution. Declared ratified on May 7, 1992, it had been submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, an unprecedented time period of 202 years, 7 months and 12 days.
Whether once it has prescribed a ratification period Congress may extend the period without necessitating action by already - ratified States embroiled Congress, the states, and the courts in argument with respect to the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (Sent to the states on March 22, 1972 with a seven - year ratification time limit attached). In 1978 Congress, by simple majority vote in both houses, extended the original deadline by 3 years, 3 months and 8 days (through June 30, 1982).
The amendment 's proponents argued that the fixing of a time limit and the extending of it were powers committed exclusively to Congress under the political question doctrine and that in any event Congress had power to extend. It was argued that inasmuch as the fixing of a reasonable time was within Congress ' power and that Congress could fix the time either in advance or at some later point, based upon its evaluation of the social and other bases of the necessities of the amendment, Congress did not do violence to the Constitution when, once having fixed the time, it subsequently extended the time. Proponents recognized that if the time limit was fixed in the text of the amendment Congress could not alter it because the time limit as well as the substantive provisions of the proposal had been subject to ratification by a number of States, making it unalterable by Congress except through the amending process again. Opponents argued that Congress, having by a two - thirds vote sent the amendment and its authorizing resolution to the states, had put the matter beyond changing by passage of a simple resolution, that states had either acted upon the entire package or at least that they had or could have acted affirmatively upon the promise of Congress that if the amendment had not been ratified within the prescribed period it would expire and their assent would not be compelled for longer than they had intended.
In 1981, the United States District Court for the District of Idaho, however, found that Congress did not have the authority to extend the deadline, even when only contained within the proposing joint resolution 's resolving clause. The Supreme Court had decided to take up the case, bypassing the Court of Appeals, but before they could hear the case, the extended period granted by Congress had been exhausted without the necessary number of states, thus rendering the case moot.
According to constitutional theorist and scholar Lawrence G. Sager, some commentators have seriously questioned whether Article V is the exclusive means of amending the Constitution, or whether there are routes to amendment, including some routes in which the Constitution could be unconsciously or unwittingly amended in a period of sustained political activity on the part of a mobilized national constituency. For example, Akhil Amar argues that the Constitution may be constitutionally amended outside of Article V. He rejects the notion that Article V excludes other modes of constitutional change, arguing instead that the procedure provided for in Article V is simply the exclusive method the government may use to amend the Constitution. He asserts that Article V nowhere prevents the People themselves, acting apart from ordinary Government, from exercising their legal right to alter or abolish Government via the proper legal procedures. Bruce Ackerman argues that the Constitution can be amended by something he calls a "structural amendment '' whereby the people alter their Constitutional order via succeeding elections. Similarly, Sanford Levinson believes that Constitutional amendments have been made outside of Article V and as such it is not exclusive.
Other scholars disagree with Amar, Ackerman, and Levinson. Some argue that the Constitution itself provides no mechanism for the American people to adopt constitutional amendments independently of Article V. Darren Patrick Guerra has argued that Article V is a vital part of the American Constitutional tradition and he defends Article V against modern critiques that Article V is either too difficult, too undemocratic, or too formal. Instead he argues that Article V provides a clear and stable way of amending the document that is explicit, authentic, and the exclusive means of amendment; it promotes wisdom and justice through enhancing deliberation and prudence; and its process complements federalism and separation of powers that are key features of the Constitution. He argues that Article V remains the most clear and powerful way to register the sovereign desires of the American public with regard to alterations of their fundamental law. In the end, Article V is an essential bulwark to maintaining a written Constitution that secures the rights of the people against both elites and themselves.
In his farewell address, President George Washington said:
If in the opinion of the People the distribution or modification of the Constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation; for though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time yield.
This statement by Washington has become controversial, and scholars disagree about whether it still describes the proper constitutional order in the United States. Scholars who dismiss Washington 's position often argue that the Constitution itself was adopted without following the procedures in the Articles of Confederation, while Constitutional attorney Michael Farris disagrees, saying the Convention was a product of the States ' residual power, and the amendment in adoption process was legal, having received the unanimous assent of the States ' legislatures.
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moral lesson of the town mouse and the country mouse | The town mouse and the country mouse - wikipedia
The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse is one of Aesop 's Fables. It is number 352 in the Perry Index and type 112 in Aarne -- Thompson 's folk tale index. Like several other elements in Aesop 's fables, ' town mouse and country mouse ' has become an English idiom.
In the original tale, a proud town mouse visits his cousin in the country. The country mouse offers the city mouse a meal of simple country cuisine, at which the visitor scoffs and invites the country mouse back to the city for a taste of the "fine life '' and the two cousins dine like emperors. But their rich and delicious metropolitan feast is interrupted by a couple of dogs which force the rodent cousins to abandon their meal and scurry to safety. After this, the country mouse decides to return home, preferring security to opulence or, as the 13th - century preacher Odo of Cheriton phrased it, "I 'd rather gnaw a bean than be gnawed by continual fear ''.
The story was widespread in Classical times and there is an early Greek version by Babrius (Fable 108). Horace included it as part of one of his satires (II. 6), ending on this story in a poem comparing town living unfavorable to life in the country. Marcus Aurelius alludes to it in his Meditations, Book 11.22; "Think of the country mouse and of the town mouse, and of the alarm and trepidation of the town mouse ''.
However, it seems to have been the 12th century Anglo - Norman writer Walter of England who contributed most to the spread of the fable throughout medieval Europe. His Latin version (or that of Odo of Cheriton) has been credited as the source of the fable that appeared in the Spanish Libro de Buen Amor of Juan Ruiz in the first half of the 14th century. Walter was also the source for several manuscript collections of Aesop 's fables in Italian and equally of the popular Esopi fabulas by Accio Zucco da Sommacampagna (fr), the first printed collection of Aesop 's fables in that language (Verona, 1479), in which the story of the town mouse and the country mouse appears as fable 12. This consists of two sonnets, the first of which tells the story and the second contains a moral reflection.
British poetical treatments of the story vary widely. The Scottish Henryson 's The Taill of the Uponlandis Mous and the Burges Mous makes the two mice sisters. The one in the country envies her sister 's rich living and pays her a visit, only to be chased by a cat and return home, contented with her own lot. Four final stanzas (lines 190 -- 221) draw out the moral that it is better to limit one 's ambition and one 's appetites, warning those who make the belly their god that
The cat cummis and to the mous hes ee.
Henryson attributes the story to Esope, myne author where Sir Thomas Wyatt makes it a song sung by "My mothers maydes when they did sowe and spynne '' in the second of his satires. This is more in accord with Horace 's description of it as "an old wives ' tale '' but Wyatt 's retelling otherwise echoes Henryson 's: an impoverished country mouse visits her sister in town but is caught by the cat. In the second half of the poem (lines 70 -- 112) Wyatt addresses his interlocutor John Poynz on the vanity of human wishes. Horace, on the other hand, had discussed his own theme at great length before closing on the story.
By contrast, the adaptation in La Fontaine 's Fables, Le rat de ville et le rat des champs (I. 9), is simply told. There it is the town rat that invites the country rat home, only to have the meal disturbed by dogs (as in Horace); the country rat then departs, reflecting, as in Aesop, that peace is preferable to fearful plenty.
Adaptations dating from Britain 's "Augustan Age '' concentrate upon the Horatian version of the fable. The reference is direct in The hind and the panther transvers 'd to the story of the country - mouse and the city mouse, written by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax and Matthew Prior in 1687. This was a satire directed against a piece of pro-Stuart propaganda and portrays the poet John Dryden (under the name of Bayes) proposing to elevate Horace 's ' dry naked History ' into a religious allegory (page 4ff).
Part of the fun there is that in reality the Horatian retelling is far more sophisticated than the ' plain simple thing ' that Bayes pretends it is, especially in its depiction of Roman town - life at the height of its power. It is this aspect of Horace 's writing that is underlined by the two adaptations of his satire made by other Augustan authors. The first was a joint work by the friends Thomas Sprat and Abraham Cowley written in 1666. Horace has the story told by a garrulous countryman, a guise that Cowley takes on with delicate self - irony. It allows him to adapt the comforts of the imperial city described by Horace to those of Restoration London, with references to contemporary high cuisine and luxury furnishings such as Mortlake Tapestries. Cowley 's portion appeared separately under the title of The Country Mouse in his volume of essays.
In the following century the friends Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope combined in a similar imitation of Horace 's Satire in octosyllabic couplets, with Pope playing the part of the story - teller from line 133 onwards and attributing the tale to contemporary fabulist Matthew Prior. The point of the piece is once again to make a witty transposition of the Classical scene into present - day circumstances as an extension of the poem 's anachronistic fun. At a slightly later date Rowland Rugeley was to imitate their performance in much the same manner in "The City Mouse and Country Mouse: a fable to a friend in town ''. The argument has been made that, for all the fable 's championing of country life, the emphasis on the urban and urbane in these poems is fully in the spirit of the Horatian original.
In all versions of the original fable, much is made of the poor fare upon which the country mouse subsists. Dried (grey) peas and bacon are frequently mentioned and it is these two that the early 19th century author Richard Scrafton Sharpe uses in a repetitive refrain to his lyrical treatment of "The Country Mouse and the City Mouse ''. He was the author of Old friends in a new dress -- or Familiar fables in verse, which went through different editions from 1807 onwards. The stories are told in song measures rather than narrative, and it was in a later edition that this retelling appeared.
A similar story appears among the fables of Bidpai as "The Lean Cat and the Fat Cat ''. It is related that ' There was once a poor, lean old woman, who lived in a tiny, tumbled - down house, with a cat as poor and as lean as herself. This cat had never tasted a bit of bread, and had come no nearer a mouse than to find its tracks in the dust. ' A sleek, plump cat boasts to her of how it feasts at the king 's table and invites her to come and join in next day. The poor woman advises her pet to be content with its lot. Unheeding, the lean cat sets off for the palace. Owing to its infestation by cats, however, the king had ordered that any caught there were to be put to death. The lean cat dies, regretting that it had not listened to the old woman 's wise advice.
Beatrix Potter retold the story in The Tale of Johnny Town - Mouse (1918). In this she inverted the order of the visits, with the country mouse going to the city first, being frightened by a cat and disliking the food. Returning the visit later, the town mouse is frightened of the rain, the lawnmower and the danger of being stepped on by cows. The story concludes with the reflection that tastes differ. A segment from the tale was incorporated into the children 's ballet film The Tales of Beatrix Potter, danced by the Royal Ballet with choreography by Frederick Ashton (1971). The ballet was subsequently performed onstage in 1992 and 2007.
In 1927 the story was made into a French silent film, with puppet animation by the director Wladyslaw Starewicz, under the title Le Rat de Ville et le Rat des Champs. In this updated version, the urban rat drives out of Paris in his car to visit his cousin on the farm. They return to the city and visit a nightclub but their revels end in pandemonium with the arrival of a cat. Recognizing that city life is too hectic for him, the country rat prefers to dream of his urban adventure from the safety of his home. The American equivalent was the Silly Symphonies cartoon The Country Cousin (1936), in which the country mouse hikes along the railroad track to visit his cousin in the city. The main action takes place on the supper table and is governed by the unexplained need for silence. When the reason for this is revealed as the cat, the cousin escapes into the street, only to face the worse hazards of the traffic.
In 1980, the fable was whimsically adapted by Evelyn Lambart for the National Film Board of Canada using paper figures and brightly coloured backgrounds. Other cartoons much more loosely based on the fables have included Mouse in Manhattan (1945) and The Country Mouse and the City Mouse: A Christmas Tale (HBO 1993), which eventually led to the TV series of The Country Mouse and the City Mouse Adventures.
In the UK, Vicky Ireland dramatised the fable for Merseyside Young People 's Theatre in 1987. The 80 - minute play has since been acted in the USA, South Africa and New Zealand. It features William Boot, a country mouse bored with rural life at his grandmother 's house, who is visited by his city cousin and learns that he has inherited Tallyhoe Lodge in London. They leave to run a gauntlet of adventures, from which William returns to settle gratefully in his peaceful country retreat.
Among musical interpretations, there have been the following:
Media related to The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse at Wikimedia Commons
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who does the voice of disney's haunted mansion | Haunted Mansion - wikipedia
Haunted Mansion is a dark ride attraction located at Disneyland, Magic Kingdom, and Tokyo Disneyland. The attraction, although differing slightly in every location, places riders inside a haunted manor resided by "999 happy haunts ''.
Haunted Mansion features a ride - through tour in Omnimover vehicles called "Doom Buggies '', and a walk - through show is displayed to riders waiting in the line queue. The attraction utilizes a range of technology, from centuries - old theatrical effects to modern special effects featuring spectral Audio - Animatronics. Haunted Mansion has inspired two similarly - themed attractions, Phantom Manor and Mystic Manor, which exist at Disneyland Paris and Hong Kong Disneyland, respectively.
The idea for the Mansion precedes Disneyland and WED Enterprises, to when Walt Disney hired the first of his Imagineers. The first known illustration of the park showed a main street setting, green fields, western village and a carnival. Disney Legend Harper Goff developed a black - and - white sketch of a crooked street leading away from main street by a peaceful church and graveyard, with a run - down manor perched high on a hill that towered over main street.
Disney assigned Imagineer Ken Anderson to create a story using Goff 's idea. Plans were made to build a New Orleans - themed land in the small transition area between Frontierland and Adventureland. Weeks later, New Orleans Square appeared on the souvenir map and promised a thieves market, a pirate wax museum, and a haunted house walk - through. Anderson studied New Orleans and old plantations and came up with a drawing of an antebellum manor overgrown with weeds, dead trees, swarms of bats and boarded doors and windows topped by a screeching cat as a weather vane.
Disney, however, did not like the idea of having a run - down building in his pristine park. He visited the Winchester Mystery House in San Jose, California, and was captivated by the massive mansion with its stairs to nowhere, doors that opened to walls and holes, and elevators. Anderson envisioned stories for the mansion, including tales of a ghostly sea captain who killed his nosy bride and then hanged himself, a mansion home to an unfortunate family, and a ghostly wedding party with well - known Disney villains and spooks. Imagineers Rolly Crump and Yale Gracey recreated Ken Anderson 's stories in a studio at WED enterprise.
In 1961, handbills announcing a 1963 opening of the Haunted Mansion were given out at Disneyland 's main entrance. Construction began a year later, and the exterior was completed in 1963. The attraction was previewed in a 1965 episode of Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color, but the attraction itself would not open until 1969. The six - year delay owed heavily to Disney 's involvement in the New York World 's Fair in 1964 -- 1965 and to an attraction redesign after Walt 's death in 1966.
After the fair, many Imagineers such as Marc Davis, X Atencio and Claude Coats contributed ideas to the project. By this time, Ken Anderson had left the project. Rolly Crump showed Walt some designs for his version, which included bizarre things like coffin clocks, candle men, talking chairs, man - eating plants, tiki - like busts, living gypsy wagons and a mirror with a face. Walt liked these ideas and wanted to make the proclaimed "Museum of the Weird '', a restaurant side to the now - named Haunted Mansion, similar to the Blue Bayou at Pirates of the Caribbean. Though this concept was never realized, some of its aspects found their way into the final attraction.
When Walt put Imagineers Rolly Crump and Yale Gracey in charge of creating the visual illusions for the attraction, they had an idea to make the "Museum of the Weird '' into a separate section that you could walk through and discover all the amazing illusions from around the world. Guests would be able to see transparent ghosts and other eerie apparitions, by using the Pepper 's Ghost technique that was used in the theater since the early 1800s. Crump and Gracey were eventually given an entire warehouse to house their developments and one evening forgot to switch off the mechanics before leaving for the day. The cleaning crew were met with surprise as Crump explained, "Once, we got a call from personnel saying that the janitors requested that we leave the lights on in there due to the creepiness of all the audio - animatronic ghosts and such. They complied, but put motion sensors in the room that would extinguish the lights and turn on all the ghost effects when triggered. The next morning, they came in and found all the ghost effects still running and a broom lying in the center of the floor. Personnel called and said that the janitors would not be back. ''
Marc Davis and Claude Coats, two of the mansion 's main designers, disagreed whether the ride should be scary or funny. Claude, originally a background artist, wanted a scary adventure, and produced renditions of moody surroundings like endless hallways, corridors of doors and other characterless environments. Marc, an animator and character designer, proposed many zany spook characters and thought the ride should be silly and full of gags. In the end, both artists got their ways when X Atencio combined their approaches and ideas, creating an entertaining transition from dark foreboding to "spirited '' fun. The ride narration was performed by Paul Frees in the role of the Ghost Host. The attraction 's theme song, "Grim Grinning Ghosts '', was composed by Buddy Baker with lyrics written by X Atencio. It can be heard in nearly every area of the ride, with various instrumentations and tempos.
After Walt Disney 's death in December 1966, the project evolved significantly. The Museum of the Weird restaurant idea was abandoned. The Imagineers had also objected to a walk - through attraction 's low capacity, going so far as suggesting building two identical attractions to accommodate twice as many guests. A solution appeared with the development of the Omnimover system for Adventure Thru Inner Space. Renamed the ' "Doom Buggy '', the system 's continuous chain of semi-enclosed vehicles offered high capacity. The cars could be set to rotate in any direction at any point, allowing the Imagineers to control what guests saw and heard throughout the show. And because each car held from one to three, it was a convenient way to divide guests into smaller groups -- a better fit with the story of people wandering "alone '' through a haunted house.
Employee previews of the Mansion were held August 9, 10, and possibly the 11th, followed by "soft '' openings on August 9 and 10 where limited numbers of park guests were allowed to ride. A "Midnight '' Press Event was held on the evening of August 11. The mansion opened to all guests August 12, 1969. The public opening was announced in full - page newspaper ads, creating the anomaly of either two official openings or an advertised "soft '' opening. The attraction was an immediate success, attracting record crowds and helping Disney recover from Walt 's untimely death.
In around 1977, WDI considered utilising the unused designs, creatures and effects that Rolly Crump had originally created for the Haunted Mansion and the Museum of the Weird as part of Professor Marvel 's Gallery -- "a tent show of mysteries and delights, a carousel of magic and wonder. '' This was to be built as part of Disneyland 's Discovery Bay expansion area, and was dropped when those plans fell through.
The attraction opened at Magic Kingdom in 1971 and Tokyo Disneyland in 1983. In 1999, a retrospective of the art of The Haunted Mansion was featured at The Disney Gallery above the entrance to Pirates of the Caribbean. When the 2003 film The Haunted Mansion was released, a retrospective of its art was featured in the gallery as well.
In 1995, Disneyland 's Haunted Mansion was updated. A phantom piano player sat at a run - down piano, just like the music room at Walt Disney World 's Mansion. However, instead of the sinister Rachmaninoff-esque version of "Grim Grinning Ghosts '', a dark version of Richard Wagner 's Bridal March plays.
In 2001, a newer, more detailed safety spiel was added to the onboard audio of the Doombuggies in the Load Area, now featuring voice - over artist and Paul Frees impersonator Joe Leahy, giving a bilingual safety spiel as part of a park - wide attempt to increase safety at attractions. In October 2001, Haunted Mansion Holiday premiered, a seasonal overlay featuring characters from the 1993 film The Nightmare Before Christmas.
In March 2011, a new "interactive queue '' debuted at the Walt Disney World location, with new crypts and tombstones honoring Imagineers; a murder mystery for guests to solve featuring the sinister Dread Family; the Composer Crypt, which features musical instruments that play variations of "Grim Grinning Ghosts '' when touched; the Mariner 's brine - filled sepulcher, whose ghost sings and sneezes from within, and a crypt for Prudence Pock the poetess, which features haunted moving books & Prudence 's ghost writing invisibly in her poem book. Guests can solve the unfinished poems by speaking into microphones located on the crypt. Guests may also opt to skip the queue and go straight to the Foyer doors
On April 10, 2015, it was officially confirmed that an iconic Haunted Mansion character, The Hatbox Ghost, would return to Disneyland 's Haunted Mansion. The character returned on May 9, 2015. The Hatbox Ghost was originally a part of the attraction when it opened in 1969.
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Entering the queuing area through a pair of ornate gates, guests find themselves in the antebellum - era mansion 's well - tended gardens and courtyards. The queuing path leads guests past a pet cemetery, a mausoleum with pun names, a cemetery at the top whose tombstones bear the names of the Imagineers who created this attraction, and a white carriage hearse led by an invisible horse which occasionally nickers. Stepping onto the porch, guests are admitted inside the mansion through a doorway on the far right of the house into the Foyer, lit by a large, flickering, cobweb - covered chandelier and surrounding candelabras.
In the Foyer, the deep, resonant voice of an invisible spirit (Paul Frees) sets the tone of the attraction with a short opening monologue, accompanied by a funeral dirge variation of Grim Grinning Ghosts.
A pair of sliding doors open to one of two similar octagonal rooms, which are actually large slow - moving elevators with fake woofing walls that do not reach the ceiling. The invisible spirit teasingly welcomes the guests (referring to them as "foolish mortals '') and introduces himself as their "Ghost Host '' who will take them on a tour of the Haunted Mansion. The room contains four paintings, one on every other wall, each depicting a person from the chest up; previous guests "as they appeared in their corruptible mortal state ''. The portraits are flanked by eight leering, candle - holding gargoyles. At this point a cast member will often instruct guests to, "... kindly drag your bodies away from the walls to the dead center of the room ''. A sliding wall panel closes in front of the doorway where the guests entered, trapping them inside the room. As the Ghost Host delivers his spiel, the room begins to "stretch '' vertically. As the floor and fake walls descend, the real white walls and portrait frames (located behind the fake walls) elongate, revealing the grim fates of the previous residents depicted in the paintings, symbolized in humorously macabre situations: a beautiful young girl holding a parasol is shown to be balancing on a fraying tightrope above the jaws of an alligator; a middle - aged bearded man holding a document is shown to be standing atop a barrel of dynamite in his boxer shorts with a candle lighting the fuse; a smiling elderly woman holding a rose is shown to be sitting on the tombstone of her late husband George, who is depicted as a stone bust with an axe in his head; and a confident - looking middle - aged man in a bowler hat is shown to be sitting on the shoulders of a frightened - looking man, who sits on the shoulders of a third man who is waist - deep in quicksand, an expression of terror on his face. As the Ghost Host challenges guests ' to find a way out ' of this seemingly windowless and doorless chamber, he concludes,
"Of course, there 's always MY way... ''
With a sudden thunderclap, the lights go out and the ceiling disappears. A ghastly vision manifests above: the skeletal corpse of the Ghost Host dangling from a taut rope inside an octagonal cupola with four curtainless windows (rather than the hexagonal cupola with six curtained windows seen on the exterior), illuminated by flashes of lightning. Seconds later, the room plunges into darkness, and a bloodcurdling scream is heard -- falling from the ceiling to the floor, ending with the sound of the corpse hitting the floor.
As the chamber is re-lit, a wall opens, exposing a Portrait Gallery. As lightning flashes from the windows on the opposite side of the gallery, the portraits transform into images of ghosts and monsters in synchronization with the lightning. At the corridor 's far end are two statuary busts depicting a strict - looking man and woman. The statues appear to turn and gaze at guests, following their every move.
Turning a corner, guests enter the Load Area, where a seemingly endless stream of black carriages, known as Doom Buggies, descend one staircase and ascend another. Beyond the track, clouds drift past a limbo of boundless mist and decay. The guests then board the carriages, accompanied by the Ghost Host (who lowers the safety bar and provides a safety spiel).
Once guests ascend the pitch - black Staircase to the second floor, they come across a moving suit of armor, and a chair which appears to be embroidered with a hidden abstract face. The Doom Buggies also pass by the end of a seemingly Endless Hallway. Halfway down the hallway is a candelabra, floating eerily.
Turning away from the Endless Hallway, guests travel past a glass Conservatory filled with dead, withered plants and flowers. In the middle of the room is a coffin occupied by a restless "guest '', plaintively wailing for someone to "Let me out! '. Perched near the coffin is a black raven with glowing red eyes.
The Doom Buggies continue down a Corridor of Doors. The sounds of pounding, shrieking, calls for help, screams, knocking, and maniacal laughter can be heard from behind the doors. Knockers and handles are moved by unseen hands and some doors appear to be "breathing. '' The walls, covered in demon - faced wallpaper, are adorned with daguerreotypes of screaming and grinning corpses, and a large painting of the Ghost Host with a noose around his neck and holding a hatchet. A demonic grandfather clock chimes 13 as its hands spin counter-clockwise and the shadow of a claw passes over it.
Guests enter a dark Séance Room full of floating objects. Madame Leota (Eleanor Audley), a medium whose disembodied head appears within a misty crystal ball with blue hair, summons the Mansion 's spirits, levitating mysteriously above a table littered with tarot cards and a wispy green spirit moves off in a corner of the room. The raven seen moments ago in the Conservatory can now be seen perched on the back of the chair at the table. As she incants,
"Serpents and spiders, tail of a rat... Call in the spirits, wherever they 're at. / Rap on a table, it 's time to respond... Send us a message from somewhere beyond. / Goblins and ghoulies from last Halloween... Awaken the spirits with your tambourine! / Creepies and crawlies, toads in a pond... Let there be music from regions beyond! / Wizards and witches, wherever you dwell... Give us a hint by ringing a bell. ''
floating objects and instruments respond in turn. Before exiting the Séance Circle, guests pass a large, ancient tome entitled "Necronomicon: Book of the Dead '' resting on a stand, with the book opened to pages 1312 and 1313. Page 1312 contains a cloaked version of Ezra the HitchHiking Ghost, while page 1313 contains Leota 's incantations.
After leaving the Séance Circle, guests move along a balcony overlooking a birthday party taking place in a Grand Hall, with a number of ghosts dancing and reveling. Ghosts are seen entering the room through a broken door, where a hearse has crashed with its coffin (and its contents) sliding out. Eerie phantoms are seen flying in and out of the windows above. A merry ghost is seen sitting atop the mantle of a fireplace with a mysterious green fire, with his arm wrapped around a bust. An elderly ghost is seen rocking back and forth in a chair, a book in her lap. Many ghosts have gathered around a dinner table, where a ghost is blowing out candles on a birthday cake. A massive chandelier hangs above the table on which a couple is perched and another ghost named Pickwick swings from by his cane. Another balcony is seen across the room, where a curtained doorway is situated between two portraits of dueling gunmen. From time to time, the ghosts of both duelists appear and shoot at each other with their pistols. A number of elegantly dressed couples are seen below, waltzing to a discordant version of the attraction 's theme song played on a pipe organ (Captain Nemo 's organ set piece from 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea) by a ghostly gentleman wearing a top hat, while banshees float out of its pipes.
The Doom Buggies then proceed to the Attic, an irregularly shaped room cluttered with gifts, personal items, mementos and wedding portraits. In each portrait, the same bride is seen with a different groom, whose heads disappear only to reappear a moment later. With each successive photograph, the bride gains another string of pearls. The sound of a beating heart fills the room, and a shadowy spirit plays a grim version of the "Bridal Chorus '' on an old harpsichord. Just before the Doom Buggies escape the Attic, the ghost of the bride from the pictures, Constance Hatchaway is encountered, shrouded in cool blue light, and uttering words reciting the traditional wedding vows:
"Here comes the bride... As long as we both shall live... For better or for... worse? I do. I did, In sickness and in... Wealth. You may now kiss the bride... We 'll live happily ever after... Till death do us part... ''
As she raises her arms, a hatchet appears and disappears in her hands between vows.
The Doom Buggies drift out of an Attic window and onto the balcony, coming face to face with the Hatbox Ghost amidst a starry night sky filled with wispy spirits rising from the Graveyard below. The Doom Buggies turn around, and tip backward down a 15 - percent grade surrounded by dark, ghoulish trees with knotted expressions. The red - eyed raven (previously seen in the Conservatory and Séance Circle) caws at guests from a branch overhead as guests enter the Graveyard. The Doom Buggies then reach the ground and turn towards the gate of the Graveyard. There stands a caretaker and his dog, the attraction 's only "living '' characters. The caretaker cowers in fright, an expression of terror on his face, while his emaciated dog whines and whimpers. The dog is said to be based on Walt 's childhood dog Rover, and also appears in the Carousel of Progress. Around the corner, a ghostly band of minstrels plays a jazzy rendition of "Grim Grinning Ghosts '' as a family of cats and two owls join in harmony. Ghouls pop up from behind tombstones, a king and queen balance on a teeter - totter, and a skeletal hellhound howls from behind guests. The Doom Buggies travel down a hill and turn to see five expressive haunted busts singing "Grim Grinning Ghosts '' in barbershop harmony. Next, guests encounter a ghostly tea party surrounding a hearse stuck in the mud. A bony arm protrudes from a crypt with a wine glass in its hand, while banshees ride bicycles in the distance. An Egyptian mummy sits up in his sarcophagus, holding a cup of tea and singing along, while the ghost of a "wise old man '' from the Renaissance period holds an ear trumpet to his ear in an attempt to make out the muffled words of the mummy. The Doom Buggies then turn and pass a group of singing ghosts (an operatic pair, a decapitated knight, a masked executioner, and a prisoner) standing in front of a series of crypts. A bony arm holding a trowel protrudes from a partially walled - up crypt, its occupant attempting to finish the job.
As the Doom Buggies approach the entrance of a large crypt, and the Ghost Host speaks one final time:
"Ah, there you are... and just in time. There 's a little matter I forgot to mention: beware of HitchHiking Ghosts! They have selected you to fill our quota, and will haunt you until you return... Now I will raise the safety bar, and a ghost will follow you home! ''
Entering the Hall of Mirrors, the Doom Buggies pass a group of three ghosts thumbing for a ride. Around the corner, in large, ornately framed mirrors, the guests see that one of the ghosts from the trio is in the carriage with them.
While passing through the Hall of Mirrors, the same Singing Bust spirits from the Graveyard sing a somber tune in the background while guests proceed to the exit.
"If you would like to join our jamboree there 's a simple rule that 's compulsory; mortals pay a token fee; rest in peace, the haunting 's free; so hurry back, we would like your company... ''
The guests then disembark their Doom Buggies and ascend back to the "living world. '' The last apparition they see is the tiny Ghost Hostess, also known as "Little Leota, '' who encourages them to:
"Hurry back... hurry back! Be sure to bring your death certificate, if you decide to join us. Make final arrangements now. We 've been ' dying ' to have you. ''
The Haunted Mansion was an opening day attraction at Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World, where it is part of Liberty Square. During the production and assembly of the props and audio - animatronics for Disneyland 's Haunted Mansion, duplicates of everything were being made for Walt Disney World 's Haunted Mansion. It was decided that the Florida version of the attraction would be slightly longer and more elaborate than its California counterpart. Paul Frees recorded additional voice - overs, including the "Ghost Host '' to accompany the extra scenes in the ride. Because of the ample space within the park, the attraction 's show building is much larger and not restricted by any railroad berm.
The Haunted Mansion was an opening day attraction at Tokyo Disneyland, where it is part of Fantasyland. The Tokyo Disneyland version is largely a duplicate of the Magic Kingdom version, although it did not receive the changes made in the 2007 refurbishment of the Magic Kingdom version.
Since 2001, the Haunted Mansion at Disneyland and Tokyo Disneyland is transformed into Haunted Mansion Holiday during the Halloween and Christmas seasons, inspired by Tim Burton 's 1993 film The Nightmare Before Christmas. The Haunted Mansion is closed in September for a few weeks as they revamp the attraction, replacing many of the props and Audio - Animatronics with characters and themes from the movie.
Disneyland Paris features Phantom Manor, a "re-imagined '' version of the Haunted Mansion. The house is a Western Victorian, in the Second Empire architectural style, based on the look of the Fourth Ward School House in Virginia City, Nevada. Along with the Western architectural style, the attraction uses a Western plot to fit in with the Thunder Mesa and Frontierland backdrop.
Mystic Manor, spiritually inspired by the Haunted Mansion, opened at Hong Kong Disneyland in spring 2013. Unlike the Haunted Mansion, however, it does not include references to departed spirits or the afterlife, due to differences in traditional Chinese culture. Continuing the Society of Explorers and Adventurers theme of Tokyo DisneySea, the attraction tells the story of Lord Henry Mystic and his monkey Albert. Having recently acquired an enchanted music box with the power to bring inanimate objects to life, Albert opens the box and brings all of the house 's artifacts to life. The attraction 's exterior is that of a large Victorian mansion in an elaborate Queen Anne architectural style, and the experience features a trackless "ride '' system and a musical score by Danny Elfman.
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when did st.lucia become a member of the ioc | Saint Lucia at the Olympics - wikipedia
Saint Lucia first participated at the Olympic Games in 1996, and has sent athletes to compete in every Summer Olympic Games since then. The nation has never participated in the Winter Olympic Games.
To date, no athlete from Saint Lucia has ever won an Olympic medal.
The National Olympic Committee for Saint Lucia was created in 1987 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1993.
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the spy who came in from the cold liz | The Spy Who Came in from the Cold - wikipedia
The Spy Who Came in from the Cold is a 1963 Cold War spy novel by the British author John le Carré. It depicts Alec Leamas, a British agent, being sent to East Germany as a faux defector to sow disinformation about a powerful East German intelligence officer. With the aid of his unwitting English girlfriend, an idealistic communist, he allows himself to be recruited by the East Germans, but soon his charade unravels and he admits to still being a British agent -- a revelation that perversely achieves the ultimate objective of the mission.
The Spy Who Came in from the Cold portrays Western espionage methods as morally inconsistent with Western democracy and values. The novel received critical acclaim at the time of its publication and became an international best - seller; it was selected as one of the All - Time 100 Novels by Time magazine.
In 1965 Martin Ritt directed the cinematic adaptation The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, with Richard Burton as Leamas. In 2017 plans for a Miniseries were announced.
The Spy Who Came in from the Cold occurs during the heightened tensions that characterised the late 1950s and early 1960s Cold War, when a Warsaw Pact -- NATO war sparked in Germany seemed likely. The story begins and concludes in East Germany, about a year after the completion of the Berlin Wall and around the time when double - agent Heinz Felfe was exposed and tried.
In Call for the Dead, le Carré 's debut novel, a key character is Hans - Dieter Mundt, an assassin of the Abteilung ("the Department ''), the East German Secret Service, who is working under diplomatic cover in London. When uncovered by agents George Smiley and Peter Guillam of the British intelligence service "the Circus '' (which is led by "Control ''), he escapes from England to East Germany before Smiley and Guillam can catch him. Two years later, at the time of The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, Mundt has risen from the field to the upper - echelon of the Abteilung, because of his successful counter-intelligence operations against the spy networks of the British secret services. Characters and events from "The Spy Who Came in from the Cold '' are reinvestigated in "A Legacy of Spies '', le Carré 's 2017 novel centring on an aging Guillam.
The West Berlin office of the Circus is under the command of Station Head Alec Leamas, who served as an SOE operative during World War II and fought in the Nazi - occupied Netherlands and Norway. It has just lost its last and best double agent, shot whilst defecting from East Berlin. With no operatives left, Leamas is recalled to London by Control, the Circus chief, who asks Leamas to stay "in the cold '' for one last mission: to fake the defection of a senior British agent to an East German operative named Mundt, and then to frame Mundt as a British double agent. Fiedler, one of Mundt 's subordinates -- who suspects that Mundt is already a double agent -- is targeted as a potentially useful adjunct.
To bring Leamas to the East Germans ' attention as a potential defector, the Circus sacks him, leaving him with only a small pension. He takes and loses a miserable job in a run - down library. There, he meets Liz Gold, who is the secretary of her local cell of the Communist Party of Great Britain, and they become lovers. Before taking the "final plunge '' into Control 's scheme, Leamas makes Liz promise not to look for him, no matter what she hears. Then, after getting Control to agree to leave Liz alone, Leamas initiates the mission by assaulting a local grocer in order to get himself arrested.
After his release from jail he is approached by an East German recruiter and taken abroad, first to the Netherlands, then to East Germany, en route meeting progressively higher echelons of the Abteilung, the East German intelligence service. During his debriefing he drops casual hints about British payments to a double agent in the Abteilung. Meanwhile, Smiley, posing as a friend of Leamas, appears at Liz 's apartment to question her about him and to offer financial help.
In East Germany, Leamas meets Fiedler. The two men engage in extended discussions, in which Leamas 's pragmatism is contrasted with Fiedler 's idealistic outlook. Leamas observes that the young, brilliant Fiedler is concerned about the righteousness of his motivation and the morality of his actions. Mundt, on the other hand, is a brutal, opportunistic mercenary, an ex-Nazi who joined the Communists after the war out of expediency, and who remains an anti-Semite.
The power struggle within the Abteilung is exposed when Mundt orders Fiedler and Leamas arrested and tortured. The leaders of the East German régime intervene after learning that Fiedler applied for an arrest warrant for Mundt that same day. Fiedler and Mundt are released, then summoned to present their cases to a tribunal convened in camera. At the trial, Leamas documents a series of secret bank account payments that Fiedler has matched to the movements of Mundt, while Fiedler presents other evidence implicating Mundt as a British agent.
Meanwhile, Liz, who had been invited to East Germany for a Communist Party information exchange, is forced to testify at the tribunal. Called by Mundt 's attorney as a witness she admits that Smiley paid her apartment lease after visiting her, and that she promised Leamas that she would not look for him after he disappeared. She also admits that he had said good - bye to her the night before he assaulted the grocer. Realizing that their cover is blown, Leamas offers to tell all in exchange for Liz 's freedom, admitting that Control gave him the mission to frame Mundt as a double agent. But when the tribunal halts the trial and arrests Fiedler, Leamas finally understands the true nature of Control and Smiley 's scheme.
Liz is confined to a jail cell, but Mundt releases her and puts her in a car that will take her to freedom; Leamas is at the wheel. During their drive to Berlin, Leamas explains everything: Mundt is, in fact, a double agent reporting to Smiley. The target of Leamas 's mission was Fiedler, not Mundt, because Fiedler was close to exposing Mundt. Leamas and Liz unwittingly provided Mundt with the means of discrediting Leamas, and in turn, Fiedler. Their intimate relationship facilitated the plan. Liz realizes to her horror that their actions have enabled the Circus to protect their asset, the despicable Mundt, at the expense of the thoughtful and idealistic Fiedler. Liz asks what will become of Fiedler; Leamas replies that he will most likely be executed.
Liz 's love for Leamas overcomes her moral disgust, and she accompanies Leamas to a break in the wire fronting the Berlin Wall, from which they can climb the wall and escape to West Berlin. Leamas climbs to the top but, as he reaches down to help Liz, she is shot by a Mundt operative as a "final touch '' to make the plot perfect and to avoid any possible suspicion of Leamas ' escape. She falls and as Smiley calls out to Leamas from the other side of the wall, he hesitates. Then he climbs back down the Eastern side of the wall, to be shot and killed too.
At its publication during the Cold War (1945 -- 91), the moral presentation of The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1963) rendered it a revolutionary espionage novel by showing the intelligence services of both the Eastern and Western nations as engaging in the same expedient amorality in the name of national security. John le Carré also presented his western spy as a morally burnt - out case.
The espionage world of Alec Leamas portrays love as a three - dimensional emotion that can have disastrous consequences for those involved. Good does not always vanquish evil in Leamas 's world, a defeatist attitude that was criticised in The Times.
In her essay Is Common Human Decency a Scarce Commodity in Popular Literature?, Margaret Compton contrasts the ending of The Spy Who Came in from the Cold with the ending of Call for the Dead: "Le Carré 's début book ends with (George) Smiley feeling deeply guilty about having killed Dieter Frey, the idealistic East German spy who had been Smiley 's agent and friend during the Second World War. Leamas and Liz, in The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, make a diametrically opposite moral choice in that each values their personal relationship over any political loyalty '' - she discrediting herself as a Communist by proclaiming her love for a British agent in an East German court, he renouncing for her sake his loyalty to Britain and the Circus, even to the bitter end of letting himself be killed at her side. Compton considers Leamas 's and Liz 's moral choice as being superior to Smiley 's and believes that this is Le Carre 's own implicit opinion.
Time magazine, while including The Spy Who Came in from the Cold in its top 100 novels list, stated that the novel was "a sad, sympathetic portrait of a man who has lived by lies and subterfuge for so long, he 's forgotten how to tell the truth. '' The book also headed the Publishers Weekly 's list of 15 top spy novels in 2006.
Paramount Television and The Ink Factory -- who had previously produced The Night Manager -- are developing a limited series based on the novel, with Simon Beaufoy as the writer. On 14 January 2017 AMC and the BBC joined with The Ink Factory for the series.
Le Carré 's book won a 1963 Gold Dagger award from the Crime Writers ' Association for "Best Crime Novel ''. Two years later the US edition was awarded the Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for "Best Mystery Novel ''. It was the first work to win the award for "Best Novel '' from both mystery writing organisations. Screenwriters Paul Dehn and Guy Trosper, who adapted the book for the 1965 movie, received an Edgar the following year for "Best Motion Picture Screenplay '' for an American movie.
In 2005, the fiftieth anniversary of the Dagger Awards, The Spy Who Came in from the Cold was awarded the "Dagger of Daggers, '' a one - time award given to the Golden Dagger winner regarded as the stand - out among all fifty winners over the history of the Crime Writers ' Association.
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who won the next food network star 2017 | Food Network Star (season 13) - wikipedia
The thirteenth season of the American reality television series Food Network Star premiered June 4, 2017 on Food Network. Food Network chefs Bobby Flay and Giada de Laurentiis returned to the series as judges.
(in order of elimination)
^ 1: Cory did not compete in the mentor challenge. ^ 2: Cory was eliminated midway through the finale.
^ 1: Rob was eliminated after the mentor challenge. ^ 2: Danushka and Joy were eliminated after the star challenge.
This season of Star Salvation was hosted by Iron Chef Alex Guarnaschelli and season 7 winner Jeff Mauro.
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the walking dead game the final season release date | The Walking Dead: the Final Season - wikipedia
The Walking Dead: The Final Season (also known as The Walking Dead: Season Four) is an episodic adventure game developed by Telltale Games, and the fourth main game in their The Walking Dead video game series, based on Robert Kirkman 's comic book series of the same name.
The game represents the first major release by Telltale after a major restructuring; it was aimed to return to themes and elements from the first season, The game was expected to be the concluding story involving Clementine, taking place a few years after the events of The Walking Dead: A New Frontier. The game was anticipated to be released over four episodes, with the first episode released on August 14, 2018 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch. However, due to the sudden near - closure of Telltale Games on September 21, 2018, the last two episodes will be overseen by Skybound Entertainment, Kirkman 's production company.
As with other games in The Walking Dead series, The Final Season is a graphic adventure game, where the player controls the protagonist Clementine as she struggles to survive in the wake of a zombie apocalypse. The player can move Clementine around the environment to examine items, initiate conversation trees with non-player characters, and progress in the game. Decisions made by the player can affect future episodes, and The Final Season can use previous saved games from The Walking Dead to bring a player 's choices from these games into The Final Season. Players that have not played previous seasons, or who may want to adjust choices made affecting Clementine 's character, will be able to use a web - based Story Builder tool to create a cloud - based save game that can be used to feed into the game. This also addresses issues with various save game limitations due to platform transitions over the course of the series (for example, previous saves from the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 from the first two seasons are not compatible with The Final Season).
In portions of the game, the player will be required to react to quick time events in action - driven scenes, such as escaping from a "walker '' (the name for zombies in the series). Failure to complete the events typically results in the death of Clementine or another key character, requiring the player to retry the event. The Final Season introduces more open - ended action sequences that give the player more control during the sequence.
Some years after the events of A New Frontier, Clementine has continued to raise AJ, recalling Lee 's own lessons he taught her. They drive along and stop at a train station to scavenge for food. Inside, they find a cellar with a well - stocked supply of food, but the door is rigged with a grenade, and the noise from the blast draws a walker horde. Whilst driving to escape, Clementine crashes the car, and as she blacks out, she sees someone grabbing AJ. Clementine awakens within the ruins of a schoolhouse. She meets Marlon, the leader of a group of teenagers from the school, and finds they have also been taking care of AJ while she recovered. Clementine and AJ meet the other kids, learning that they have been alone for some time after being abandoned by the school staff but have found ways to survive by hunting and fishing from nearby woods and using traps to ward off walkers outside the school grounds. As she gets to know the others and helps AJ learn appropriate social skills, Clementine learns about the loss of a set of twin sisters about a year prior that still troubles the children, particularly Tenn, the younger brother of the siblings.
Marlon warns Clementine they are running low on food, the safe area around the school becoming smaller over time, and has her help the next day with hunting and fishing. Neither effort secures enough food, and Clementine suggests returning to the train station to see what food supplies survived the grenade blast, despite the station being outside of the designated safe zone. Clementine and AJ enter the station to secure the food but are confronted by a man named Abel, who demands a ration of the food at gunpoint. After either complying with or subduing Abel, Clementine and the rest of the group make it back to the school, reporting on their encounter. That evening, through the pipe system in the school, Clementine hears two voices arguing, and finds Marlon and Brody, another resident, having a heated discussion in the cellar. Brody reveals to Clementine that Abel is part of a raider group that Marlon had traded the twins to in exchange for safety. Furious at the reveal, Marlon hits her with a flashlight giving her a deep head gash. Before she dies of brain trauma, Brody reveals to Clementine that Marlon also intends to trade her and AJ should the raiders return. In a state of panic, Marlon leaves Brody to turn and locks Clementine in the cellar. Clementine dispatches the re-animated Brody and escapes the cellar to find Marlon being held at gunpoint by AJ, drawing the attention of the rest of the group. Marlon takes the gun from AJ and tries to frame Clementine for Brody 's death in an attempt to get the group to turn on her. Clementine is able to convince the other children of Marlon 's wrongdoings, and eventually, Marlon surrenders. As the others discuss what to do with Marlon, he is shot and killed by AJ.
Despite Clementine and AJ 's attempts to make amends, the other children vote to have the pair evicted from the school. Outside, they run into Abel and another member of the raiders, who Clementine is shocked to find is Lilly, a woman who Lee and Kenny had forced out of their group after leaving Macon, Georgia. Despite her attempts to negotiate with Clementine to convince the other kids to give themselves over to her group, she refuses and they start to hunt her and AJ down, during which AJ is shot in the stomach. The pair are saved by James, a former member of the Whisperers, who reveals to them the raiders are forcibly recruiting people to fight in their war against a rival community. James tends to AJ 's wounds and accompanies them back to the school the next morning, before departing on his own. Despite some of the children 's resentment towards Clementine and AJ, they allow them back in so that AJ can have his wounds treated. Clementine warns them about Lilly and the raiders, and they make plans to prepare the school grounds for an attack.
Two weeks go by without the raiders ' incoming attack, putting everyone on edge. After playing a game of truth or dare to ease tensions, the children go to check on final preparations. The player can choose to have Clementine accompany Louis or Violet, and in either case, express romantic feelings for these characters. Soon after, the raiders arrive at the school, looking to capture more children. In the midst of the battle, Lilly inadvertently kills one of the kids, Mitch. Clementine gets into a fight with Abel that ends with them falling off a balcony, breaking Abel 's leg. After Clementine saves either Violet or Louis from being kidnapped, Lilly and the raiders escape, and the remaining children count their losses, which include Omar, Aasim, and whichever person Clementine did not save. They vow to get them back and as Abel is now their prisoner, they intend to interrogate him for the location of the raider camp.
The game is separated into four episodes, released every six weeks.
Announced during the July 2017 San Diego Comic Con, The Walking Dead: The Final Season, is scheduled to launch as a four - episode series on August 14, 2018 for Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, with a Nintendo Switch version to launch later that year. Clementine will return as the lead character, voiced by Melissa Hutchinson, as Telltale found that fans of the series were not pleased with how little interactivity there was with Clementine in A New Frontier. Telltale wanted to have the final season call back to what fans had praised about the first season, and knew they needed to make Clementine the focus. With this direction, Telltale decided to make this the final season for The Walking Dead series so that they can create a satisfactory conclusion to Clementine 's story arc. For this purpose, Telltale brought back Gary Whitta, the writer for the first season and "400 Days '' content, to help close out Clementine 's story.
The story will follow from A New Frontier with Clementine having rescued AJ from the McCarroll Ranch, with a timeskip a few years ahead, where AJ is now a young boy. With diminishing resources amid the apocalypse, Clementine and AJ find the importance of staying with communities of vital importance, meeting other characters who have little memory of the time before the downfall of society. Clementine starts to teach AJ the essentials of survival as Lee had taught her during The Walking Dead: The First Season, as a way of paying Lee 's lessons forward. Telltale had initially considered writing a version of Clementine that had become more jaded, but found this was far too different from the established version of the character, and reworked her to be more sympathetic.
The final season will use the updated version of the Telltale Tool first introduced in Batman: The Telltale Series, along with improvements in the visual style to approach the style used in The Walking Dead comic. This included improved dynamic lightning, and a new rendering style Telltale called "Graphic Black '' to enforce the comic book rendering style. Some scenes will feature "unscripted '' zombies who may attack Clementine if the player is not careful, creating new freeform combat sequences, while other parts of the game will continue to use quick - time events as from previous games.
Due to course - corrections made at Telltale in 2017, The Walking Dead: The Final Season was primarily the only game the company released that year, cutting down from twenty episodes across multiple games in 2017 to only this season 's four in 2018. The game 's executive producer Brodie Andersen said that "We know we ran a little hot in previous years and were n't able to fully deliver the experiences we may have wanted to, so that was important to focus in on a polished quality experience players love. '' Because of the reduced product schedule, Telltale was able to establish firm release dates for all four episodes in the season, a first for any of Telltale 's episodic series. Andersen said that they were able to achieve this by starting from where they wanted The Final Season to end, and then building the narrative backwards from that, establishing four clear episodes for the series to work towards.
A free demo of the game, offering approximately the first twenty minutes of the first episode, meant to show off the new gameplay features added in this season, was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on July 31, 2018. Physical releases of The Final Season for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One are expected to be released on November 6, 2018; they will contain the first two episodes and a season pass code to download the final two episodes when they are normally released.
Despite the title The Final Season, Telltale originally did not rule out a possible future for The Walking Dead games; Creative Director Kent Mudle said that The Final Season title represented the end of Clementine 's journey from Telltale 's view, but could revisit the franchise through other characters.
On September 21, 2018, Telltale announced they were undergoing a "majority studio closure '', laying off nearly all staff and leaving only 25 to complete the studio 's remaining obligations. The state of The Final Season is unknown, though other planned studio projects were cancelled. The second episode was still released on September 25, 2018, but the fate of the remaining episodes is unknown. Telltale stated on September 24, 2018, that the studio has been approached by "multiple potential partners '' that want to help bring these two episodes to completion in some manner. Until they are able to figure out how the last two episodes will be played out, Telltale asked retailers and digital storefronts to pull sales of the game and the season pass.
During the 2018 New York Comic Con, Robert Kirkman announced that his production company, Skybound Entertainment, will help to bring the last two episodes to release. According to Skybound, they have acquired the rights of the game from Telltale, and will be working with former Telltale Games employees who worked on the series to finish off the episodes. Ian Howe, the CEO of Skybound Games, noted that there were logistical difficulties in this. Some of the Telltale team had already moved on to other jobs prior to the Skybound deal, and for those still looking for work, they are not expecting them to relocate from San Francisco (where Telltale was located) to Los Angeles (where Skybound is located), but do need to find them space that makes the completion of development possible. They further needed to account for the time that those seeking jobs would need. Howe stated that he fully expected that the third episode would be released before the end of 2018.
The Walking Dead: The Final Season received generally positive reviews, earning praise for its characterization, visuals, and upgraded gameplay mechanics, and is considered by many critics and fans to be a return to form for the series.
Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 76 / 100 based on 26 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 75 / 100 based on 14 reviews, the Xbox One version 70 / 100 based on 9 reviews, and the Nintendo Switch version 76 / 100 based on 5 reviews.
The second episode received mixed reviews. On Metacritic, PC version of the episode has a rating of 69 / 100, and PS4 version has a rating of 70 / 100.
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where do love bugs go when it's not love bug season | Lovebug - wikipedia
The lovebug (Plecia nearctica) is a species of march fly found in parts of Central America and the southeastern United States, especially along the Gulf Coast. It is also known as the honeymoon fly or double - headed bug. During and after mating, adult pairs remain coupled, even in flight, for up to several days.
The species was first described in 1940 by D.E. Hardy, but was seen in Louisiana as early as 1911. At that time, he reported the incidence of lovebugs to be widespread, but most common in Texas, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. However, by the end of the 20th century the species had spread heavily to all areas bordering the Gulf of Mexico, as well as Georgia and South Carolina. L.A. Hetrick, writing in 1970, found the bug was also widespread in central and northern Florida and described its flights as reaching altitudes of 300 to 450 metres (980 to 1,480 ft) and extending several kilometers over the Gulf. In 2006, it was reported as far north as Topsail Beach, North Carolina.
Lovebugs ' larvae feed on partially decayed vegetation in the landscape and, in this respect, are beneficial to humans. Adults primarily feed on nectar from various plants, particularly sweet clover, goldenrod, and Brazilian pepper.
Localized lovebug flights can number in the hundreds of thousands. The slow, drifting movement of the insects is almost reminiscent of snow fall except that the flies also rise in the air. Two major flights occur each year, first in late spring, then again in late summer. In south Florida, a third (but smaller) flight can occur in December. The spring flight occurs during late April and May, and in the summer during late August and September. Flights extend over periods of four to five weeks. Mating takes place almost immediately after emergence of the females. Adult females live only three to four days, while males live a little longer. They have to stick to each other at all times.
This species ' reputation as a public nuisance is due not to any bite or sting (it is incapable of either), but to its slightly acidic body chemistry. Because airborne lovebugs can exist in enormous numbers near highways, they die in large numbers on automobile windshields, hoods, and radiator grills when the vehicles travel at high speeds. If left for more than an hour or two, the remains become extremely difficult to remove. Their body chemistry has a nearly neutral 6.5 pH but may become acidic at 4.25 pH if left on the car for a day. In the past, the acidity of the dead adult body, especially the female 's egg masses, often resulted in pits and etches in automotive paint and chrome if not quickly removed. However, advances in automotive paints and protective coatings have reduced this threat significantly. Now the greatest concern is excessive clogging of vehicle radiator air passages with the bodies of the adults, with the reduction of the cooling effect on engines, and the obstruction of windshields when the remains of the adults and egg masses are smeared on the glass.
Lovebug adults are attracted to light - colored surfaces, especially if they are freshly painted, but adults congregate almost anywhere apparently reacting to the effects of sunlight on automobile fumes, asphalt, and other products affected by environmental factors still not completely understood.
Urban legend holds that lovebugs are synthetic -- the result of a University of Florida genetics experiment gone wrong.
Much speculation about the lovebug still thrives. This is partly because the larval form of this insect is seldom seen, as it lives and feeds in the thatch of grasses for most of the year. While various fungi are suspected of being natural controls for this species, biological control of these non-pest flies is not a priority for funding.
Research by L.L. Buschman showed that migration explained the introduction of the lovebug into Florida and other southeastern states, contrary to the urban myth that the University of Florida created them by manipulating DNA to control mosquito populations.
Lovebugs are subject to some significant natural controls, such as various parasitic fungi, and dry weather -- which dries out the thatch resulting in a higher mortality rate for the immatures. As the lovebug migrated around the Gulf Coast, first to Texas, then Louisiana, then further eastward, the initial populations for many years were so excessive that they caused public concern and initiated rumors of their origin. However, as pest populations migrate naturally, their natural controls are usually not far behind. While it often took decades, lovebug flights are no longer present in the huge numbers that once existed simply because their natural controls (mostly fungi) caught up with established populations. In many areas, local lovebug flights may only be present in excessively large numbers due to occasional local conditions that may not be repeated in successive years.
While lovebugs are not a favored food of most insectivores due to their acidic taste, lovebug larvae -- and some adults -- are food for birds such as quail and robins. Arthropod predators include spiders, some predatory insects such as earwigs, at least two species of beetle larvae, and centipedes.
The lovebug has been recorded to have two flights that occur each year in which the lovebug will have a total lifespan of about 4 -- 9 months depending on flight season. The first flight occurs during the months of April and May and the second flight occurs in August and September. The flights generally last about 4 -- 5 weeks each time. Female lovebugs can lay as many as 100 - 350 eggs and will regularly lay these eggs around decaying material on the top layer of ground soil. Lovebug eggs generally hatch after 2 -- 4 days depending flight season. Once the eggs have hatched, the larvae will start feeding on the decaying material around them such as decaying plants on the soil and other decaying organic material and will live and remain in the soil until they develop to the pupa stage. During the warmer months the lovebug larva will remain in the larvae phase for approximately 120 days and approximately 240 days during the cooler months. Lovebugs typically stay in the pupa stage about 7 -- 9 days before reaching the adult phase in which they can start reproducing. Once adults, lovebugs are ready to mate and will start copulating to begin reproducing. Adult male love bugs will emerge first from the pupal stage and will hover around until female lovebugs emerge. Mating between love bugs takes place immediately after emergence of the adult females. Male lovebugs will copulate with a female and will remain paired up until the female has been fully fertilized. Copulation takes place for 2 -- 3 days before the female detaches and lays her eggs and dies. Adult females have been recorded to live up to seven days while adult males may live up to two to five days but on average lovebugs will live three to four days. However, Thornhill (1976c) recorded recapture data that showed males lived longer in the field than females.
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who appoints members of the house of representatives | United States House of Representatives - Wikipedia
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress. The Senate is the upper chamber. Together they comprise the legislature of the United States.
The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. The House is composed of Representatives who sit in congressional districts that are allocated to each of the 50 states on a basis of population as measured by the U.S. Census, with each district entitled to one representative. Since its inception in 1789, all Representatives have been directly elected. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435. As of the 2010 Census, the largest delegation is that of California, with fifty - three representatives. Seven states have the smallest delegation possible, a single representative: Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming.
The House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. In addition to this basic power, the House has certain exclusive powers which include the power to initiate all bills related to revenue, the impeachment of federal officers, who are sent to trial in the Senate, and in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for President, the duty falls upon the House to elect one of the top three recipients of electors for that office, with one vote given to each state for that purpose.
The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is therefore traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other floor leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conference, depending on whichever party has more voting members. The House meets in the south wing of the United States Capitol.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a unicameral body in which each state was equally represented, and in which each state had a veto over most action. After eight years of a more limited confederal government under the Articles, numerous political leaders such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton initiated the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which received the Confederation Congress 's sanction to "amend the Articles of Confederation ''. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates.
The issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. Edmund Randolph 's Virginia Plan called for a bicameral Congress: the lower house would be "of the people '', elected directly by the people of the United States and representing public opinion, and a more deliberative upper house that would represent the individual states, and would be less susceptible to variations of mass sentiment, would be elected by the lower house.
The House is referred to as the lower house, with the Senate being the upper house, although the United States Constitution does not use that terminology. Both houses ' approval is necessary for the passage of legislation. The Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which called for a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states.
Eventually, the Convention reached the Connecticut Compromise or Great Compromise, under which one house of Congress (the House of Representatives) would provide representation proportional to each state 's population, whereas the other (the Senate) would provide equal representation amongst the states. The Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (nine out of the 13) in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4, 1789. The House began work on April 1, 1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time.
During the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives. However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed.
Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery. One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican -- American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War (1861 -- 1865), which began soon after several southern states attempted to secede from the Union. The war culminated in the South 's defeat and in the abolition of slavery. All southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, and therefore the Senate did not hold the balance of power between North and South during the war.
The years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Union 's victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877; the ensuing era, known as the Gilded Age, was marked by sharp political divisions in the electorate. The Democratic Party and Republican Party each held majorities in the House at various times.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw a dramatic increase in the power of the Speaker of the House. The rise of the Speaker 's influence began in the 1890s, during the tenure of Republican Thomas Brackett Reed. "Czar Reed '', as he was nicknamed, attempted to put into effect his view that "The best system is to have one party govern and the other party watch. '' The leadership structure of the House also developed during approximately the same period, with the positions of Majority Leader and Minority Leader being created in 1899. While the Minority Leader was the head of the minority party, the Majority Leader remained subordinate to the Speaker. The Speakership reached its zenith during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon, from 1903 to 1911. The powers of the Speaker included chairmanship of the influential Rules Committee and the ability to appoint members of other House committees. These powers, however, were curtailed in the "Revolution of 1910 '' because of the efforts of Democrats and dissatisfied Republicans who opposed Cannon 's arguably heavy - handed tactics.
The Democratic Party dominated the House of Representatives during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 -- 1945), often winning over two - thirds of the seats. Both Democrats and Republicans were in power at various times during the next decade. The Democratic Party maintained control of the House from 1955 until 1995. In the mid-1970s, there were major reforms of the House, strengthening the power of sub-committees at the expense of committee chairs and allowing party leaders to nominate committee chairs. These actions were taken to undermine the seniority system, and to reduce the ability of a small number of senior members to obstruct legislation they did not favor. There was also a shift from the 1990s to greater control of the legislative program by the majority party; the power of party leaders (especially the Speaker) grew considerably.
The Republicans took control of the House in 1995, under the leadership of Speaker Newt Gingrich. Gingrich attempted to pass a major legislative program, the Contract with America, on which the House Republicans had been elected, and made major reforms of the House, notably reducing the tenure of committee chairs to three two - year terms. Many elements of the Contract did not pass Congress, were vetoed by President Bill Clinton, or were substantially altered in negotiations with Clinton. The Republicans held on to the House until 2006, when the Democrats won control and Nancy Pelosi was subsequently elected by the House as the first female Speaker. The Republicans retook the House in 2011, with the largest shift of power since the 1930s.
Under Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution, seats in the House of Representatives are apportioned among the states by population, as determined by the census conducted every ten years. Each state is entitled to at least one Representative, however small its population.
The only constitutional rule relating to the size of the House states: "The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative. '' Congress regularly increased the size of the House to account for population growth until it fixed the number of voting House members at 435 in 1911. In 1959, upon the admission of Alaska and Hawaii, the number was temporarily increased to 437 (seating one Representative from each of those states without changing existing apportionment), and returned to 435 four years later, after the reapportionment consequent to the 1960 census.
The Constitution does not provide for the representation of the District of Columbia or of territories. The District of Columbia and the territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are each represented by one non-voting delegate. Puerto Rico elects a Resident Commissioner, but other than having a four - year term, the Resident Commissioner 's role is identical to the delegates from the other territories. The five Delegates and Resident Commissioner may participate in debates; prior to 2011, they were also allowed to vote in committees and the Committee of the Whole when their votes would not be decisive.
States that are entitled to more than one Representative are divided into single - member districts. This has been a federal statutory requirement since 1967. Prior to that law, general ticket representation was used by some states.
States typically redraw district boundaries after each census, though they may do so at other times, such as the 2003 Texas redistricting. Each state determines its own district boundaries, either through legislation or through non-partisan panels. "Malapportionment '' is unconstitutional and districts must be approximately equal in population (see Wesberry v. Sanders). Additionally, Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits redistricting plans that are intended to, or have the effect of, discriminating against racial or language minority voters. Aside from malapportionment and discrimination against racial or language minorities, federal courts have allowed state legislatures to engage in gerrymandering for the benefit of political parties or incumbents. In a 1984 case, Davis v. Bandemer, the Supreme Court held that gerrymandered districts could be struck down on the basis of the Equal Protection Clause, but the Court did not articulate a standard for when districts are impermissibly gerrymandered. However, the Court overruled Davis in 2004 in Vieth v. Jubelirer, and Court precedent currently holds gerrymandering to be a political question. According to calculations made by Burt Neuborne using criteria set forth by the American Political Science Association, about 40 seats, less than 10 % of the House membership, are chosen through a genuinely contested electoral process, given partisan gerrymandering.
Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for representatives. Each representative must: (1) be at least twenty - five years old; (2) have been a citizen of the United States for the past seven years; and (3) be (at the time of the election) an inhabitant of the state they represent. Members are not required to live in the district they represent, but they traditionally do. The age and citizenship qualifications for representatives are less than those for senators. The constitutional requirements of Article I, Section 2 for election to Congress are the maximum requirements that can be imposed on a candidate. Therefore, Article I, Section 5, which permits each House to be the judge of the qualifications of its own members does not permit either House to establish additional qualifications. Likewise a State could not establish additional qualifications.
Disqualification: under the Fourteenth Amendment, a federal or state officer who takes the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engages in rebellion or aids the enemies of the United States, is disqualified from becoming a representative. This post -- Civil War provision was intended to prevent those who sided with the Confederacy from serving. However, disqualified individuals may serve if they gain the consent of two - thirds of both houses of Congress.
Elections for representatives are held in every even - numbered year, on Election Day the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. By law, Representatives must be elected from single - member districts. After a census is taken (in a year ending in 0), the year ending in 2 is the first year in which elections for U.S. House districts are based on that census (with the Congress based on those districts starting its term on the following Jan. 3).
In most states, major party candidates for each district are nominated in partisan primary elections, typically held in spring to late summer. In some states, the Republican and Democratic parties choose their respective candidates for each district in their political conventions in spring or early summer, which often use unanimous voice votes to reflect either confidence in the incumbent or the result of bargaining in earlier private discussions. Exceptions can result in so - called floor fight -- convention votes by delegates, with outcomes that can be hard to predict. Especially if a convention is closely divided, a losing candidate may contend further by meeting the conditions for a primary election.
The courts generally do not consider ballot access rules for independent and third party candidates to be additional qualifications for holding office and there are no federal regulations regarding ballot access. As a result, the process to gain ballot access varies greatly from state to state, and in the case of a third party may be affected by results of previous years ' elections.
In 1967, the United States Congress passed the Uniform Congressional District Act, which requires almost all representatives be elected from single - member - districts, Following the Wesberry v. Sanders decision, Congress was motivated by fears that courts would impose at - large plurality districts on states that did not redistrict to comply with the new mandates for districts roughly equal in population, and Congress also sought to prevent attempts by southern states to use such voting systems to dilute the vote of racial minorities. Several states have used multi-member districts in the past, although only two states (Hawaii and Maine) used multi-member districts in 1967. Hawaii and Maine were made exempt from the Uniform Congressional District Act, and are free to use multi-member districts, although neither state chooses to do so.
Louisiana is unique in that it holds an all - party "primary election '' on the general Election Day with a subsequent runoff election between the top two finishers (regardless of party) if no candidate received a majority in the primary. The states of Washington and California now use a similar (though not identical) system to that used by Louisiana. Seats vacated during a term are filled through special elections, unless the vacancy occurs closer to the next general election date than a pre-established deadline. The term of a member chosen in a special election usually begins the next day, or as soon as the results are certified.
Additionally, Washington D.C. and the five inhabited U.S. territories each elect a non-voting delegate. With the exception of the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, each representative and delegate serves for a two - year term. They have a voice on the floor, but can not vote there.
Representatives and Delegates serve for two - year terms, while the Resident Commissioner serves for four years. The Constitution permits the House to expel a member with a two - thirds vote. In the history of the United States, only five members have been expelled from the House; in 1861, three were removed for supporting the Confederate states ' secession: John Bullock Clark (D - MO), John William Reid (D - MO) and Henry Cornelius Burnett (D - KY). Michael Myers (D - PA) was expelled after his criminal conviction for accepting bribes in 1980, and James Traficant (D - OH) was expelled in 2002 following his conviction for corruption. The House also has the power to formally censure or reprimand its members; censure or reprimand of a member requires only a simple majority, and does not remove that member from office.
As a check on the regional, popular, and rapidly changing politics of the House, the Senate has several distinct powers. For example, the "advice and consent '' powers (such as the power to approve treaties) are a sole Senate privilege. The House, however, has the exclusive power to initiate bills for raising revenue, to impeach officials, and to choose the President in the event that a presidential candidate fails to get a majority of the Electoral College votes. The Senate and House are further differentiated by term lengths and the number of districts represented: the Senate has longer terms of six years, fewer members (currently one hundred, two for each state), and (in all but seven delegations) larger constituencies per member. The Senate is informally referred to as the "upper '' house, and the House of Representatives as the "lower '' house.
As of December 2014, the annual salary of each Representative is $ 174,000. The Speaker of the House and the Majority and Minority Leaders earn more: $223,500 for the Speaker and $193,400 for their party leaders (the same as Senate leaders). A cost - of - living - adjustment (COLA) increase takes effect annually unless Congress votes to not accept it. Congress sets members ' salaries; however, the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits a change in salary (but not COLA) from taking effect until after the next election of the whole House. Representatives are eligible for retirement benefits after serving for five years. Outside pay is limited to 15 % of congressional pay, and certain types of income involving a fiduciary responsibility or personal endorsement are prohibited.
Representatives use the prefix "The Honorable '' before their names. A member of the House is referred to as a representative, congressman, or congresswoman. While senators are members of Congress, the terms congressman and congresswoman are not generally used by them.
All members of Congress are automatically (without the option of withdrawal) enrolled in the Federal Employees Retirement System, a pension system also used for federal civil servants. They become eligible to receive benefits after five years of service (two and one - half terms in the House). The FERS is composed of three elements:
Members of Congress may retire with full benefits at age 62 after five years of service, at age 50 after twenty years of service, and at any age after twenty - five years of service. They may retire with reduced benefits at ages 55 to 59 after five years of service. Depending on birth year, they may receive a reduced pension after ten years of service if they are between 55 years and 57 years of age.
Members of Congress are permitted to deduct up to $3,000 of living expenses per year incurred while living away from their district or home state.
Prior to 2014, members of Congress and their staff had access to essentially the same health benefits as federal civil servants; they could voluntarily enroll in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP), an employer - sponsored health insurance program, and were eligible to participate in other programs, such as the Federal Flexible Spending Account Program (FSAFEDS).
However, Section 1312 (d) (3) (D) of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) provided that the only health plans that the federal government can make available to members of Congress and certain congressional staff are those created under the ACA or offered through a health care exchange. The Office of Personnel Management promulgated a final rule to comply with Section 1312 (d) (3) (D). Under the rule, effective January 1, 2014, members and designated staff are no longer able to purchase FEHBP plans as active employees. However, if members enroll in a health plan offered through a Small Business Health Options Program (SHOP) exchange, they remain eligible for an employer contribution toward coverage, and members and designated staff who are eligible for retirement may enroll in a FEHBP plan upon retirement.
The ACA and the final rule do not affect members ' or staffers ' eligibility for Medicare benefits. The ACA and the final rule also do not affect members ' and staffers ' eligibility for other health benefits related to federal employment, so current members and staff are eligible to participate in FSAFEDS (which has three options within the program), the Federal Employees Dental and Vision Insurance Program, and the Federal Long Term Care Insurance Program.
There is an Office of the Attending Physician at the U.S. Capitol, which current members may seek health care from for an annual fee. The attending physician provides routine exams, consultations, and certain diagnostics, and may write prescriptions (although it does not dispense them). The office does not provide vision or dental care.
Current members (but not their dependents, and not former members) may also receive medical and emergency dental care at military treatment facilities. There is no charge for outpatient care if it is provided in the National Capital Region, but members are billed at full reimbursement rates (set by the Department of Defense) for inpatient care. (Outside the National Capital Region, charges are at full reimbursement rates for both inpatient and outpatient care).
House members are eligible for a Member 's Representational Allowance (MRA) to support them in their official and representational duties to their district. The MRA is calculated based on three components: one for personnel, one for official office expenses and one for official or franked mail. The personnel allowance is the same for all members; the office and mail allowances vary based on the members ' district 's distance from Washington, D.C., the cost of office space in the member 's district, and the number of non-business addresses in their district. These three components are used to calculate a single MRA that can fund any expense -- even though each component is calculated individually, the franking allowance can be used to pay for personnel expenses if the member so chooses. In 2011 this allowance averaged $1.4 million per member, and ranged from $1.35 to $1.67 million.
The Personnel allowance was $944,671 per member in 2010. Each member may employ no more than 18 permanent employees. Members ' employees ' salary is capped at $168,411 as of 2009.
Each member - elect and one staffer can be paid for one round trip between their home in their congressional district and Washington, D.C. for organization caucuses.
The party with a majority of seats in the House is known as the majority party. The next - largest party is the minority party. The Speaker, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members '' of committees) in the minority party.
The Constitution provides that the House may choose its own Speaker. Although not explicitly required by the Constitution, every Speaker has been a member of the House. The Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker, which are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the House. Speakers have a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of their party (which need not be the majority party; theoretically, a member of the minority party could be elected as Speaker with the support of a fraction of members of the majority party). Under the Presidential Succession Act (1947), the Speaker is second in the line of presidential succession behind the Vice President.
The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House but does not preside over every debate. Instead, s / he delegates the responsibility of presiding to other members in most cases. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the House chamber. The powers of the presiding officer are extensive; one important power is that of controlling the order in which members of the House speak. No member may make a speech or a motion unless s / he has first been recognized by the presiding officer. Moreover, the presiding officer may rule on a "point of order '' (a member 's objection that a rule has been breached); the decision is subject to appeal to the whole House.
Speakers serve as chairs of their party 's steering committee, which is responsible for assigning party members to other House committees. The Speaker chooses the chairmen of standing committees, appoints most of the members of the Rules Committee, appoints all members of conference committees, and determines which committees consider bills.
Each party elects a floor leader, who is known as the Majority Leader or Minority Leader. The Minority Leader heads their party in the House, and the Majority Leader is their party 's second - highest - ranking official, behind the Speaker. Party leaders decide what legislation members of their party should either support or oppose.
Each party also elects a Whip, who works to ensure that the party 's members vote as the party leadership desires. The current majority whip in the House of Representatives is Steve Scalise, who is a member of the Republican Party. The current minority whip is Steny Hoyer, who is a member of the Democratic Party. The whip is supported by chief deputy whips.
In the 112th Congress, the Democratic Party has an additional Assistant Minority Leader, Jim Clyburn, who ranks between the whips and the caucus / conference chair.
After the whips, the next ranking official in the House party 's leadership is the Party Conference Chair (styled as the Republican Conference Chair and Democratic Caucus Chair).
After the Conference Chair, there are differences between each party 's subsequent leadership ranks. After the Democratic Caucus Chair is the Campaign Committee Chair (Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee), then the co-chairs of the Steering Committee. For the Republicans it is the Chair of the House Republican Policy Committee, followed by the Campaign Committee Chairman (styled as the National Republican Congressional Committee).
The chairs of House committees, particularly influential standing committees such as Appropriations, Ways and Means, and Rules, are powerful but not officially part of House leadership hierarchy. Until the post of Majority Leader was created, the Chair of Ways and Means was the de facto majority leader.
When the Presidency and Senate are controlled by a different party from the one controlling the House, the Speaker can become the de facto "leader of the opposition ''. Some notable examples include Tip O'Neill in the 1980s, Newt Gingrich in the 1990s, and John Boehner and Paul Ryan in the 2010s. Since the Speaker is a partisan officer with substantial power to control the business of the House, the position is often used for partisan advantage.
In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition '', often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.
The House is also served by several officials who are not members. The House 's chief officer is the Clerk, who maintains public records, prepares documents, and oversees junior officials, including pages, until the junior position 's discontinuation in 2011. The Clerk also presides over the House at the beginning of each new Congress pending the election of a Speaker. Another officer is the Chief Administrative Officer, responsible for the day - to - day administrative support to the House of Representatives. This includes everything from payroll to foodservice.
The position of Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) was created by the 104th Congress following the 1994 mid-term elections, replacing the positions of Doorkeeper and Director of Non-Legislative and Financial Services (created by the previous congress to administer the non-partisan functions of the House). The CAO also assumed some of the responsibilities of the House Information Services, which previously had been controlled directly by the Committee on House Administration, then headed by Representative Charlie Rose of North Carolina, along with the House "Folding Room ''.
The Chaplain leads the House in prayer at the opening of the day. There is also a Sergeant at Arms, who as the House 's chief law enforcement officer maintains order and security on House premises. Finally, routine police work is handled by the United States Capitol Police, which is supervised by the Capitol Police Board, a body to which the Sergeant at Arms belongs.
Like the Senate, the House of Representatives meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the Speaker, Speaker Pro Tempore, or (when in the Committee of the Whole) the Chair presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members ' seats are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern facing the rostrum and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the left of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the right, facing the presiding officer 's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of the House are generally open to the public; visitors must obtain a House Gallery pass from a congressional office. Sittings are broadcast live on television and have been streamed live on C - SPAN since March 19, 1979, and on HouseLive, the official streaming service operated by the Clerk, since the early 2010s.
The procedure of the House depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs, precedents, and traditions. In many cases, the House waives some of its stricter rules (including time limits on debates) by unanimous consent. A member may block a unanimous consent agreement; in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer, the Speaker of the House enforces the rules of the House, and may warn members who deviate from them. The Speaker uses a gavel to maintain order. The box in which legislation is placed to be considered by the House is called the hopper.
In one of its first resolutions, the U.S. House of Representatives established the Office of the Sergeant at Arms. In an American tradition adopted from English custom in 1789 by the first Speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, the Mace of the United States House of Representatives is used to open all sessions of the House. It is also used during the inaugural ceremonies for all Presidents of the United States. For daily sessions of the House, the sergeant at Arms carries the mace in front of the Speaker in procession to the rostrum. It is placed on a green marble pedestal to the Speaker 's right. When the House is in committee, the mace is moved to a pedestal next to the desk of the Sergeant at Arms.
The Constitution provides that a majority of the House constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the House, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. House rules prevent a member from making a point of order that a quorum is not present unless a question is being voted on. The presiding officer does not accept a point of order of no quorum during general debate, or when a question is not before the House.
During debates, a member may speak only if called upon by the presiding officer. The presiding officer decides which members to recognize, and can therefore control the course of debate. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr. Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, members do not refer to each other only by name, but also by state, using forms such as "the gentleman from Virginia '', "the distinguished gentlewoman from California '', or "my distinguished friend from Alabama ''.
There are 448 permanent seats on the House Floor and four tables, two on each side. These tables are occupied by members of the committee that have brought a bill to the floor for consideration and by the respective party leadership. Members address the House from microphones at any table or "the well, '' the area immediately in front of the rostrum.
Per the constitution, the House determines the rules according to which it passes legislation. The rules are in principle open to change with each new Congress, but in practice each new session amends a standing set of rules built up over the history of the body in an early resolution published for public inspection. Before legislation reaches the floor of the House, the Rules Committee normally passes a rule to govern debate on that measure (which then must be passed by the full House before it becomes effective). For instance, the committee determines if amendments to the bill are permitted. An "open rule '' permits all germane amendments, but a "closed rule '' restricts or even prohibits amendment. Debate on a bill is generally restricted to one hour, equally divided between the majority and minority parties. Each side is led during the debate by a "floor manager '', who allocates debate time to members who wish to speak. On contentious matters, many members may wish to speak; thus, a member may receive as little as one minute, or even thirty seconds, to make his / her point.
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. In many cases, the House votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "yea '' or "aye '' (in favor of the motion) or "nay '' or "no '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A member may however challenge the presiding officer 's assessment and "request the yeas and nays '' or "request a recorded vote ''. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one - fifth of the members present. In practice, however, members of congress second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. Some votes are always recorded, such as those on the annual budget.
A recorded vote may be taken in one of three different ways. One is electronically. Members use a personal identification card to record their votes at 46 voting stations in the chamber. Votes are usually held in this way. A second mode of recorded vote is by teller. Members hand in colored cards to indicate their votes: green for "yea '', red for "nay '', and orange for "present '' (i.e., to abstain). Teller votes are normally held only when electronic voting breaks down. Finally, the House may conduct a roll call vote. The Clerk reads the list of members of the House, each of whom announces their vote when their name is called. This procedure is only used rarely (such as for the election of a Speaker) because of the time consumed by calling over four hundred names.
Voting traditionally lasts for, at most, fifteen minutes, but it may be extended if the leadership needs to "whip '' more members into alignment. The 2003 vote on the prescription drug benefit was open for three hours, from 3: 00 to 6: 00 a.m., to receive four additional votes, three of which were necessary to pass the legislation. The 2005 vote on the Central American Free Trade Agreement was open for one hour, from 11: 00 p.m. to midnight. An October 2005 vote on facilitating refinery construction was kept open for forty minutes.
Presiding officers may vote like other members. They may not, however, vote twice in the event of a tie; rather, a tie vote defeats the motion.
The House uses committees and their subcommittees for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. The appointment of committee members is formally made by the whole House, but the choice of members is actually made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual members, giving priority on the basis of seniority. Historically, membership on committees has been in rough proportion to the party 's strength in the House as a whole, with two exceptions: on the Rules Committee, the majority party fills nine of the thirteen seats; and on the Ethics Committee, each party has an equal number of seats. However, when party control in the House is closely divided, extra seats on committees are sometimes allocated to the majority party. In the 109th Congress, for example, the Republicans controlled about 53 % of the House as a whole, but had 54 % of the Appropriations Committee members, 55 % of the members on the Energy and Commerce Committee, 58 % of the members on the Judiciary Committee, and 69 % of the members on the Rules Committee.
The largest committee of the House is the Committee of the Whole, which, as its name suggests, consists of all members of the House. The Committee meets in the House chamber; it may consider and amend bills, but may not grant them final passage. Generally, the debate procedures of the Committee of the Whole are more flexible than those of the House itself. One advantage of the Committee of the Whole is its ability to include otherwise non-voting members of Congress.
Most committee work is performed by twenty standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a specific set of issues, such as Agriculture or Foreign Affairs. Each standing committee considers, amends, and reports bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Committees have extensive powers with regard to bills; they may block legislation from reaching the floor of the House. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.
The House also has one permanent committee that is not a standing committee, the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and from time to time may establish committees that are temporary and advisory in nature, such as the Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming. This latter committee, created in the 110th Congress and reauthorized for the 111th, has no jurisdiction over legislation and must be chartered anew at the start of every Congress. The House also appoints members to serve on joint committees, which include members of the Senate and House. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.
Each House committee and subcommittee is led by a chairman (always a member of the majority party). From 1910 to the 1970s, committee chairs were powerful. Woodrow Wilson in his classic study, suggested:
Power is nowhere concentrated; it is rather deliberately and of set policy scattered amongst many small chiefs. It is divided up, as it were, into forty - seven seigniories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court - baron and its chairman lord - proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within the reach of the full powers of rule, may at will exercise almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself.
From 1910 to 1975 committee and subcommittee chairmanship was determined purely by seniority; congressmembers sometimes had to wait 30 years to get one, but their chairship was independent of party leadership. The rules were changed in 1975 to permit party caucuses to elect chairs, shifting power upward to the party leaders. In 1995, Republicans under Newt Gingrich set a limit of three two - year terms for committee chairs. The chair 's powers are extensive; they control the committee / subcommittee agenda, and may prevent the committee from dealing with a bill. The senior member of the minority party is known as the Ranking Member. In some committees like Appropriations, partisan disputes are few.
Most bills may be introduced in either House of Congress. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ''. As a result of the Origination Clause, the Senate can not initiate bills imposing taxes. This provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Furthermore, congressional tradition holds that the House of Representatives originates appropriation bills.
Although it can not originate revenue bills, the Senate retains the power to amend or reject them. Woodrow Wilson wrote the following about appropriations bills:
(T) he constitutional prerogative of the House has been held to apply to all the general appropriations bills, and the Senate 's right to amend these has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.
The approval of the Senate and the House of Representatives is required for a bill to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies. For the stages through which bills pass in the Senate, see Act of Congress.
The President may veto a bill passed by the House and Senate. If he does, the bill does not become law unless each House, by a two - thirds vote, votes to override the veto.
The Constitution provides that the Senate 's "advice and consent '' is necessary for the President to make appointments and to ratify treaties. Thus, with its potential to frustrate Presidential appointments, the Senate is more powerful than the House.
The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '' and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. The House may approve "articles of impeachment '' by a simple majority vote; however, a two - thirds vote is required for conviction in the Senate. A convicted official is automatically removed from office and may be disqualified from holding future office under the United States. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another, Richard Nixon, resigned after the House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment but before a formal impeachment vote by the full House.) Only two Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction.
Under the Twelfth Amendment, the House has the power to elect the President if no presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. The Constitution provides that "the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote. '' It is rare for no presidential candidate to receive a majority of electoral votes. In the history of the United States, the House has only had to choose a President twice. In 1800, which was before the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment, it elected Thomas Jefferson over Aaron Burr. In 1824, it elected John Quincy Adams over Andrew Jackson and William H. Crawford. If no presidential candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the Senate elects the Vice President from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 20 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88889 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88889; - 77.00889
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where is the samsung galaxy note 8 made | Samsung Galaxy Note 8 - wikipedia
Sensors:
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The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 (marketed as Samsung Galaxy Note8) is an Android phablet smartphone designed, developed and marketed by Samsung Electronics. Unveiled on 23 August 2017, it is the successor to the discontinued Samsung Galaxy Note 7. It was released on 15 September 2017.
The Note 8 improves on the core device specifications and hallmark S Pen features of previous devices. While retaining the overall same look and same approximate size as the Galaxy S8+, it features an upgraded processor and, for the first time in Samsung 's smartphone history, a dual - camera system on the rear of the device; one functions as a wide - angle lens and the other as a telephoto lens, with both featuring 12 MP resolution and optical image stabilization. The S Pen has increased pressure sensitivity levels and its software has been upgraded to offer improved notetaking capabilities on the always - on display, as well as animated GIF and improved translation features.
On 20 July 2017, Samsung tweeted a teaser video showing a darkened device with a stylus, stating the date of its next "Unpacked '' event as 23 August 2017. The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 was unveiled at that event, with a release date on 15 September 2017.
The Note 8 is powered by an Exynos 8895 or Snapdragon 835 processor, depending on geographic region, along with 6 GB of RAM. It has a 6.3 - inch 1440p Super AMOLED display with curved edges similar to the Galaxy S8, but with slightly more flat surface area. It is Samsung 's first phone to feature a dual - lens camera system, which comes with a 12 MP wide - angle lens with f / 1.7 aperture and a 12 MP telephoto lens with f / 2.4 aperture, both equipped with optical image stabilization. In the U.S., it is sold with 64 GB of internal storage, along with microSD card support, but increases storage to 128 GB and 256 GB internationally. The handset features a fingerprint scanner next to the rear camera, and retains facial recognition and iris recognition similar to the S8.
The Note 8 comes bundled with high - end AKG - tuned earbuds as well as the Note series ' proprietary S Pen. Compared to the Note 5, the S Pen in the Note 8 has enhanced levels of pressure sensitivity (4,096 distinct levels of pressure), though The Verge noted that those enhancements were featured in the defunct Note 7. Ports include a 3.5 mm headphone jack and a USB - C port for charging and data transfer. It has support for Samsung DeX as well, letting Note 8 users connect their device to a dock and monitor to enable a PC - like computing environment with mouse and keyboard input.
Both the Note 8 and its S Pen are certified with IP68 rating for water and dust resistance, and are available in black, gray, gold and blue, though the latter two colors are exclusive to international markets. Similar to the Galaxy S8, the Note 8 has a dedicated physical key for launching the Bixby virtual assistant.
Some devices will not be able to have their battery charged if the battery is completely depleted.
A limited edition version for the 2018 Winter Olympics was made, with a white back, gold accents, and themed wallpapers.
The Note 8 comes with Android 7.1. 1 "Nougat '' with Samsung 's own custom user interface pre-installed. The S Pen offers expanded software features, including "Live Message '' for the creation of handwritten notes combined with emojis resulting in short animated GIFs. Users can remove the S Pen from the device and immediately write notes on the display through "Screen Off Memo '', which works due to the screen 's always - on capabilities. The screen can collect up to 100 notes and allows the user to easily go back to notes pinned directly on the always - on screen. A "Translate '' feature now recognizes punctuation marks, letting users highlight entire sentences rather than single words, and supports 71 different languages. The edges of the screen on the Note 8 allow the user to open two apps at once in a multi-window view, dubbed "App Pair ''. In the Camera application, a new "Live Focus '' effect lets users adjust the intensity of background blur both before and after capturing photos, while "Dual Capture '' makes both rear cameras take individual photos of the same subject, with one acting as a close - up shot and the other from a distance capturing the whole scene.
The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 received the Android 8.0 "Oreo '' on March 30 2018 with Samsung 's custom skin overlaid. The software update brought enhancements and changes in the interface with the Menu options in the home screen and settings streamlined. The Edge lighting has also been improved with introductions to new lighting options. Improvements interface for Samsung DEX (UI / UE).
DxOMark, a camera testing company, gave the Note 8 a rating of 94, being the joint - highest score of any phone, shared with the iPhone 8 Plus. Just a few days after the report of the Note 8 was published, the Pixel 2 was tested and given a 98 score, besting them both. It was noted that the Note 8 had better Optical Image Stabilization than the iPhone X.
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which of these is not a layer of the earth | Crust (geology) - wikipedia
In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. The crusts of Earth, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Io, and other planetary bodies have been generated largely by igneous processes, and these crusts are richer in incompatible elements than their respective mantles. The Earth 's crust is composed of distinctly different continental crust and oceanic crust, which have different chemical compositions and physical properties, and which were formed by different geological processes.
The crust of the Earth is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the mantle is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity. The crust occupies less than 1 % of Earth 's volume.
The crust of the Earth is of two distinctive types: oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust is 5 km (3 mi) to 10 km (6 mi) thick and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and gabbro. The continental crust is typically from 30 km (20 mi) to 50 km (30 mi) thick and is mostly composed of slightly less dense rocks than those of the oceanic crust. Some of these less dense rocks, such as granite, are common in the continental crust but rare to absent in the oceanic crust.
Both the continental and oceanic crust "float '' on the mantle. Because the continental crust is thicker, it extends both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The slightly lower density of felsic continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, water runs off the continents and collects above the oceanic crust. Because of the change in velocity of seismic waves it is believed that beneath continents at a certain depth continental crust (sial) becomes close in its physical properties to oceanic crust (sima), and the transition zone is referred to as the Conrad discontinuity.
The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range from about 200 ° C (392 ° F) to 400 ° C (752 ° F) at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The crust and underlying relatively rigid uppermost mantle make up the lithosphere. Because of convection in the underlying plastic (although non-molten) upper mantle and asthenosphere, the lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move. The temperature increases by as much as 30 ° C (54 ° F) for every kilometer locally in the upper part of the crust, but the geothermal gradient is smaller in deeper crust.
Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have differentiated from an aggregate of planetesimals into its core, mantle and crust within about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. During the Hadean, the primordial crust was very thin and was probably destroyed by much more vigorous plate tectonics, volcanic activity and significant asteroid impacts, which were much more common in the early stages of the solar system.
Earth has probably always had some form of basaltic crust, but the age of the oldest oceanic crust today is only about 200 million years. In contrast, the bulk of the continental crust is much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth have ages in the range from about 3.7 to 4.28 billion years and have been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia, in the Acasta Gneiss in the Northwest Territories on the Canadian Shield, and on other cratonic regions such as those on the Fennoscandian Shield. Some zircon with age as great as 4.3 billion years has been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane.
The average age of the current Earth 's continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years. Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth and so are not readily destroyed by subduction. Formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny; these periods coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The crust forms in part by aggregation of island arcs including granite and metamorphic fold belts, and it is preserved in part by depletion of the underlying mantle to form buoyant lithospheric mantle.
The continental crust has an average composition similar to that of andesite. The most abundant minerals in Earth 's continental crust are feldspars, which make up about 41 % of the crust by weight, followed by quartz at 12 %, and pyroxenes at 11 %. Continental crust is enriched in incompatible elements compared to the basaltic ocean crust and much enriched compared to the underlying mantle. Although the continental crust comprises only about 0.6 weight percent of the silicate on Earth, it contains 20 % to 70 % of the incompatible elements.
All the other constituents except water occur only in very small quantities and total less than 1 %. Estimates of average density for the upper crust range between 2.69 and 2.74 g / cm and for lower crust between 3.0 and 3.25 g / cm.
A theoretical protoplanet named "Theia '' is thought to have collided with the forming Earth, and part of the material ejected into space by the collision accreted to form the Moon. As the Moon formed, the outer part of it is thought to have been molten, a "lunar magma ocean. '' Plagioclase feldspar crystallized in large amounts from this magma ocean and floated toward the surface. The cumulate rocks form much of the crust. The upper part of the crust probably averages about 88 % plagioclase (near the lower limit of 90 % defined for anorthosite): the lower part of the crust may contain a higher percentage of ferromagnesian minerals such as the pyroxenes and olivine, but even that lower part probably averages about 78 % plagioclase. The underlying mantle is denser and olivine - rich.
The thickness of the crust ranges between about 20 and 120 km. Crust on the far side of the Moon averages about 12 km thicker than that on the near side. Estimates of average thickness fall in the range from about 50 to 60 km. Most of this plagioclase - rich crust formed shortly after formation of the moon, between about 4.5 and 4.3 billion years ago. Perhaps 10 % or less of the crust consists of igneous rock added after the formation of the initial plagioclase - rich material. The best - characterized and most voluminous of these later additions are the mare basalts formed between about 3.9 and 3.2 billion years ago. Minor volcanism continued after 3.2 billion years, perhaps as recently as 1 billion years ago. There is no evidence of plate tectonics.
Study of the Moon has established that a crust can form on a rocky planetary body significantly smaller than Earth. Although the radius of the Moon is only about a quarter that of Earth, the lunar crust has a significantly greater average thickness. This thick crust formed almost immediately after formation of the Moon. Magmatism continued after the period of intense meteorite impacts ended about 3.9 billion years ago, but igneous rocks younger than 3.9 billion years make up only a minor part of the crust.
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how much waste does a coal power plant produce | Waste - to - energy plant - wikipedia
A waste - to - energy plant is a waste management facility that combusts wastes to produce electricity. This type of power plant is sometimes called a trash - to - energy, municipal waste incineration, energy recovery, or resource recovery plant.
Modern waste - to - energy plants are very different from the trash incinerators that were commonly used until a few decades ago. Unlike modern ones, those plants usually did not remove hazardous or recyclable materials before burning. These incinerators endangered the health of the plant workers and the nearby residents, and most of them did not generate electricity.
Waste - to - energy generation is being increasingly looked at as a potential energy diversification strategy, especially by Sweden, which has been a leader in waste - to - energy production over the past 20 years. The typical range of net electrical energy that can be produced is about 500 to 600 kWh of electricity per ton of waste incinerated. Thus, the incineration of about 2,200 tons per day of waste will produce about 50 MW of electrical power.
Most waste - to - energy plants burn municipal solid waste, but some burn industrial waste or hazardous waste. A modern, properly run waste - to - energy plant sorts material before burning it and can co-exist with recycling. The only items that are burned are not recyclable, by design or economically, and are not hazardous.
Waste - to - energy plants are similar in their design and equipment with other steam - electric power plants, particularly biomass plants. First, the waste is brought to the facility. Then, the waste is sorted to remove recyclable and hazardous materials. The waste is then stored until it is time for burning. A few plants use gasification, but most combust the waste directly because it is a mature, efficient technology. The waste can be added to the boiler continuously or in batches, depending on the design of the plant.
In terms of volume, waste - to - energy plants incinerate 80 to 90 percent of waste. Sometimes, the residue ash is clean enough to be used for some purposes such as raw materials for use in manufacturing cinder blocks or for road construction. In addition, the metals that may be burned are collected from the bottom of the furnace and sold to foundries. Some waste - to - energy plants convert salt water to potable fresh water as a by - product of cooling processes.
The typical plant with capacity of 400GWh energy production annually costs about 440 million dollars to build. Waste - to - energy plants may have a significant cost advantage over traditional power options, as the waste - to - energy operator may receive revenue for receiving waste as an alternative to the cost of disposing of waste in a landfill, typically referred to as a "tipping fee '' per ton basis, versus having to pay for the cost of fuel, whereas fuel cost can account for as much as 45 percent of the cost to produce electricity in a coal - powered plant, and 75 percent or more of the cost in a natural gas - powered plant. The National Solid Waste Management Association estimates that the average United States tipping fee for 2002 was $33.70 per ton.
Waste - to - energy plants cause lesser air pollution than coal plants, but more than natural gas plants.
Waste - to - energy plants are designed to reduce the emission of air pollutants in the flue gases exhausted to the atmosphere, such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and particulates, and to destroy pollutants already present in the waste, using pollution control measures such as baghouses, scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators. High temperature, efficient combustion, and effective scrubbing and controls can significantly reduce air pollution outputs.
Burning municipal waste does produce significant amounts of dioxin and furan emissions to the atmosphere as compared to the smaller amounts produced by burning coal or natural gas. Dioxins and furans are considered by many to be serious health hazards. However, advances in emission control designs and very stringent new governmental regulations, as well as public opposition to municipal waste incinerators, have caused large reductions in the amount of dioxins and furans produced by waste - to - energy plants.
Waste - to - energy plants produce fly ash and bottom ash just as is the case when coal is combusted. The total amount of ash produced by waste - to - energy plants ranges from 15 % to 25 % by weight of the original quantity of waste, and the fly ash amounts to about 10 % to 20 % of the total ash. The fly ash, by far, constitutes more of a potential health hazard than does the bottom ash because the fly ash contains toxic metals such as lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc as well as small amounts of dioxins and furans. The bottom ash may or may not contain significant levels of health hazardous materials. In the United States, and perhaps in other countries as well, the law requires that the ash be tested for toxicity before disposal in landfills. If the ash is found to be hazardous, it can only be disposed of in landfills which are carefully designed to prevent pollutants in the ash from leaching into underground aquifers.
Odor pollution can be a problem when the plant location is not isolated. Some plants store the waste in an enclosed area with a negative pressure, which prevents unpleasant odors from escaping, and the air drawn from the storage area is sent through the boiler or a filter. However, not all plants take steps to reduce the odor, resulting in complaints.
An issue that affects community relationships is the increased road traffic of garbage trucks to transport municipal waste to the waste - to - energy facility. Due to this reason, most waste - to - energy plants are located in industrial areas.
Landfill gas, which contains about 50 % methane, and 50 % carbon dioxide, is contaminated with a small amount of pollutants. Unlike at waste - to - energy plants, there are little or no pollution controls on the burning of landfill gas. The gas is usually flared or used to run a reciprocating engine or microturbine, especially in digester gas power plants. Cleaning up the landfill gas is usually not cost effective because natural gas, which it substitutes for, is relatively cheap.
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what was the decision of gitlow v new york | Gitlow v. New York - wikipedia
Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652 (1925), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States holding that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had extended the reach of certain limitations on federal government authority set forth in the First Amendment -- specifically the provisions protecting freedom of speech and freedom of the press -- to the governments of the individual states. It was one of a series of Supreme Court cases that defined the scope of the First Amendment 's protection of free speech and established the standard to which a state or the federal government would be held when it criminalized speech or writing.
Following the Red Scare of 1919 -- 20, a variety of leftists, either anarchists, sympathizers with the Bolshevik Revolution, labor activists, or members of a communist or socialist party, were convicted for violating the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 on the basis of their writings or statements. Benjamin Gitlow, a member of the Socialist Party of America, who had served in the New York State Assembly, was charged with criminal anarchy under New York 's Criminal Anarchy Law of 1902 for publishing in July 1919 a document called "Left Wing Manifesto '' in The Revolutionary Age, a newspaper for which he served as business manager. His trial lasted from January 22 to February 5, 1920.
His defense contended that the Manifesto represented historical analysis rather than advocacy. He was convicted on February 11 and sentenced to 5 to 10 years in prison. He served more than two years at Sing Sing prison before his motion to appeal was granted and he was released on bail. State courts of appeal upheld his conviction. New York 's Criminal Anarchy Law was passed in 1902 following the assassination of President William McKinley by an anarchist in Buffalo, New York, in September 1901.
Gitlow was the first major First Amendment case that the American Civil Liberties Union argued before the Supreme Court.
The Court had to consider whether it could review a challenge to a state law on the basis that it violated the federal constitution. If it determined that such a challenge lay within the scope of its authority, then it had to review the application of the law to the case at hand, the specific violation of the statute.
It upheld Gitlow 's conviction 7 -- 2, with Brandeis and Holmes dissenting.
The Supreme Court previously held, in Barron v. Baltimore, 32 U.S. 243 (1833), that the Constitution 's Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government, that states were free to enforce statutes that restricted the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights, and that the federal courts could not interfere with the enforcement of such statutes. Gitlow v. New York partly reversed that precedent and began a trend toward its nearly complete reversal. The Supreme Court now holds that almost every provision of the Bill of Rights applies to both the federal government and the states.
The Supreme Court relied on the "due process clause '' of the Fourteenth Amendment, which prohibits a state from depriving "any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. '' The Court stated that "For present purposes we may and do assume that '' the rights of freedom of speech and freedom of the press were "among the fundamental personal rights and ' liberties ' protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment from impairment by the states ''.
The Court used the doctrine first enunciated in Gitlow in other cases, such as De Jonge v. Oregon, 299 U.S. 353 (1937), Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25 (1949), and Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963), to extend the reach of the Bill of Rights. Constitutional scholars refer to this as the "incorporation doctrine, '' meaning that the Supreme Court has identified rights specified in the Bill of Rights and incorporated them into the liberties covered by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Recently, the Supreme Court, see, McDonald v. Chicago, found the 2nd Amendment Right to "... keep and bear arms, '' for lawful purposes such as self - defense both a fundamental and individual right of all law - abiding Citizens over 21 years of age and of sound mind as self - defense is the "central component '' of the 2nd Amendment, and these Rights are "fully applicable '' in all of the 50 States.
The Court upheld Gitlow 's conviction on the basis that the government may suppress or punish speech that directly advocates the unlawful overthrow of the government and it upheld the constitutionality of the state statute at issue, which made it a crime to advocate the duty, need, or appropriateness of overthrowing government by force or violence.
Justice Edward Terry Sanford 's majority opinion attempted to define more clearly the "clear and present danger '' test developed a few years earlier in Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919). He embraced "the bad tendency test '' found in Shaffer v. United States, 255 F. 886 (1919), which held that a "State may punish utterances endangering the foundations of government and threatening its overthrow by unlawful means '' because such speech clearly "present (s) a sufficient danger to the public peace and to the security of the State. '' According to Sanford, a "single revolutionary spark may kindle a fire that, smoldering for a time, may burst into a sweeping and destructive conflagration. '' He said the Manifesto contained "the language of direct incitement '' and was not "the expression of philosophical abstraction. ''
In his dissent, Holmes, the author of Schenck 's clear and present danger test, wrote that he believed it was still the appropriate test to employ in judging the limits of freedom of expression. Joined by Brandeis, he argued that Gitlow presented no present danger because only a small minority of people shared the views presented in the manifesto and because it directed an uprising at some "indefinite time in the future. '' He responded to Sanford 's kindling metaphor that "eloquence may set fire to reason, but, whatever may be thought of the redundant discourse before us, it had no chance of starting a present conflagration. ''
On November 9, 1925, Gitlow surrendered to New York Authorities for transportation back to Sing Sing Prison to finish his sentence. On December 11, 1925, New York Gov. Al Smith pardoned him, saying that while Gitlow had been "properly and legally convicted '', he needed to consider "whether or not he has been sufficiently punished for a political crime. '' He concluded that "no additional punishment would act as a deterrent to those who would preach an erroneous doctrine of Government. ''
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what song was number one on may 6 1990 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one Singles of 1990 - wikipedia
This is a list of the U.S. Billboard magazine Hot 100 number - ones of 1990. The three longest running number - one singles of 1990 are "Nothing Compares 2 U '' by Sinéad O'Connor, "Vision of Love '' by Mariah Carey, and "Because I Love You (The Postman Song) '' by Stevie B, which each attained four weeks at the top of the chart.
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what was the biggest battle of world war 1 | Battle of the Somme - wikipedia
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The Battle of the Somme (French: Bataille de la Somme, German: Schlacht an der Somme), also known as the Somme Offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British Empire and France against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the upper reaches of the River Somme in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies and was the largest battle of the First World War on the Western Front. More than three million men fought in the battle and one million men were wounded or killed, making it one of the bloodiest battles in human history.
The French and British had committed themselves to an offensive on the Somme during Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise, in December 1915. The Allied Powers agreed upon a strategy of combined offensives against the Central Powers in 1916, by the French, Russian, British and Italian armies, with the Somme offensive as the Franco - British contribution. Initial plans called for the French army to undertake the main part of the Somme offensive, supported on the northern flank by the Fourth Army of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). When the Imperial German Army began the Battle of Verdun on the Meuse on 21 February 1916, French commanders diverted many of the divisions intended for the Somme and the "supporting '' attack by the British became the principal effort.
The first day on the Somme (1 July) saw a serious defeat for the German Second Army, which was forced out of its first position by the French Sixth Army, from Foucaucourt - en - Santerre south of the Somme to Maricourt on the north bank, and by the Fourth Army from Maricourt to the vicinity of the Albert -- Bapaume road. The first day on the Somme was, in terms of casualties, also the worst day in the history of the British army, which suffered 57,470 casualties. These occurred mainly on the front between the Albert -- Bapaume road and Gommecourt, where the attack was defeated and few British troops reached the German front line. The British troops on the Somme comprised a mixture of the remains of the pre-war regular army; the Territorial Force; and Kitchener 's Army, a force of volunteer recruits including many Pals ' Battalions, recruited from the same places and occupations.
The battle is notable for the importance of air power and the first use of the tank. At the end of the battle, British and French forces had penetrated 10 km (6 mi) into German - occupied territory, taking more ground than in any of their offensives since the Battle of the Marne in 1914. The Anglo - French armies failed to capture Péronne and halted 5 km (3 mi) from Bapaume, where the German armies maintained their positions over the winter. British attacks in the Ancre valley resumed in January 1917 and forced the Germans into local withdrawals to reserve lines in February, before the scheduled retirement to the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) began in March. Debate continues over the necessity, significance and effect of the battle. David Frum opined that a century later, "' the Somme ' remains the most harrowing place - name '' in the history of the British Commonwealth.
Allied war strategy for 1916 was decided at the Chantilly Conference from 6 -- 8 December 1915. Simultaneous offensives on the Eastern Front by the Russian army, on the Italian Front by the Italian army, and on the Western Front by the Franco - British armies, were to be carried out to deny time for the Central Powers to move troops between fronts during lulls. In December 1915, General Sir Douglas Haig replaced Field Marshal Sir John French as Commander - in - Chief of the BEF. Haig favoured a British offensive in Flanders close to BEF supply routes, to drive the Germans from the Belgian coast and end the U-boat threat from Belgian waters. Haig was not formally subordinate to Marshal Joseph Joffre but the British played a lesser role on the Western Front and complied with French strategy. In January 1916, Joffre had agreed to the BEF making its main effort in Flanders, but in February 1916 it was decided to mount a combined offensive where the French and British armies met, astride the Somme River in Picardy before the British offensive in Flanders. A week later the Germans began an offensive against the French at Verdun. The costly defence of Verdun forced the French army to commit divisions intended for the Somme offensive, eventually reducing the French contribution to 13 divisions in the Sixth Army, against 20 British divisions. By 31 May, the ambitious Franco - British plan for a decisive victory, had been reduced to a limited offensive to relieve pressure on the French at Verdun with a battle of attrition on the Somme.
The Chief of the German General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, intended to end the war by splitting the Anglo - French Entente in 1916, before its material superiority became unbeatable. Falkenhayn planned to defeat the large amount of reserves which the Entente could move into the path of a breakthrough, by threatening a sensitive point close to the existing front line and provoking the French into counter-attacking German positions. Falkenhayn chose to attack towards Verdun to take the Meuse heights and make Verdun untenable. The French would have to conduct a counter-offensive on ground dominated by the German army and ringed with masses of heavy artillery, leading to huge losses and bring the French army close to collapse. The British would then have to begin a hasty relief offensive and would also suffer huge losses. Falkenhayn expected the relief offensive to fall south of Arras against the Sixth Army and be destroyed. (Despite the certainty by mid-June of an Anglo - French attack on the Somme against the Second Army, Falkenhayn sent only four divisions, keeping eight in the western strategic reserve. No divisions were moved from the Sixth Army, despite it holding a shorter line with 17 ⁄ divisions and three of the reserve divisions in the Sixth Army area. The maintenance of the strength of the Sixth Army, at the expense of the Second Army on the Somme, indicated that Falkenhayn intended the counter-offensive against the British to be made north of the Somme front, once the British offensive had been shattered.) If such Franco - British defeats were not enough, Germany would attack the remnants of both armies and end the western alliance for good. The unexpected length of the Verdun offensive, and the need to replace many exhausted units at Verdun, depleted the German strategic reserve placed behind the Sixth Army, which held the Western Front from Hannescamps, 18 km (11 mi) south - west of Arras to St. Eloi, south of Ypres and reduced the German counter-offensive strategy north of the Somme, to one of passive and unyielding defence.
The Battle of Verdun (21 February -- 17 December 1916) began a week after Joffre and Haig agreed to mount an offensive on the Somme. The German offensive at Verdun was intended to threaten the capture of the city and induce the French to fight an attrition battle, in which German advantages of terrain and firepower would cause the French disproportionate casualties. The battle changed the nature of the offensive on the Somme, as French divisions were diverted to Verdun, and the main effort by the French diminished to a supporting attack for the British. German overestimation of the cost of Verdun to the French contributed to the concentration of German infantry and guns on the north bank of the Somme. By May, Joffre and Haig had changed their expectations of an offensive on the Somme, from a decisive battle to a hope that it would relieve Verdun and keep German divisions in France, which would assist the Russian armies conducting the Brusilov Offensive. The German offensive at Verdun was suspended in July, and troops, guns, and ammunition were transferred to Picardy, leading to a similar transfer of the French Tenth Army to the Somme front. Later in the year, the Franco - British were able to attack on the Somme and at Verdun sequentially and the French recovered much of the ground lost on the east bank of the Meuse in October and December.
The Brusilov Offensive (4 June -- 20 September), absorbed the extra forces that had been requested on 2 June by Fritz von Below, commanding the German Second Army, for a spoiling attack on the Somme. On 4 June, Russian armies attacked on a 200 mi (320 km) front, from the Romanian frontier to Pinsk and eventually advanced 93 mi (150 km), reaching the foothills of the Carpathian mountains, against German and Austro - Hungarian troops of Armeegruppe von Linsingen and Armeegruppe Archduke Joseph. During the offensive the Russians inflicted c. 1,500,000 losses including c. 407,000 prisoners. Three divisions were ordered from France to the Eastern Front on 9 June and the spoiling attack on the Somme was abandoned. Only four more divisions were sent to the Somme front before the Anglo - French offensive began, bringing the total to 10 ⁄ divisions. Falkenhayn, and then Hindenburg and Ludendorff, were forced to send divisions to Russia throughout the summer to prevent a collapse of the Austro - Hungarian army and then to conduct a counter-offensive against Romania, which declared war against the Central Powers on 27 August. In July there were 112 German divisions on the Western Front and 52 divisions in Russia and in November there were 121 divisions in the west and 76 divisions in the east.
The original British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of six divisions and the Cavalry Division, had lost most of the army 's pre-war regular soldiers in the battles of 1914 and 1915. The bulk of the army was made up of volunteers of the Territorial Force and Lord Kitchener 's New Army, which had begun forming in August 1914. Rapid expansion created many vacancies for senior commands and specialist functions, which led to many appointments of retired officers and inexperienced newcomers. In 1914, Douglas Haig had been a lieutenant - general in command of I Corps and was promoted to command the First Army in early 1915 and then the BEF in December, which eventually comprised five armies with sixty divisions. The swift increase in the size of the army reduced the average level of experience within it and created an acute equipment shortage. Many officers resorted to directive command, to avoid delegating to novice subordinates, although divisional commanders were given great latitude in training and planning for the attack of 1 July, since the heterogeneous nature of the 1916 army made it impossible for corps and army commanders to know the capacity of each division.
Despite considerable debate among German staff officers, Erich von Falkenhayn continued the policy of unyielding defence in 1916. Falkenhayn implied after the war that the psychology of German soldiers, shortage of manpower, and lack of reserves made the policy inescapable, as the troops necessary to seal off breakthroughs did not exist. High losses incurred in holding ground by a policy of no retreat were preferable to higher losses, voluntary withdrawals, and the effect of a belief that soldiers had discretion to avoid battle. When a more flexible policy was substituted later, decisions about withdrawal were still reserved to army commanders. On the Somme front, Falkenhayn 's construction plan of January 1915 had been completed. Barbed wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt 5 -- 10 yards (4.6 -- 9.1 m) wide to two, 30 yards (27 m) wide and about 15 yards (14 m) apart. Double and triple thickness wire was used and laid 3 -- 5 feet (0.91 -- 1.52 m) high. The front line had been increased from one trench line to three, 150 -- 200 yards (140 -- 180 m) apart, the first trench occupied by sentry groups, the second (Wohngraben) for the bulk of the front - trench garrison and the third trench for local reserves. The trenches were traversed and had sentry - posts in concrete recesses built into the parapet. Dugouts had been deepened from 6 -- 9 feet (1.8 -- 2.7 m) to 20 -- 30 feet (6.1 -- 9.1 m), 50 yards (46 m) apart and large enough for 25 men. An intermediate line of strongpoints (the Stützpunktlinie) about 1,000 yards (910 m) behind the front line was also built. Communication trenches ran back to the reserve line, renamed the second line, which was as well - built and wired as the first line. The second line was beyond the range of Allied field artillery, so as to force an attacker to stop and move field artillery forward before assaulting the line.
British intentions evolved as the military situation changed after the Chantilly Conference. French losses at Verdun reduced the contribution available for the offensive on the Somme and increased the urgency for the commencement of operations on the Somme. The principal role in the offensive devolved to the British and on 16 June, Haig defined the objectives of the offensive as the relief of pressure on the French at Verdun and the infliction of losses on the Germans. After a five - day artillery bombardment, the British Fourth Army was to capture 27,000 yards (25,000 m) of the German first line, from Montauban to Serre and the Third Army was to mount a diversion at Gommecourt. In a second phase, the Fourth Army was to take the German second position, from Pozières to the Ancre and then the second position south of the Albert -- Bapaume road, ready for an attack on the German third position south of the road towards Flers, when the Reserve Army which included three cavalry divisions, would exploit the success to advance east and then north towards Arras. The French Sixth Army, with one corps on the north bank from Maricourt to the Somme and two corps on the south bank southwards to Foucaucourt, would make a subsidiary attack to guard the right flank of the main attack being made by the British.
After the Autumn Battles (Herbstschlacht) of 1915, a third defence line another 3,000 yards (2,700 m) back from the Stützpunktlinie was begun in February 1916 and was almost complete on the Somme front when the battle began. German artillery was organised in a series of Sperrfeuerstreifen (barrage sectors); each officer was expected to know the batteries covering his section of the front line and the batteries ready to engage fleeting targets. A telephone system was built, with lines buried 6 feet (1.8 m) deep for 5 mi (8.0 km) behind the front line, to connect the front line to the artillery. The Somme defences had two inherent weaknesses that the rebuilding had not remedied. The front trenches were on a forward slope, lined by white chalk from the subsoil and easily seen by ground observers. The defences were crowded towards the front trench, with a regiment having two battalions near the front - trench system and the reserve battalion divided between the Stützpunktlinie and the second line, all within 2,000 yards (1,800 m) and most troops within 1,000 yards (910 m) of the front line, accommodated in the new deep dugouts. The concentration of troops at the front line on a forward slope guaranteed that it would face the bulk of an artillery bombardment, directed by ground observers on clearly marked lines.
The first day on the Somme began 141 days of the Battle of the Somme and the opening day of the Battle of Albert. The attack was made by five divisions of the French Sixth Army either side of the Somme, eleven British divisions of the Fourth Army north of the Somme to Serre and two divisions of the Third Army opposite Gommecourt, against the German Second Army of General Fritz von Below. The German defence south of the Albert -- Bapaume road mostly collapsed and the French had "complete success '' on both banks of the Somme, as did the British from the army boundary at Maricourt to the Albert -- Bapaume road. On the south bank the German defence was made incapable of resisting another attack and a substantial retreat began; on the north bank the abandonment of Fricourt was ordered. The defenders on the commanding ground north of the road inflicted a huge defeat on the British infantry, who had an unprecedented number of casualties. Several truces were negotiated, to recover wounded from no man 's land north of the road. The Fourth Army took 57,470 casualties, of which 19,240 men were killed, the French Sixth Army had 1,590 casualties and the German 2nd Army had 10,000 -- 12,000 losses.
The Battle of Albert was the first two weeks of Anglo - French offensive operations in the Battle of the Somme. The Allied preparatory artillery bombardment began on 24 June and the Anglo - French infantry attacked on 1 July, on the south bank from Foucaucourt to the Somme and from the Somme north to Gommecourt, 2 mi (3.2 km) beyond Serre. The French Sixth Army and the right wing of the British Fourth Army inflicted a considerable defeat on the German Second Army but from the Albert -- Bapaume road to Gommecourt, the British attack was a disaster where most of the c. 60,000 British casualties were incurred. Against Joffre 's wishes, Haig abandoned the offensive north of the road, to reinforce the success in the south, where the Anglo - French forces pressed forward towards the German second line, preparatory to a general attack on 14 July.
The Fourth Army attacked the German second defensive position from the Somme past Guillemont and Ginchy, north - west along the crest of the ridge to Pozières on the Albert -- Bapaume road. The objectives of the attack were the villages of Bazentin le Petit, Bazentin le Grand and Longueval which was adjacent to Delville Wood, with High Wood on the ridge beyond. The attack was made by four divisions on a front of 6,000 yd (5.5 km) at 3: 25 a.m. after a five - minute hurricane artillery bombardment. Field artillery fired a creeping barrage and the attacking waves pushed up close behind it in no man 's land, leaving them only a short distance to cross when the barrage lifted from the German front trench. Most of the objective was captured and the German defence south of the Albert -- Bapaume road put under great strain but the attack was not followed up due to British communication failures, casualties and disorganisation.
The Battle of Fromelles was a subsidiary attack to support the Fourth Army on the Somme 80 km (50 mi) to the south, to exploit any weakening of the German defences opposite. Preparations for the attack were rushed, the troops involved lacked experience in trench warfare and the power of the German defence was "gravely '' underestimated, the attackers being outnumbered 2: 1. On 19 July, von Falkenhayn had judged the British attack to be the anticipated offensive against the 6th Army. Next day Falkenhayn ordered the Guard Reserve Corps to be withdrawn to reinforce the Somme front. The Battle of Fromelles had inflicted some losses on the German defenders but gained no ground and deflected few German troops bound for the Somme. The attack was the debut of the Australian Imperial Force on the Western Front and, according to McMullin, "the worst 24 hours in Australia 's entire history ''. Of 7,080 BEF casualties, 5,533 losses were incurred by the 5th Australian Division; German losses were 1,600 -- 2,000, with 150 taken prisoner.
The Battle of Delville Wood was an operation to secure the British right flank, while the centre advanced to capture the higher lying areas of High Wood and Pozières. After the Battle of Albert the offensive had evolved to the capture of fortified villages, woods, and other terrain that offered observation for artillery fire, jumping - off points for more attacks, and other tactical advantages. The mutually costly fighting at Delville Wood eventually secured the British right flank and marked the Western Front debut of the South African 1st Infantry Brigade (incorporating a Southern Rhodesian contingent), which held the wood from 15 -- 20 July. When relieved the brigade had lost 2,536 men, similar to the casualties of many brigades on 1 July.
The Battle of Pozières began with the capture of the village by the 1st Australian Division (Australian Imperial Force) of the Reserve Army, the only British success in the Allied fiasco of 22 / 23 July, when a general attack combined with the French further south, degenerated into a series of separate attacks due to communication failures, supply failures and poor weather. German bombardments and counter-attacks began on 23 July and continued until 7 August. The fighting ended with the Reserve Army taking the plateau north and east of the village, overlooking the fortified village of Thiepval from the rear.
The Battle of Guillemont was an attack on the village which was captured by the Fourth Army on the first day. Guillemont was on the right flank of the British sector, near the boundary with the French Sixth Army. German defences ringed the British salient at Delville Wood to the north and had observation over the French Sixth Army area to the south towards the Somme river. The German defence in the area was based on the second line and numerous fortified villages and farms north from Maurepas at Combles, Guillemont, Falfemont Farm, Delville Wood and High Wood, which were mutually supporting. The battle for Guillemont was considered by some observers to be the supreme effort of the German army during the battle. Numerous meetings were held by Joffre, Haig, Foch, Rawlinson and Fayolle to co-ordinate joint attacks by the four armies, all of which broke down. A pause in Anglo - French attacks at the end of August, coincided with the largest counter-attack by the German army in the Battle of the Somme.
In the Battle of Ginchy the 16th Division captured the German - held village. Ginchy was 1.5 km (0.93 mi) north - east of Guillemont, at the junction of six roads on a rise overlooking Combles, 4 km (2.5 mi) to the south - east. After the end of the Battle of Guillemont, British troops were required to advance to positions which would give observation over the German third position, ready for a general attack in mid-September. British attacks from Leuze Wood northwards to Ginchy had begun on 3 September, when the 7th Division captured the village and was then forced out by a German counter-attack. The capture of Ginchy and the success of the French Sixth Army on 12 September, in its biggest attack of the battle of the Somme, enabled both armies to make much bigger attacks, sequenced with the Tenth and Reserve armies, which captured much more ground and inflicted c. 130,000 casualties on the German defenders during the month.
The Battle of Flers -- Courcelette was the third and final general offensive mounted by the British Army, which attacked an intermediate line and the German third line to take Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt, which was combined with a French attack on Frégicourt and Rancourt to encircle Combles and a supporting attack on the south bank of the Somme. The strategic objective of a breakthrough was not achieved but the tactical gains were considerable, the front line being advanced by 2,500 -- 3,500 yards (2,300 -- 3,200 m) and many casualties were inflicted on the German defenders. The battle was the debut of the Canadian Corps, the New Zealand Division and tanks of the Heavy Branch of the Machine Gun Corps on the Somme.
The Battle of Morval was an attack by the Fourth Army on Morval, Gueudecourt and Lesboeufs held by the German 1st Army, which had been the final objectives of the Battle of Flers -- Courcelette (15 -- 22 September). The attack was postponed to combine with attacks by the French Sixth Army on Combles, south of Morval and because of rain. The combined attack was also intended to deprive the German defenders further west, near Thiepval of reinforcements, before an attack by the Reserve Army, due on 26 September. Combles, Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt were captured and a small number of tanks joined in the battle later in the afternoon. Many casualties were inflicted on the Germans but the French made slower progress. The Fourth Army advance on 25 September was its deepest since 14 July and left the Germans in severe difficulties, particularly in a salient near Combles. The Reserve Army attack began on 26 September in the Battle of Thiepval Ridge.
The Battle of Thiepval Ridge was the first large offensive mounted by the Reserve Army of Lieutenant General Hubert Gough and was intended to benefit from the Fourth Army attack at Morval by starting 24 hours afterwards. Thiepval Ridge was well fortified and the German defenders fought with great determination, while the British co-ordination of infantry and artillery declined after the first day, due to confused fighting in the maze of trenches, dug - outs and shell - craters. The final British objectives were not reached until the Battle of the Ancre Heights (1 October -- 11 November). Organisational difficulties and deteriorating weather frustrated Joffre 's intention to proceed by vigorous co-ordinated attacks by the Anglo - French armies, which became disjointed and declined in effectiveness during late September, at the same time as a revival occurred in the German defence. The British experimented with new techniques in gas warfare, machine - gun bombardment and tank -- infantry co-operation, as the Germans struggled to withstand the preponderance of men and material fielded by the Anglo - French, despite reorganisation and substantial reinforcements of troops, artillery and aircraft from Verdun. September became the worst month for casualties for the Germans.
The Battle of Le Transloy began in good weather and Le Sars was captured on 7 October. Pauses were made from 8 -- 11 October due to rain and 13 -- 18 October to allow time for a methodical bombardment, when it became clear that the German defence had recovered from earlier defeats. Haig consulted with the army commanders and on 17 October reduced the scope of operations by cancelling the Third Army plans and reducing the Reserve Army and Fourth Army attacks to limited operations, in co-operation with the French Sixth Army. Another pause followed before operations resumed on 23 October on the northern flank of the Fourth Army, with a delay during more bad weather on the right flank of the Fourth Army and on the French Sixth Army front, until 5 November. Next day the Fourth Army ceased offensive operations, except for small attacks intended to improve positions and divert German attention from attacks being made by the Reserve / Fifth Army. Larger operations resumed in January 1917.
The Battle of the Ancre Heights was fought after Haig made plans for the Third Army to take the area east of Gommecourt, the Reserve Army to attack north from Thiepval Ridge and east from Beaumont Hamel -- Hébuterne and for the Fourth Army to reach the Péronne -- Bapaume road around Le Transloy and Beaulencourt -- Thilloy -- Loupart Wood, north of the Albert -- Bapaume road. The Reserve Army attacked to complete the capture of Regina Trench / Stuff Trench, north of Courcelette to the west end of Bazentin Ridge around Schwaben and Stuff Redoubts, during which bad weather caused great hardship and delay. The Marine Brigade from Flanders and fresh German divisions brought from quiet fronts counter-attacked frequently and the British objectives were not secured until 11 November.
The Battle of the Ancre was the last big British operation of the year. The Fifth (formerly Reserve) Army attacked into the Ancre valley to exploit German exhaustion after the Battle of the Ancre Heights and gain ground ready for a resumption of the offensive in 1917. Political calculation, concern for Allied morale and Joffre 's pressure for a continuation of attacks in France, to prevent German troop transfers to Russia and Italy also influenced Haig. The battle began with another mine being detonated beneath Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt. The attack on Serre failed, although a brigade of the 31st Division, which had attacked in the disaster of 1 July, took its objectives before being withdrawn later. South of Serre, Beaumont Hamel and Beaucourt - sur - l'Ancre were captured. South of the Ancre, St. Pierre Division was captured, the outskirts of Grandcourt reached and the Canadian 4th Division captured Regina Trench north of Courcelette, then took Desire Support Trench on 18 November. Until January 1917 a lull occurred, as both sides concentrated on enduring the weather.
At the start of 1916, most of the British Army had been an inexperienced and patchily trained mass of volunteers. The Somme was the debut of the Kitchener Army created by Lord Kitchener 's call for recruits at the start of the war. The British volunteers were often the fittest, most enthusiastic and best educated citizens but were also inexperienced soldiers and it has been claimed that their loss was of lesser military significance than the losses of the remaining peace - trained officers and men of the German army. British casualties on the first day were the worst in the history of the British army, with 57,470 British casualties, 19,240 of whom were killed.
British survivors of the battle had gained experience and the BEF learned how to conduct the mass industrial warfare, which the continental armies had been fighting since 1914. The continental powers had begun the war with trained armies of regulars and reservists, which were wasting assets. Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria wrote, "What remained of the old first - class peace - trained German infantry had been expended on the battlefield ''. A war of attrition was a logical strategy for Britain against Germany, which was also at war with France and Russia. A school of thought holds that the Battle of the Somme placed unprecedented strain on the German army and that after the battle it was unable to replace casualties like - for - like, which reduced it to a militia.
The destruction of German units in battle was made worse by lack of rest. British and French aircraft and long - range guns reached well behind the front - line, where trench - digging and other work meant that troops returned to the line exhausted. Despite the strategic predicament of the German army, it survived the battle, withstood the pressure of the Brusilov Offensive, and conducted an invasion of Romania. In 1917, the German army in the west survived the large British and French offensives of the Nivelle Offensive and the Third Battle of Ypres, though at great cost.
Falkenhayn was sacked and replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the end of August 1916. At a conference at Cambrai on 5 September, a decision was taken to build a new defensive line well behind the Somme front. The Siegfriedstellung was to be built from Arras to St. Quentin, La Fère and Condé, with another new line between Verdun and Pont - à - Mousson. These lines were intended to limit any Allied breakthrough and to allow the German army to withdraw if attacked; work began on the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) at the end of September. Withdrawing to the new line was not an easy decision and the German high command struggled over it during the winter of 1916 -- 1917. Some members wanted to take a shorter step back, to a line between Arras and Sailly, while the First and Second army commanders wanted to stay on the Somme. Generalleutnant von Fuchs on 20 January 1917 said that,
Enemy superiority is so great that we are not in a position either to fix their forces in position or to prevent them from launching an offensive elsewhere. We just do not have the troops... We can not prevail in a second battle of the Somme with our men; they can not achieve that any more. (20 January 1917)
and that half measures were futile, retreating to the Siegfriedstellung was unavoidable. After the loss of a considerable amount of ground around the Ancre valley to the British Fifth Army in February 1917, the German armies on the Somme were ordered on 14 February, to withdraw to reserve lines closer to Bapaume. A further retirement to the Hindenburg Line (Siegfriedstellung) in Operation Alberich began on 16 March 1917, despite the new line being unfinished and poorly sited in some places.
The British and French had advanced about 6 mi (9.7 km) on the Somme, on a front of 16 mi (26 km) at a cost of 419,654 to 432,000 British and about 200,000 French casualties, against 465,181 to 500,000 or perhaps even 600,000 German casualties. Until the 1930s the dominant view of the battle in English - language writing was that the battle was a hard - fought victory against a brave, experienced and well - led opponent. Winston Churchill had objected to the way the battle was being fought in August 1916, Lloyd George when Prime Minister criticised attrition warfare frequently and condemned the battle in his post-war memoirs. In the 1930s a new orthodoxy of "mud, blood and futility '' emerged and gained more emphasis in the 1960s when the 50th anniversaries of the Great War battles were commemorated.
Until 1916, transport arrangements for the BEF were based on an assumption that the war of movement would soon resume and make it pointless to build infrastructure, since it would be left behind. The British relied on motor transport from railheads which was insufficient where large masses of men and guns were concentrated. When the Fourth Army advance resumed in August, the wisdom of not building light railways which would be left behind was argued by some, in favour of building standard gauge lines.
Experience of crossing the beaten zone showed that such lines or metalled roads could not be built quickly enough to sustain an advance, and that pausing while communications caught up allowed the defenders to recover. On the Somme the daily carry during attacks on a 12 mi (19 km) front was 20,000 long tons (20,000 t) and a few wood roads and rail lines were inadequate for the number of lorries and roads. A comprehensive system of transport was needed, which required a much greater diversion of personnel and equipment than had been expected.
The Battle of the Somme was one of the costliest battles of World War I. The original Allied estimate of casualties on the Somme, made at the Chantilly Conference on 15 November 1916, was 485,000 British and French casualties and 630,000 German. As one German officer wrote,
Somme. The whole history of the world can not contain a more ghastly word.
In 1931, Wendt published a comparison of German and British - French casualties which showed an average of 30 percent more Allied casualties than German losses on the Somme. In the first 1916 volume of the British Official History (1932), J.E. Edmonds wrote that comparisons of casualties were inexact, because of different methods of calculation by the belligerents but that British casualties were 419,654, from total British casualties in France in the period of 498,054, French Somme casualties were 194,451 and German casualties were c. 445,322, to which should be added 27 percent for woundings, which would have been counted as casualties using British criteria; Anglo - French casualties on the Somme were over 600,000 and German casualties were under 600,000.
The addition by Edmonds of c. 30 percent to German figures, to make them comparable to British criteria, was criticised as "spurious '' by M.J. Williams in 1964. McRandle and Quirk in 2006 cast doubt on the Edmonds calculations but counted 729,000 German casualties on the Western Front from July to December against 631,000 by Churchill, concluding that German losses were fewer than Anglo - French casualties but the ability of the German army to inflict disproportionate losses had been eroded by attrition. Sheffield wrote that the calculation by Edmonds of Anglo - French casualties was correct but the one for German casualties was discredited, quoting the official German figure of 500,000 casualties. In the second 1916 volume of the British Official History (1938), Miles wrote that total German casualties in the battle were 660,000 -- 680,000, against Anglo - French casualties of fewer than 630,000, using "fresh data '' from the French and German official accounts.
In 1938, Churchill wrote that the Germans had suffered 270,000 casualties against the French, between February and June 1916 and 390,000 between July and the end of the year (see statistical tables in Appendix J of Churchill 's World Crisis) with 278,000 casualties at Verdun. Some losses must have been in quieter sectors but many must have been inflicted by the French at the Somme. Churchill wrote that Franco - German losses at the Somme, were "much less unequal '' than the Anglo - German ratio. During the Battle of the Somme German forces suffered 537,919 casualties, of which 338,011 losses were inflicted by the French and 199,908 losses by the British. In turn German forces inflicted 794,238 casualties on the Entente. Doughty wrote that French losses on the Somme were "surprisingly high '' at 202,567 men, 54 % of the 377,231 casualties at Verdun. Prior and Wilson used Churchill 's research and wrote that the British lost 432,000 soldiers from 1 July -- mid-November (c. 3,600 per day) in inflicting c. 230,000 German casualties and offer no figures for French casualties or the losses they inflicted on the Germans. Sheldon wrote that the British lost "over 400,000 '' casualties. Harris wrote that total British losses were c. 420,000, French casualties were over 200,000 men and German losses were c. 500,000, according to the "best '' German sources. Sheffield wrote that the losses were "appalling '', with 419,000 British casualties, c. 204,000 French and perhaps 600,000 German casualties.
In a commentary on the debate about Somme casualties, Philpott used Miles 's figures of 419,654 British casualties and the French official figures of 154,446 Sixth Army losses and 48,131 Tenth Army casualties. German losses were described as "disputed '', ranging from 400,000 -- 680,000. Churchill 's claims were a "snapshot '' of July 1916 and not representative of the rest of the battle. Philpott called the "blood test '' a crude measure compared to manpower reserves, industrial capacity, farm productivity and financial resources and that intangible factors were more influential on the course of the war. The German army was exhausted by the end of 1916, with loss of morale and the cumulative effects of attrition and frequent defeats causing it to collapse in 1918, a process which began on the Somme, echoing Churchill that the German soldiery was never the same again.
After the Battle of the Ancre (13 -- 18 November 1916), British attacks on the Somme front were stopped by the weather and military operations by both sides were mostly restricted to survival in the rain, snow, fog, mud fields, waterlogged trenches and shell - holes. As preparations for the offensive at Arras continued, the British attempted to keep German attention on the Somme front. British operations on the Ancre from 10 January -- 22 February 1917, forced the Germans back 5 mi (8.0 km) on a 4 mi (6.4 km) front, ahead of the schedule of the Alberich Bewegung (Alberich Manoeuvre / Operation Alberich) and eventually took 5,284 prisoners. On 22 / 23 February, the Germans fell back another 3 mi (4.8 km) on a 15 mi (24 km) front. The Germans then withdrew from much of the R. I Stellung to the R. II Stellung on 11 March, forestalling a British attack, which was not noticed by the British until dark on 12 March; the main German withdrawal from the Noyon salient to the Hindenburg Line (Operation Alberich) commenced on schedule on 16 March.
Defensive positions held by the German army on the Somme after November 1916 were in poor condition; the garrisons were exhausted and censors of correspondence reported tiredness and low morale in front - line soldiers. The situation left the German command doubtful that the army could withstand a resumption of the battle. The German defence of the Ancre began to collapse under British attacks, which on 28 January 1917 caused Rupprecht to urge that the retirement to the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) begin. Ludendorff rejected the proposal the next day, but British attacks on the First Army -- particularly the Action of Miraumont (also known as the Battle of Boom Ravine, 17 -- 18 February) -- caused Rupprecht on the night of 22 February to order a preliminary withdrawal of c. 4 mi (6.4 km) to the R. I Stellung (R. I Position). On 24 February the Germans withdrew, protected by rear guards, over roads in relatively good condition, which were then destroyed. The German withdrawal was helped by a thaw, which turned roads behind the British front into bogs and by disruption to the railways which supplied the Somme front. On the night of 12 March, the Germans withdrew from the R. I Stellung between Bapaume and Achiet le Petit and the British reached the R. II Stellung (R. II Position) on 13 March.
The Royal British Legion with the British Embassy in Paris and the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, commemorate the battle on 1 July each year, at the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. For their efforts on the first day of the battle, The 1st Newfoundland Regiment was given the name "The Royal Newfoundland Regiment '' by George V on 28 November 1917. The first day of the Battle of the Somme is commemorated in Newfoundland, remembering the "Best of the Best '' at 11 am on the Sunday nearest to 1 July. The Somme is remembered in Northern Ireland due to the participation of the 36th (Ulster) Division and commemorated by veterans ' groups and by unionist / Protestant groups such as the Orange Order. The British Legion and others commemorate the battle on 1 July.
On 1 July 2016, at 7: 28 am British Summer Time, the UK observed a two minute silence to mark the start of the battle which began 100 years earlier. A special ceremony was broadcast on BBC1 and all BBC radio stations participated in the silence. At the start of the silence, the King 's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery fired a gun every four seconds for one hundred seconds and a whistle was blown to end it. Just like a Remembrance Sunday silence, a bugler played The Last Post after the silence. The silence was announced during a speech by the Prime Minister David Cameron who said, "There will be a national two - minute silence on Friday morning. I will be attending a service at the Thiepval Memorial near the battlefield, and it 's right that the whole country pauses to remember the sacrifices of all those who fought and lost their lives in that conflict. '' On 1 July 2016, a ceremony was held in Heaton Park in north Manchester in England. Heaton Park was the site of a large army training camp during the war.
Across Britain on 1 July 2016, 1400 actors dressed in replica World War I - period British Army uniforms walked about in streets and public open areas, from 7 am to 7 pm. Each took on temporarily the identity of a British soldier who died on the first day of the Somme, and handed out information cards about that soldier. They did not talk, except for occasionally singing "We 're here because we 're here '' to the tune of Auld Lang Syne. This event was called "Ghost Soldiers ''.
The Battle of the Somme has been called the beginning of modern all - arms warfare, during which Kitchener 's Army learned to fight the mass - industrial war in which the continental armies had been engaged for two years. This view sees the British contribution to the battle as part of a coalition war and part of a process, which took the strategic initiative from the German Army and caused it irreparable damage, leading to its collapse in late 1918.
Haig and General Rawlinson have been criticised ever since 1916 for the human cost of the battle and for failing to achieve their territorial objectives. On 1 August 1916 Winston Churchill criticised the British Army 's conduct of the offensive to the British Cabinet, claiming that though the battle had forced the Germans to end their offensive at Verdun, attrition was damaging the British armies more than the German armies. Though Churchill was unable to suggest an alternative, a critical view of the British on the Somme has been influential in English - language writing ever since. As recently as 2016, historian Peter Barton argued in a series of three television programmes that the Battle of the Somme should be regarded as a German defensive victory.
A rival conclusion by some historians (Terraine, Sheffield, Duffy, Chickering, Herwig and Philpott et al.) is that there was no strategic alternative for the British in 1916 and that an understandable horror at British losses is insular, given the millions of casualties borne by the French and Russian armies since 1914. This school of thought sets the battle in a context of a general Allied offensive in 1916 and notes that German and French writing on the battle puts it in a continental perspective.
Little German and French writing on this topic has been translated, leaving much of the continental perspective and detail of German and French military operations inaccessible to the English - speaking world.
In current secondary education, the Battle of the Somme is barely mentioned in German school curricula, while it features prominently in the United Kingdom. In many British schools, variations of the question "Does Haig deserve to be called ' The Butcher of the Somme '? '' (Year 9) or "To what extent can Sir Douglas Haig be considered either a butcher or a hero of the First World War? '' (GCSE) are used to teach pupils historical empathy, evaluation and argumentative writing skills.
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who appoints the supreme court judges in kenya | Supreme Court of Kenya - Wikipedia
The Supreme Court of Kenya is the highest court in Kenya. It is established under Article 163 of the Kenyan Constitution. As the highest court in the nation, its decisions are binding and set precedent on all other courts in the country.
The Supreme Court has both original and appellate jurisdiction, as well as the jurisdiction to give advisory opinions. The Court has exclusive original jurisdiction to hear and determine disputes relating to the elections to the office of president arising under Article 140 of the Constitution. It has appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from the Court of Appeal and any other court or tribunal as prescribed by national legislation.
Appeals can only be as a matter of right, where the case involves interpretation or application of the Constitution or a matter certified by the Supreme Court or the Court of Appeal as one that involves a matter of general public importance. The Supreme Court may review a certification by the Court of Appeal and either affirm, vary or overturn it.
The Supreme Court has the jurisdiction to render advisory opinion at the request of the National Government, any state organ, or any county government with respect to any matter concerning County Governments. It can also determine the validity of a declaration of a state of emergency, an extension of such a declaration, or any legislation enacted in consequence of a declaration of a state of emergency.
The Supreme Court is made up of seven judges: the Chief Justice of Kenya, who is the president of the Court, the Deputy Chief Justice of Kenya, who is the deputy to the Chief Justice and vice-president of the court and five other judges. The Supreme Court is properly constituted for purposes of its proceedings when it has a composition of five judges.
In the event that a Chief Justice serves the mandatory ten years as Chief Justice before turning 70, the retired Chief Justice can opt to continue serving as an associate justice, even though this may raise the membership of the court above seven.
Following a protracted case on the retirement age of judges who were appointed under the old Constitution of Kenya, the Supreme Court delivered a ruling which effectively set the retirement age at 70 years, sending the Deputy Chief Justice and one other Supreme Court Judge who had reached 70 on retirement. The following are the current members of the Supreme Court:
The first round of the presidential election took place on March 4, 2013. Uhuru Kenyatta was declared the president - elect of Kenya by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC). Raila Odinga challenged this in the Supreme Court due to several technicalities, including discrepancies in voter numbers as reported by the IEBC, and the failure of biometric voter registration kits; it was ultimately dismissed on March 30, 2013.
At the end of the petition, the Supreme Court declined to nullify the election and affirmed the victory of Uhuru Kenyatta.
The 2017 presidential election took place on August 8, 2017, with the IEBC declaring Uhuru Kenyatta as the winner. Although Raila Odinga and his NASA coalition leaders challenged the declaration, they indicated that they would not file a petition in the Supreme Court given their experience at the Court when they filed a similar petition after the 2013 general election. However, the coalition announced three days later that they would file a case following the government 's decision to shut down two leading civil society organizations that had been expected to file a petition at the Court.
Raila Odinga 's petition was based on several grounds, including the discrepancy in the presidential vote tally compared to the tally of other elections (the presidential vote tally exceeded the total tally of votes cast for county governors across the country by over half a million), and allegations that the electoral commission 's electronic vote transmission system was hacked and a formula introduced which kept Uhuru Kenyatta 's vote tally at a consistent 11 % ahead of Odinga even as the vote tallies supposedly came in from different parts of the country in which the candidates enjoyed varied support. A statistician prepared an affidavit to show that this gap was statistically impossible if votes came in randomly from different parts of the country. The petitioner also alleged that results declaration forms submitted by the electoral commission were forged to mirror the computer - generated results that were publicly displayed on the results transmission portal that had been hacked, prompting Odinga to refer to the elected leaders as "Vifaranga vya computer '', Swahili for "computer hatchlings '' or computer - generated leaders.
At the conclusion of the hearing, the Supreme Court rendered a majority decision on September 1, 2017 holding that the election was not conducted in accordance with the Constitution and other electoral laws, that there were illegalities and irregularities committed by the electoral commission including in the results transmission process, and that the said illegalities and irregularities affected the integrity of the election. The Court thus nullified the election and ordered the IEBC to conduct a fresh one within 60 days in accordance with the Constitution, and while observing strict adherence to the law in the new election. Two judges -- Justice Prof J.B. Ojwang ' and Lady Justice Njoki Ndung'u -- dissented.
The Court delivered a brief verdict on September 1, 2017, saying that it did not have the time to prepare a full reasoned judgment due to the amount of evidence presented. A full judgment is to be read in 21 days.
Coordinates: 1 ° 17 ′ 15 '' S 36 ° 49 ′ 23 '' E / 1.2875 ° S 36.8231 ° E / - 1.2875; 36.8231
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when does bendy and the ink machine come out | Bendy and the Ink Machine - Wikipedia
Bendy and the Ink Machine (often abbreviated to BATIM) is an episodic survival horror video game developed and published by Joey Drew Studios Inc. (formally called TheMeatly Games until July 31, 2018). The game takes place in 1966 and follows Henry, a retired cartoonist who returns to his old studio upon an invitation from his old friend Joey Drew and discovers a nightmare of cartoon characters seemingly created by the titular Ink Machine.
The game 's first chapter was released for Linux, macOS and Microsoft Windows via Game Jolt on February 10, 2017, with a second chapter bundled with a remastered version of the first following on April 18, 2017. After the game succeeded in its Steam Greenlight campaign on February 28, 2017, both available chapters were released onto Steam on April 27, 2017. The third chapter was released on September 28, 2017 and the fourth chapter was released on April 30, 2018, after a short delay. Mike Mood, the game 's programmer, describes the game as an "accidental success ''.
Bendy and the Ink Machine was announced to be published by Rooster Teeth Games for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch on October 12, 2018 after the fifth and final chapter is completed and released.
Bendy and the Ink Machine is a survival horror game that uses a mixture of puzzle solving, environment exploration and combat to aid Henry on his journey through Joey Drew Studios, where he was formerly employed as an animator. Players explore through a first - person view and have limited physical actions such as running and jumping. Different items can be collected, some of which are required to perform various tasks before proceeding. Cans of bacon soup, a reference to the game 's creator TheMeatly and his partner Mike Mood, can also be collected for both achievements and to restore Henry 's health if he is injured.
Combat is primarily focused around a variety of different weapons, such as an axe, a pipe, a plunger, a wrench, a syringe, and an M1921 Thompson Submachine Gun with unlimited ammunition. In - game enemies all have different strength levels and resilience to damage, forcing players to be tactical about keeping out of reach and striking when necessary. Henry can retreat inside a Little Miracle Station whenever one is nearby in order to recover or remain obscure. If he takes too much damage, he can escape from the ink that consumes him and respawn at one of the numerous statues of Bendy that act as checkpoints. Cardboard cutouts of Bendy (known as Bendy cutouts) will also appear around the character acting as jumpscare attempts. When the main enemy, "Bendy '', catches Henry, "Bendy '' will instantly kill him.
In addition, players can find numerous audio logs throughout the studio that give more story details about the fate of the studio and its employees, similar to the systems used in games such as BioShock. Some of these logs can be missed and require further exploration to uncover the secret areas they often reside in.
In 1966, Henry, a retired animator, returns to his old animation studio, Joey Drew Studios, after receiving an invitation from his old friend and former employer, Joey Drew, to be shown something important. Having not been to the studio in thirty years, Henry finds the place seemingly abandoned. He eventually discovers the titular Ink Machine and decides to turn it on after concluding it is what Joey wanted to show him. During the repair attempts, Henry uncovers hints from old tape recordings from two repair workers, Wally Franks and Thomas Connor, which imply that Joey was taking part in bizarre occult practices and was not taking care of the ink machine properly as Connor remarks about the pipes constantly bursting. Henry suddenly encounters the gruesome discovery of a corpse in the shape of Boris the Wolf, one of the studio 's characters.
After completing the necessary steps to fix the Ink Machine, he finds the path to the machine boarded up. Henry is then suddenly jumpscared by a humanoid, skeletal ink monster who sports the same name of the studio 's most popular mascot, Bendy. Henry attempts to flee from "Bendy '' as the studio starts to flood with ink and just before he reaches the exit, the floor collapses underneath him, sending him into a room below. Using an axe to clear the path and approaching a pentagram drawn on the floor, Henry is racked with a vision of the Ink Machine, a wheelchair, and "Bendy '' before he passes out.
After waking up on mass of strange random shapes in a circle (as of the chapter 4 update), Henry explores the studio 's music department and infirmary, encountering inky monsters called Searchers. Henry finds several more tape recordings of how the studio fared since his departure, including one by Sammy Lawrence, the musical director for the studio, who seemingly started to worship Bendy as a deity following the ink machine 's installment. Another tape recording from Norman Polk, the studio projectionist, who hates everyone, mentions how Sammy continually disrupted daily recording sessions by attempting to enter a custom built sanctuary. The chapter also introduces Susie Campbell, a voice actress, who discusses her casting as Alice Angel, a new character in the studio.
While attempting to disable the ink flood blocking Sammy 's office door, Henry encounters Jack Fain, the studio 's lyricist, now a Searcher, and has to kill him to retrieve a valve. After activating the pump in Sammy 's office to drain the flooded stairwell of the music department blocking the exit, Henry is then knocked out from behind by Sammy. Upon waking up, he realizes that Sammy 's whole body has been covered with ink and now wears a Bendy mask over his face. Hoping that Bendy, his lord, will restore his humanity, Sammy plots to sacrifice Henry to him. However, Sammy is presumably killed by "Bendy '' off - screen after he arrives. Henry escapes from "Bendy '', only to encounter a living version of Boris.
Henry works with the friendly Boris to find a way out of the studio. They find themselves in Heavenly Toys, the studio 's toy manufacturing department. They even hear a tape from Shawn Flynn, the studio 's toy maker. He explains that Joey got mad when he noticed that the Bendy plushies has crooked smiles. Briefly separated from Boris, Henry encounters a psychotic, aggressive ink creature who sports the same name of the cartoon character Alice Angel, implied that it is presumably a transformed Susie, as audio recordings reveal she was unceremoniously replaced as Alice 's voice actress with Allison Pendle.
Henry reunites with Boris via the Path of the Demon, and they reach "Alice 's '' lair. There, Henry finds out that "Alice '' has been harvesting the body parts of Boris clones and other toons, in order to improve her deformed appearance. "Alice '' offers Henry his freedom in exchange for a few errands and offers him tools to help. Henry carries out these errands, all the while evading "Bendy '', Searchers, living versions of the studio 's Butcher Gang characters, and the Projectionist, who is a transformed Norman Polk.
After completing several tasks, "Alice '' appears to talk to herself randomly, her musings include a possible implication that she once had a relationship with Sammy, a statement saying after she was replaced she became incredibly distraught when Joey said she did n't fit the role anymore, and to get back at him, she wants everyone to know herself as the character again, ending with the sentence ' Dreams come true "Susie ''. '
When every task is complete, Henry and Boris are allowed to ascend in an elevator to escape, but "Alice '' proclaims she wants to use Boris to fix herself, and makes the elevator plummet down and crash to Level S. As Boris tries to awake Henry, he is suddenly pulled away by "Alice ''.
Henry awakens by the remains of the crashed elevator and begins searching for Boris. He journeys through the studio 's archives, beginning to get hallucinations called horror visions, and discovers a large group of harmless ink monsters called the Lost Ones, unclear if the Lost Ones were previously employees of Joey Drew Studios, residents that visited the said studio, or just other types of ink - dwellers similar to the Searchers. In the archives is a recording from Susie, who states that Joey said he had an ' opportunity ' for her, furthering the possibility that she is "Alice ''.
After navigating through the vents of the archives, Henry then finds himself in a large underground warehouse that houses prototypes for a Bendy theme park, Bendy Land, which has now been written over (possibly by "Alice '') as Bendy Hell. Created by park designer Bertrum Piedmont, more audio logs imply that Joey intended to take the credit for the park 's creation, leading Bertrum to become frustrated with the studio owner. Henry comes across a scrambler, actually Bertrum 's physical form, which he turned himself into after Joey attempted to cut him out of the picture completely, and fights and kills him. Henry encounters the Projectionist again while attempting to power the haunted house to get to Boris. After activating the final switch, Henry is about to leave when The Projectionist stealth attacks him. Fleeing into a little miracle station, Henry attempts to hide but Norman appears to see him, however, Henry suddenly witnesses "Bendy '' break into the room, attack and decapitate his pursuer, dragging his corpse away and leaving his head behind, seemingly leaving Henry himself for later.
Upon unlocking the ghost train ride, Henry is taunted by "Alice ''. He is attacked by Boris, who has been turned into a giant monster by "Alice ''. Henry is then forced to kill who used to be his companion. After defeating Brute Boris, his body melts into ink. An angered "Alice '' runs at Henry in a last - ditch attempt to kill him herself, only to be impaled from behind with a machete and possibly dies. Her killer is revealed to be another Alice Angel named Allison Angel (most likely a transformed Allison Pendle), accompanied by another mechanized Boris named Tom (most likely a transformed Thomas Connor).
The production trailer for this chapter was released on June 4th 2018. The chapter 's title was revealed during a video by theMeatly on June 12th, which was also when it was revealed that Chapter 5 was set for release in October. The confirmed release date for Chapter Five and the console release is October 12, 2018. theMeatly also stated that Chapter Five started production when Chapter Four was in production.
The playable character and protagonist is Henry (theMeatly), a former animator of Joey Drew Studios, who returns to the studio thirty years after resigning from the company. The game is played through a first - person narrative, though Henry 's physical appearance has yet to be seen.
Joey Drew (David Eddings), the CEO of the studio, invites Henry back to the studio via a letter. He introduced the Ink Machine to the studio, exhibiting peculiar behavior around it. Joey is described as a "man of ideas, but nothing else '' by Henry. Other characters view him as an unethical employer and perfectionist, uncaring towards the working conditions of his colleagues. Though acting like an eccentric dreamer, Chapter 4 proves this is just a ruse via a recording, Joey actually portrayed as a cynical, greedy individual. TheMeatly described Joey 's greatest and worst flaw as his "unending desire to the make impossible possible. ''
Other members of the studio 's staff are introduced via audio recordings. These include Wally Franks (theMeatly), the studio janitor; Thomas Connor (Mike Mood), a repairman; Sammy Lawrence (Aaron Landon), the musical director, who serves as an antagonist in Chapter 2, worshipping Bendy as a deity; Jack Fain (Bookpast), a lyricist, turned into a "swollen '' Searcher in the remastered Chapter 2; projector operator Norman Polk (theMeatly), transformed into a monster called the Projectionist, appearing in Chapters 3 and 4, a character that was almost left out of the final version of the third chapter due to time restraints; accountant Grant Cohen (Will Ryan); Shawn Flynn (Seán McLoughlin), an Irish toy designer; Bertrum Piedmont (Joe J. Thomas), a theme park architect, who appears as a boss in Chapter 4; engineer Lacie Benton (Lani Minella); and the voice actresses of the character Alice Angel, Susie Campbell (Alanna Linayre), and her replacement Allison Pendle (Lauren Synger).
Susie plays a major antagonistic role in Chapters 3 and 4, appearing as a malevolent, deformed version of Alice Angel. Through audio recordings, Susie is revealed to have been unceremoniously replaced with Allison as Alice 's voice actress, causing her to blame Joey for deceiving her. Susie kills numerous cartoon characters and harvests their innards to become a "perfect '' incarnation of herself, and specifically targets Boris the Wolf. Allison appears in Chapter 4 as another version of Alice, referred to as "Allison Angel ''.
Throughout the game, Henry encounters numerous staff members, transformed into monsters made from ink, or resembling the studio 's animated characters. A number of these appear in Chapter 4, referred to as the "Lost Ones '', but show no hostility towards the player. The stock enemy in the game are the "Searchers '', though other variants appear in boss battles.
The studio has created several in - universe cartoon characters who starred in silent animated shorts. The titular character is Bendy the Dancing Demon, the studio mascot, who appears as a recurring antagonist towards Henry throughout the game. Bendy 's name was in fact a typo, created when the 3D modeling program, Blender, saved the character 's model with the name.
Boris the Wolf, Bendy 's nemesis in the shorts, appears as several individual characters in the game. In Chapter 2, the player meets a benevolent version of Boris, who accompanies Henry throughout Chapter 3. Several other copies of Boris are found dead in the first and third chapters, used by Susie to achieve her "perfection ''. She captures Boris at the end of the third chapter, reintroducing him in a new, monstrous and aggressive form in Chapter 4, forcing the player to battle him in a boss battle. Another mechanized Boris appears at the end of Chapter 4, accompanying Allison. The aforementioned Alice Angel debuts in Chapter 2, who theMeatly describes as "quite the gal ''. Chapter 3 introduced the Butcher Gang, a trio of characters who act as enemies to Bendy in his shorts - Charley, a monkey; Barley, a pirate; and Edgar, a spider. They appear as antagonists in Chapters 3 and 4 as mutilated versions of themselves, named "Piper '', "Fisher '' and "Striker '', respectively.
Official videos for a series of animated shorts based on Bendy and the Ink Machine have been released from theMeatly 's YouTube channel, with animation done by animator Timethehobo. The first animated short, Tombstone Picnic, was released as part of the Chapter Three reveal trailer on August 11, 2017. The second short, Haunted Hijinx, was uploaded on October 31, 2017, to celebrate Halloween. The third short, Snow Sillies, was uploaded on December 24, 2017, in celebration of the holiday season.
A Halloween crossover mod, Hello Bendy, was released for the game on October 27, 2017, for a limited time, featuring the Hello Neighbor antagonist who takes the role as Bendy in all previous three chapters and even Sammy Lawrence for Chapter 2. The mod 's menu features the advertisement of pre-ordering the game Hello Neighbor. The mod expired by the end of October.
Co-creator Mike Mood has talked about wanting to do a crossover with Cuphead, a popular run and gun platformer that follows the same rubber hose animation art style as Bendy and the Ink Machine.
A mobile spin - off, titled Bendy in Nightmare Run!, was announced on January 26, 2018 and was released on Android and iOS on August 15, 2018. The game introduces three playable characters in an endless running - style game, featuring four levels with a different "boss '' cartoon monster, as well as collectable items and power - ups, including Briar Label Bacon Soup cans that act as currency to buy abilities and upgrades, and possible future updates.
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which of the following is a current perception of inclusion | Inclusion (education) - wikipedia
Inclusion, in education refers to the a model wherein special needs students spend most or all of their time with non-special (general education) needs students. It arises in the context of special education with an individualized education program or 504 plan, and is built on the notion that it is more effective for students with special needs to have said mixed experience for them to be more successful in social interactions leading to further success in life. Inclusion rejects but still provides the use of special schools or classrooms to separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities. Schools with inclusive classrooms do not believe in separate classrooms. They do not have their own separate world so they have to learn how to operate with students while being less focused on by teachers due to a higher student to teacher ratio.
Implementation of these practices varies. Schools most frequently use the inclusion model for selected students with mild to moderate special needs. Fully inclusive schools, which are rare, do not separate "general education '' and "special education '' programs; instead, the school is restructured so that all students learn together.
Inclusive education differs from the ' integration ' or ' mainstreaming ' model of education, which tended to be concerned principally with disability and special educational needs, and learners changing or becoming ' ready for ' or deserving of accommodation by the mainstream. By contrast, inclusion is about the child 's right to participate and the school 's duty to accept the child.
A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights. Feeling included is not limited to physical and cognitive disabilities, but also includes the full range of human diversity with respect to ability, language, culture, gender, age and of other forms of human differences. Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett wrote, "student performance and behaviour in educational tasks can be profoundly affected by the way we feel, we are seen and judged by others. When we expect to be viewed as inferior, our abilities seem to diminish ''.
Inclusion has different historical roots which may be integration of students with severe disabilities in the US (who may previously been excluded from schools or even lived in institutions) or an inclusion model from Canada and the US (e.g., Syracuse University, New York) which is very popular with inclusion teachers who believe in participatory learning, cooperative learning, and inclusive classrooms.
Inclusive education differs from the early university professor 's work (e.g., 1970s, Education Professor Carol Berrigan of Syracuse University, 1985; Douglas Biklen, Dean of School of Education through 2011) in integration and mainstreaming which were taught throughout the world including in international seminars in Italy. Mainstreaming (e.g., the Human Policy Press poster; If you thought the wheel was a good idea, you 'll like the ramp) tended to be concerned about "readiness '' of all parties for the new coming together of students with significant needs. Thus, integration and mainstreaming principally was concerned about disability and ' special educational needs ' (since the children were not in the regular schools) and involved teachers, students, principals, administrators, School Boards, and parents changing and becoming ' ready for ' students who needed accommodation or new methods of curriculum and instruction (e.g., required federal IEPs -- individualized education program) by the mainstream.
By contrast, inclusion is about the child 's right to participate and the school 's duty to accept the child returning to the US Supreme Court 's Brown vs. the Board of Education decision and the new Individuals with Disabilities Education (Improvement) Act (IDEIA). Inclusion rejects the use of special schools or classrooms, which remain popular among large multi-service providers, to separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities. A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities, in contrast to earlier concept of partial participation in the mainstream, and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights. Inclusion gives students with disabilities skills they can use in and out of the classroom.
Fully inclusive schools, which are rare, no longer distinguish between "general education '' and "special education '' programs which refers to the debates and federal initiatives of the 1980s, such as the Community Integration Project and the debates on home schools and special education - regular education classrooms; instead, the school is restructured so that all students learn together. All approaches to inclusive schooling require administrative and managerial changes to move from the traditional approaches to elementary and high school education.
Inclusion remains in 2015 as part of school (e.g., Powell & Lyle, 1997, now to the most integrated setting from LRE) and educational reform initiatives in the US and other parts of the world. Inclusion is an effort to improve quality in education in the fields of disability, is a common theme in educational reform for decades, and is supported by the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN, 2006). Inclusion has been researched and studied for decades, though reported lighly in the public with early studies on heterogeneous and homogeneous ability groupings (Stainback & Stainback, 1989), studies of critical friends and inclusion facilitators (e.g., Jorgensen & Tashie, 2000), self - contained to general education reversal of 90 % (Fried & Jorgensen, 1998), among many others obtaining doctoral degrees throughout the US.
Classification of students by disability is standard in educational systems which use diagnostic, educational and psychological testing, among others. However, inclusion has been associated with its own planning, including MAPS which Jack Pearpoint leads with still leads in 2015 and person - centred planning with John O'Brien and Connie Lyle O'Brien who view inclusion as a force for school renewal.
Inclusion has two sub-types: the first is sometimes called regular inclusion or partial inclusion, and the other is full inclusion.
Inclusive practice is not always inclusive but is a form of integration. For example, students with special needs are educated in regular classes for nearly all of the day, or at least for more than half of the day. Whenever possible, the students receive any additional help or special instruction in the general classroom, and the student is treated like a full member of the class. However, most specialized services are provided outside a regular classroom, particularly if these services require special equipment or might be disruptive to the rest of the class (such as speech therapy), and students are pulled out of the regular classroom for these services. In this case, the student occasionally leaves the regular classroom to attend smaller, more intensive instructional sessions in a resource room, or to receive other related services, such as speech and language therapy, occupational and / or physical therapy, psychological services, and social work. This approach can be very similar to many mainstreaming practices, and may differ in little more than the educational ideals behind it.
In the "full inclusion '' setting, the students with special needs are always educated alongside students without special needs, as the first and desired option while maintaining appropriate supports and services. Some educators say this might be more effective for the students with special needs. At the extreme, full inclusion is the integration of all students, even those that require the most substantial educational and behavioral supports and services to be successful in regular classes and the elimination of special, segregated special education classes. Special education is considered a service, not a place and those services are integrated into the daily routines (See, ecological inventories) and classroom structure, environment, curriculum and strategies and brought to the student, instead of removing the student to meet his or her individual needs. However, this approach to full inclusion is somewhat controversial, and it is not widely understood or applied to date.
Much more commonly, local educational agencies have the responsibility to organize services for children with disabilities. They may provide a variety of settings, from special classrooms to mainstreaming to inclusion, and assign, as teachers and administrators often do, students to the system that seems most likely to help the student achieve his or her individual educational goals. Students with mild or moderate disabilities, as well as disabilities that do not affect academic achievement, such as using power wheelchair, scooter or other mobility device, are most likely to be fully included; indeed, children with polio or with leg injuries have grown to be leaders and teachers in government and universities; self advocates travel across the country and to different parts of the world. However, students with all types of disabilities from all the different disability categories (See, also 2012 book by Michael Wehmeyer from the University of Kansas) have been successfully included in general education classes, working and achieving their individual educational goals in regular school environments and activities (reference needed).
Students with disabilities who are not included are typically either mainstreamed or segregated.
A mainstreamed student attends some general education classes, typically for less than half the day, and often for less academically rigorous, or if you will, more interesting and career - oriented classes. For example, a young student with significant intellectual disabilities might be mainstreamed for physical education classes, art classes and storybook time, but spend reading and mathematics classes with other students that have similar disabilities ("needs for the same level of academic instruction ''). They may have access to a resource room for remediation or enhancement of course content, or for a variety of group and individual meetings and consultations.
A segregated student attends no classes with non-disabled students with disability a tested category determined before or at school entrance. He or she might attend a special school termed residential schools that only enrolls other students with disabilities, or might be placed in a dedicated, self - contained classroom in a school that also enrolls general education students. The latter model of integration, like the 1970s Jowonio School in Syracuse, is often highly valued when combined with teaching such as Montessori education techniques. Home schooling was also a popular alternative among highly educated parents with children with significant disabilities.
Residential schools have been criticized for decades, and the government has been asked repeatedly to keep funds and services in the local districts, including for family support services for parents who may be currently single and raising a child with significant challenges on their own. Children with special needs may already be involved with early childhood education which can have a family support component emphasizing the strengths of the child and family.
Some students may be confined to a hospital due to a medical condition (e.g., cancer treatments) and are thus eligible for tutoring services provided by a school district. Less common alternatives include homeschooling and, particularly in developing countries, exclusion from education.
The new anti-discriminatory climate has provided the basis for much change in policy and statute, nationally and internationally. Inclusion has been enshrined at the same time that segregation and discrimination have been rejected. Articulations of the new developments in ways of thinking, in policy and in law include:
For schools in the United States, the federal requirement that students be educated in the historic least restrictive environment that is reasonable encourages the implementation of inclusion of students previously excluded by the school system. However, a critical critique of the LRE principle, commonly used to guide US schools, indicates that it often places restrictions and segregation on the individuals with the most severe disabilities. By the late 1980s, individuals with significant disabilities and their families and caregivers were already living quality lives in homes and local communities. Luckily, the US Supreme Court has now ruled in the Olmstead Decision (1999) that the new principle is that of the "most integrated setting '', as described by the national Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities, which should result in better achievement of national integration and inclusion goals in the 21st Century.
The proportion of students with disabilities who are included varies by place and by type of disability, but it is relatively common for students with milder disabilities and less common with certain kinds of severe disabilities. In Denmark, 99 % of students with learning disabilities like ' dyslexia ' are placed in general education classrooms. In the United States, three out of five students with learning disabilities spend the majority of their time in the general education classroom.
Postsecondary statistics (after high school) are kept by universities and government on the success rates of students entering college, and most are eligible for either disability services (e.g., accommodations and aides) or programs on college campuses, such as supported education in psychiatric disabilities or College for Living. The former are fully integrated college degree programs with college and vocational rehabilitation services (e.g., payments for textbooks, readers or translators), and the latter courses developed similar to retirement institutes (e.g., banking for retirees).
Although once hailed, usually by its opponents, as a way to increase achievement while decreasing costs, full inclusion does not save money, but is more cost - beneficial and cost - effective. It is not designed to reduce students ' needs, and its first priority may not even be to improve academic outcomes; in most cases, it merely moves the special education professionals (now dual certified for all students in some states) out of "their own special education '' classrooms and into a corner of the general classroom or as otherwise designed by the "teacher - in - charge '' and "administrator - in - charge ''. To avoid harm to the academic education of students with disabilities, a full panoply of services and resources is required (of education for itself), including:
Indeed, the students with special needs do receive funds from the federal government, by law originally the Educational for All Handicapped Children Act of 1974 to the present day, Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, which requires its use in the most integrated setting.
In principle, several factors can determine the success of inclusive classrooms:
By the mid-1980s, school integration leaders in the university sector already had detailed schemas (e.g., curriculum, student days, students with severe disabilities in classrooms) with later developments primarily in assistive technology and communication, school reform and transformation, personal assistance of user - directed aides, and increasing emphasis on social relationships and cooperative learning. In 2015, most important are evaluations of the populations still in special schools, including those who may be deaf - blind, and the leadership by inclusion educators, who often do not yet go by that name, in the education and community systems.
However, early integrationists community integration would still recommend greater emphasis on programs related to sciences, the arts (e.g., exposure), curriculum integrated field trips, and literature as opposed to the sole emphasis on community referenced curriculum. For example, a global citizen studying the environment might be involved with planting a tree ("independent mobility ''), or going to an arboretum ("social and relational skills ''), developing a science project with a group ("contributing ideas and planning ''), and having two core modules in the curriculum.
However, students will need to either continue to secondary school (meet academic testing standards), make arrangements for employment, supported education, or home / day services (transition services), and thus, develop the skills for future life (e.g., academic math skills and calculators; planning and using recipes or leisure skills) in the educational classrooms. Inclusion often involved individuals who otherwise might be at an institution or residential facility.
Today, longitudinal studies follow the outcomes of students with disabilities in classrooms, which include college graduations and quality of life outcomes. To be avoided are negative outcomes that include forms of institutionalization.
Students in an inclusive classroom are generally placed with their chronological age - mates, regardless of whether the students are working above or below the typical academic level for their age. Also, to encourage a sense of belonging, emphasis is placed on the value of friendships. Teachers often nurture a relationship between a student with special needs and a same - age student without a special educational need. Another common practice is the assignment of a buddy to accompany a student with special needs at all times (for example in the cafeteria, on the playground, on the bus and so on). This is used to show students that a diverse group of people make up a community, that no one type of student is better than another, and to remove any barriers to a friendship that may occur if a student is viewed as "helpless. '' Such practices reduce the chance for elitism among students in later grades and encourage cooperation among groups.
Teachers use a number of techniques to help build classroom communities:
Inclusionary practices are commonly utilized by using the following team - teaching models:
In this model, the content teacher will deliver the lesson and the special education teacher will assist students individual needs and enforce classroom management as needed.
In this model, the teacher with the most experience in the content will deliver the lesson and the other teacher will float or observe. This model is commonly used for data retrieval during IEP observations or Functional Behavior Analysis.
In this model, the room is divided into stations in which the students will visit with their small groups. Generally, the content teacher will deliver the lesson in his / her group, and the special education teacher will complete a review or adapted version of the lesson with the students.
In this model, one half of the class is taught by the content teacher and one half is taught by the special education teacher. Both groups are being taught the same lesson, just in a smaller group.
In this method, the content teacher will teach the lesson to the class, while the special education teacher will teach a small group of students an alternative lesson.
Both teachers share the planning, teaching, and supporting equally. This is the traditional method, and often the most successful co-teaching model.
For children with significant or severe disabilities, the programs may require what are termed health supports (e.g., positioning and lifting; visit to the nurse clinic), direct one - to - one aide in the classroom, assistive technology, and an individualized program which may involve the student "partially '' (e.g., videos and cards for "visual stimulation ''; listening to responses) in the full lesson plan for the "general education student ''. It may also require introduction of teaching techniques commonly used (e.g., introductions and interest in science) that teachers may not use within a common core class.
Another way to think of health supports are as a range of services that may be needed from specialists, or sometimes generalists, ranging from speech and language, to visual and hearing (sensory impairments), behavioral, learning, orthopedics, autism, deaf - blindness, and traumatic brain injury, according to Virginia Commonwealth University 's Dr. Paul Wehman. As Dr. Wehman has indicated, expectations can include post secondary education, supported employment in competitive sites, and living with family or other residential places in the community.
In 2005, comprehensive health supports were described in National Goals for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities as universally available, affordable and promoting inclusion, as supporting well - informed, freely chose health care decisions, culturally competent, promoting health promotion, and insuring well trained and respectful health care providers. In addition, mental health, behavioral, communication and crisis needs may need to be planned for and addressed.
"Full inclusion '' -- the idea that all children, including those with severe disabilities, can and should learn in a regular classroom has also taken root in many school systems, and most notably in the province of New Brunswick.
Inclusion settings allow children with and without disabilities to play and interact every day, even when they are receiving therapeutic services. When a child displays fine motor difficulty, his ability to fully participate in common classroom activities, such as cutting, coloring, and zipping a jacket may be hindered. While occupational therapists are often called to assess and implement strategies outside of school, it is frequently left up to classroom teachers to implement strategies in school. Collaborating with occupational therapists will help classroom teachers use intervention strategies and increase teachers ' awareness about students ' needs within school settings and enhance teachers ' independence in implementation of occupational therapy strategies.
As a result of the 1997 re-authorization of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), greater emphasis has been placed on delivery of related services within inclusive, general education environments. (Nolan, 2004) The importance of inclusive, integrated models of service delivery for children with disabilities has been widely researched indicating positive benefits. (Case - Smith& Holland, 2009) In traditional "pull out '' service delivery models, children typically work in isolated settings one on one with a therapist, Case - Smith and Holland (2009) argue that children working on skills once or twice a week are "less likely to produce learning that leads to new behaviors and increased competence. '' (Case Smith &Holland, 2009, pg. 419). In recent years, occupational therapy has shifted from the conventional model of "pull out '' therapy to an integrated model where the therapy takes place within a school or classroom.
Inclusion administrators have been requested to review their personnel to assure mental health personnel for children with mental health needs, vocational rehabilitation linkages for work placements, community linkages for special populations (e.g., "deaf - blind '', "autism ''), and collaboration among major community agencies for after school programs and transition to adulthood. Highly recommended are collaborations with parents, including parent - professional partnerships in areas of cultural and linguistic diversity (e.g., Syracuse University 's special education Ph. D. 's Maya Kaylanpur and Beth Harry).
Educators generally say that some students with special needs are not good candidates for inclusion. Many schools expect a fully included student to be working at or near grade level, but more fundamental requirements exist: First, being included requires that the student is able to attend school. Students that are entirely excluded from school (for example, due to long - term hospitalization), or who are educated outside of schools (for example, due to enrollment in a distance education program) can not attempt inclusion.
Additionally, some students with special needs are poor candidates for inclusion because of their effect on other students. For example, students with severe behavioral problems, such that they represent a serious physical danger to others, are poor candidates for inclusion, because the school has a duty to provide a safe environment to all students and staff.
Finally, some students are not good candidates for inclusion because the normal activities in a general education classroom will prevent them from learning. For example, a student with severe attention difficulties or extreme sensory processing disorders might be highly distracted or distressed by the presence of other students working at their desks. Inclusion needs to be appropriate to the child 's unique needs.
Most students with special needs do not fall into these extreme categories, as most students do attend school, are not violent, do not have severe sensory processing disorders, etc.
The students that are most commonly included are those with physical disabilities that have no or little effect on their academic work (diabetes mellitus, epilepsy, food allergies, paralysis), students with all types of mild disabilities, and students whose disabilities require relatively few specialized services.
Bowe says that regular inclusion, but not full inclusion, is a reasonable approach for a significant majority of students with special needs. He also says that for some students, notably those with severe autism spectrum disorders or mental retardation, as well as many who are deaf or have multiple disabilities, even regular inclusion may not offer an appropriate education. Teachers of students with autism spectrum disorders sometimes use antecedent procedures, delayed contingencies, self - management strategies, peer - mediated interventions, pivotal response training and naturalistic teaching strategies.
Some advocates of inclusion promote the adoption of progressive education practices. In the progressive education or inclusive classroom, everyone is exposed to a "rich set of activities '', and each student does what he or she can do, or what he or she wishes to do and learns whatever comes from that experience. Maria Montessori 's schools are sometimes named as an example of inclusive education.
Inclusion requires some changes in how teachers teach, as well as changes in how students with and without special needs interact with and relate to one another. Inclusive education practices frequently rely on active learning, authentic assessment practices, applied curriculum, multi-level instructional approaches, and increased attention to diverse student needs and individualization.
sometimes it is not necessary that there will always be a positive environment and therefore a lot of attention of the teachers is also required along with the support of other children which will ensure a peaceful and happy place for both kinds of children.
Advocates say that even partial non-inclusion is morally unacceptable. Proponents believe that non-inclusion reduces the disabled students ' social importance and that maintaining their social visibility is more important than their academic achievement. Proponents say that society accords disabled people less human dignity when they are less visible in general education classrooms. Advocates say that even if typical students are harmed academically by the full inclusion of certain special needs students, that the non-inclusion of these students would still be morally unacceptable, as advocates believe that the harm to typical students ' education is always less important than the social harm caused by making people with disabilities less visible in society.
A second key argument is that everybody benefits from inclusion. Advocates say that there are many children and young people who do n't fit in (or feel as though they do n't), and that a school that fully includes all disabled students feels welcoming to all. Moreover, at least one author has studied the impact a diversified student body has on the general education population and has concluded that students with mental retardation who spend time among their peers show an increase in social skills and academic proficiency.
Advocates for inclusion say that the long - term effects of typical students who are included with special needs students at a very young age have a heightened sensitivity to the challenges that others face, increased empathy and compassion, and improved leadership skills, which benefits all of society.
A combination of inclusion and pull - out (partial inclusion) services has been shown to be beneficial to students with learning disabilities in the area of reading comprehension, and preferential for the special education teachers delivering the services.
Inclusive education can be beneficial to all students in a class, not just students with special needs. Some research show that inclusion helps students understand the importance of working together, and fosters a sense of tolerance and empathy among the student body.
There are many positive effects of inclusions where both the students with special needs along with the other students in the classroom both benefit. Research has shown positive effects for children with disabilities in areas such as reaching individualized education program (IEP) goal, improving communication and social skills, increasing positive peer interactions, many educational outcomes, and post school adjustments. Positive effects on children without disabilities include the development of positive attitudes and perceptions of persons with disabilities and the enhancement of social status with non-disabled peers. Several studies have been done on the effects of inclusion of children with disabilities in general education classrooms. A study on inclusion compared integrated and segregated (special education only) preschool students. The study determined that children in the integrated sites progressed in social skills development while the segregated children actually regressed. Another study shows the effect on inclusion in grades 2 to 5. The study determined that students with specific learning disabilities made some academic and affective gains at a pace comparable to that of normal achieving students. Specific learning disabilities students also showed an improvement in self - esteem and in some cases improved motivation.
A third study shows how the support of peers in an inclusive classroom can lead to positive effects for children with autism. The study observed typical inclusion classrooms, ages ranging from 7 years old to 11 years old. The peers were trained on an intervention technique to help their fellow autistic classmates stay on task and focused. The study showed that using peers to intervene instead of classroom teachers helped students with autism reduce off - task behaviors significantly. It also showed that the typical students accepted the student with autism both before and after the intervention techniques were introduced.
Critics of full and partial inclusion include educators, administrators and parents. Full and partial inclusion approaches neglect to acknowledge the fact that most students with significant special needs require individualized instruction or highly controlled environments. Thus, general education classroom teachers often are teaching a curriculum while the special education teacher is remediating instruction at the same time. Similarly, a child with serious inattention problems may be unable to focus in a classroom that contains twenty or more active children. Although with the increase of incidence of disabilities in the student population, this is a circumstance all teachers must contend with, and is not a direct result of inclusion as a concept.
Full inclusion may be a way for schools to placate parents and the general public, using the word as a phrase to garner attention for what are in fact illusive efforts to educate students with special needs in the general education environment.
At least one study examined the lack of individualized services provided for students with IEPs when placed in an inclusive rather than mainstreamed environment.
Some researchers have maintained school districts neglect to prepare general education staff for students with special needs, thus preventing any achievement. Moreover, school districts often expound an inclusive philosophy for political reasons, and do away with any valuable pull - out services, all on behalf of the students who have no so say in the matter.
Inclusion is viewed by some as a practice philosophically attractive yet impractical. Studies have not corroborated the proposed advantages of full or partial inclusion. Moreover, "push in '' servicing does not allow students with moderate to severe disabilities individualized instruction in a resource room, from which many show considerable benefit in both learning and emotional development.
Parents of disabled students may be cautious about placing their children in an inclusion program because of fears that the children will be ridiculed by other students, or be unable to develop regular life skills in an academic classroom.
Some argue that inclusive schools are not a cost - effective response when compared to cheaper or more effective interventions, such as special education. They argue that special education helps "fix '' the special needs students by providing individualized and personalized instruction to meet their unique needs. This is to help students with special needs adjust as quickly as possible to the mainstream of the school and community. Proponents counter that students with special needs are not fully into the mainstream of student life because they are secluded to special education. Some argue that isolating students with special needs may lower their self - esteem and may reduce their ability to deal with other people. In keeping these students in separate classrooms they are n't going to see the struggles and achievements that they can make together. However, at least one study indicated mainstreaming in education has long - term benefits for students as indicated by increased test scores, where the benefit of inclusion has not yet been proved.
As used by UNESCO, inclusion refers to far more than students with special educational needs. It is centered on the inclusion of marginalized groups, such as religious, racial, ethnic, and linguistic minorities, immigrants, girls, the poor, students with disabilities, HIV / AIDS patients, remote populations, and more. In some places, these people are not actively included in education and learning processes. In the U.S. this broader definition is also known as "culturally responsive '' education, which differs from the 1980s - 1990s cultural diversity and cultural competency approaches, and is promoted among the ten equity assistance centers of the U.S. Department of Education, for example in Region IX (AZ, CA, NV), by the Equity Alliance at ASU. Gloria Ladson - Billings points out that teachers who are culturally responsive know how to base learning experiences on the cultural realities of the child (e.g. home life, community experiences, language background, belief systems). Proponents argue that culturally responsive pedagogy is good for all students because it builds a caring community where everyone 's experiences and abilities are valued.
Proponents want to maximize the participation of all learners in the community schools of their choice and to rethink and restructure policies, curricula, cultures and practices in schools and learning environments so that diverse learning needs can be met, whatever the origin or nature of those needs. They say that all students can learn and benefit from education, and that schools should adapt to the physical, social, and cultural needs of students, rather than students adapting to the needs of the school. Proponents believe that individual differences between students are a source of richness and diversity, which should be supported through a wide and flexible range of responses. The challenge of rethinking and restructuring schools to become more culturally responsive calls for a complex systems view of the educational system (e.g. see Michael Patton), where one can extend the idea of strength through diversity to all participants in the educational system (e.g. parents, teachers, community members, staff).
Although inclusion is generally associated with elementary and secondary education, it is also applicable in postsecondary education. According to UNESCO, inclusion "is increasingly understood more broadly as a reform that supports and welcomes diversity amongst all learners. '' Under this broader definition of inclusion, steps should also be taken to eliminate discrimination and provide accommodations for all students who are at a disadvantage because of some reason other than disability.
"The inclusion of age - appropriate students in a general education classroom, alongside those with and without disability is beneficial to both parties involved. (Waitoller and Thorius) With inclusive education, all students are exposed to the same curriculum, they develop their own individual potential, and participate in the same activities at the same time. Therefore, there is a variety of ways in which learning takes place because students learn differently, at their own pace and by their own style. (Carter, Moss, Asmus, Fesperman, Cooney, Brock, Lyons, Huber, and Vincent) Effectively, inclusive education provides a nurturing venue where teaching and learning should occur despite pros and cons. It is evident that students with disabilities benefit more in an inclusive atmosphere because they can receive help from their peers with diverse abilities and they compete at the same level due to equal opportunities given. ''
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who was the queen of spain during the rif war | Alfonso XIII of Spain - wikipedia
Alfonso XIII (Spanish: Alfonso León Fernando María Jaime Isidro Pascual Antonio de Borbón y Habsburgo - Lorena; 17 May 1886 -- 28 February 1941) was King of Spain from 1886 until the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931. Alfonso was monarch from birth as his father, Alfonso XII, had died the previous year. Alfonso 's mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as regent until he assumed full powers on his sixteenth birthday in 1902.
During Alfonso 's reign Spain experienced four major problems that contributed to the end of the liberal monarchy: the lack of real political representation of broad social groups, the poor situation of the popular classes, especially peasants, problems arising from the Rif War and Catalan nationalism. This political and social turbulence that began with the Spanish -- American War prevented the turnaround parties from establishing a true liberal democracy, which led to the establishment of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. With the political failure of the dictatorship, Alfonso impelled a return to the democratic normality with the intention of regenerating the regime. Nevertheless, it was abandoned by all political classes, as they felt betrayed by the king 's support of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.
He left Spain voluntarily after the municipal elections of April 1931, which were taken as a plebiscite between monarchy or republic. In exile, he retained his claim to the defunct throne until 1941, when he renounced his claim in favour of his third son Juan (whose eldest son, Juan Carlos, did eventually become king when the monarchy was restored) and died six weeks later. Buried in Rome, his remains were not transferred until 1980 to the Pantheon of the Kings in the monastery of El Escorial.
Alfonso was born in Madrid on 17 May 1886. He was the posthumous son of Alfonso XII of Spain, who had died in November 1885, and became King of Spain upon his birth. Just after he was born, he was carried naked to the Spanish prime minister on a silver tray. Five days later he was carried in a solemn court procession with a golden fleece round his neck and was baptized with water specially brought from the River Jordan in Palestine. The French newspaper Le Figaro described the young king in 1889 as "the happiest and best - loved of all the rulers of the earth ''. His mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as his regent until his 16th birthday. During the regency, in 1898, Spain lost its colonial rule over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish -- American War.
When he came of age in May 1902, the week of his majority was marked by festivities, bullfights, balls and receptions throughout Spain. He took his oath to the constitution before members of the Cortes on 17 May.
By 1905, Alfonso was looking for a suitable consort. On a state visit to the United Kingdom, he stayed at Buckingham Palace with King Edward VII. There he met Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, the Scottish - born daughter of Edward 's youngest sister Princess Beatrice, and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. He found her attractive, and she returned his interest. There were obstacles to the marriage. Victoria was a Protestant, and would have to become a Catholic. Victoria 's brother Leopold was a haemophiliac, so there was a 50 percent chance that Victoria was a carrier of the trait. Finally, Alfonso 's mother Maria Christina wanted him to marry a member of her family, the House of Habsburg - Lorraine or some other Catholic princess, as she considered the Battenbergs to be non-dynastic.
Victoria was willing to change her religion, and her being a haemophilia carrier was only a possibility. Maria Christina was eventually persuaded to drop her opposition. In January 1906 she wrote an official letter to Princess Beatrice proposing the match. Victoria met Maria Christina and Alfonso in Biarritz, France, later that month, and converted to Catholicism in San Sebastián in March.
In May, diplomats of both kingdoms officially executed the agreement of marriage. Alfonso and Victoria were married at the Royal Monastery of San Jerónimo in Madrid on 31 May 1906, with British royalty in attendance, including Victoria 's cousins the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King George V and Queen Mary). The wedding was marked by an assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria by Catalan anarchist Mateu Morral. As the wedding procession returned to the palace, he threw a bomb from a window which killed or injured several bystanders and members of the procession.
On 10 May 1907, the couple 's first child, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, was born. However, Victoria was in fact a haemophilia carrier, and Alfonso inherited the condition.
Neither of the two daughters born to the King and Queen were haemophilia carriers, but another of their sons, Gonzalo (1914 -- 1934), had the condition. Alfonso distanced himself from his Queen for transmitting the condition to their sons.
From 1914 on, he had several mistresses, and fathered five illegitimate children. A sixth illegitimate child had been born before his marriage.
During World War I, because of his family connections with both sides and the division of popular opinion, Spain remained neutral. The King established an office for assistance to prisoners of war on all sides. This office used the Spanish diplomatic and military network abroad to intercede for thousands of POWs -- transmitting and receiving letters for them, and other services. The office was located in the Royal Palace.
Alfonso became gravely ill during the 1918 flu pandemic. Spain was neutral and thus under no wartime censorship restrictions, so his illness and subsequent recovery were reported to the world, while flu outbreaks in the belligerent countries were concealed. This gave the misleading impression that Spain was the most - affected area and led to the pandemic being dubbed "the Spanish Flu. ''
Following World War I, Spain entered the lengthy yet victorious Rif War (1920 -- 1926) to preserve its colonial rule over northern Morocco. Critics of the monarchy thought the war was an unforgivable loss of money and lives, and nicknamed Alfonso el Africano ("the African ''). Alfonso had not acted as a strict constitutional monarch, and supported the Africanists who wanted to conquer for Spain a new empire in Africa to compensate for the lost empire in the Americas and Asia. The Rif War had starkly polarized Spanish society between the Africanists who wanted to conquer an empire in Africa vs. the abandonistas who wanted to abandon Morocco as not worth the blood and treasure. Alfonso liked to play favourites with his generals, and one of his most favored generals was Manuel Fernández Silvestre. In 1921, when Silvestre advanced up into the Rif mountains of Morocco, Alfonso sent him a telegram whose first line read "Hurrah for real men! '', urging Silvestre not to retreat at a time when Silvestre was experiencing major difficulties. Silvestre stayed the course, leading his men into the Battle of Annual, one of Spain 's worst defeats. Alfonso, who was on holiday in the south of France at the time, was informed of the "Disaster of the Annual '' while he was playing golf. Reportedly, Alfonso 's response to the news was to shrug his shoulders and say "Chicken meat is cheap '', before resuming his game of golf. Alfonso remained in France and did not return to Spain to comfort the families of the soldiers lost at the "Disaster of the Annual '', which many people at the time saw as a callous and cold act, a sign that the King could n't care less about the lives of his soldiers. In 1922, the Cortes started an investigation into the responsibility for the Annual disaster and soon discovered evidence that the King had been one of the main supporters of Silvestre 's advance into the Rif mountains.
After the "Disaster of the Annual '', Spain 's war in the Rif went from bad to worse, and as the Spanish were barely hanging onto Morocco, support for the abandonistas grew as many people could see no point to the war. In August 1923, Spanish soldiers embarking for Morocco mutinied, other soldiers in Malaga simply refused to board the ships that were to take them to Morocco, while in Barcelona huge crowds of left - wingers had staged anti-war protests at which Spanish flags were burned while the flag of the Rif Republic was waved about. With the Africanists comprising only a minority, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before the abandonistas forced the Spanish to give up on the Rif, which was part of the reason for the military coup d'état later in 1923. On September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera, 2nd Marquess of Estella, seized power in a military coup. He ruled as a dictator with Alfonso 's support until 1930. It is believed that one of Alfonso 's main reasons for supporting the coup was his desire to suppress the publication of the damning Cortes report into the Annual disaster. The poetic Generation of ' 27 and Catalan and Basque nationalism grew in this era
In January 1930, due to economic problems and general unpopularity, the 2nd Marquess of Estella resigned as Prime Minister. Alfonso, as the Marquess 's ally, shared the popular dislike. The King had so closely associated with the Primo de Rivera dictatorship that it was difficult for him to distance himself from the regime he had supported for almost 7 years. In April 1931, General José Sanjurjo told him even the army was not loyal. On 12 April, the republican parties won a landslide victory in municipal elections. The municipal elections were fought as a virtual referendum on the future of the monarchy. On 14 April, he fled the country as the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed, but did not formally abdicate. He settled eventually in Rome.
By a law of 26 November 1931, Alfonso was accused by the Cortes of high treason. This law would later be repealed by a new law dated 15 December 1938, signed by Francisco Franco.
In 1933, his two eldest sons, Alfonso and Jaime, renounced their claims to the throne, and in 1934 his youngest son Gonzalo died. This left his third son Juan, Count of Barcelona his only male heir. Juan later was the father of Juan Carlos I.
When the Army rose up against the democratically elected Republican Government, war broke out, Alfonso made it clear he favoured the "Nationalist '' military rebels against the Republic. But in September 1936 the Nationalist leader, General Francisco Franco, declared that the Nationalists would not restore Alfonso as king. (The Nationalist army included many Carlist supporters of a rival pretender.)
Nevertheless, he sent his son Juan to Spain in 1936, to participate in the uprising. However, General Mola had Juan arrested near the French border and expelled from the country.
On 29 September 1936, upon the death of Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime (the Carlist pretender), Alfonso also became the senior heir of Hugh Capet and so was hailed by some French legitimists as King Alphonse I of France and Navarre.
On 15 January 1941, Alfonso XIII abdicated his rights to the defunct Spanish throne in favour of Juan. He died in Rome on 28 February of that year.
In Spain, the dictator Franco ordered three days of national mourning. His funeral was held in Rome in the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri. Alfonso was buried in the Church of Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli, the Spanish national church in Rome, immediately below the tombs of Pope Callixtus III and Pope Alexander VI. In January 1980 his remains were transferred to El Escorial in Spain.
Alfonso was a promoter of tourism in Spain. The need for the lodging of his wedding guests prompted the construction of the luxury Hotel Palace in Madrid. He also supported the creation of a network of state - run lodges (Parador) in historic buildings of Spain. His fondness for the sport of football led to the patronage of several "Royal '' ("Real '' in Spanish) football clubs, the first being Real Club Deportivo de La Coruña in 1907. Selected others include Real Madrid, Real Sociedad, Real Betis, Real Unión, Espanyol and Real Zaragoza.
An avenue in the northern Madrid neighbourhood of Chamartín, Avenida de Alfonso XIII, is named after him. A plaza or town center in Iloilo City, Philippines (now Plaza Libertad) was named in his honour called Plaza Alfonso XIII. A street in Merthyr Tydfil, in Wales, was built especially to house Spanish immigrants in the mining industry and named Alphonso Street after Alfonso XIII.
Alfonso XIII appears as "King Buby '' in Luis Coloma 's story of Ratoncito Pérez (1894), which was written for the King when he was 8 years old. The story of Ratoncito Pérez has been adapted into further literary works and movies since then, with the character of Alfonso XIII appearing in some. Alfonso XIII is also mentioned on the plaque to Ratoncito Pérez on the second floor of "la calle del Arenal ''.
On 31 May 1906, Alfonso married Scottish - born Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (1887 -- 1969). Only entitled to the style of Serene Highness by birth, Ena, as she was known, was granted the higher honorific of Royal Highness one month before her wedding.
Alfonso and Ena had six surviving children:
Alfonso also had six known illegitimate children:
By French aristocrat Mélanie de Gaufridy de Dortan (1876 -- 1937), married to Philippe de Vilmorin, he had
By Pauline of Saint Glen, he had
By Béatrice Noon, he had
By Spanish actress María del Carmen Ruiz y Moragas (1898 -- 1936):
By Marie Sousa, he had
Coat of arms of Alfonso XIII (1886 -- 1931)
Coat of arms of Alfonso XIII (1931)
Coat of arms of Alfonso XIII with royal supporters (1931)
In the Royal Library of Madrid, there are many books with different emblems and super libros of the king.
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how many seasons were there of murdoch mysteries | Murdoch Mysteries - wikipedia
Murdoch Mysteries is a Canadian television drama series aired on both City and CBC Television (titled The Artful Detective on the Ovation cable TV network) featuring Yannick Bisson as William Murdoch, a police detective working in Toronto, Ontario, around the turn of the twentieth century. The television series is based on characters from the novel series by Maureen Jennings.
The series takes place in Toronto starting in 1895 and follows Detective William Murdoch (Yannick Bisson) of the Toronto Constabulary, who solves many of his cases using methods of detection that were unusual at the time. These methods include fingerprinting (referred to as "finger marks '' in the series), blood testing, surveillance, and trace evidence.
Some episodes feature anachronistic technology whereby Murdoch sometimes uses the existing technology of his time to improvise a crude prototype of a technology that would be more readily recognizable to the show 's 21st - century audience. In one episode, for instance, he creates a primitive version of sonar to locate a sunken ship in Lake Ontario. In another, he effectively invents wire - tapping. In still another, a foreign police officer has a photograph that Murdoch needs as evidence, so Murdoch asks the other officer to overlay the photograph with a grid numerically coded for the colour in each square, and to transmit the numerical data to Murdoch via telegraph -- with the end result that the foreign officer has essentially sent Murdoch a bitmap image they call a "facsimile '' -- a telefax.
Detective Murdoch is assisted by the three other main characters: Inspector Brackenreid (Thomas Craig), Doctor Julia Ogden (Hélène Joy), and the inexperienced but eager Constable George Crabtree (Jonny Harris), who aspires to be a mystery novel writer. Brackenreid, Murdoch 's immediate superior, is a blunt and sceptical Yorkshireman with a fondness for whisky who prefers conventional methods of detection over Murdoch 's eccentric methods, though he is typically pleased and proud when Murdoch is successful despite the odds. Crabtree is often unable to grasp the more advanced methods, but his enthusiasm and loyalty make him a good assistant. Like Crabtree, Dr. Ogden is a great supporter of Murdoch 's methods. Her skill in pathology usually helps by revealing a great deal of useful evidence to aid Murdoch in solving cases. Throughout the series, Murdoch 's growing infatuation with her, and his inability to express his feelings, provide a light subplot. In the fifth season, after Dr. Ogden is married to Dr. Darcy Garland (a colleague she met in Buffalo), a new doctor is introduced, Doctor Emily Grace (Georgina Reilly). She and George Crabtree show some romantic interest in each other.
Real history is an important element in most episodes, and the plots, though fictitious, sometimes involve real people, such as Buffalo Bill Cody, Annie Oakley, HG Wells, Nikola Tesla, Wilfrid Laurier, Jack London, Arthur Conan Doyle, Queen Victoria, Oliver Mowat, Orville and Wilbur Wright, Henry Ford, Sir Winston Churchill, Bat Masterson, Alexander Graham Bell, Emma Goldman, Harry Houdini and Thomas Edison. Future events are often foreshadowed. For example, it is implied that secret British - American government co-operation has produced a highly advanced aircraft similar to an airship, and Crabtree and Murdoch allude to the building of a secret government facility in Nevada and New Mexico "at Concession 51 '' (an allusion to Area 51). Characters also refer to actual inventions of the 19th century and extrapolate from them to future inventions such as microwave ovens, night - vision goggles, computers, the games "Cluedo '' (marketed as "Clue '' in the U.S.) and "Hangman '', the toy Silly Putty, and a silencer for small arms.
Another underlying theme of the series involves the fact that Murdoch is a Roman Catholic in what was at the time a predominantly Protestant city and the prejudices that he occasionally encounters as a result.
Murdoch Mysteries originally came to Canadian television in 2004 as a two - episode made - for - TV movie, starring Peter Outerbridge in the lead role. One episode was broadcast in 2004, and the other in 2005. Its original title at that time was Murder 19C: The Detective Murdoch Mysteries. In 2006, the TV movie was picked up for a thirteen - episode series, which would again star Outerbridge. But there were questions about Outerbridge 's continuing availability, since he was already starring in another series, ReGenesis. By 2007, it was announced that Yannick Bisson would become the lead in what was now called Murdoch Mysteries. The new version of Murdoch Mysteries debuted on Citytv in late January 2008.
The program was well received, both by the audience and by the critics: in the summer of 2008, it was nominated for 14 Gemini Awards by the Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television. Critics were surprised, however, that Bisson was not among the nominees. The critics were also surprised in November when Murdoch Mysteries won only two Geminis.
Meanwhile, Murdoch Mysteries was renewed for 2009, and again in 2010. In 2010 the program, which had previously been filmed only in Canada, went to Bristol, England, to film an episode. In August 2010, it was announced that there would be a fourth season. One big fan of the show was Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, who agreed to play a small role in one of that season 's episodes. The episode in which he appeared, playing a "clueless cop who fails to recognize then prime minister Wilfrid Laurier, '' aired in late July 2011.
On September 27, 2011, Rogers Media announced that it would not be continuing the series beyond its fifth season. Then, on November 15, 2011, it was reported that CBC had picked up the show and ordered a sixth season, which premiered on January 7, 2013. On April 2, 2013, CBC renewed the show for a seventh season, with 18 episodes, which started on September 30, 2013. In April 2014, the show was renewed for an eighth season. On March 4, 2015, CBC renewed Murdoch Mysteries for a ninth season. It remains one of the CBC 's most highly rated programs, regularly watched by more than 1.4 million viewers.
On March 31, 2016, CBC announced the tenth season of Murdoch Mysteries, ten days after the ninth - season finale.
On March 13, 2017, CBC renewed the show for an eleventh season, which will consist of 18 episodes and a third two - hour Christmas special. The eleventh season premiere will be October 10, 2017.
In March 2017, the show was renewed for an eleventh season.
Murdoch Mysteries has, at times, been known for using stunt casting of famous actors or non-actor personalities in guest roles. Noted examples have included Stephen Harper, at the time the Prime Minister of Canada, in a small role as a police desk clerk; William Shatner portraying writer Mark Twain; a special Christmas episode which included appearances by Ed Asner, Brendan Coyle, Kelly Rowan and television news anchor Peter Mansbridge; an episode which featured David Onley, the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario at the time of production, appearing as his own forerunner Oliver Mowat; and two different episodes in which former Dragons ' Den, Dragons Arlene Dickinson and David Chilton guest starred. Dickison portrayed a business magnate named Miss Dickinson and Chilton a character named Mr. Chilton (aka the "Wealthy Barber ''). Archived September 20, 2016, at the Wayback Machine... Calgary Herald, February 13, 2015. < / ref >
In 2013, Murdoch Mysteries aired a fictional crossover with another CBC Television crime drama, Republic of Doyle. With the two shows set over 100 years apart, Allan Hawco appeared on the November 25, 2013, episode of Murdoch Mysteries as Jacob Doyle, a 19th - century ancestor of his regular character Jake Doyle, while Bisson appeared on the January 29, 2014, episode of Republic of Doyle as Detective Bill Murdoch, a 21st - century descendant of Detective William Murdoch. The end of the latter episode references the previous episode.
Murdoch Mysteries was produced and developed by Shaftesbury Films in association with Citytv, ITV Studios Global Entertainment, UKTV and with the assistance of the Canadian Film or Video Production Tax Credit, the Ontario Film and Television Tax Credit, and the Canadian Television Fund.
Prior to being picked up as a regular weekly series, three television movies, Except the Dying, Poor Tom Is Cold and Under the Dragon 's Tail, aired on Bravo Canada in 2004. These films starred Peter Outerbridge as William Murdoch, Matthew MacFadzean as George Crabtree, Keeley Hawes as Julia Ogden, and Colm Meaney as Inspector Brackenreid.
Seasons one and two were filmed at the Toronto Film Studios facility on Eastern Avenue in Toronto. However, that facility was closed at the end of 2008, forcing the third season to be filmed elsewhere in Toronto, in the area near Kipling Subway to the west of the city.
For seasons one, two and three, filming locations included the Galt district of Cambridge, Ontario. Sidewalks and driveways were covered in earth, and in season one the Dobbie Mansion was used for about a week of indoor filming. Parts of the opening episode of season three were filmed in Bristol in England.
Shaftesbury Films announced in April 2010 that a fourth season had been ordered by Citytv and Alibi, with production scheduled to begin later that year. In August 2010 Shaftesbury Films announced that production on the fourth season had begun and was scheduled to continue through November 2010 with filming in Toronto and Hamilton. Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper filmed a cameo appearance as a constable in the fourth season on October 15, 2010 when he visited the set with his daughter.
Filming of season five began in July 2011 and included a visit to Dawson City in the Yukon. On September 27, 2011 Rogers Media announced that they were not continuing with Murdoch Mysteries beyond the fifth season. In response to the cancellation of the series Christina Jennings, executive producer and CEO of Shaftesbury Films said:
We 've watched the show grow with the passionate support of audiences in Canada and around the world, and look forward to bringing the storyline to a fulfilling conclusion for fans during our final season.
Murdoch Mysteries was described as an "odd fit '' for Citytv 's schedule, which consists of more contemporary, urban hip, imported programming. Shaftesbury 's UK partners in the production of the series, British broadcaster UKTV and the international distributor ITV Studios Global Entertainment, were both interested in additional seasons. Christina Jennings approached Kirstine Stewart, executive vice-president of CBC 's English services, about continuing the series, and she felt that "a home at CBC made absolute sense ''. Reports of the change of broadcasters and commitment for a sixth season appeared in the evening of November 15 with the press releases being issued on November 16. Production of the sixth season began in April 2012 to be ready for CBC in September 2012, but later the premiere for season six was changed to January 2013, and instead an encore of season five aired in September.
In addition to the regular television series, several short run web series have also been created under the Murdoch Mysteries banner.
In 2011, Murdoch Mysteries: The Curse of the Lost Pharaohs debuted on citytv.com, blending live action and animation to depict a storyline in which Crabtree, Murdoch, Dr. Ogden and Inspector Brackenreid were forced to battle mummies who were attempting to kill Queen Victoria. The storyline of the webseries was also integrated into regular television series; within the main television plot Crabtree, as an aspiring writer, spent much of the season working on The Curse of the Lost Pharaohs as a fantasy novel manuscript. The Curse of the Lost Pharaohs garnered nominations for Best Digital Program: Fiction at the 2012 Emmy Awards, Cross-Platform Project, Fiction at the 2012 Banff World Media Festival and Cross-Platform Project, Fiction at the 1st Canadian Screen Awards.
The 2012 season web series The Murdoch Effect featured a time travel plotline in which William Murdoch suddenly found himself transported to the 21st century, and had to solve a case with eerie parallels to one he was investigating in his own timeline.
The 2013 series Nightmare on Queen Street featured an interactive story in which the viewer was called upon to solve the case by piecing together clues from each webisode. This series also garnered a nomination for Best Cross-Platform Project, Fiction at the 2nd Canadian Screen Awards.
In Australia, Murdoch Mysteries airs on 13th Street Monday to Friday at 7: 30 pm, with the latest series also airing at 7: 30 pm on Saturdays.
The series airs in the United Kingdom on Alibi (formerly known as UKTV Drama).
In the United States:
In France, the series is shown on France 3 and has been retitled Les enquêtes de Murdoch (Murdoch Investigations).
Acorn Media has released nine seasons of Murdoch Mysteries on DVD and Blu - ray in North America.
ITV Studios Home Entertainment has released four seasons on DVD in the UK and has also released a box set of the seasons 1 -- 3. Season 4 onward, are available through Amazon UK, but in Region 1 format only. The first seven seasons are available for home viewing via streaming from Acorn.
In Australia, all eight seasons are available on DVD.
It was announced that Once Upon a Murdoch Christmas will be released in Region 1 on October 10, 2017 on both DVD and BluRay.
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head of the roman catholic church in england | Catholic Church in England and Wales - wikipedia
The Catholic Church in England and Wales is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in full communion with the Pope. Celtic Christianity, with some traditions different from those of Rome, was present in Roman Britain from the first century AD, but after the departure of the Roman legions was in retreat to Paganism. In 597 AD, the first authoritative papal mission, establishing a direct link from the Kingdom of Kent to the See of Rome and to the Benedictine form of monasticism, was carried into effect by Augustine of Canterbury.
The English Church continuously adhered to the See of Rome for almost a thousand years from the time of Augustine of Canterbury, but in 1534, during the reign of King Henry VIII, the church, through a series of legislative acts between 1533 and 1536 became independent from the Pope for a period as the Church of England, a national church with Henry declaring himself Supreme Head. Under Henry 's son, King Edward VI, the Church of England became more influenced by the European Protestant movement.
The English Church was brought back under full papal authority in 1553, at the beginning of the reign of Queen Mary I, and Catholicism was enforced by the Marian persecutions; however, when Queen Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558, the Church of England 's independence from Rome was reasserted through the settlement of 1559, which shifted the Church of England 's teaching and practice, and in the Act of Uniformity, which caused a rift between Catholics and Queen. In 1570 Pope Pius V responded, in his bull Regnans in Excelsis, calling on all Catholics to rebel against Elizabeth and excommunicating anyone who obeyed her. The Parliament of England made the fact of being a Jesuit or seminarian treasonable in 1571. Priests found celebrating Mass were often hanged, drawn and quartered, rather than being burned at the stake. The Catholic Church (along with other non-established churches) continued in England, although it was at times subject to various forms of persecution. Most recusant members (except those in diaspora on the Continent, in heavily Catholic areas in the north, or part of the aristocracy) practised their faith in private for all practical purposes. In 1766, the Pope recognised the English Monarchy as lawful, and this led eventually to the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829. Dioceses (replacing districts) were re-established by Pope Pius IX in 1850. Along with the 22 Latin Rite dioceses, there are the Eastern Catholic diocese of the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Holy Family of London and the Syro - Malabar Catholic Eparchy of Great Britain.
At the 2001 United Kingdom census, there were 4.2 million Catholics in England and Wales, some eight per cent of the population. One hundred years earlier, in 1901, they represented only 4.8 per cent of the population. In 1981, 8.7 per cent of the population of England and Wales were Catholic. In 2009, an Ipsos Mori poll found that 9.6 per cent, or 5.2 million persons of all ethnicities were Catholic in England and Wales. Sizeable populations include North West England where one in five is Catholic, a result of large - scale Irish immigration in the nineteenth century as well as the high number of English recusants in Lancashire.
Much of Great Britain was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 43 AD, after Claudius led the Roman conquest of Britain, conquering lands inhabited by Celtic Britons. The indigenous religious traditions of the Britons, under their priests the Druids were suppressed; most notably Gaius Suetonius Paulinus launched an attack on Ynys Môn in 60 AD and destroyed the shrine and sacred groves there. In the years following this, Roman influence saw the importation of several religious cults into Britain, including Roman mythology, Mithraism and the imperial cult. One of these sects, then disapproved by the Roman authorities, was the Levantine - originated religion of Christianity. While it is unclear exactly how it arrived, the earliest British figures considered saints by the Christians are St. Alban, followed by Ss. Julius and Aaron, living in the 3rd century.
Eventually, the position of the Roman authorities on Christianity moved from hostility, to toleration with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD and then enforcement as state religion following the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD, becoming a key component of Romano - British culture and society. Records note that Romano - British bishops, such as Restitutus, attended the Council of Arles in 314, which confirmed the theological findings of an earlier convocation held in Rome (the Council of Rome) in 313. The Roman departure from Britain in the following century and the subsequent Germanic invasions sharply decreased contact between Britain and Continental Europe. Christianity, however, continued to flourish in the Brittonic areas of Great Britain. During this period certain practices and traditions took hold in Britain and in Ireland that are collectively known as Celtic Christianity. Distinct features of Celtic Christianity include a unique monastic tonsure and calculations for the date of Easter. Regardless of these differences, historians do not consider this Celtic or British Christianity a distinct church separate from general Western European Christianity.
In 597, Pope Gregory I sent Augustine of Canterbury and 40 missionaries from Rome to evangelise the Anglo - Saxons, a process completed by the 7th century. The Gregorian mission, as it is known, is of particular interest in the Catholic Church as it was the first official Papal mission to found a church. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, Augustine established an archbishopric in Canterbury, the old capital of Kent, and, having received the pallium earlier (linking his new diocese to Rome), became the first in the series of Catholic archbishops of Canterbury, four of whom (Laurence, Mellitus, Justus and Honorius) were part of the original band of Benedictine missionaries. (The last Catholic archbishop of Canterbury was Reginald Pole, who died in 1558.) During this time of mission, Rome pursued greater unity with the local church in Britain, particularly on the question of dating Easter. Columbanus, Columba 's fellow countryman and churchman, had asked for a papal judgement on the Easter question as did abbots and bishops of Ireland. Later, in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, Bede explained the reasons for the discrepancy: "He (Columba) left successors distinguished for great charity, Divine love, and strict attention to the rules of discipline following indeed uncertain cycles in the computation of the great festival of Easter, because far away as they were out of the world, no one had supplied them with the synodal decrees relating to the Paschal observance. '' A series of synods were held to resolve the matter, culminating with the Synod of Whitby in 644. The missionaries also introduced the Rule of Benedict, the continental rule, to Anglo - Saxon monasteries in England. Wilfrid, a Benedictine consecrated archbishop of York (in 664), was particularly skilled in promoting the Benedictine Rule. Over time, the Benedictine, continental rule engrafted upon the monasteries and parishes of England, drawing them closer to The Continent and Rome. As a result, the pope was often called upon to intervene in quarrels, affirm monarchs, and decide jurisdictions. In 787, for example, Pope Adrian I elevated Lichfield to an archdiocese and appointed Hygeberht its first archbishop. Later, in 808, Pope Leo III helped restore King Eardwulf of Northumbria to his throne; and in 859, Pope Leo IV confirmed and anointed Alfred the Great king, according to Anglo - Saxon Chronicle. Individual Benedictines seemed to play an important role throughout this period. For example, before Benedictine monk St. Dunstan was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury in 960, Pope John XII had him appointed legate, commissioning him (along with Ethelwold and Oswald) to restore discipline in the existing monasteries of England, many of which were destroyed by Danish invaders.
Control of the English Church passed from the Anglo - Saxons to the Normans following the Norman conquest of England. The two clerics most prominent associated with this process were the continental - born Lanfranc and Anselm; both men were Benedictines. Anselm later became a Doctor of the Church. A century later, Pope Innocent III had to confirm the primacy of Canterbury over four Welsh churches for many reasons, but primarily to sustain the importance of the Gregorian foundation of Augustine 's mission.
During mediaeval times, England and Wales were part of western Christendom. During this period, monasteries and convents, such as those at Shaftesbury and Shrewsbury, were prominent features of society providing lodging, hospitals and education. Likewise, schools like Oxford University and Cambridge University were important. Members of religious orders, notably the Dominicans and Franciscans, settled in both schools and maintained houses for students. Clerics like Archbishop Walter de Merton founded Merton College at Oxford and three different popes -- Gregory IX, Nicholas IV, and John XXII -- gave Cambridge the legal protection and status to compete with other European medieval universities.
Pilgrimage was a prominent feature of mediaeval Catholicism, and England and Wales were amply provided with many popular sites of pilgrimage. The village of Walsingham, Norfolk became an important shrine after a noblewoman called Richeldis de Faverches experienced a vision of the Virgin Mary in 1061, asking her to build a replica of the Holy House at Nazareth. In 1170, Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral, by followers of King Henry II and was quickly canonised as a martyr for the faith. This resulted in Canterbury becoming a major place of pilgrimage and inspired the Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. There were also shrines at Holywell in Wales which commemorated St Winefride and at Westminster Abbey to Edward the Confessor to name but a few.
An Englishman, Nicholas Breakspear, became Pope Adrian IV, ruling from 1154 to 1159. Fifty - six years later, Cardinal Stephen Langton, the first of English cardinals and later Archbishop of Canterbury (1208 -- 28), became a pivotal figure in the dispute between King John and Pope Innocent III. This critical situation led to the signing and later promulgation of the Magna Charta in 1215.
England remained a Catholic country until 1534, when it first officially separated from Rome during the reign of King Henry VIII. In response to the Pope 's refusal to annul Henry 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Parliament denied the Pope 's authority over the English Church, made the king Head of the Church in England, and dissolved the monasteries and religious orders in England. Henry did not himself accept Protestant innovations in doctrine or liturgy -- but he extended toleration, and even promotion, to clergy with Protestant sympathies in return for support for his break with Rome. On the other hand, failure to accept this break, particularly by prominent persons in church and state, was regarded by Henry as treason, resulting in the execution of Thomas More, former Lord Chancellor, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, among others. The See of Rome Act 1536 enforced the separation from Rome, while the ' Pilgrimage of Grace ' of 1536 and ' Bigod 's Rebellion ' of 1537, risings in the North against the religious changes, were bloodily repressed.
In 1536 - 41 Henry VIII engaged in a large - scale Dissolution of the Monasteries, which controlled most of the wealth of the church, and much of the richest land. He disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. He did not turn these properties over to a Protestant church of England (which indeed did not yet exist): they were sold, mostly to pay for the wars. The historian G.W. Bernard argues:
Nevertheless, Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry 's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Catholics.
The 1547 to 1553 reign of the boy King Edward VI saw the Church of England become more influenced by Protestantism in its faith and worship, with the (Latin) Mass replaced by the (English) Book of Common Prayer, representational art and statues in church buildings destroyed, and Catholic practices which had survived during Henry 's reign, for instance the public saying of prayers to the Virgin Mary such as the Salve Regina, ended. The Western Rising took place in 1549.
The institutional Church in England returned to Catholic practice during the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary I from 1553 to 1558. Mary was determined to bring back the whole of England to the Catholic faith. This aim was not necessarily at odds with the feeling of a large section of the populace; Edward 's Protestant reformation had not been well received everywhere, and there was ambiguity in the responses of the parishes. Mary also had some powerful families behind her. The Jerningham family together with other East Anglian Catholic families such as the Bedingfelds, Waldegraves, Rochesters together with the Huddlestons of Sawston Hall were "the key to Queen Mary 's successful accession to the throne. Without them she would never have made it. '' However, Mary 's executions of 300 Protestants by burning at the stake proved counterproductive, as they were extremely unpopular among the populace. For example, instead of executing Archbishop Cranmer for treason for supporting Queen Jane, she had him tried for heresy and burned at a stake. With the assistance of Foxe 's Book of Martyrs, which glorified the Protestants killed at the time and vilified Catholics, this practice ensured her a place in popular memory as Bloody Mary -- for centuries after the idea of another reconciliation with Rome was linked in many English people 's minds with a renewal of Mary 's fiery stakes.
When Mary died and Elizabeth I became queen in 1558, the religious situation in England was confused. Throughout the see - sawing religious landscape of the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary I, a significant proportion of the population (especially in the rural and outlying areas of the country), are likely to have continued to hold Catholic views, at least in private. By the end of Elizabeth I 's reign, however, England was clearly a Protestant country, and Catholics were a minority.
Elizabeth 's first act was to reverse her sister 's re-establishment of Catholicism by Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. The Act of Supremacy of 1558 made it a crime to assert the authority of any foreign prince, prelate, or other authority, and was aimed at abolishing the authority of the Pope in England. A third offence was high treason, punishable by death. The Oath of Supremacy, imposed by the Act of Supremacy 1558, provided for any person taking public or church office in England to swear allegiance to the monarch as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Failure to so swear was a crime, although it did not become treason until 1562, when the Supremacy of the Crown Act 1562 made a second offence of refusing to take the oath treason.
However, during the first years of her reign there was relative leniency towards Catholics who were willing to keep their religion private, especially if they were prepared to continue to attend their parish churches. The wording of the official prayer book had been carefully designed to make this possible by omitting aggressively "heretical '' matter, and at first many English Catholics did in fact worship with their Protestant neighbours, at least until this was formally forbidden by Pope Pius V 's 1570 bull, Regnans in Excelsis, which also declared that Elizabeth was not a rightful queen and should be deposed, formally excommunicated her and any who obeyed her and obliged all Catholics to attempt to overthrow her.
In response, the "Act to retain the Queen 's Majesty 's subjects in their obedience '', passed in 1581, made it high treason to reconcile anyone or to be reconciled to "the Romish religion '', or to procure or publish any papal Bull or writing whatsoever. The celebration of mass was prohibited under penalty of a fine of two hundred marks and imprisonment for one year for the celebrant, and a fine of one hundred marks and the same imprisonment for those who heard the Mass. This act also increased the penalty for not attending the Anglican service to the sum of twenty pounds a month, or imprisonment till the fine be paid, or till the offender went to the Protestant Church. A further penalty of ten pounds a month was inflicted on anyone keeping a schoolmaster who did not attend the Protestant service. The schoolmaster himself was to be imprisoned for one year.
In the setting of England 's wars with Catholic powers such as France and Spain, culminating in the attempted invasion by the Spanish Armada in 1588, the Papal bull unleashed a nationalistic feeling which equated Protestantism with loyalty to a highly popular monarch, rendering every Catholic a potential traitor, even in the eyes of those who were not themselves extreme Protestants. The Rising of the North, the Throckmorton plot and the Babington plot, together with other subversive activities of supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots, all reinforced the association of Catholicism and treachery in the popular mind.
The climax of Elizabeth 's persecution of Catholics was reached in 1585 by the "Act against Jesuits, Seminary priests and other such like disobedient persons ''. This statute, under which most of the English Catholic martyrs were executed, made it high treason for any Jesuit or any seminary priest to be in England at all, and felony for any one to harbour or relieve them.
The last of Elizabeth 's anti-Catholic laws was the "Act for the better discovery of wicked and seditious persons terming themselves Catholics, but being rebellious and traitorous subjects ''. Its effect was to prohibit all recusants from removing more than five miles from their place of abode, and to order all persons suspected of being Jesuits or seminary priests, and not answering satisfactorily, to be imprisoned till they did so.
However, Elizabeth did not believe that her anti-Catholic policies constituted religious persecution, finding it hard, in the context of the uncompromising wording of the Papal Bull against her, to distinguish between those Catholics engaged in conflict with her from those Catholics with no such designs. The number of English Catholics executed under Elizabeth was significant, including Edmund Campion, Robert Southwell, and Margaret Clitherow. Elizabeth herself signed the death warrant that led to regicide, the beheading of her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots.
Because of the persecution in England, Catholic priests in England were trained abroad at the English College in Rome, the English College in Douai, the English College at Valladolid in Spain, and at the English College in Seville. Given that Douai was located in the Spanish Netherlands, part of the dominions of Elizabethan England 's greatest enemy, and Valladolid and Seville in Spain itself, they became associated in the public eye with political as well as religious subversion. It was this combination of nationalistic public opinion, sustained persecution, and the rise of a new generation which could not remember pre-Reformation times and had no pre-established loyalty to Catholicism, that reduced the number of Catholics in England during this period -- although the overshadowing memory of Queen Mary I 's reign was another factor that should not be underestimated. Nevertheless, by the end of the reign probably 20 % of the population were still Catholic, with another 10 % dissident "Puritan '' Protestants, and the remainder more or less reconciled to the "official '' church.
The reign of James I (1603 -- 1625) was marked by a measure of tolerance, though less so after the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot conspiracy of a small group of Catholic conspirators who aimed to kill both King and Parliament and establish a Catholic monarchy. A mix of persecution and tolerance followed: Ben Jonson and his wife, for example, in 1606 were summoned before the authorities for failure to take communion in the Church of England, yet the King tolerated some Catholics at court; for example George Calvert, to whom he gave the title Baron Baltimore, and the Duke of Norfolk, head of the Howard family.
The reign of Charles I (1625 -- 49) saw a small revival of Catholicism in England, especially among the upper classes. As part of the royal marriage settlement Charles 's Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria, was permitted her own royal chapel and chaplain. Henrietta Maria was in fact very strict in her religious observances, and helped create a court with continental influences, where Catholicism was tolerated, even somewhat fashionable. Some anti-Catholic legislation became effectively a dead letter. The Counter-Reformation on the Continent of Europe had created a more vigorous and magnificent form of Catholicism (i.e., Baroque, notably found in the architecture and music of Austria, Italy and Germany) that attracted some converts, like the poet Richard Crashaw. Ironically, the explicitly Catholic artistic movement (i.e., Baroque) ended up "providing the blueprint, after the fire of London, for the first new Protestant churches to be built in England. ''
While Charles remained firmly Protestant, he was personally drawn towards a consciously ' High Church ' Anglicanism. This affected his appointments to Anglican bishoprics, in particular the appointment of William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury. How many Catholics and Puritans there were is still open to debate.
Religious conflict between Charles and other "High '' Anglicans and Calvinists - at this stage mostly still within the Church of England (the Puritans) - formed a strand of the anti-monarchical leanings of the troubled politics of the period. The religious tensions between a court with ' Papist ' elements and a Parliament where the Puritans were strong was one of the major factors behind the English Civil War, in which almost all Catholics supported the King. The victory of the Parliamentarians meant a strongly Protestant, anti-Catholic (and, incidentally, anti-Anglican) regime under Oliver Cromwell.
The restoration of the monarchy under Charles II (1660 -- 85) also saw the restoration of a Catholic - influenced court like his father 's. However, although Charles himself had Catholic leanings, he was first and foremost a pragmatist and realised the vast majority of public opinion in England was strongly anti-Catholic, so he agreed to laws such as the Test Act requiring any appointee to any public office or member of Parliament to deny Catholic beliefs such as transubstantiation. As far as possible, however, he maintained tacit tolerance. Like his father, he married a Catholic, Catherine of Braganza. (He would become Catholic himself on his deathbed).
Charles ' brother and heir James, Duke of York (later James II) converted to Catholicism in 1668 -- 1669. When Titus Oates in 1678 alleged a (totally imaginary) ' Popish Plot ' to assassinate Charles and put James in his place, he unleashed a wave of Parliamentary and public hysteria which led to anti-Catholic purges, and another wave of sectarian persecution, which Charles was either unable or unwilling to prevent. Throughout the early 1680s the Whig element in Parliament attempted to remove James as successor to the throne. Their failure saw James become, in 1685, Britain 's first openly Catholic monarch since Mary I (and last to date). He promised religious toleration for Catholic and Protestants on an equal footing, but it is in doubt whether he did this to gain support from Dissenters or whether he was truly committed to tolerance (Contemporary Catholic regimes in Spain and Italy, for example, were hardly tolerant of Protestantism, while those in France and Poland had practised forms of toleration).
James ' clear intent to work towards the restoration of the Church of England to the Catholic fold encouraged converts like the poet John Dryden, who wrote "The Hind and the Panther '', celebrating his conversion. Protestant fears mounted as James placed Catholics in the major commands of the existing standing army, dismissed the Protestant Bishop of London and dismissed the Protestant Fellows of Magdalen College and replaced them with a wholly Catholic board. The last straw was the birth of a Catholic heir in 1688, portending a return to a Pre-Reformation Catholic dynasty.
In what came to be known as the Glorious Revolution, Parliament deemed James to have abdicated (effectively deposing him, though Parliament refused to call it that) in favor of his Protestant daughter and son - in - law and nephew, Mary II and William III. Although this affair is celebrated as solidifying both English liberties and the Protestant nature of the kingdom, some argue that it was "fundamentally a coup spearheaded by a foreign army and navy. ''
James fled into exile, and with him many Catholic nobility and gentry. The Act of Settlement 1701, which remains in operation today, established the royal line through Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and specifically excludes any Catholic or anyone who marries a Catholic from the throne. This Act was partially changed when the ban on the monarch 's marrying a Catholic was eliminated (along with the rule of male succession).
Henry Benedict Stuart (Cardinal - Duke of York), the last Jacobite heir to publicly assert a claim to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland, died in Rome in 1807. A monument to the Royal Stuarts exists today at Vatican City. Franz, Duke of Bavaria, head of the Wittelsbach family, is the most senior descendant of King Charles I and is considered by Jacobites to be the heir of the Stuarts.
The years from 1688 to the early 19th century were in some respects the nadir for Catholicism in England. Deprived of their dioceses, four Apostolic Vicariates were set up throughout England until the re-establishment of the diocesan episcopacy in 1850. Although the persecution was not violent as in the past, Catholic numbers, influence and visibility in English society reached their lowest ebb. Their civil rights were severely curtailed: their right to own property or inherit land was greatly limited, they were burdened with special taxes, they could not send their children abroad for Catholic education, they could not vote, and priests were liable to imprisonment.
There was no longer, as once in Stuart times, any notable Catholic presence at court, in public life, in the military or professions. Many of the Catholic nobles and gentry who had preserved on their lands among their tenants small pockets of Catholicism had followed James into exile, and others, at least outwardly, conformed to Anglicanism, meaning fewer such Catholic communities survived intact. A bishop at this time (roughly from 1688 to 1850) was called a Vicar apostolic. A Vicar Apostolic was a titular bishop (as opposed to a diocesan bishop) through whom the pope exercised jurisdiction over a particular church territory in England. Interestingly, English - speaking colonial America came under the jurisdiction of the Vicar Apostolic of the London. As titular bishop over Catholics in British America, he was important to the government not only in regard to its English - speaking North American colonies, but also after the Seven Years ' War when the British Empire, in 1763, acquired the French - speaking (and predominantly Catholic) territory of Canada. Only after the Treaty of Paris in 1783 and in 1789 with the consecration of John Carroll, a friend of Benjamin Franklin, did the U.S. have its own diocesan bishop, free of the Vicar Apostolic of London, James Robert Talbot.
Most Catholics retreated to complete isolation from a popular Protestant mainstream, and Catholicism in England in this period is politically, if not socially, invisible to history, Alexander Pope being one memorable English Catholic of the 18th century and the other being a member of the Catholic gentry, the Duke of Norfolk, the Premier Duke in the peerage of England and as Earl of Arundel, the Premier Earl. In virtue of his status and as head of the Howard family (which included the Earl of Carlisle, the Earl of Suffolk, the Earl of Berkshire, and the Earl of Effingham), the Duke was always at court. Pope, however, seemed to benefit from the isolation. In 1713, when he was 25, he took subscriptions for a project that filled his life for the next seven years, the result being a new version of Homer 's Iliad. Samuel Johnson pronounced it the greatest translation ever achieved in the English language. Over time, Pope became the greatest poet of the age, the Augustan Age, especially for his mock - heroic poems, Rape of the Lock and The Dunciad. Around this time, in 1720, Clement XI proclaimed Anselm of Canterbury a Doctor of the Church. In 1752, mid-century, Great Britain adopted the Gregorian calendar decreed by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. Later in the century there was some liberalisation of the anti-Catholic laws on the basis of Enlightenment ideals.
In 1778 a Catholic Relief Act allowed Catholics to own property, inherit land and join the army. Hardline Protestant mobs reacted in the Gordon Riots in 1780, attacking any building in London which was associated with Catholicism or owned by Catholics. Other reforms allowed the clergy to operate more openly and thus allowed permanent missions to be set up in the larger towns. Stonyhurst College, for example, was re-established in 1791 for wealthier Catholics. In 1837, James Arundel, the tenth Baron Arundel of Wardour, bequeathed to Stonyhurst the Arundel Library, which contained the vast Arundel family collection, including some of the school 's most important books and manuscripts such as a Shakespeare First Folio and a manuscript copy of Froissart 's Chronicles, looted from the body of a dead Frenchman after the Battle of Agincourt. Yet Catholic recusants as a whole remained a small group, except where they stayed the majority religion in various pockets, notably in rural Lancashire and Cumbria, or were part of the Catholic aristocracy and squirearchy. One of the most interesting contemporary descendents of recusants is Timothy Radcliffe, former Master of the Order of Preachers (Dominicans) and writer. Radcliffe is related to three former cardinals -- Weld, Vaughan and Hume (the last because his cousin Lord Hunt is married to Hume 's sister), and his family is connected to many of the great recusant English Catholic families, the Arundels, Tichbournes, Tablots, Stonors, and Weld - Blundells. Finally, history can not forget the famous recusant, Maria Fitzherbert, who during this period secretly married the Prince of Wales, Prince Regent, and future George IV in 1785. The British Constitution, however, did not accept it and George IV later moved on. Cast aside by the establishment, she was adopted by the town of Brighton, whose citizens, both Catholic and Protestant, called her "Mrs. Prince ''. According to journalist, Richard Abbott, "Before the town had a (Catholic) church of its own, she had a priest say Mass at her own house, and invited local Catholics '', suggesting the recusants of Brighton were not very undiscovered.
In a new study of the English Catholic community, 1688 -- 1745, Gabriel Glickman notes that Catholics, especially those whose social position gave them access to the courtly centres of power and patronage, had a significant part to play in 18th - century England. They were not as marginal as one might think today. For example, Alexander Pope was not the only Catholic whose contributions (especially, Essays on Man) help define the temper of an early English Enlightenment. In addition to Pope, Glickman notes, a Catholic architect, James Gibbs, returned baroque forms to the London skyline and a Catholic composer, Thomas Arne, composed "Rule Britannia. '' According to reviewer Aidan Bellenger, Glickman also suggests that "rather than being the victims of the Stuart failure, ' the unpromising setting of exile and defeat ' had ' sown the seed of a frail but resilient English Catholic Enlightenment. ' '' Yale University historian Steve Pincus likewise argues in his book, 1688: The First Modern Revolution, that Catholics under William and Mary and their successors experienced considerable freedom.
After this moribund period, the first signs of a revival occurred as thousands of French Catholics fled France during the French Revolution. The leaders of the Revolution were virulently anti-Catholic, even singling out priests and nuns for summary execution or massacre, and England was seen as a safe haven from Jacobin violence. Also around this time (1801), a new political entity was formed, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which merged the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, thus increasing the number of Catholics in the new state. Pressure for abolition of anti-Catholic laws grew, particularly with the need for Catholic recruits to fight in the Napoleonic Wars. Despite the strong opposition of King George III, which delayed reform, 1829 brought the culmination of the liberalisation of the anti-Catholic laws. Parliament passed the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, giving Catholics almost equal civil rights, including the right to vote and to hold most public offices. If Catholics were rich, however, exceptions were always made, even before the changes. For example, American ministers to the Court of St. James 's were often struck by the prominence of wealthy American - born Catholics, titled ladies among the nobility, like Louisa (Caton), granddaughter of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and her two sisters, Mary Ann and Elizabeth. After Louisa 's first husband (Sir Felton Bathurst - Hervey) died, Louisa later married the son of the Duke of Leeds, and had the Duke of Wellington as her European protector. Her sister, Mary Ann, married the Marquess of Wellesley, the brother of the Duke of Wellington; and her other sister, Elizabeth (Lady Stafford), married another British nobleman. Though British law required an Anglican marriage service, each of the sisters and their Protestant spouses had a Catholic ceremony afterwards. At Louisa 's first marriage, the Duke of Wellington escorted the bride.
In the 1840s and 1850s, especially during the Great Irish Famine, while much of the large outflow of emigration from Ireland was headed to the United States to seek work, hundreds of thousands of Irish people also migrated across the channel to England and Scotland, and established communities in cities there, including London, Liverpool, Manchester and Glasgow, but also in towns and villages up and down the country, thus giving English Catholicism a numerical boost. Also significant was the rise in the 1830s and 1840s of the Oxford Movement, which claimed Catholic validity for Anglican orders and sought to revive some elements of Catholic theology and ritual within the Church of England (creating Anglo - Catholicism).
A proportion of the Anglicans who were involved in the Oxford Movement or "Tractarianism '' were ultimately led beyond these positions and converted to the Catholic Church, including, in 1845, the movement 's principal intellectual leader, John Henry Newman. More new Catholics would come from the Anglican Church, often via high Anglicanism, for at least the next hundred years, and something of this continues.
Prominent intellectual and artistic figures who turned to Catholicism in the 19th and 20th centuries included the leading architect of the Gothic Revival, Augustus Pugin, the artist Graham Sutherland and literary figures such as Newman, Gerard Manley Hopkins, G.K. Chesterton, Ronald Knox, Siegfried Sassoon, Evelyn Waugh, Edith Sitwell, Graham Greene and Muriel Spark. Prominent cradle Catholics included the film director, Alfred Hitchcock, writers such as Hilaire Belloc, Lord Acton, and J.R.R. Tolkien and the composer Edward Elgar, whose oratorio The Dream of Gerontius was based on a 19th - century poem by Newman.
At various points after the 16th century hopes have been entertained by many English Catholics that the "reconversion of England '' was near at hand. Additionally, with the arrival of immigrant masses of Irish Catholics, some considered that a "second spring '' of Catholicism across Britain was developing. Rome responded by re-establishing the Catholic hierarchy in 1850, creating 12 Catholic dioceses in England from existing apostolic vicariates and appointing diocesan bishops (to replace earlier titular bishops) with fixed sees on a more traditional Catholic pattern. The Catholic Church in England and Wales had 22 dioceses immediately before the Reformation, but none of the current 22 bear close resemblance (geographically) to those 22 earlier pre-Reformation dioceses.
The re-established diocesan episcopacy specifically avoided using places that were seats of Church of England dioceses as seats, in effect temporarily abandoning the titles of Catholic dioceses before Elizabeth I because of the Ecclesiastical Titles Act of 1851, which in England favoured a state church (i.e., Church of England) and denied arms and legal existence to territorial Catholic sees on the basis that the state could not grant such "privileges '' to "entities '' that allegedly did not exist. Some of the Catholic dioceses, however, took the titles of bishoprics which had previously existed in England but were no longer used by the Anglican Church (e.g. Beverley - later divided into Leeds and Middlesbrough, Hexham - later changed to Hexham and Newcastle). In the few cases where a Catholic diocese bears the same title as an Anglican one in the same town or city (e.g. Birmingham, Liverpool, Portsmouth, and Southwark) -- this is the result of the Church of England ignoring the prior existence there of a Catholic see and of the technical repeal of the Ecclesiastical Titles Act in 1871. Of course, the Act was only carried out in England. For example, the official recognition afforded by the grant of arms to the archdiocese of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, brought into being by Lord Lyon in 1989, was made on the grounds that the Ecclesiastical Titles Act of 1851 never applied to Scotland. In recent times, former Conservative Cabinent Minister, John Gummer, who is a prominent convert to Catholicism and columnist for the Catholic Herald in 2007, objected to the fact that no Catholic diocese can have the same name as an Anglican diocese (such as London, Canterbury, Durham, etc.) "even though those dioceses had, shall we say, been borrowed. ''
English Catholicism continued to grow throughout the first two thirds of the 20th century, when it was associated primarily with elements in the English intellectual class and the ethnic Irish population. Numbers attending Mass remained very high in stark contrast with the Anglican church (although not to other Protestant churches), Clergy numbers, which began the 20th century at under 3,000, reached a high of 7,500 in 1971.
By the latter years of the twentieth century low numbers of vocations also affected the church with ordinations to the priesthood dropping from the hundreds in the late 20th century into the teens in 2006 - 2011 (16 in 2009 for example) and a recovery into the 20 's thereafter, with a prediction for 2018 of 24.
As in other English - speaking countries such as the United States and Australia, the movement of Irish Catholics out of the working - class into the middle - class suburban mainstream often meant their assimilation with broader, secular English society and loss of a separate Catholic identity. The Second Vatican Council has been followed, as in other Western countries, by divisions between traditional Catholicism and a more liberal form of Catholicism claiming inspiration from the Council. This caused difficulties for not a few pre-conciliar converts, though others have still joined the Church in recent decades (for instance, Malcolm Muggeridge and Joseph Pearce), and public figures (often descendants of the recusant families) such as Paul Johnson; Peter Ackroyd; Antonia Fraser; Mark Thompson, Director General of the BBC; Michael Martin, first Catholic to hold the office of Speaker of the House of Commons since the Reformation; Chris Patten, first Catholic to hold the post of Chancellor of Oxford since the Reformation; Piers Paul Read; Helen Liddel, Britain 's High Commissioner to Australia; and former Prime Minister 's wife, Cherie Blair, have no difficulty making their Catholicism known in public life. The former Prime Minister, Tony Blair, was received into full communion with the Catholic Church in 2007. Catherine Pepinster, Editor of Tablet, notes: "The impact of Irish immigrants is one. There are numerous prominent campaigners, academics, entertainers (like Danny Boyle the most successful Catholic in showbiz owing to his film, Slumdog Millionaire), politicians and writers. But the descendants of the recusant families are still a force in the land. ''
Since the Council the Church in England has tended to focus on ecumenical dialogue with the Anglican Church rather than winning converts from it as in the past. However, the 1990s have seen a number of conversions from Anglicanism to the Catholic Church, largely prompted by the Church of England 's decision to ordain women as priests (among other moves away from traditional doctrines and structures). The resultant converts included members of the Royal Family (Katharine, Duchess of Kent, her son Lord Nicholas Windsor and her grandson Baron Downpatrick), a number of Anglican priests. Converts to Catholicism in Britain, for this reason, tend to be more conservative and even traditionalist than Catholics on the European mainland, often opposing trends within the Catholic Church similar to those which induced them to abandon Anglicanism in the first place.
The spirit of ecumenism fostered by Vatican II resulted in 1990 with the Catholic Church in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, joining Churches Together in Britain and Ireland as an expression of the churches ' commitment to work ecumenically. Recently, for example, a memorial was put up to St John Houghton and fellow Carthusian monks martyred at the London Charterhouse, 1535. Anglican priest, Geoffrey Curtis, campaigned for it with the current Archbishop of Canterbury 's blessing. Also, in another ecumenical gesture, a plaque in Holywell Street, Oxford, now commemorates the Catholic martyrs of England. It reads: "Near this spot George Nichols, Richard Yaxley, Thomas Belson, and Humphrey Pritchard were executed for their Catholic faith, 5 July 1589. '' And at Lambeth Palace, in February 2009, the Archbishop of Canterbury hosted a reception to launch a book, Why Go To Church?, by Fr Timothy Radcliffe OP, one of Britain 's best known religious and the former master of the Dominican Order. A large number of young Dominican friars attended. Fr Radcliffe said, "I do n't think there have been so many Dominicans in one place since the time of Robert Kilwardby, the Dominican Archbishop of Canterbury in the 13th century. ''
The Church 's principles of social justice influenced initiatives to tackle the challenges of poverty and social inclusion. In Southampton, Fr Pat Murphy O'Connor founded the St Dismas Society as an agency to meet the needs of ex-prisoners discharged from Winchester prison. Some of St Dismas Society 's early members went on to help found the Simon Community in Sussex then in London. Their example gave new inspiration to other clergy, such as the Revd Kenneth Leech (CofE) of St Anne 's Church, Soho who helped found the homeless charity Centrepoint, and the Revd Bruce Kenrick (Church of Scotland) who helped found the homeless charity Shelter. In 1986 Cardinal Basil Hume established the Cardinal Hume Centre to work with homeless young people, badly housed families and local communities to access accommodation, support and advice, education, training and employment opportunities.
In 2006 Cardinal Cormac Murphy - O'Connor instituted an annual Mass in Support of Migrant Workers at Westminster Cathedral in partnership with the ethnic chaplains of Brentwood, Southwark and Westminster.
The Catholic Church in England and Wales has five provinces: Birmingham, Cardiff, Liverpool, Southwark and Westminster. There are 22 dioceses which are divided into parishes (for comparison, the Church of England and Church in Wales currently have a total of 50 dioceses). In addition to these, there are four dioceses covering England and Wales for specific groups which are the Bishopric of the Forces, the Eparchy for Ukrainians, the Syro - Malabar Catholic Eparchy of Great Britain and the Personal Ordinariate for former Anglicans.
The Catholic bishops in England and Wales come together in a collaborative structure known as the Bishops ' Conference. Currently the Archbishop of Westminster, Vincent Gerard Nichols, is the President of the Bishops ' Conference. For this reason in the global Catholic Church (outside England), he is de facto Primate of England though not in the eyes of English law and the established Church of England. Historically, the avoidance of the title of "Primate '' was to eschew whipping up anti-Catholic tension, in the same way the bishops of the restored hierarchy avoided using current titles of Anglican sees (Archbishop of Westminster rather than "Canterbury '' or "London ''). However, the Archbishop of Westminster had certain privileges: he was the only metropolitan in the country until 1911 (when the archdioceses of Birmingham and Liverpool were created) and he has always acted as leader at meetings of the English bishops.
Although the bishops of the restored hierarchy took new titles, such as that of Westminster, they saw themselves very much in continuity with the pre-Reformation Church. Westminster in particular saw itself as the continuation of Canterbury, hence the similarity of the coat of arms of the two sees (with Westminster believing it has more right to it since it features the pallium, no longer given to Anglican archbishops). At the back of Westminster Cathedral is a list of Popes and, alongside this, a list of Catholic Archbishops of Canterbury beginning with Augustine of Canterbury and the year they received the pallium. After Cardinal Pole, the last Catholic incumbent of Canterbury, the names of the Catholic vicars apostolic or titular bishops (from 1685) are recorded and then the Archbishops of Westminster, in one unimpaired line, from 597 to the present, according to the Archdiocese of Westminster. To highlight this continuity or unimpaired line today, the installation rites of pre-Reformation Catholic Archbishops of Canterbury and earlier Archbishops of Westminster were used at the installation of the current Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster, Vincent Gerard Nichols. He became the forty - third of English cardinals since the 12th century.
Mar Joseph Srampickal
In October 2009, following closed - circuit talks between some Anglicans and the Holy See, Pope Benedict made a relatively unconditional offer to accommodate disaffected Anglicans in the Church of England, enabling them, for the first time, to retain parts of their liturgy and heritage under Anglicanorum coetibus, while being in full communion with Rome. By April 2012 the ordinariate numbered about 1200, including five bishops and 60 priests. The ordinariate has recruited a group of aristocrats as honorary vice-presidents to help out. These include the Duke of Norfolk, the Countess of Oxford and Asquith and the Duchess of Somerset. Other vice-presidents include Lord Nicholas Windsor, Sir Josslyn Gore - Booth and the Squire de Lisle, whose ancestor Ambrose de Lisle was a 19th - century Catholic convert who advocated the corporate reunion of the Anglican Church with Rome. According to the group leader, Mgr Keith Newton, the ordinariate will "work on something with an Anglican flavour, but they are not bringing over any set of Anglican liturgy. '' The director of music at Westminster Abbey (Anglican), lay Catholic James O'Donnell, likens the ordinariate to a Uniate church or one of the many non-Latin Catholic rites, saying: "This is a good opportunity for us to remember that there is n't a one size fits all, and that this could be a good moment to adopt the famous civil service philosophy - ' celebrating diversity '. '' In May 2013, a former Anglican priest, Alan Hopes, was appointed the new Bishop of East Anglia, whose diocese includes the Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham.
There exists the Apostolic Exarchate for Ukrainians which serves the 15,000 Ukrainian Greek Catholics in Great Britain, with a cathedral and various churches across the country.
The Lebanese Maronite Order (LMO) runs in England and Wales. The LMO is an order of the Maronite Catholic Church, serving Maronite Catholics in England and Wales. The Revd Augustine Aoun is the parish priest for Maronites. The LMO runs a few churches, for example Our Lady of Sorrows in Paddington and Our Lady of Lebanon in Swiss Cottage.
There are also Catholic chaplains of the Eritrean, Chaldean, Syriac, Syro - Malabar, Syro - Malankara, and Melkite Rites. For information about the Syro - Malabar chaplaincy within the Diocese of Westminster in London, see Syro - Malabar Catholic Church of London.
Mass in the Syro - Malabar rite is celebrated each Sunday in St Joseph 's Catholic Church, New Zealand Road, Cardiff.
Migration from Ireland in the 19th and 20th centuries and more recent Eastern European migration have significantly increased the numbers of Catholics in England and Wales. While figures for England and Wales alone are difficult to estimate, the ethnic make - up of the Catholic population in the UK (which includes Northern Irish as British) in 2008 was as follows:
The White Eastern European members are mainly from Poland, with smaller numbers from Lithuania, Latvia, and Slovakia.
Polish - speaking Catholics first arrived in England in some numbers after the partitions of Poland during the 19th century. One of the most notable Poles at this time, who eventually settled in England, was Joseph Conrad. At the end of the Second World War, many Polish servicemen were unable to return to their homeland following the imposition of a communist regime hostile to their return, and the Polish Resettlement Corps was formed by the British government to ease their transition into British life. They were joined by several thousand Displaced Persons (DPs), many were their family members. This influx of Poles gave rise to the 1947 Polish Resettlement Act which allowed approximately 250,000 Polish Servicemen and their dependents, to settle in Britain. Many assimilated into existing Catholic congregations. According to the Polish Catholic Mission in England and Wales in 1948 the Catholic hierarchy in England Wales agreed the appointment of a vicar delegate, nominated by the Polish Episcopate, with ordinary power over the Polish clergy and laity throughout England and Wales with certain exceptions relating to marriage. Subsequently, whenever a Polish Catholic community emerges within England and Wales, the vicar delegate appoints a Polish priest to organise a local branch of the Polish Catholic Mission. A priest thus appointed is the priest in charge, not a parish priest. There are no Polish parishes or quasiparishes in England and Wales (in accordance with Canons 515 § 1 and 516 § 1) with the exception of the church at Devonia Road in London. A Polish Community is sometimes referred to as a "parish '' but is not a parish in the canonical sense. Hence the Community is not a juridical person. The canonical juridical personality which represents the interests of all Polish Communities is vested in the Polish Catholic Mission.
Since the 2004 accession of Poland to the European Union there has been further large - scale Polish immigration to the UK. Currently the Polish Catholic Mission includes around 219 parishes and pastoral centres with 114 priests. The current rector of the Polish Catholic Mission is Rev. Stefan Wylężek. In Poland, the Polish Bishops Conference has a delegate with special responsibility for émigré Poles. The current postholder is Bishop Ryszard Karpiński. The Tablet reported in December 2007 that the Polish Catholic Mission says these parishes follow a pastoral programme set by the Polish conference of bishops and are viewed as "an integral part of the Polish church ''.
In December 2007 Cardinal Cormac Murphy - O'Connor said "I 'm quite concerned that Poles are creating a separate Church in Britain -- I would want them to be part of the Catholic life of this country. I would hope those responsible for the Polish Church here, and the Poles themselves, will be aware that they should become a part of local parishes as soon as possible when they learn enough of the language. '' Mgr Kukla stressed that the Polish Catholic Mission continues to have a "good relationship '' with the hierarchy in England and Wales and said "Integration is a long process. ''
Significantly, the Polish Mission co-operated fully with the English hierarchy 's recent research enquiry into the needs of migrants in London 's catholic community. "The Ground of Justice '' report by Francis Davis and Jolanta Stanke et al. Von Hügel Institute at St Edmund 's College, Cambridge was commissioned by Archbishop Kevin McDonald of Southwark, and Bishop Thomas McMahon of Brentwood. 1000 people attending Mass in three London dioceses were surveyed using anonymous questionnaires available in Polish, Lithuanian, Chinese, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and English. The congregations were from mainstream Diocesan parishes, ethnic chaplaincies, and churches of the Polish Vicariate. The report findings described how 86 % of eastern Europeans said the availability of Mass in their mother tongue was a reason for their choosing to worship in a particular church. The report 's recommendations emphasised cooperation with key overseas bishops conferences, dioceses, and religious institutes on the recruitment and appointment of ethnic chaplains; the recognition of language skills as a legitimate training activity and cost for seminarians, clergy, parish volunteer and lay employees; and the consolidation of dispersed charitable funds for pastoral development and the poor in London.
On November 3, 2016, John Bingham reported in The Daily Telegraph that Cardinal Vincent Nichols officially acknowledged that the Catholic Church in England and Wales had pressured young, unmarried mothers in the country to put their children up for adoption in agencies linked to the Catholic Church throughout the decades following World War II and offered an apology.
Saints and Doctors of the Church, notable and Pre-Reformation:
Saints from the period of the Reformation to the present:
Blesseds
Venerables
Servants of God
Other Open Cause
A number of events which Catholics hold to be miracles are associated with England.
A number of Marian apparitions are associated with England, the best known are the following;
A number of cases of alleged incorruptibility of some Catholic saints are associated with England;
Two cases of alleged stigmata are associated with England, neither have been approved by the Vatican;
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where was the movie river of no return filmed | River of No Return - wikipedia
River of No Return is a 1954 American Western film directed by Otto Preminger and starring Robert Mitchum and Marilyn Monroe. The screenplay by Frank Fenton is based on a story by Louis Lantz, who borrowed his premise from the 1948 Italian film Bicycle Thieves. It was made in Technicolor and CinemaScope and released by 20th Century Fox.
Set in the Northwestern United States in 1875, the film focuses on taciturn widower Matt Calder (Robert Mitchum), who has recently been released from prison after serving time for killing one man while defending another. He arrives in a boomtown tent city in search of his ten - year - old son Mark (Tommy Rettig), who was left in the care of dance hall singer Kay (Marilyn Monroe) after the man who brought him there as Matt had arranged took off for the hills. Matt promises Mark, a virtual stranger to him, the two will enjoy a life of hunting, fishing and farming on their homestead.
Kay 's fiance, gambler Harry Weston (Rory Calhoun), tells her they must go to Council City to file the deed on a gold mine he won in a poker game. They head downriver on a homemade log raft, and when they encounter trouble in the rapids near the Calder farm, Matt and Mark rescue them. Harry offers to buy Matt 's rifle and horse so as to reach Council City by land, and when Matt refuses, Harry knocks Matt unconscious and steals both. Kay chooses to stay behind to take care of Matt and Mark, and the three are stranded in the wilderness.
When hostile Indians threaten the farm, the three are forced to escape down the river on Harry 's raft. That night they set up camp by the river, and Matt and Kay argue about the wisdom of pursuing Harry. Matt asks why Kay would choose to marry a man who had endangered a child, whereupon she reminds him that Harry never killed a man like Matt did. Mark overhears their discussion, and Matt is forced to reveal the truth about his past to his son, who is unable to comprehend why his father acted as he did.
As the three continue their journey, Kay comes to appreciate Matt 's bravery and the tender way he cares for both her and Mark. Along the way, they are forced to deal with a series of trials and tribulations, including a mountain lion attack; gold prospectors Sam Benson and Dave Colby, who are after Harry for stealing their claim; and a second Indian war party.
After a difficult ride through the worst of the rapids, the three arrive in Council City and confront Harry. Harry shoots at Matt, prompting Mark to shoot Harry in the back using a rifle that he was inspecting in the general store. As a result, Mark comes to understand why his father had to shoot a man in a similar fashion so many years before.
Afterwards, Kay finds a job at the local saloon. While she is singing there, Matt arrives to take her back to his farm along with Mark, and she happily leaves with him.
Otto Preminger was preparing for the opening of The Moon Is Blue when 20th Century Fox executive Darryl F. Zanuck assigned him to direct River of No Return as part of his contract with the studio. Because of their previous experience with Westerns, producer Stanley Rubin had wanted William Wellman, Raoul Walsh, or Henry King to helm the film, and he was concerned Preminger, who he felt was better suited for film noir melodrama or sophisticated comedy, would be unable to rise to the task of directing a piece of Americana. Preminger himself had no interest in the project until he read the screenplay and saw potential in the story. He also approved of Robert Mitchum and Marilyn Monroe, who already had been cast in the lead roles.
Zanuck decided the film should be made in CinemaScope and increased the budget accordingly. Much of it would be filmed in Banff and Jasper National Parks and Lake Louise in Alberta, and Preminger and Rubin flew to the area to scout locations. During their time there, Rubin grew fond of the director and began to feel that rather than viewing it as a contractual obligation, Preminger had a real interest in making the film.
Rubin scheduled twelve weeks of preproduction, during which Monroe rehearsed and recorded the musical numbers written by Ken Darby and Lionel Newman, and forty - five days for filming.
The cast and crew departed for Calgary in late June 1953. From there they traveled by special train to the Banff Springs Hotel, which would serve as their base during the Canadian filming.
Monroe was accompanied by Natasha Lytess, her acting coach. Preminger clashed with the woman from the very start. She insisted on taking her client aside and giving her direction contrary to that of Preminger, and she had the actress enunciating each syllable of every word of dialogue with exaggerated emphasis. Preminger called Rubin in Los Angeles and insisted Lytess be banned from the set, but when the producer complied with his demand, Monroe called Zanuck directly and asserted she could n't continue unless Lytess returned. Zanuck commiserated with Preminger but, feeling Monroe was a major box office draw he could n't afford to upset, he reinstated Lytess. Angered by the decision, Preminger directed his rage at Monroe for the rest of the production.
During the difficult shoot, Preminger also had to contend with frequent rain, Mitchum 's heavy drinking, and an injury to Monroe 's ankle that kept her off the set for several days and ultimately put her in a cast. Monroe nearly drowned while filming in Jasper, Canada. She had donned chest high hip waders during rehearsal to protect her costume. She slipped on a rock, the waders filled with water, and she was unable to rise. Mitchum and others jumped in the river to rescue her but her ankle was sprained as a result. Young Tommy Rettig seemed to be the director 's sole source of solace. He respected Rettig 's professionalism and appreciated the rapport he developed with Monroe, which often helped keep her on an even keel. When Lytess began to interfere with Rettig 's performance, thereby undermining his confidence, Preminger let the cast and crew know about her behavior and was delighted to find they finally began to support him in his efforts to remove her from the set.
In early September, filming shifted to Los Angeles for interior scenes and close - ups for a river sequence. The latter was filmed in a tank, whereas stunt doubles were used in the long shots filmed on location south of Lewiston, Idaho in the actual River of No Return, the Salmon River. Monroe was on crutches, and Preminger had to work around her as much as possible. Despite frequent disagreements with Rubin, Preminger completed the film on September 29, on schedule and within the budget.
The film was one of the very first films to use a blood squib to simulate realistic bullet impact. This occurs when Harry (Rory Calhoun) is shot dead in the film 's climax. As such, the film beats Run of the Arrow (1957) - which is often credited with being the first to use blood squibs - by three years.
This movie was the first to be filmed in CinemaScope in Canada. River of No Return was the first film released by 20th Century - Fox to feature the "CinemaScope extension '' fanfare before the opening credits. Written by Alfred Newman, it 's a rerecording of his original 1933 fanfare, with the extra few bars that play under the credit "20th Century - Fox presents A CinemaScope Production ''. After Fox switched to Panavision in 1967, they went back to their old fanfare, so the extension fanfare was n't used again until it was revived by George Lucas to play before the opening credits to Star Wars. This time those few extra bars played under the credit "A Lucasfilm Production '' Since then it 's been re-recorded a few times but remains to this day the intro to every film released by that studio.
During post-production, Preminger departed for Europe, leaving editor Louis R. Loeffler and Rubin to complete the film. Jean Negulesco was called in to film a few retakes. The dailies reconfirmed Rubin 's belief that Preminger had been the wrong choice for the project. He felt the director had failed to capture the Western aura, had ignored key elements in the plot, and had perfunctorily directed action sequences, leaving them looking staged and static. In several cases, studio and location shots did n't match.
Preminger 's experience on the film convinced him he never wanted to work as a studio employee again, and he paid Fox $150,000 to cancel the remainder of his contract.
In later years, Monroe claimed River of No Return was her worst film, and Preminger spoke bitterly about her in numerous interviews. It was n't until January 1980, when being interviewed for the New York Daily News, that he conceded, "She tried very hard, and when people try hard, you ca n't be mad at them. ''
Bosley Crowther of the New York Times observed, "It is a toss - up whether the scenery or the adornment of Marilyn Monroe is the feature of greater attraction in River of No Return... The mountainous scenery is spectacular, but so, in her own way, is Miss Monroe. The patron 's preference, if any, probably will depend upon which he 's interested in. Certainly, scriptwriter Frank Fenton has done the best he could to arrange for a fairly equal balance of nature and Miss Monroe... And that should not be too lightly taken. For Director Otto Preminger has thrown all the grandeur and menace of these features upon the eye - filling CinemaScope screen. A sickening succession of rapids, churned into boiling foam, presents a display of nature 's violence that can not help but ping the patron 's nerves. The raft tumbling through these rapids is quite a sight to see. And layouts of Rocky Mountain landscapes are handsome in color, too. But Mr. Mitchum 's and the audience 's attention is directed to Miss Monroe through frequent and liberal posing of her in full and significant views. ''
Variety said, "The competition between scenic splendors of the Jasper and Banff National Parks and entertainment values finds the former finishing slightly ahead on merit, although there 's enough rugged action and suspense moments to get the production through its footage. In between the high spots, Otto Preminger 's directorial pacing is inclined to lag, so the running time seems overlong. ''
TV Guide rated it 3 ⁄ out of four stars, calling it "a simple, frequently charming, and beautifully photographed film blessed with fine performances and great teamwork from Robert Mitchum and Marilyn Monroe '' and "an enjoyable, engaging little Western that never fails to entertain. ''
Film4 called it a "patchy drama which owes more to its gorgeous scenery and musical numbers than it does to anything else... The plot does n't convince, but Monroe, at the peak of her career, is more than easy on the eye... Despite some pretty locations and occasional tension, there 's little going on. A shallow river indeed. ''
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on Region 1 DVD on May 14, 2002. It is in anamorphic widescreen format with audio tracks in English and French and subtitles in English and Spanish.
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where does the last name mann come from | Mann (surname) - wikipedia
Mann is a surname of Germanic origin. The word means "man '', "person '', "husband ''.
"ᛗ '' is a single character (rune) in the traditional old - English, Anglo Saxon, runic alphabet, which denotes "Mann ''.
"Mann '' is also a surname of Jatt origin. "Mann '' is also a less common Cantonese transliteration of the Chinese surname Wen (文).
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where is israel located in the world map | Israel - wikipedia
Coordinates: 31 ° N 35 ° E / 31 ° N 35 ° E / 31; 35
Israel (/ ˈɪzriəl, - reɪəl /; Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל ; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل ), officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. It has land borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan on the east, the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip to the east and west, respectively, and Egypt to the southwest. The country contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel 's economic and technological center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, although the state 's sovereignty over Jerusalem is only partially recognized.
The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged during the Iron Age. The Neo-Assyrian Empire destroyed Israel around 720 BCE. Judah was later conquered by the Babylonian, Persian and Hellenistic empires and had existed as Jewish autonomous provinces. The successful Maccabean Revolt led to an independent Hasmonean kingdom by 110 BCE, which in 63 BCE however became a client state of the Roman Republic that subsequently installed the Herodian dynasty in 37 BCE, and in 6 CE created the Roman province of Judea. Judea lasted as a Roman province until the failed Jewish revolts resulted in widespread destruction, expulsion of Jewish population and the renaming of the region from Iudaea to Syria Palaestina. Jewish presence in the region has persisted to a certain extent over the centuries. In the 7th century the Levant was taken from the Byzantine Empire by the Arabs and remained in Muslim control until the First Crusade of 1099, followed by the Ayyubid conquest of 1187. The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt extended its control over the Levant in the 13th century until its defeat by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. During the 19th century, national awakening among Jews led to the establishment of the Zionist movement in the diaspora followed by waves of immigration to Ottoman and later British Palestine.
In 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency, and rejected by Arab leaders. The following year, the Jewish Agency declared the independence of the State of Israel, and the subsequent 1948 Arab -- Israeli War saw Israel 's establishment over most of the former Mandate territory, while the West Bank and Gaza were held by neighboring Arab states. Israel has since fought several wars with Arab countries, and it has since 1967 occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and the Gaza Strip (still considered occupied after 2005 disengagement, although some legal experts dispute this claim). It extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israel 's occupation of the Palestinian territories is the world 's longest military occupation in modern times. Efforts to resolve the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict have not resulted in final peace agreement. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have been signed.
In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish and democratic state. Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature. Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 33rd - largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2017. The country benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. Israel has the highest standard of living in the Middle East, and has one of the highest life expectancies in the world.
Upon independence in 1948, the country formally adopted the name "State of Israel '' (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל Medīnat Yisrā'el (mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل Dawlat Isrāʼīl (dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl)) after other proposed historical and religious names including Eretz Israel ("the Land of Israel ''), Zion, and Judea, were considered but rejected. In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "Israeli '' to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett.
The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically been used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel and the entire Jewish people respectively. The name "Israel '' (Standard Yisraʾel, Isrāʾīl; Septuagint Greek: Ἰσραήλ Israēl; ' El (God) persists / rules ', though after Hosea 12: 4 often interpreted as "struggle with God '') in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, according to the Hebrew Bible, was given the name after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord. Jacob 's twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. Jacob and his sons had lived in Canaan but were forced by famine to go into Egypt for four generations, lasting 430 years, until Moses, a great - great grandson of Jacob, led the Israelites back into Canaan during the "Exodus ''. The earliest known archaeological artifact to mention the word "Israel '' as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated to the late 13th century BCE).
The area is also known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Bahá'í Faith. Under British Mandate (1920 -- 1948), the whole region was known as Palestine (Hebrew: (פלשתינה (א ״ י, translated as "Palestine (Eretz Israel) ''). Through the centuries, the territory was known by a variety of other names, including Canaan, Djahy, Samaria, Judea, Yehud, Iudaea, Coele - Syria, Syria Palaestina and Southern Syria.
The oldest evidence of early humans in the territory of modern Israel, dating to 1.5 million years ago, was found in Ubeidiya near the Sea of Galilee. Other notable Paleolithic sites include caves Tabun, Qesem and Manot. The oldest fossils of anatomically modern humans found outside Africa are the Skhul and Qafzeh hominins, who lived in the area that is now northern Israel 120,000 years ago. Around 10th millennium BCE, the Natufian culture existed in the area.
The early history of the territory is unclear. Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the narrative in the Torah concerning the patriarchs, The Exodus, and the conquest described in the Book of Joshua, and instead views the narrative as constituting the Israelites ' inspiring national myth. Ancestors of the Israelites may have included ancient Semitic - speaking peoples native to Canaan. The Israelites and their culture, according to the modern archaeological account, did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatristic -- and later monotheistic -- religion centered on Yahweh. The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village - like centres, but with more limited resources and a small population. Villages had populations of up to 300 or 400, which lived by farming and herding, and were largely self - sufficient; economic interchange was prevalent. Writing was known and available for recording, even in small sites.
While it is unclear if there was ever a United Monarchy, there is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel '' in the Merneptah Stele which dates to about 1200 BCE; and the Canaanites are archeologically attested in the Middle Bronze Age. There is debate about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power, but historians agree that a Kingdom of Israel existed by ca. 900 BCE and that a Kingdom of Judah existed by ca. 700 BCE. The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
In 586 BCE, King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon conquered Judah. According to the Hebrew Bible, he destroyed Solomon 's Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles. The Babylonian exile ended around 538 BCE under the rule of the Persian Cyrus the Great after he captured Babylon. The Second Temple was constructed around 520 BCE. As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (Yehud Medinata) with different borders, covering a smaller territory. The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.
With successive Persian rule, the autonomous province Yehud Medinata was gradually developing back into urban society, largely dominated by Judeans. The Greek conquests largely skipped the region without any resistance or interest. Incorporated into Ptolemaic and finally Seleucid empires, the southern Levant was heavily hellenized, building the tensions between Judeans and Greeks. The conflict erupted in 167 BCE with the Maccabean Revolt, which succeeded in establishing an independent Hasmonean Kingdom in Judah, which later expanded over much of modern Israel, as the Seleucids gradually lost control in the region.
The Roman Empire invaded the region in 63 BCE, first taking control of Syria, and then intervening in the Hasmonean Civil War. The struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian factions in Judea eventually led to the installation of Herod the Great and consolidation of the Herodian kingdom as a vassal Judean state of Rome. With the decline of the Herodian dynasty, Judea, transformed into a Roman province, became the site of a violent struggle of Jews against Greco - Romans, culminating in the Jewish -- Roman wars, ending in wide - scale destruction, expulsions, and genocide. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE.
Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence and Galilee became its religious center. The Mishnah and part of the Talmud, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Tiberias and Jerusalem. The region came to be populated predominantly by Greco - Romans on the coast and Samaritans in the hill - country. Christianity was gradually evolving over Roman paganism, when the area stood under Byzantine rule. Through the 5th and 6th centuries, the dramatic events of the repeated Samaritan revolts reshaped the land, with massive destruction to Byzantine Christian and Samaritan societies and a resulting decrease of the population. After the Persian conquest and the installation of a short - lived Jewish Commonwealth in 614 CE, the Byzantine Empire reconquered the country in 628.
In 634 -- 641 CE, the region, including Jerusalem, was conquered by the Arabs who had just recently adopted Islam. Control of the region transferred between the Rashidun Caliphs, Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids, Seljuks, Crusaders, and Ayyubids throughout the next three centuries.
During the siege of Jerusalem by the First Crusade in 1099, the Jewish inhabitants of the city fought side by side with the Fatimid garrison and the Muslim population who tried in vain to defend the city against the Crusaders. When the city fell, about 60,000 people were massacred, including 6,000 Jews seeking refuge in a synagogue. At this time, a full thousand years after the fall of the Jewish state, there were Jewish communities all over the country. Fifty of them are known and include Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and Gaza. According to Albert of Aachen, the Jewish residents of Haifa were the main fighting force of the city, and "mixed with Saracen (Fatimid) troops '', they fought bravely for close to a month until forced into retreat by the Crusader fleet and land army. However, Joshua Prawer expressed doubt over the story, noting that Albert did not attend the Crusades and that such a prominent role for the Jews is not mentioned by any other source.
In 1165, Maimonides visited Jerusalem and prayed on the Temple Mount, in the "great, holy house. '' In 1141 the Spanish - Jewish poet Yehuda Halevi issued a call for Jews to migrate to the Land of Israel, a journey he undertook himself. In 1187 Sultan Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, defeated the Crusaders in the Battle of Hattin and subsequently captured Jerusalem and almost all of Palestine. In time, Saladin issued a proclamation inviting Jews to return and settle in Jerusalem, and according to Judah al - Harizi, they did: "From the day the Arabs took Jerusalem, the Israelites inhabited it. '' Al - Harizi compared Saladin 's decree allowing Jews to re-establish themselves in Jerusalem to the one issued by the Persian king Cyrus the Great over 1,600 years earlier.
In 1211, the Jewish community in the country was strengthened by the arrival of a group headed by over 300 rabbis from France and England, among them Rabbi Samson ben Abraham of Sens. Nachmanides (Ramban), the 13th - century Spanish rabbi and recognised leader of Jewry greatly praised the land of Israel and viewed its settlement as a positive commandment incumbent on all Jews. He wrote "If the gentiles wish to make peace, we shall make peace and leave them on clear terms; but as for the land, we shall not leave it in their hands, nor in the hands of any nation, not in any generation. ''
In 1260, control passed to the Mamluk sultans of Egypt. The country was located between the two centres of Mamluk power, Cairo and Damascus, and only saw some development along the postal road connecting the two cities. Jerusalem, although left without the protection of any city walls since 1219, also saw a flurry of new construction projects centred around the Al - Aqsa Mosque compound on the Temple Mount. In 1266 the Mamluk Sultan Baybars converted the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron into an exclusive Islamic sanctuary and banned Christians and Jews from entering, who previously had been able to enter it for a fee. The ban remained in place until Israel took control of the building in 1967.
In 1470, Isaac b. Meir Latif arrived from Italy and counted 150 Jewish families in Jerusalem. Thanks to Joseph Saragossi who had arrived in the closing years of the 15th century, Safed and its environs had developed into the largest concentration of Jews in Palestine. With the help of the Sephardic immigration from Spain, the Jewish population had increased to 10,000 by the early 16th century.
In 1516, the region was conquered by the Ottoman Empire; it remained under Turkish rule until the end of the First World War, when Britain defeated the Ottoman forces and set up a military administration across the former Ottoman Syria. In 1920 the territory was divided between Britain and France under the mandate system, and the British - administered area which included modern day Israel was named Mandatory Palestine.
Since the existence of the earliest Jewish diaspora, many Jews have aspired to return to "Zion '' and the "Land of Israel '', though the amount of effort that should be spent towards such an aim was a matter of dispute. The hopes and yearnings of Jews living in exile are an important theme of the Jewish belief system. After the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, some communities settled in Palestine. During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in the Four Holy Cities -- Jerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron, and Safed -- and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem. In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European opponents of Hasidism, known as the Perushim, settled in Palestine.
Theodor Herzl (1896). A Jewish State. Wikisource. (scan)
The first wave of modern Jewish migration to Ottoman - ruled Palestine, known as the First Aliyah, began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe. Although the Zionist movement already existed in practice, Austro - Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl is credited with founding political Zionism, a movement which sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, thus offering a solution to the so - called Jewish question of the European states, in conformity with the goals and achievements of other national projects of the time. In 1896, Herzl published Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State), offering his vision of a future Jewish state; the following year he presided over the First Zionist Congress.
The Second Aliyah (1904 -- 14), began after the Kishinev pogrom; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half of them left eventually. Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews, although the Second Aliyah included socialist groups who established the kibbutz movement. During World War I, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent the Balfour Declaration of 1917 to Baron Rothschild (Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild), a leader of the British Jewish community, that stated that Britain intended for the creation of a Jewish "national home '' within the Palestinian Mandate.
In 1918, the Jewish Legion, a group primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine. Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of a Jewish militia known as the Haganah (meaning "The Defense '' in Hebrew), from which the Irgun and Lehi, or the Stern Gang, paramilitary groups later split off. In 1922, the League of Nations granted Britain a mandate over Palestine under terms which included the Balfour Declaration with its promise to the Jews, and with similar provisions regarding the Arab Palestinians. The population of the area at this time was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11 %, and Arab Christians at about 9.5 % of the population.
The Third (1919 -- 23) and Fourth Aliyahs (1924 -- 29) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine. The rise of Nazism and the increasing persecution of Jews in 1930s Europe led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of the Arab revolt of 1936 -- 39 during which the British Mandate authorities alongside the Zionist militias of Haganah and Irgun killed 5,032 Arabs and wounded 14,760, resulting in over ten percent of the adult male Palestinian Arab population killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled. The British introduced restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organized to bring Jews to Palestine. By the end of World War II, the Jewish population of Palestine had increased to 33 % of the total population.
After World War II, Britain found itself in intense conflict with the Jewish community over Jewish immigration limits, as well as continued conflict with the Arab community over limit levels. The Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule. At the same time, hundreds of thousands of Jewish Holocaust survivors and refugees sought a new life far from their destroyed communities in Europe. The Yishuv attempted to bring these refugees to Palestine but many were turned away or rounded up and placed in detention camps in Atlit and Cyprus by the British.
On 22 July 1946, Irgun attacked the British administrative headquarters for Palestine, which was housed in the southern wing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem. A total of 91 people of various nationalities were killed and 46 were injured. The hotel was the site of the Secretariat of the Government of Palestine and the Headquarters of the British Armed Forces in Palestine and Transjordan. The attack initially had the approval of the Haganah. It was conceived as a response to Operation Agatha (a series of widespread raids, including one on the Jewish Agency, conducted by the British authorities) and was the deadliest directed at the British during the Mandate era. It was characterized as one of the "most lethal terrorist incidents of the twentieth century. '' In 1947, the British government announced it would withdraw from Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.
On 15 May 1947, the General Assembly of the newly formed United Nations resolved that the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine be created "to prepare for consideration at the next regular session of the Assembly a report on the question of Palestine. '' In the Report of the Committee dated 3 September 1947 to the General Assembly, the majority of the Committee in Chapter VI proposed a plan to replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem... the last to be under an International Trusteeship System. '' On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 (II) recommending the adoption and implementation of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union. The plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed by the majority of the Committee in the report of 3 September. The Jewish Agency, which was the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan. The Arab League and Arab Higher Committee of Palestine rejected it, and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition. On the following day, 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three - day strike, and Arab gangs began attacking Jewish targets. The Jews were initially on the defensive as civil war broke out, but in early April 1948 moved onto the offensive. The Arab Palestinian economy collapsed and 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled.
On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, David Ben - Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz - Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. '' The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the term Eretz - Israel ("Land of Israel ''). The following day, the armies of four Arab countries -- Egypt, Syria, Transjordan and Iraq -- entered what had been British Mandatory Palestine, launching the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War; contingents from Yemen, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Sudan joined the war. The apparent purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state at inception, and some Arab leaders talked about driving the Jews into the sea. According to Benny Morris, Jews felt that the invading Arab armies aimed to slaughter the Jews. The Arab league stated that the invasion was to restore law and order and to prevent further bloodshed.
After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established. Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. The United Nations estimated that more than 700,000 Palestinians were expelled by or fled from advancing Israeli forces during the conflict -- what would become known in Arabic as the Nakba ("catastrophe ''). Some 156,000 remained and became Arab citizens of Israel.
Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations by majority vote on 11 May 1949. Both Israel and Jordan were genuinely interested in a peace agreement but the British acted as a brake on the Jordanian effort in order to avoid damaging British interests in Egypt. In the early years of the state, the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben - Gurion dominated Israeli politics. The kibbutzim, or collective farming communities, played a pivotal role in establishing the new state.
Immigration to Israel during the late 1940s and early 1950s was aided by the Israeli Immigration Department and the non-government sponsored Mossad LeAliyah Bet ("Institution for Illegal Immigration ''). Both groups facilitated regular immigration logistics like arranging transportation, but the latter also engaged in clandestine operations in countries, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, where the lives of Jews were believed to be in danger and exit from those places was difficult. Mossad LeAliyah Bet was disbanded in 1953. The immigration was in accordance with the One Million Plan. The immigrants came for differing reasons. Some held Zionist beliefs or came for the promise of a better life in Israel, while others moved to escape persecution or were expelled.
An influx of Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab and Muslim countries to Israel during the first three years increased the number of Jews from 700,000 to 1,400,000. By 1958, the population of Israel rose to two million. Between 1948 and 1970, approximately 1,150,000 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel. Some new immigrants arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot; by 1952, over 200,000 people were living in these tent cities. Jews of European background were often treated more favorably than Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries -- housing units reserved for the latter were often re-designated for the former, with the result that Jews newly arrived from Arab lands generally ended up staying in transit camps for longer. Tensions that developed between the two groups over such discrimination persist to the present day. During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the austerity period. The need to solve the crisis led Ben - Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.
During the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, nearly always against civilians, mainly from the Egyptian - occupied Gaza Strip, leading to several Israeli counter-raids. In 1956, Great Britain and France aimed at regaining control of the Suez Canal, which the Egyptians had nationalized. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, together with the growing amount of Fedayeen attacks against Israel 's southern population, and recent Arab grave and threatening statements, prompted Israel to attack Egypt. Israel joined a secret alliance with Great Britain and France and overran the Sinai Peninsula but was pressured to withdraw by the United Nations in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in the Red Sea via the Straits of Tiran and the Canal. The war, known as the Suez Crisis, resulted in significant reduction of Israeli border infiltration. In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Argentina and brought him to Israel for trial. The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust. Eichmann remains the only person executed in Israel by conviction in an Israeli civilian court.
Since 1964, Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of the Jordan River into the coastal plain, had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provoking tensions between Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other. Arab nationalists led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognize Israel, and called for its destruction. By 1966, Israeli - Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces. In May 1967, Egypt massed its army near the border with Israel, expelled UN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and blocked Israel 's access to the Red Sea. Other Arab states mobilized their forces. Israel reiterated that these actions were a casus belli and, on 5 June, launched a pre-emptive strike against Egypt. Jordan, Syria and Iraq responded and attacked Israel. In a Six - Day War, Israel defeated Jordan and captured the West Bank, defeated Egypt and captured the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula, and defeated Syria and captured the Golan Heights. Jerusalem 's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem, and the 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories.
Following the 1967 war and the "three nos '' resolution of the Arab League, during the 1967 -- 1970 War of Attrition Israel faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai, and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in the occupied territories, in Israel proper, and around the world. Most important among the various Palestinian and Arab groups was the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland ''. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world, including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organizers of the massacre, a bombing and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.
On 6 October 1973, as Jews were observing Yom Kippur, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, that opened the Yom Kippur War. The war ended on 25 October with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but having suffered over 2,500 soldiers killed in a war which collectively took 10 -- 35,000 lives in about 20 days. An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign. In July 1976 an airliner was hijacked during its flight from Israel to France by Palestinian guerrillas and landed at Entebbe, Uganda. Israeli commandos carried out an operation in which 102 out of 106 Israeli hostages were successfully rescued.
The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin 's Likud party took control from the Labor Party. Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state. In the two years that followed, Sadat and Begin signed the Camp David Accords (1978) and the Israel -- Egypt Peace Treaty (1979). In return, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.
On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to the Coastal Road massacre. Israel responded by launching an invasion of southern Lebanon to destroy the PLO bases south of the Litani River. Most PLO fighters withdrew, but Israel was able to secure southern Lebanon until a UN force and the Lebanese army could take over. The PLO soon resumed its policy of attacks against Israel. In the next few years, the PLO infiltrated the south and kept up a sporadic shelling across the border. Israel carried out numerous retaliatory attacks by air and on the ground.
Meanwhile, Begin 's government provided incentives for Israelis to settle in the occupied West Bank, increasing friction with the Palestinians in that area. The Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel, passed in 1980, was believed by some to reaffirm Israel 's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree, and reignited international controversy over the status of the city. No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein. The position of the majority of UN member states is reflected in numerous resolutions declaring that actions taken by Israel to settle its citizens in the West Bank, and impose its laws and administration on East Jerusalem, are illegal and have no validity. In 1981 Israel annexed the Golan Heights, although annexation was not recognized internationally. Israel 's population diversity expanded in the 1980s and 1990s. Several waves of Ethiopian Jews immigrated to Israel since the 1980s, while between 1990 and 1994, immigration from the post-Soviet states increased Israel 's population by twelve percent.
On 7 June 1981, the Israeli air force destroyed Iraq 's sole nuclear reactor under construction just outside Baghdad, in order to impede Iraq 's nuclear weapons program. Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon that year to destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and missiles into northern Israel. In the first six days of fighting, the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry -- the Kahan Commission -- would later hold Begin, Sharon and several Israeli generals as indirectly responsible for the Sabra and Shatila massacre. In 1985, Israel responded to a Palestinian terrorist attack in Cyprus by bombing the PLO headquarters in Tunisia. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a borderland buffer zone in southern Lebanon until 2000, from where Israeli forces engaged in conflict with Hezbollah. The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule, broke out in 1987, with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence occurring in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the Intifada became more organised and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. More than a thousand people were killed in the violence. During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi Scud missile attacks against Israel. Despite public outrage, Israel heeded American calls to refrain from hitting back and did not participate in that war.
In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became Prime Minister following an election in which his party called for compromise with Israel 's neighbors. The following year, Shimon Peres on behalf of Israel, and Mahmoud Abbas for the PLO, signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The PLO also recognized Israel 's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism. In 1994, the Israel -- Jordan peace treaty was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel. Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions. Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks. In November 1995, while leaving a peace rally, Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by Yigal Amir, a far - right - wing Jew who opposed the Accords.
Under the leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu at the end of the 1990s, Israel withdrew from Hebron, and signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority. Ehud Barak, elected Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium by withdrawing forces from Southern Lebanon and conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the 2000 Camp David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state. The proposed state included the entirety of the Gaza Strip and over 90 % of the West Bank with Jerusalem as a shared capital. Each side blamed the other for the failure of the talks. After a controversial visit by Likud leader Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the Second Intifada began. Some commentators contend that the uprising was pre-planned by Arafat due to the collapse of peace talks. Sharon became prime minister in a 2001 special election. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier, ending the Intifada. By this time 1,100 Israelis had been killed, mostly in suicide bombings. The Palestinian fatalities, from 2000 to 2008, reached 4,791 killed by Israeli security forces, 44 killed by Israeli civilians, and 609 killed by Palestinians.
In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel 's northern border communities and a cross-border abduction of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month - long Second Lebanon War. On 6 September 2007, the Israeli Air Force destroyed a nuclear reactor in Syria. At the end of 2008, Israel entered another conflict as a ceasefire between Hamas and Israel collapsed. The 2008 -- 09 Gaza War lasted three weeks and ended after Israel announced a unilateral ceasefire. Hamas announced its own ceasefire, with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border crossings. Despite neither the rocket launchings nor Israeli retaliatory strikes having completely stopped, the fragile ceasefire remained in order. In what Israel described as a response to more than a hundred Palestinian rocket attacks on southern Israeli cities, Israel began an operation in Gaza on 14 November 2012, lasting eight days. Israel started another operation in Gaza following an escalation of rocket attacks by Hamas in July 2014.
In September 2010, Israel was invited to join the OECD. Israel has also signed free trade agreements with the European Union, the United States, the European Free Trade Association, Turkey, Mexico, Canada, Jordan, Egypt, and in 2007, became the first non-Latin - American country to sign a free trade agreement with the Mercosur trade bloc. By 2010s, the increasing regional cooperation between Israel and Arab League countries, with many of whom peace agreements (Jordan, Egypt) diplomatic relations (UAE, Palestine) and unofficial relations (Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Tunisia), have been established, the Israeli security situation shifted from the traditional Arab -- Israeli hostility towards regional rivalry with Iran and its proxies. The Iranian -- Israeli conflict gradually emerged from the declared hostility of post-revolutionary Islamic Republic of Iran towards Israel since 1979, into covert Iranian support of Hezbollah during the South Lebanon conflict (1985 -- 2000) and essentially developed into a proxy regional conflict from 2005. With increasing Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War from 2011 the conflict shifted from proxy warfare into direct confrontation by early 2018.
Israel is located in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent region. The country is at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip to the southwest. It lies between latitudes 29 ° and 34 ° N, and longitudes 34 ° and 36 ° E.
The sovereign territory of Israel (according to the demarcation lines of the 1949 Armistice Agreements and excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six - Day War) is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019 sq mi) in area, of which two percent is water. However Israel is so narrow that the exclusive economic zone in the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country. The total area under Israeli law, including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522 sq mi), and the total area under Israeli control, including the military - controlled and partially Palestinian - governed territory of the West Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733 sq mi).
Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the inland fertile Jezreel Valley, mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel and toward the Golan in the north. The Israeli coastal plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to most of the nation 's population. East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which forms a small part of the 6,500 - kilometer (4,039 mi) Great Rift Valley. The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth. Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea. Unique to Israel and the Sinai Peninsula are makhteshim, or erosion cirques. The largest makhtesh in the world is Ramon Crater in the Negev, which measures 40 by 8 kilometers (25 by 5 mi). A report on the environmental status of the Mediterranean Basin states that Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of all the countries in the basin.
The Jordan Rift Valley is the result of tectonic movements within the Dead Sea Transform (DSF) fault system. The DSF forms the transform boundary between the African Plate to the west and the Arabian Plate to the east. The Golan Heights and all of Jordan are part of the Arabian Plate, while the Galilee, West Bank, Coastal Plain, and Negev along with the Sinai Peninsula are on the African Plate. This tectonic disposition leads to a relatively high seismic activity in the region. The entire Jordan Valley segment is thought to have ruptured repeatedly, for instance during the last two major earthquakes along this structure in 749 and 1033. The deficit in slip that has built up since the 1033 event is sufficient to cause an earthquake of M ~ 7.4.
The most catastrophic known earthquakes occurred in 31 BCE, 363, 749, and 1033 CE, that is every ca. 400 years on average. Destructive earthquakes leading to serious loss of life strike about every 80 years. While stringent construction regulations are currently in place and recently built structures are earthquake - safe, as of 2007 the majority of the buildings in Israel were older than these regulations and many public buildings as well as 50,000 residential buildings did not meet the new standards and were "expected to collapse '' if exposed to a strong quake.
Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. Coastal areas, such as those of Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area of Beersheba and the Northern Negev have a semi-arid climate with hot summers, cool winters, and fewer rainy days than the Mediterranean climate. The Southern Negev and the Arava areas have a desert climate with very hot, dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature in the continent of Asia (54.0 ° C or 129.2 ° F) was recorded in 1942 at Tirat Zvi kibbutz in the northern Jordan River valley.
At the other extreme, mountainous regions can be windy and cold, and areas at elevation of 750 meters or more (same elevation as Jerusalem) will usually receive at least one snowfall each year. From May to September, rain in Israel is rare. With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water - saving technologies, including drip irrigation. Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for solar energy, making Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita (practically every house uses solar panels for water heating).
Four different phytogeographic regions exist in Israel, due to the country 's location between the temperate and tropical zones, bordering the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the desert in the east. For this reason, the flora and fauna of Israel are extremely diverse. There are 2,867 known species of plants found in Israel. Of these, at least 253 species are introduced and nonnative. There are 380 Israeli nature reserves.
Tiberias and the Sea of Galilee
Field of Anemone coronaria, national flower of Israel
Makhtesh Ramon, a type of crater unique to Israel and the Sinai Peninsula
Snow in Galilee
Flowers of Israel
In 2018, Israel 's population was an estimated 8,862,300 people, of whom 74.5 % were recorded by the civil government as Jews. Arabs comprised 20.9 % of the population, while non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed in the civil registry made up 4.6 %. Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally, but estimates run in the region of 203,000. By June 2012, approximately 60,000 African migrants had entered Israel. About 92 % of Israelis live in urban areas.
Israel was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as a Jewish state. The country 's Law of Return grants all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry the right to Israeli citizenship. Retention of Israel 's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration. Jewish emigration from Israel (called yerida in Hebrew), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest, but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel 's future.
Three quarters of the population are Jews from a diversity of Jewish backgrounds. Approximately 77 % of Israeli Jews are born in Israel, 16 % are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 7 % are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including the Arab world). Jews from Europe and the former Soviet Union and their descendants born in Israel, including Ashkenazi Jews, constitute approximately 50 % of Jewish Israelis. Jews who left or fled Arab and Muslim countries and their descendants, including both Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews, form most of the rest of the Jewish population. Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35 % and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent every year, with over 25 % of school children now originating from both communities. Around 4 % of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others '', are Russian descendants of Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return.
The total number of Israeli settlers beyond the Green Line is over 600,000 (≈ 10 % of the Jewish Israeli population). In 2016, 399,300 Israelis lived in West Bank settlements, including those that predated the establishment of the State of Israel and which were re-established after the Six - Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion bloc. In addition to the West Bank settlements, there were more than 200,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem, and 20,000 in the Golan Heights. Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip, known as Gush Katif, until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.
There are four major metropolitan areas: Gush Dan (Tel Aviv metropolitan area; population 3,854,000), Jerusalem metropolitan area (population 1,253,900), Haifa metropolitan area (population 924,400), and Beersheba metropolitan area (population 377,100).
Israel 's largest municipality, in population and area, is Jerusalem with 882,652 residents in an area of 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi). Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of East Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as part of the Palestinian territories under Israeli occupation. Tel Aviv and Haifa rank as Israel 's next most populous cities, with populations of 438,818 and 279,591, respectively.
Israel has 15 cities with populations over 100,000. In all, there are 77 municipalities granted "city '' status by the Ministry of Interior. Two more cities are planned: Kasif, a planned city to be built in the Negev, and Harish, originally a small town currently being built into a large city.
^ a This number includes East Jerusalem and West Bank areas. Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem is internationally unrecognized.
Israel has two official languages, Hebrew and Arabic. Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken every day by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority, with Hebrew taught in Arab schools.
As a country of immigrants, many languages can be heard on the streets. Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 130,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel), Russian and Amharic are widely spoken. More than one million Russian - speaking immigrants arrived in Israel from the post-Soviet states between 1990 and 2004. French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis, mostly originating from France and North Africa (see Maghrebi Jews). English was an official language during the Mandate period; it lost this status after the establishment of Israel, but retains a role comparable to that of an official language, as may be seen in road signs and official documents. Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are broadcast in English with subtitles and the language is taught from the early grades in elementary school. In addition, Israeli universities offer courses in the English language on various subjects.
Israel comprises a major part of the Holy Land, a region of significant importance to all Abrahamic religions -- Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Druze and Bahá'í Faith.
The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: a social survey indicates that 49 % self - identify as Hiloni (secular), 29 % as Masorti (traditional), 13 % as Dati (religious) and 9 % as Haredi (ultra-Orthodox). Haredi Jews are expected to represent more than 20 % of Israel 's Jewish population by 2028.
Making up 17.6 % of the population, Muslims constitute Israel 's largest religious minority. About 2 % of the population is Christian and 1.6 % is Druze. The Christian population primarily comprises Arab Christians, but also includes post-Soviet immigrants, the foreign laborers of multinational origins, and followers of Messianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity. Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers. Out of more than one million immigrants from the former Soviet Union, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel.
The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims and Christians as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, the Al - Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Other locations of religious importance in Israel are Nazareth (holy in Christianity as the site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (holy in Islam as the shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George in Lod (holy in Christianity and Islam as the tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, among them Joseph 's Tomb in Nablus, the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel 's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron. The administrative center of the Bahá'í Faith and the Shrine of the Báb are located at the Bahá'í World Centre in Haifa; the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Bahá'í community in Israel, although it is a destination for pilgrimages. Bahá'í staff in Israel do not teach their faith to Israelis following strict policy. A few miles south of the Bahá'í World Centre is Mahmood Mosque affiliated with the reformist Ahmadiyya movement. Kababir, Haifa 's mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs is the only one of its kind in the country.
Education is highly valued in the Israeli culture and was viewed as a fundamental block of ancient Israelites. Jewish communities in the Levant were the first to introduce compulsory education for which the organized community, not less than the parents was responsible. Many international business leaders such as Microsoft founder Bill Gates have praised Israel for its high quality of education in helping spur Israel 's economic development and technological boom. In 2015, the country ranked third among OECD members (after Canada and Japan) for the percentage of 25 -- 64 year - olds that have attained tertiary education with 49 % compared with the OECD average of 35 %. In 2012, the country ranked third in the world in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).
Israel has a school life expectancy of 16 years and a literacy rate of 97.8 %. The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction. Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen. Schooling is divided into three tiers -- primary school (grades 1 -- 6), middle school (grades 7 -- 9), and high school (grades 10 -- 12) -- culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, the English language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate. Israel 's Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46 %) hold post-secondary degrees. This figure has remained stable in their already high levels of educational attainment over recent generations. Israeli Jews (among those ages 25 and older) have average of 11.6 years of schooling making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world. In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage. Maariv described the Christian Arabs sectors as "the most successful in education system '', since Christians fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other religion in Israel. Israeli children from Russian - speaking families have a higher bagrut pass rate at high - school level. Although amongst immigrant children born in the Former Soviet Union, the bagrut pass rate is highest amongst those families from European FSU states at 62.6 %, and lower amongst those from Central Asian and Caucasian FSU states. In 2014, 61.5 % of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.
Israel has a tradition of higher education where its quality university education has been largely responsible in spurring the nations modern economic development. Israel has nine public universities that are subsidized by the state and 49 private colleges. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel 's second - oldest university after the Technion, houses the National Library of Israel, the world 's largest repository of Judaica and Hebraica. The Technion and the Hebrew University consistently ranked among world 's 100 top universities by the prestigious ARWU academic ranking. Other major universities in the country include the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University, Ben - Gurion University of the Negev, Bar - Ilan University, the University of Haifa and the Open University of Israel. Ariel University, in the West Bank, is the newest university institution, upgraded from college status, and the first in over thirty years.
Israel is a parliamentary democracy with universal suffrage. A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes the prime minister -- usually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is the head of government and head of the cabinet. Israel is governed by a 120 - member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership of the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties, with a 3.25 % electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments. Parliamentary elections are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or a no - confidence vote by the Knesset can dissolve a government earlier. The Basic Laws of Israel function as an uncodified constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws. The president of Israel is head of state, with limited and largely ceremonial duties.
Israel has no official religion, but the definition of the state as "Jewish and democratic '' creates a strong connection with Judaism, as well as a conflict between state law and religious law. Interaction between the political parties keeps the balance between state and religion largely as it existed during the British Mandate.
Israel has a three - tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving as both appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel 's six districts. The third and highest tier is the Supreme Court, located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities. Although Israel supports the goals of the International Criminal Court, it has not ratified the Rome Statute, citing concerns about the ability of the court to remain free from political impartiality.
Israel 's legal system combines three legal traditions: English common law, civil law, and Jewish law. It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system, where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges rather than juries. Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. The election of judges is carried out by a committee of two Knesset members, three Supreme Court justices, two Israeli Bar members and two ministers (one of which, Israel 's justice minister, is the committee 's chairman). The committee 's members of the Knesset are secretly elected by the Knesset, and one of them is traditionally a member of the opposition, the committee 's Supreme Court justices are chosen by tradition from all Supreme Court justices by seniority, the Israeli Bar members are elected by the bar, and the second minister is appointed by the Israeli cabinet. The current justice minister and committee 's chairwoman is Ayelet Shaked. Administration of Israel 's courts (both the "General '' courts and the Labor Courts) is carried by the Administration of Courts, situated in Jerusalem. Both General and Labor courts are paperless courts: the storage of court files, as well as court decisions, are conducted electronically. Israel 's Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel.
The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot (מחוזות; singular: mahoz) -- Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, South, and Tel Aviv districts, as well as the Judea and Samaria Area in the West Bank. All of the Judea and Samaria Area and parts of the Jerusalem and Northern districts are not recognized internationally as part of Israel. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as nafot (נפות; singular: nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.
In 1967, as a result of the Six - Day War, Israel captured and occupied the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Israel also captured the Sinai Peninsula, but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979 Egypt -- Israel Peace Treaty. Between 1982 and 2000, Israel occupied part of southern Lebanon, in what was known as the Security Belt. Since Israel 's capture of these territories, Israeli settlements and military installations have been built within each of them, except Lebanon. Israel has applied civilian law to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem and granted their inhabitants permanent residency status and the ability to apply for citizenship. The West Bank, outside of the Israeli settlements within the territory, has remained under direct military rule, and Palestinians in this area can not become Israeli citizens. Israel withdrew its military forces and dismantled the Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip as part of its disengagement from Gaza though it continues to maintain control of its airspace and waters.
The UN Security Council has declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void '' and continues to view the territories as occupied. The International Court of Justice, principal judicial organ of the United Nations, asserted, in its 2004 advisory opinion on the legality of the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier, that the lands captured by Israel in the Six - Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory. The status of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult issue in negotiations between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians, as Israel views it as its sovereign territory, as well as part of its capital. Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, which emphasises "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war '', and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states, a principle known as "Land for peace ''.
According to some observers, Israel has engaged in systematic and widespread violations of human rights in the occupied territories, including the occupation itself and war crimes against civilians. The allegations include violations of international humanitarian law by the United Nations Human Rights Council, with local residents having "limited ability to hold governing authorities accountable for such abuses '' by the U.S. State Department, mass arbitrary arrests, torture, unlawful killings, systemic abuses and impunity by Amnesty International and others and a denial of the right to Palestinian self - determination. In response to such allegations, Prime Minister Netanyahu has defended the country 's security forces for protecting the innocent from terrorists and expressed contempt for what he describes as a lack of concern about the human rights violations committed by "criminal killers ''. Some observers, such as Israeli officials, scholars, United States Ambassador to the UN Nikki Haley and UN secretary - generals Ban Ki - moon and Kofi Annan, also assert that the UN is disproportionately concerned with Israeli misconduct.
The West Bank was occupied and annexed by Jordan in 1950, following the Arab rejection of the UN decision to create two states in Palestine. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has since ceded its claim to the territory to the PLO. The population are mainly Palestinians, including refugees of the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War. From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel -- PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks during the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier. When completed, approximately 13 % of the barrier will be constructed on the Green Line or in Israel with 87 % inside the West Bank.
The Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt from 1948 to 1967 and then by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part of Israel 's unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed all of its settlers and forces from the territory. Israel does not consider the Gaza Strip to be occupied territory and declared it a "foreign territory ''. That view has been disputed by numerous international humanitarian organizations and various bodies of the United Nations. Following the 2007 Battle of Gaza, when Hamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip, Israel tightened its control of the Gaza crossings along its border, as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting the area except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian. Gaza has a border with Egypt and an agreement between Israel, the European Union and the PA governed how border crossing would take place (it was monitored by European observers).
Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 158 countries and has 107 diplomatic missions around the world; countries with whom they have no diplomatic relations include most Muslim countries. Only three members of the Arab League have normalized relations with Israel: Egypt and Jordan signed peace treaties in 1979 and 1994, respectively, and Mauritania opted for full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians. Under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Sudan, and Yemen are enemy countries, and Israeli citizens may not visit them without permission from the Ministry of the Interior. Iran had diplomatic relations with Israel under the Pahlavi dynasty but withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Islamic Revolution. As a result of the 2008 -- 09 Gaza War, Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel.
The United States and the Soviet Union were the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously. Diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were broken in 1967, following the Six - Day War, and renewed in October 1991. The United States regards Israel as its "most reliable partner in the Middle East, '' based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests ''. The United States has provided $68 billion in military assistance and $32 billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under the Foreign Assistance Act (period beginning 1962), more than any other country for that period until 2003. The United Kingdom is seen as having a "natural '' relationship with Israel on account of the British Mandate for Palestine. Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister Tony Blair 's efforts for a two state resolution. By 2007, Germany had paid 25 billion euros in reparations to the Israeli state and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors. Israel is included in the European Union 's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.
Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991, Turkey has cooperated with the Jewish state since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey 's ties to the other Muslim - majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel. Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn after the 2008 -- 09 Gaza War and Israel 's raid of the Gaza flotilla. Relations between Greece and Israel have improved since 1995 due to the decline of Israeli - Turkish relations. The two countries have a defense cooperation agreement and in 2010, the Israeli Air Force hosted Greece 's Hellenic Air Force in a joint exercise at the Uvda base. The joint Cyprus - Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the Leviathan gas field are an important factor for Greece, given its strong links with Cyprus. Cooperation in the world 's longest sub-sea electric power cable, the EuroAsia Interconnector, has strengthened relations between Cyprus and Israel.
Azerbaijan is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop bilateral strategic and economic relations with Israel. Azerbaijan supplies Israel with a substantial amount of its oil needs, and Israel has helped modernize the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan. India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then. According to an international opinion survey conducted in 2009 on behalf of the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, India is the most pro-Israel country in the world. India is the largest customer of the Israeli military equipment and Israel is the second - largest military partner of India after Russia. Ethiopia is Israel 's main ally in Africa due to common political, religious and security interests. Israel provides expertise to Ethiopia on irrigation projects and thousands of Ethiopian Jews live in Israel.
Israeli foreign aid ranks low among OECD nations, spending less than 0.1 % of its GNI on development assistance, as opposed to the recommended 0.7 %. The country also ranked 43rd in the 2016 World Giving Index. However, Israel has a history of providing emergency aid and humanitarian response teams to disasters across the world. Israel 's humanitarian efforts officially began in 1957, with the establishment of Mashav, the Israel 's Agency for International Development Cooperation. There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response groups that work with the Israel government, including IsraAid, a joint programme run by 14 Israeli organizations and North American Jewish groups, ZAKA, The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team (FIRST), Israeli Flying Aid (IFA), Save a Child 's Heart (SACH) and Latet.
Between 1985 and 2015, Israel sent 24 delegations of IDF search and rescue unit, the Home Front Command, to 22 countries. In Haiti, immediately following the 2010 earthquake, Israel was the first country to set up a field hospital capable of performing surgical operations. Israel sent over 200 medical doctors and personnel to start treating injured Haitians at the scene. At the conclusion of its humanitarian mission 11 days later, the Israeli delegation had treated more than 1,110 patients, conducted 319 successful surgeries, delivered 16 births and rescued or assisted in the rescue of four individuals. Despite radiation concerns, Israel was one of the first countries to send a medical delegation to Japan following the 2011 earthquake and tsunami disaster. Israel dispatched a medical team to the tsunami - stricken city of Kurihara in 2011. A medical clinic run by an IDF team of some 50 members featured pediatric, surgical, maternity and gynecological, and otolaryngology wards, together with an optometry department, a laboratory, a pharmacy and an intensive care unit. After treating 200 patients in two weeks, the departing emergency team donated its equipment to the Japanese.
The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces, and is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Cabinet. The IDF consist of the army, air force and navy. It was founded during the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizations -- chiefly the Haganah -- that preceded the establishment of the state. The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with Mossad and Shabak. The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle - trained armed forces in the world.
Most Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of 18. Men serve two years and eight months and women two years. Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Arab citizens of Israel (except the Druze) and those engaged in full - time religious studies are exempt from military service, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years. An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks. As a result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and an additional 445,000 reservists.
The nation 's military relies heavily on high - tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. The Arrow missile is one of the world 's few operational anti-ballistic missile systems. The Python air - to - air missile series is often considered one of the most crucial weapons in its military history. Israel 's Spike missile is one of the most widely exported ATGMs in the world. Israel 's Iron Dome anti-missile air defense system gained worldwide acclaim after intercepting hundreds of Qassam, 122 mm Grad and Fajr - 5 artillery rockets fire by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip. Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites. The success of the Ofeq program has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.
Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons as well as chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction. Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities. The Israeli Navy 's Dolphin submarines are believed to be armed with nuclear Popeye Turbo missiles, offering second - strike capability. Since the Gulf War in 1991, when Israel was attacked by Iraqi Scud missiles, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room, Merkhav Mugan, impermeable to chemical and biological substances.
Since Israel 's establishment, military expenditure constituted a significant portion of the country 's gross domestic product, with peak of 30.3 % of GDP spent on defense in 1975. In 2016, Israel ranked 6th in the world by defense spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.7 %, and 15th by total military expenditure, with $18 billion. Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of military aid to Israel. Under a memorandum of understanding signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20 % of Israel 's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028. Israel ranked 5th globally for arms exports in 2017. The majority of Israel 's arms exports are unreported for security reasons. Israel is consistently rated low in the Global Peace Index, ranking 144th out of 163 nations for peacefulness in 2017.
Israel is considered the most advanced country in Southwest Asia and the Middle East in economic and industrial development. Israel 's quality university education and the establishment of a highly motivated and educated populace is largely responsible for spurring the country 's high technology boom and rapid economic development. In 2010, it joined the OECD. The country is ranked 16th in the World Economic Forum 's Global Competitiveness Report and 54th on the World Bank 's Ease of Doing Business index. Israel was also ranked 5th in the world by share of people in high - skilled employment.
Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self - sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Imports to Israel, totaling $66.76 billion in 2017, include raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, and consumer goods. Leading exports include machinery and equipment, software, cut diamonds, agricultural products, chemicals, and textiles and apparel; in 2017, Israeli exports reached $60.6 billion. The Bank of Israel holds $113 billion of foreign - exchange reserves. Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of loan guarantees, which now account for roughly half of Israel 's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a lender in terms of net external debt (assets vs. liabilities abroad), which in 2015 stood at a surplus of $69 billion.
Israel has the second - largest number of startup companies in the world after the United States, and the third - largest number of NASDAQ - listed companies after the U.S. and China. Israel has an impressive record for creating profit driven technologies making the country a top choice for many business leaders and high technology industry giants. Intel and Microsoft built their first overseas research and development facilities in Israel, and other high - tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Google, Apple, HP, Cisco Systems, Facebook and Motorola have opened R&D centres in the country. In 2007, American investor Warren Buffett 's holding company Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company, Iscar, its first acquisition outside the United States, for $4 billion.
Days of working time in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for a five - day workweek), or Friday (for a six - day workweek). In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day '', usually lasting till 14: 00 in the winter, or 16: 00 in the summer. Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world, and make Sunday a non-working day, while extending working time of other days or replacing Friday with Sunday as a work day.
Israel 's development of cutting - edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley. Israel ranks 10th in the Bloomberg Innovation Index, and is 1st in the world in expenditure on research and development as a percentage of GDP. Israel boasts 140 scientists, technicians, and engineers per 10,000 employees, the highest number in the world (in comparison, the same is 85 for the U.S.). Israel has produced six Nobel Prize - winning scientists since 2004 and has been frequently ranked as one of the countries with the highest ratios of scientific papers per capita in the world. Israel has led the world in stem - cell research papers per capita since 2000. Israeli universities are ranked among the top 50 world universities in computer science (Technion and Tel Aviv University), mathematics (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and chemistry (Weizmann Institute of Science).
In 2012 Israel was ranked ninth in the world by the Futron 's Space Competitiveness Index. The Israel Space Agency coordinates all Israeli space research programs with scientific and commercial goals, and have indigenously designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites. Some of Israel 's satellites are ranked among the world 's most advanced space systems. Shavit is a space launch vehicle produced by Israel to launch small satellites into low Earth orbit. It was first launched in 1988, making Israel the eighth nation to have a space launch capability. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel 's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS - 107, the fatal mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia.
The ongoing shortage of water in the country has spurred innovation in water conservation techniques, and a substantial agricultural modernization, drip irrigation, was invented in Israel. Israel is also at the technological forefront of desalination and water recycling. The Sorek desalination plant is the largest seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination facility in the world. By 2014, Israel 's desalination programs provided roughly 35 % of Israel 's drinking water and it is expected to supply 40 % by 2015 and 70 % by 2050. As of 2015, more than 50 percent of the water for Israeli households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced. The country hosts an annual Water Technology and Environmental Control Exhibition & Conference (WATEC) that attracts thousands of people from across the world. In 2011, Israel 's water technology industry was worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net exporter of water in the coming years.
Israel has embraced solar energy; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology and its solar companies work on projects around the world. Over 90 % of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita in the world. According to government figures, the country saves 8 % of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating. The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert. Israel had a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of charging stations to facilitate the charging and exchange of car batteries. It was thought that this would have lowered Israel 's oil dependency and lowered the fuel costs of hundreds of Israel 's motorists that use cars powered only by electric batteries. The Israeli model was being studied by several countries and being implemented in Denmark and Australia. However, Israel 's trailblazing electric car company Better Place shut down in 2013.
Israel has 19,224 kilometres (11,945 mi) of paved roads, and 3 million motor vehicles. The number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons is 365, relatively low with respect to developed countries. Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes, operated by several carriers, the largest of which is Egged, serving most of the country. Railways stretch across 1,277 kilometres (793 mi) and are operated solely by government - owned Israel Railways. Following major investments beginning in the early to mid-1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5 million in 1990, to 53 million in 2015; railways are also transporting 7.5 million tons of cargo, per year.
Israel is served by two international airports, Ben Gurion Airport, the country 's main hub for international air travel near Tel Aviv, and Ovda Airport, which serves the southernmost port city of Eilat. There are several small domestic airports as well. Ben Gurion, Israel 's largest airport, handled over 15 million passengers in 2015. On the Mediterranean coast, the Port of Haifa is the country 's oldest and largest port, while Ashdod Port is one of the few deep water ports in the world built on the open sea. In addition to these, the smaller Port of Eilat is situated on the Red Sea, and is used mainly for trading with Far East countries.
Tourism, especially religious tourism, is an important industry in Israel, with the country 's temperate climate, beaches, archaeological, other historical and biblical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel 's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of incoming tourists is on the rebound. In 2017, a record of 3.6 million tourists visited Israel, yielding a 25 percent growth since 2016 and contributed NIS 20 billion to the Israeli economy.
Israel began producing natural gas from its own offshore gas fields in 2004. Between 2005 to 2012, Israel had imported gas from Egypt via the al - Arish - Ashkelon pipeline, which was terminated due to Egyptian Crisis of 2011 - 14. In 2009, a natural gas reserve, Tamar was found near the coast of Israel. A second natural gas reserve, Leviathan, was discovered in 2010. The natural gas reserves in these two fields (Leviathan has around 19 trillion cubic feet) could make Israel energy secure for more than 50 years. In 2013, Israel began commercial production of natural gas from the Tamar field. As of 2014, Israel produced over 7.5 billion cubic meters (bcm) of natural gas a year. Israel had 199 billion cubic meters (cu m) of proven reserves of natural gas as of the start of 2016. In early 2017, Israel began exporting natural gas to the Kingdom of Jordan.
Ketura Sun is Israel 's first commercial solar field. Built in early 2011 by the Arava Power Company on Kibbutz Ketura, Ketura Sun covers twenty acres and is expected to produce green energy amounting to 4.95 megawatts. The field consists of 18,500 photovoltaic panels made by Suntech, which will produce about 9 gigawatt - hours of electricity per year. In the next twenty years, the field will spare the production of some 125,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The field was inaugurated on 15 June 2011. On 22 May 2012 Arava Power Company announced that it had reached financial close on an additional 58.5 MW for 8 projects to be built in the Arava and the Negev valued at 780 million NIS or approximately $204 million.
Israel 's diverse culture stems from the diversity of its population: Jews from diaspora communities around the world have brought their cultural and religious traditions back with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs. Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Work and school holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath. Israel 's substantial Arab minority has also left its imprint on Israeli culture in such spheres as architecture, music, and cuisine.
Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages, such as English. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the National Library of Israel at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media. In 2016, 89 percent of the 7,300 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew. The Hebrew Book Week is held each June and features book fairs, public readings, and appearances by Israeli authors around the country. During the week, Israel 's top literary award, the Sapir Prize, is presented.
In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs. Leading Israeli poets have been Yehuda Amichai, Nathan Alterman, Leah Goldberg, and Rachel Bluwstein. Internationally famous contemporary Israeli novelists include Amos Oz, Etgar Keret and David Grossman. The Israeli - Arab satirist Sayed Kashua (who writes in Hebrew) is also internationally known. Israel has also been the home of two leading Palestinian poets and writers: Emile Habibi, whose novel The Secret Life of Saeed: The Pessoptimist, and other writings, won him the Israel prize for Arabic literature; and Mahmoud Darwish, considered by many to be "the Palestinian national poet. '' Darwish was born and raised in northern Israel, but lived his adult life abroad after joining the Palestine Liberation Organization.
Israeli music contains musical influences from all over the world; Mizrahi and Sephardic music, Hasidic melodies, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock are all part of the music scene. Among Israel 's world - renowned orchestras is the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, which has been in operation for over seventy years and today performs more than two hundred concerts each year. Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition four times and hosting it twice. Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987. Israel is home to many Palestinian musicians, including an oud group Le Trio Joubran and singer Amal Murkus. The Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance has an advanced degree program in Arabic music, headed by oud virtuoso Taiseer Elias.
The nation 's canonical folk songs, known as "Songs of the Land of Israel, '' deal with the experiences of the pioneers in building the Jewish homeland. The Hora circle dance introduced by early Jewish settlers was originally popular in the kibbutzim and outlying communities. It became a symbol of the Zionist reconstruction and of the ability to experience joy amidst austerity. It now plays a significant role in modern Israeli folk dancing and is regularly performed at weddings and other celebrations, and in group dances throughout Israel. Modern dance in Israel is a flourishing field, and several Israeli choreographers such as Ohad Naharin and Barak Marshall and many others, are considered to be among the most versatile and original international creators working today. Famous Israeli companies include the Batsheva Dance Company and the Kibbutz Contemporary Dance Company.
Ten Israeli films have been final nominees for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards since the establishment of Israel. The 2009 movie Ajami was the third consecutive nomination of an Israeli film. Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made a number of films dealing with the Arab - Israel conflict and the status of Palestinians within Israel, such as Mohammed Bakri 's 2002 film Jenin, Jenin and The Syrian Bride.
Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theatre in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel 's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.
The 2017 Freedom of the Press annual report by Freedom House ranked Israel as the Middle East and North Africa 's most free country, and 64th globally. In the 2017 Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, Israel (including "Israel extraterritorial '' since 2013 ranking) was placed 91st of 180 countries, first in the Middle East and North Africa region.
The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel 's most important cultural institutions and houses the Dead Sea Scrolls, along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art. Israel 's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, is the world central archive of Holocaust - related information. Beit Hatfutsot ("The Diaspora House ''), on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world. Apart from the major museums in large cities, there are high - quality artspaces in many towns and kibbutzim. Mishkan LeOmanut in kibbutz Ein Harod Meuhad is the largest art museum in the north of the country.
Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world. Several Israeli museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including the Rockefeller Museum and the L.A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art, both in Jerusalem. The Rockefeller specializes in archaeological remains from the Ottoman and other periods of Middle East history. It is also the home of the first hominid fossil skull found in Western Asia called Galilee Man. A cast of the skull is on display at the Israel Museum.
Israeli cuisine includes local dishes as well as Jewish cuisine brought to the country by immigrants from the diaspora. Since the establishment of the state in 1948, and particularly since the late 1970s, an Israeli fusion cuisine has developed. Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of the Mizrahi, Sephardi, and Ashkenazi styles of cooking. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in the Levantine, Arab, Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, such as falafel, hummus, shakshouka, couscous, and za'atar. Schnitzel, pizza, hamburgers, French fries, rice and salad are also common in Israel.
Roughly half of the Israeli - Jewish population attests to keeping kosher at home. Kosher restaurants, though rare in the 1960s, make up around 25 % of the total as of 2015, perhaps reflecting the largely secular values of those who dine out. Hotel restaurants are much more likely to serve kosher food. The non-kosher retail market was traditionally sparse, but grew rapidly and considerably following the influx of immigrants from the post-Soviet states during the 1990s. Together with non-kosher fish, rabbits and ostriches, pork -- often called "white meat '' in Israel -- is produced and consumed, though it is forbidden by both Judaism and Islam.
The most popular spectator sports in Israel are association football and basketball. The Israeli Premier League is the country 's premier football league, and the Israeli Basketball Premier League is the premier basketball league. Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest football clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the UEFA Champions League and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the UEFA Cup quarter - finals. Israel hosted and won the 1964 AFC Asian Cup; in 1970 the Israel national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup, the only time it participated in the World Cup. The 1974 Asian Games held in Tehran, were the last Asian Games in which Israel participated, and was plagued by the Arab countries which refused to compete with Israel. Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games and since then has not competed in Asian sport events. In 1994, UEFA agreed to admit Israel and its soccer teams now compete in Europe. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball six times. In 2016, the country was chosen as a host for the EuroBasket 2017.
Chess is a leading sport in Israel and is enjoyed by people of all ages. There are many Israeli grandmasters and Israeli chess players have won a number of youth world championships. Israel stages an annual international championship and hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005. The Ministry of Education and the World Chess Federation agreed upon a project of teaching chess within Israeli schools, and it has been introduced into the curriculum of some schools. The city of Beersheba has become a national chess center, with the game being taught in the city 's kindergartens. Owing partly to Soviet immigration, it is home to the largest number of chess grandmasters of any city in the world. The Israeli chess team won the silver medal at the 2008 Chess Olympiad and the bronze, coming in third among 148 teams, at the 2010 Olympiad. Israeli grandmaster Boris Gelfand won the Chess World Cup 2009 and the 2011 Candidates Tournament for the right to challenge the world champion. He only lost the World Chess Championship 2012 to reigning world champion Anand after a speed - chess tie breaker.
Israel has won nine Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked 20th in the all - time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel. The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic - style event for Jewish and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. Israeli tennis champion Shahar Pe'er ranked 11th in the world on 31 January 2011. Krav Maga, a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders during the struggle against fascism in Europe, is used by the Israeli security forces and police. Its effectiveness and practical approach to self - defense, have won it widespread admiration and adherence around the world.
Arab -- Israeli conflict Israeli -- Palestinian conflict (Peace process Disengagement from Gaza
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name two substances used as biopesticides for storing grains | Biopesticide - wikipedia
Biopesticides, a contraction of ' biological pesticides ', include several types of pest management intervention: through predatory, parasitic, or chemical relationships. The term has been associated historically with biological control -- and by implication -- the manipulation of living organisms. Regulatory positions can be influenced by public perceptions, thus:
They are obtained from organisms including plants, bacteria and other microbes, fungi, nematodes, etc. They are often important components of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, and have received much practical attention as substitutes to synthetic chemical plant protection products (PPPs).
Biopesticides can be classified into these classes:
Biopesticides have usually no known function in photosynthesis, growth or other basic aspects of plant physiology. Instead, they are active against biological pests. Many chemical compounds have been identified that are produced by plants to protect them from pests. These materials are biodegradable and renewable alternatives, which can be economical for practical use. Organic farming systems embraces this approach to pest control.
RNA interference is under study for possible use as a spray - on insecticide by multiple companies, including Monsanto, Syngenta, and Bayer. Such sprays do not modify the genome of the target plant. The RNA could be modified to maintain its effectiveness as target species evolve tolerance to the original. RNA is a relatively fragile molecule that generally degrades within days or weeks of application. Monsanto estimated costs to be on the order of $5 / acre.
RNAi has been used to target weeds that tolerate Monsanto 's Roundup herbicide. RNAi mixed with a silicone surfactant that let the RNA molecules enter air - exchange holes in the plant 's surface that disrupted the gene for tolerance, affecting it long enough to let the herbicide work. This strategy would allow the continued use of glyphosate - based herbicides, but would not per se assist a herbicide rotation strategy that relied on alternating Roundup with others.
They can be made with enough precision to kill some insect species, while not harming others. Monsanto is also developing an RNA spray to kill potato beetles One challenge is to make it linger on the plant for a week, even if it 's raining. The Potato beetle has become resistant to more than 60 conventional insecticides.
Monsanto lobbied the U.S. EPA to exempt RNAi pesticide products from any specific regulations (beyond those that apply to all pesticides) and be exempted from rodent toxicity, allergenicity and residual environmental testing. In 2014 an EPA advisory group found little evidence of a risk to people from eating RNA.
However, in 2012, the Australian Safe Food Foundation alleged that the RNA trigger designed to change wheat 's starch content might interfere with the gene for a human liver enzyme. Supporters countered that RNA does not appear to make it past human saliva or stomach acids. The US National Honey Bee Advisory Board told EPA that using RNAi would put natural systems at "the epitome of risk ''. The beekeepers cautioned that pollinators could be hurt by unintended effects and that the genomes of many insects are still unknown. Other unassessed risks include ecological (given the need for sustained presence for herbicide and other applications) and the possible for RNA drift across species boundaries.
Monsanto has invested in multiple companies for their RNA expertise, including Beeologics (for RNA that kills a parasitic mite that infests hives and for manufacturing technology) and Preceres (nanoparticle lipidoid coatings) and licensed technology from Alnylam and Tekmira. In 2012 Syngenta acquired Devgen, a European RNA partner. Startup Forrest Innovations is investigating RNAi as a solution to citrus greening disease that in 2014 caused 22 percent of oranges in Florida to fall off the trees.
Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterial disease of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera, is a well - known insecticide example. The toxin from B. thuringiensis (Bt toxin) has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of genetic engineering. The use of Bt Toxin is particularly controversial. Its manufacturers claim it has little effect on other organisms, and is more environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides. However, at least one scientific study has suggested that it may lead to slight histopathological changes on the liver and kidneys of mammals with Bt toxin in their diet.
Other microbial control agents include products based on:
Various naturally occurring materials, including fungal and plant extracts, have been described as biopesticides. Products in this category include:
Biopesticides are biological or biologically - derived agents, that are usually applied in a manner similar to chemical pesticides, but achieve pest management in an environmentally friendly way. With all pest management products, but especially microbial agents, effective control requires appropriate formulation and application.
Biopesticides for use against crop diseases have already established themselves on a variety of crops. For example, biopesticides already play an important role in controlling downy mildew diseases. Their benefits include: a 0 - Day Pre-Harvest Interval (see: maximum residue limit), the ability to use under moderate to severe disease pressure, and the ability to use as a tank mix or in a rotational program with other registered fungicides. Because some market studies estimate that as much as 20 % of global fungicide sales are directed at downy mildew diseases, the integration of biofungicides into grape production has substantial benefits in terms of extending the useful life of other fungicides, especially those in the reduced - risk category.
A major growth area for biopesticides is in the area of seed treatments and soil amendments. Fungicidal and biofungicidal seed treatments are used to control soil borne fungal pathogens that cause seed rots, damping - off, root rot and seedling blights. They can also be used to control internal seed -- borne fungal pathogens as well as fungal pathogens that are on the surface of the seed. Many biofungicidal products also show capacities to stimulate plant host defence and other physiological processes that can make treated crops more resistant to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses.
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when was national insurance introduced in the uk | National Insurance - wikipedia
National Insurance (NI) is a tax system in the United Kingdom paid by workers and employers for funding state benefits. Initially, it was a contributory form of insurance against illness and unemployment, and eventually provided retirement pensions and other benefits. Citizens pay National Insurance contributions to become eligible for State Pension and other benefits. Anyone 16 years old and above are mandated to pay National Insurance provided the employee earns more than £ 162 a week or the individual is self - employed and makes a profit of £ 6,205 or more annually. It is necessary to obtain a National Insurance number before starting to pay contributions.
NI was first introduced by the National Insurance Act 1911 and expanded by the Labour government in 1948. The system was subjected to numerous amendments in succeeding years.
Employees and employers pay for National Insurance contributions on certain benefits provided to employees. Self - employed persons contribute partly through a fixed weekly or monthly payment, and partly on a percentage of net profits above a certain threshold. Individuals may also make voluntary contributions to fill a gap in their contributions record and thus protect their entitlement to benefits. Contributions from employees are collected by HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) through the PAYE system, along with Income Tax, repayments of Student Loans and any Apprenticeship Levy which the employer is liable to pay.
Employers include PAYE in their payroll. it refers to the "HM Revenue and Customs ' (HMRC) system for the collection of Income Tax and National Insurance from employment. ''
The benefit component includes several contributory benefits of availability and amount determined by the claimant 's contribution record and circumstances. Weekly income and some lump - sum benefits are provided for participants upon death, retirement, unemployment, maternity and disability.
National Insurance contributes a significant part of the government 's revenue (21.5 % of the total collected by HMRC). The structure of National Insurance was modified to remove the fixed upper contribution limits, with a much lower rate paid by employees on income above a certain level.
The Government Actuary estimated the 2012 - 13 results for the National Insurance Fund to be as follows:
The current system of National Insurance has its roots in the National Insurance Act 1911, which introduced the concept of benefits based on contributions paid by employed persons and their employer. The chosen means of recording the contributions required the employer to buy special stamps from a Post Office and affix them to contribution cards. The cards formed proof of entitlement to benefits and were given to the employee when the employment ended, leading to the loss of a job often being referred to as being given your cards, a phrase which endures to this day although the card itself no longer exists.
Initially there were two schemes running alongside each other, one for health and pension insurance benefits (administered by "approved societies '' including friendly societies and some trade unions) and the other for unemployment benefit which was administered directly by Government. The Beveridge Report in 1942 proposed expansion and unification of the welfare state under a scheme of what was called social insurance. In March 1943 Winston Churchill in a broadcast entitled "After the War '' committed the government to a system of "national compulsory insurance for all classes for all purposes from the cradle to the grave. ''
After the Second World War, the Attlee government pressed ahead with the introduction of the Welfare State, of which an expanded National Insurance scheme was a major component. As part of this process, responsibility passed in 1948 to the new Ministry of National Insurance. At that point, a single stamp was introduced which covered all the benefits of the new Welfare State.
Stamp cards for class 1 (employed) contributions persisted until 1975 when these contributions finally ceased to be flat - rate and became earnings related, collected along with Income Tax under the PAYE procedures. Making NI contributions is often described by people as paying their stamp.
As the system developed, the link between individual contributions and benefits was weakened.
The National Insurance Funds are used to pay for certain types of welfare expenditure and National Insurance payments can not be used directly to fund general government spending. However, any surplus in the funds is invested in government securities, and so is effectively lent to the government at low rates of interest. National Insurance contributions are paid into the various National Insurance Funds after deduction of monies specifically allocated to the National Health Services (NHS). However a small percentage is transferred from the funds to the NHS from certain of the smaller sub-classes. Thus the four NHS organisations are partially funded from NI contributions but not from the NI Fund. Less than half of benefit expenditure (42.1 %) now goes on contributory benefits, compared with over 65 % in 1978 -- 79 because of the growth of means - tested benefits since the late 1970s.
National insurance contributions (NICs) fall into a number of classes. Class 1, 2 and 3 NICs paid are credited to an individual 's NI account, which determines eligibility for certain benefits - including the state pension. Class 1A, 1B and 4 NIC do not count towards benefit entitlements but must still be paid if due.
Class 1 contributions are paid by employers and their employees. In law, the employee contribution is referred to as the ' primary ' contribution and the employer contribution as the ' secondary ', but they are usually referred to simply as employee and employer contributions.
The employee contribution is deducted from gross wages by the employer, with no action required by the employee. The employer then adds in their own contribution and remits the total to HMRC along with income tax.
There are a number of milestone figures which determine the rate of NICs to be paid: Lower Earnings Limit (LEL), Primary Threshold (PT), Secondary Threshold (ST), Upper Accrual Point (UAP) and Upper Earnings Limit (UEL). In this context "earnings '' refers to an employee 's wage or salary. The cash value of most of these figures normally changes each year, either in line with inflation or by some other amount decided by the Chancellor. With effect from the 2012 / 13 tax year the PT is normally indexed to inflation using the CPI, while other thresholds remain indexed using the RPI. The exception to this routine uprating is the UAP, which has a fixed value.
Unlike income tax the limits for class 1 NICs for ordinary employees are calculated on a periodic basis, usually weekly or monthly depending on how the employee is paid. However those for company directors are always calculated on an annual basis, to ensure that the correct level of NICs are collected regardless of how often the director chooses to be paid.
As indicated above, the rates at which an individual and their employer pay contributions depend on a number of factors. Consequently, there are many possible sets of employer / employee contribution rates to allow for all combinations of the various factors. HMRC allocate a letter of the alphabet, referred to as an ' NI Table Letter ', to each of these sets of contribution rates. The complexity of the system is such that 21 of the 26 letters of the alphabet were in use for this purpose until the 2012 / 13 tax year, when the number reduced to 15 following the abolition of ' contracting out ' for defined contribution pension schemes. Each tax year, HMRC publish look - up tables for each table letter to assist with manual calculation of contributions, though these days most of the calculations are done by computer systems and the tables are available only as downloads from the HMRC website. In addition, HMRC provide an online National Insurance Calculator.
Employers are responsible for allocating the correct table letter (sometimes also referred to as an ' NI category ') to each employee depending on their particular circumstances. This then defines the rates of employee and employer contribution which apply.
From 6 April 2014, there is an annual allowance of £ 2,000 known as the employer 's allowance which may be deducted from employer 's national insurance. This increases to £ 3,000 from 6 April 2016 but is denied to sole directors of owner - managed companies.
From 6 April 2015 there are no employer contributions on earnings up to UEL in respect of employees aged under 21. From 6 April 2016, this was extended to include apprentices under the age of 25.
Class 1A contributions were introduced from 6 April 1991, and are paid by employers on the value of company cars and certain other benefits in kind provided to their employees and directors, at a rate (tax year 2012 - 13) of 13.8 % of the value of the benefits in kind (from their P11Ds). Class 1A contributions do not provide any benefit entitlement for individuals.
From April 2018 Class 1A contributions will also be due on termination payments over £ 30,000.
Class 1B were introduced on 6 April 1999 and are payable whenever an employer enters into a PAYE Settlement Agreement (PSA) for tax. Class 1B NICs are payable only by employers and payment does not provide any benefit entitlement for individuals. They are paid at the same rate as class 1A contributions.
Class 2 contributions are fixed weekly amounts paid by the self - employed. They are due regardless of trading profits or losses, but those with low earnings can apply for exemption from paying and those on high earnings with liability to either Class 1 or 4 can apply for deferment from paying. While the amount is calculated to a weekly figure, they were typically paid monthly or quarterly until 2015. For future years, class 2 is collected as part of the tax self - assessment process. For the most part, unlike Class 1, they do not form part of a qualifying contribution record for contributions - based Jobseekers Allowance, but do count towards Employment and Support Allowance. The government has announced plans to phase out class 2 from April 2019. The contributory element will pass to class 4.
Class 3 contributions are voluntary NICs paid by people wishing to fill a gap in their contributions record which has arisen either by not working or by their earnings being too low. Class 3 contributions only count towards State Pension and Bereavement Benefit entitlement. The main reason for paying Class 3 NICs is to ensure that a person 's contribution record is preserved to provide entitlement to these benefits, though care needs to be taken not to pay unnecessarily as it is not necessary to have contributions in every year of a working life in order to qualify.
Class 3A is a single voluntary contribution that may be made by someone who has reached the state retirement age before 6 April 2016. It allows such a contributor to make a single payment that will increase their state pension for the rest of their life. The rates vary according to age. For a person aged 65, the contribution is £ 890 to earn an extra £ 1 a week. This reduces to £ 127 for someone aged 100. The maximum amount of additional pension that can be bought is £ 25 a week. The contributions must be bought between 12 October 2015 and 5 April 2017.
Class 4 contributions are paid by self - employed people as a portion of their profits. The amount due is calculated with income tax at the end of the year, based on figures supplied on the SA100 tax return.
Contributions are based around two thresholds, the Lower Profits Limit (LPL) and the Upper Profits Limit (UPL). These have the same cash values as the Primary Threshold and Upper Earnings Limit used in Class 1 calculations.
Class 4 contributions do not form part of a qualifying contribution record for any benefits, including the State Pension, as self - employed people qualify for these benefits by paying Class 2 contributions.
The welfare state in the United Kingdom was built on the principle of National insurance contributions. In order to qualify for certain benefits the claimant, or in some cases their partner, must meet contribution conditions.
The contributions component of the system, "National Insurance Contributions '' (NICs), paid by employees and employers on earnings, and by employers on certain benefits - in - kind provided to employees. The self - employed contribute partly by a fixed weekly or monthly payment, and partly on a percentage of net profits above a certain threshold. Individuals may also make voluntary contributions, in order to fill a gap in their contributions record and thus protect their entitlement to benefits. Contributions are collected by HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) through the PAYE system, along with Income Tax and repayments of Student Loans.
People in certain circumstances, such as caring for a severely disabled person for more than 20 hours a week or claiming unemployment or sickness benefits, gain National Insurance credits.
See National Insurance for more details of the operation of the National Insurance Fund and liability for contributions.
The benefit component comprises a number of contributory benefits of availability and amount determined by the claimant 's contribution record and circumstances. Weekly income benefits and some lump - sum benefits to participants upon death, retirement, unemployment, maternity and disability are provided.
Benefits for which there is or was a contribution condition:
People who are unable to work for some reason may be able to claim NIC credits (technically credited earnings, since 1987). These are equivalent to Class 1 NICs, though are not paid for. They are granted either to maintain a contributions record while not working, or to those applying for benefits whose contribution record is only slightly short of the requirements for those benefits. In the latter case, they are unavailable to fill "gaps '' in past years in contribution records for some benefits.
An actuarial evaluation of the long - term prospects for the National Insurance system is mandated every 5 years, or whenever any changes are proposed to benefits or contributions. Such evaluations are conducted by the Government Actuary 's Department and the resulting reports must be presented to the UK Parliament.
In order to administer the National Insurance system, a National Insurance number is allocated to every child shortly after their birth when a claim to Child Benefit is made. People coming from overseas have to apply for a NI number before they can qualify for benefits, though holding a NI number is not a prerequisite for working in the UK.
An NI number is in the format: two letters, six digits, and one further letter or a space. The example used is typically AB123456C. It is usual to pair off the digits - such separators are seen on forms used by government departments (both internal and external, notably the P45 and P60).
National Insurance contributions for all UK residents and some non-residents are recorded using the NPS computer system (National Insurance and PAYE Service). This came into use in June and July 2009 and brought NIC and Income Tax records together onto a single system for the first time.
The original National Insurance Recording System (NIRS) was a more archaic system first used in 1975 without direct user access to its records. A civil servant working within the Contributions Office (NICO) would have to request paper printouts of an individual 's account which could take up to two weeks to arrive. New information to be added to the account would be sent to specialised data entry operatives on paper to be input into NIRS.
NIRS / 2, introduced in 1996, was a large and complex computer system which comprised several applications. These included individual applications to access or update an individual National Insurance account, to view employer 's National Insurance schemes and a general work management application. There was some controversy regarding the NIRS / 2 system from its inception when problems with the new system attracted widespread media coverage. Due to these computer problems Deficiency Notices (telling individuals of a possible shortfall in their contributions), which had been sent out on an annual basis prior to 1996, stopped being issued. The (then) Inland Revenue took several years to clear the backlog.
The history of the rates charged is not easy to find, but there is a partial history at UK Tax History. As mentioned above, the employee contribution was a flat rate stamp until 1975.
1975 - 1976 the contribution was at 5.50 % up to the upper limit. 1976 - 1978 the contribution was at 5.75 % up to the upper limit. 1978 - 1979 the contribution was at 6.50 % up to the upper limit. 1979 - 1980 the contribution was at 6.75 % up to the upper limit. 1980 - 1981 the contribution was at 7.75 % up to the upper limit. 1981 - 1982 the contribution was at 8.75 % up to the upper limit. 1982 - 1989 the contribution was at 9.00 % up to the upper limit. 1989 - 1994 the contribution was at 2.00 % on the lower band of earnings and then at 9.00 % up to the upper limit. 1995 - 1999 the contribution was at 2.00 % on the lower band of earnings and then at 10.00 % up to the upper limit. 1999 - 2003 the contribution was at 0.00 % on the lower band of earnings and then at 10.00 % up to the upper limit. 2003 - 2011 the contribution was at 0.00 % on the lower band of earnings and then at 11.00 % up to the upper limit and 1 % on earnings over the upper limit. 2011 - the contribution is at 0.00 % on the lower band of earnings and then at 12.00 % up to the upper limit and 2 % on earnings over the upper limit.
The upper limit is currently set at the figure at which the higher rate of Income Tax becomes chargeable for a person on the standard personal allowance for Income Tax in all parts of the UK except Scotland (which can set its own level for the tax threshold, but not for the NI upper limit). In the early 2000s the lower threshold for employee contributions was aligned with the standard personal allowance for Income Tax but has since diverged significantly, as illustrated in the following table.
For 2015 - 16 there was therefore up to £ 304.80 payable by someone who has not reached the point where they are liable for Income Tax. This has risen to £ 352.80 for 2016 - 17, to £ 400.32 for 2017 - 18 and to £ 411.12 for 2018 - 19.
The limits and rates for the following tax year are normally announced at the same time as the Autumn Statement made by the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Current rates are shown on the hmrc.gov.uk website.
There is a further complexity in as much as the calculation for employees has to be made on each pay period (for non directors of a company) - so a weekly paid employee will face a charge in any week where earnings exceed one fifty - second of the annual limit. It is therefore possible for a charge to Employees NI to arise on someone who earns below the limit on an annual basis but who has occasional payments above the weekly limit.
A further complication is that you have an allowance per employer, unlike Income Tax where the allowance is split between employers via the person 's tax code.
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which of these would have the most motor representation of the fingers | Cortical homunculus - wikipedia
A cortical homunculus is a distorted representation of the human body, based on a neurological "map '' of the areas and proportions of the human brain dedicated to processing motor functions, or sensory functions, for different parts of the body. The word homunculus is Latin for "little man '', and was a term used in alchemy and folklore long before scientific literature began using it. A cortical homunculus, or "cortex man '', illustrates the concept of heuristically representing the body lying within the brain. Nerve fibres from the spinal cord terminate in various areas of the parietal lobe in the cerebral cortex, which forms a representational map of the body.
A motor homunculus represents a map of brain areas dedicated to motor processing for different anatomical divisions of the body. The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus, and handles signals coming from the premotor area of the frontal lobes.
A sensory homunculus represents a map of brain areas dedicated to sensory processing for different anatomical divisions of the body. The primary sensory cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus, and handles signals coming from the thalamus.
These signals are transmitted on from the gyri to the brain stem and spinal cord via corresponding nerves.
Along the length of the primary motor and sensory cortices, the areas specializing in different parts of the body are arranged in an orderly manner, although ordered differently than one might expect. The toes are represented at the top of the cerebral hemisphere (or more accurately, "the upper end '', since the cortex curls inwards and down at the top), and then as one moves down the hemisphere, progressively higher parts of the body are represented, assuming a body that 's faceless and has arms raised. Going further down the cortex, the different areas of the face are represented, in approximately top - to - bottom order, rather than bottom - to - top as before. The homunculus is split in half, with motor and sensory representations for the left side of the body on the right side of the brain, and vice versa.
The amount of cortex devoted to any given body region is not proportional to that body region 's surface area or volume, but rather to how richly innervated that region is. Areas of the body with more complex and / or more numerous sensory or motor connections are represented as larger in the homunculus, while those with less complex and / or less numerous connections are represented as smaller. The resulting image is that of a distorted human body, with disproportionately huge hands, lips, and face.
In the sensory homunculus, below the areas handling sensation for the teeth, gums, jaw, tongue, and pharynx lies an area for intra-abdominal sensation. At the very top end of the primary sensory cortex, beyond the area for the toes, it has traditionally been believed that the sensory neural networks for the genitals occur. However, more recent research has suggested that there may be two different cortical areas for the genitals, possibly differentiated by one dealing with erogenous stimulation and the other dealing with non-erogenous stimulation.
Dr. Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the sensory and motor homunculi. They were not the first scientists to attempt to objectify human brain function by means of a homunculus. However, they were the first to differentiate between sensory and motor function and to map the two across the brain separately, resulting in two different homunculi. In addition, their drawings and later drawings derived from theirs became perhaps the most famous conceptual maps in modern neuroscience because they compellingly illustrated the data at a single glance.
Penfield first conceived of his homunculi as a thought experiment, and went so far as to envision an imaginary world in which the homunculi lived, which he referred to as "if ''. He and his colleagues went on to experiment with electrical stimulation of different brain areas of patients undergoing open brain surgery to control epilepsy, and were thus able to produce the topographical brain maps and their corresponding homunculi.
More recent studies have improved this understanding of somatotopic arrangement using techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
Penfield referred to his creations as "grotesque creatures '' due to their strange - looking proportions. For example, the sensory nerves arriving from the hands terminate over large areas of the brain, resulting in the hands of the homunculus being correspondingly large. In contrast, the nerves emanating from the torso or arms cover a much smaller area, thus the torso and arms of the homunculus look comparatively small and weak.
Penfield 's homunculi are usually shown as 2 - D diagrams. This is an oversimplification, as it can not fully show the data set Penfield collected from his brain surgery patients. Rather than the sharp delineation between different body areas shown in the drawings, there is actually significant overlap between neighboring regions. The simplification suggests that lesions of the motor cortex will give rise to specific deficits in specific muscles. However, this is a misconception, as lesions produce deficits in groups of synergistic muscles. This finding suggests that the motor cortex functions in terms of overall movements as coordinated groups of individual motions.
The sensorimotor homunculi can also be represented as 3 - D figures (such as the sensory homunculus sculpted by Sharon Price - James shown from different angles below), which can make it easier for laymen to understand the ratios between the different body regions ' levels of motor or sensory innervation. However, these 3 - D models do not illustrate which areas of the brain are associated with which parts of the body.
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attack on titan junior high episode 9 song | Attack on Titan: Junior High - Wikipedia
Attack on Titan: Junior High (進撃! 巨人 中学校, Shingeki! Kyojin Chūgakkō, lit. "Attack! Titan Junior High '') is a Japanese comedy manga series written and illustrated by Saki Nakagawa and published in Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine since 2012. The series is a parody of Hajime Isayama 's popular manga series Attack on Titan (進撃 の 巨人, Shingeki no Kyojin).
The manga has been adapted into an anime television series which began airing in October 2015. A rebroadcast was aired during January 2016.
The story is a parody of the Attack on Titan manga, featuring younger, chibi versions of the characters as they attend the "Class 1 - 04 '' at the Attack Junior High School (進撃 中学校). The story focuses on their hilarious adventures during the first year at school.
Saki Nakagawa began publishing Attack on Titan: Junior High in the May issue of Kodansha 's shōnen magazine Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine on April 9, 2012. A special chapter was published in the May issue of the Monthly Shōnen Sirius magazine on March 25, 2014. The series is published in tankōbon form by Kodansha. It has been licensed for publication in North America by Kodansha Comics USA. The series has been collected into eleven tankōbon volumes, ten of which have been republished in English. In the June 2016 issue, published on May 9, Nakagawa commented that the manga would be ending soon; the final chapter was published in the magazine 's August issue, on July 9, 2016.
An anime television series adaptation was announced in July 2015. The series is directed by Yoshihide Ibata and written by Midori Gotou, with animation by animation studio Production I.G. Yuuko Yahiro provides character designs for the series, and Asami Tachibana composes the show 's music. Kazuhiro Arai from Studio Homare is the series ' art director, and Tetsuya Takahashi serves as director of photography. Taeko Hamauzu is the anime 's editor and Masafumi Mima serves as sound director. Linked Horizon performs the series ' opening theme, "Youth is Like Fireworks '' (青春 は 花火 の よう に, "Seishun wa Hanabi no Yō ni ''). The ending theme, "Ground 's Counterattack '' (反撃 の 大地, "Hangeki no Daichi ''), is performed by the voice actors for Eren, Mikasa, and Jean. The cast from the 2013 anime television series will reprise their roles for Attack on Titan: Junior High. The series premiered on October 4, 2015, and aired on MBS, Tokyo MX, BS11, RKK, and SBS. The anime portion is followed by a live - action segment composed of two parts, "Shingeki! Treasure Hunt '' and "Sasha Tries?? By Herself!! ''; the former features the voice actors for Eren, Mikasa, Armin, and Bertholt, and the latter features the voice actress for Sasha alongside a mascot called Titan - kun. The series is licensed in North America by Funimation, and is simulcast on their website. The anime is licensed in the United Kingdom by Anime Limited.
Volume one made it onto The New York Times Manga Best Sellers list for three weeks, debuting at number eight before rising to number five.
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list of songs covered by the grateful dead | List of Grateful Dead cover versions - wikipedia
The Grateful Dead were an American rock band known for their extensive touring and constantly varying set lists, including many cover songs from various musical genres.
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under the affordable care act what is the role of health insurance exchanges course hero | Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act - Wikipedia
Illinois State Senator U.S. Senator from Illinois
44th President of the United States
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The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, often shortened to the Affordable Care Act (ACA) or nicknamed Obamacare, is a United States federal statute enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. The term "Obamacare '' was first used by opponents, then reappropriated by supporters, and eventually used by President Obama himself. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 amendment, it represents the U.S. healthcare system 's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.
The ACA 's major provisions came into force in 2014. By 2016, the uninsured share of the population had roughly halved, with estimates ranging from 20 -- 24 million additional people covered during 2016. The increased coverage was due, roughly equally, to an expansion of Medicaid eligibility and to major changes to individual insurance markets. Both involved new spending, funded through a combination of new taxes and cuts to Medicare provider rates and Medicare Advantage. Several Congressional Budget Office reports said that overall these provisions reduced the budget deficit, and that repealing the ACA would increase the deficit. The law also enacted a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. After the law went into effect, increases in overall healthcare spending slowed, including premiums for employer - based insurance plans.
The act largely retains the existing structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market, but individual markets were radically overhauled around a three - legged scheme. Insurers in these markets are made to accept all applicants and charge the same rates regardless of pre-existing conditions or sex. To combat resultant adverse selection, the act mandates that individuals buy insurance and insurers cover a list of "essential health benefits ''. To help households between 100 -- 400 % of the Federal Poverty Line afford these compulsory policies, the law provides insurance premium subsidies. Other individual market changes include health marketplaces and risk adjustment programs.
The act has also faced challenges and opposition. In 2009, Senator Ted Kennedy died, and the resultant special election cost the Democrats their 60 seat filibuster - proof Senate majority before the ACA had been fully passed by Congress. The Supreme Court ruled 5 to 4 in 2012 that states could choose not to participate in the ACA 's Medicaid expansion, although it upheld the law as a whole. The federal health exchange, HealthCare.gov, initially faced major technical problems during its rollout in 2013. In 2017, a unified Republican government failed to pass several different partial repeals of the ACA. The law spent several years opposed by a slim plurality of Americans polled, although its provisions were more popular than the law as a whole, and the law gained plurality support by 2017.
The ACA includes provisions to take effect between 2010 and 2020, although most took effect on January 1, 2014. Few areas of the US health care system were left untouched, making it the most sweeping health care reform since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. However, some areas were more affected than others. The individual insurance market was radically overhauled, and many of the law 's regulations applied specifically to this market, while the structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market were largely retained. Most of the coverage gains were made through the expansion of Medicaid, and the biggest cost savings were made in Medicare. Some regulations applied to the employer market, and the law also made delivery system changes that affected most of the health care system. Not all provisions took full effect. Some were made discretionary, some were deferred, and others were repealed before implementation.
Among the groups who remained uninsured were:
Guaranteed issue prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals due to pre-existing conditions. States were required to ensure the availability of insurance for individual children who did not have coverage via their families.
Premiums must be the same for everyone of a given age, regardless of preexisting conditions. Premiums are allowed to vary by enrollee age, but those for the oldest enrollees (age 45 -- 64 average expenses $5,542) can only be three times as large as those for adults (18 -- 24 $1,836).
The National Academy of Medicine defines the law 's "essential health benefits '' as "ambulatory patient services; emergency services; hospitalization; maternity and newborn care; mental health and substance use disorder services, including behavioral health treatment; prescription drugs; rehabilitative and habilitative services and devices; laboratory services; preventive and wellness services and chronic disease management; and pediatric services, including oral and vision care '' and others rated Level A or B by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. In determining what would qualify as an essential benefit, the law required that standard benefits should offer at least that of a "typical employer plan ''. States may require additional services.
One provision in the law mandates that health insurance cover "additional preventive care and screenings '' for women. The guidelines issued by the Health Resources and Services Administration to implement this provision mandate "(a) ll Food and Drug Administration approved contraceptive methods, sterilization procedures, and patient education and counseling for all women with reproductive capacity ''. This mandate applies to all employers and educational institutions except for religious organizations. These regulations were included on the recommendations of the Institute of Medicine.
The individual market has several other regulations:
The individual mandate is the requirement to buy insurance or pay a penalty for everyone not covered by an employer sponsored health plan, Medicaid, Medicare or other public insurance programs (such as Tricare). Also exempt were those facing a financial hardship or who were members in a recognized religious sect exempted by the Internal Revenue Service.
The mandate and the limits on open enrollment were designed to avoid the insurance death spiral in which healthy people delay insuring themselves until they get sick. In such a situation, insurers would have to raise their premiums to cover the relatively sicker and thus more expensive policies, which could create a vicious cycle in which more and more people drop their coverage.
The purpose of the mandate was to prevent the healthcare system from succumbing to adverse selection, which would result in high premiums for the insured and little coverage (and thus more illness and medical bankruptcy) for the uninsured. Studies by the CBO, Gruber and Rand Health concluded that a mandate was required. The mandate increased the size and diversity of the insured population, including more young and healthy participants to broaden the risk pool, spreading costs. Experience in New Jersey and Massachusetts offered divergent outcomes.
Households with incomes between 100 % and 400 % of the federal poverty level were eligible to receive federal subsidies for policies purchased via an exchange. Subsidies are provided as an advanceable, refundable tax credits. Additionally, small businesses are eligible for a tax credit provided that they enroll in the SHOP Marketplace. Under the law, workers whose employers offer affordable coverage will not be eligible for subsidies via the exchanges. To be eligible the cost of employer - based health insurance must exceed 9.5 % of the worker 's household income.
a. ^ Note: In 2014, the FPL was $11,800 for a single person and $24,000 for family of four. See Subsidy Calculator for specific dollar amount. b. ^ DHHS and CBO estimate the average annual premium cost in 2014 would have been $11,328 for a family of 4 without the reform.
Established the creation of health insurance exchanges in all fifty states. The exchanges are regulated, largely online marketplaces, administered by either federal or state government, where individuals and small business can purchase private insurance plans.
Setting up an exchange gives a state partial discretion on standards and prices of insurance. For example, states approve plans for sale, and influence (through limits on and negotiations with private insurers) the prices on offer. They can impose higher or state - specific coverage requirements -- including whether plans offered in the state can cover abortion. States without an exchange do not have that discretion. The responsibility for operating their exchanges moves to the federal government.
The risk - corridor program was a temporary risk management device defined under the PPACA section 1342 to encourage reluctant insurers into the "new and untested '' ACA insurance market during the first three years that ACA was implemented (2014 -- 2016). For those years the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) "would cover some of the losses for insurers whose plans performed worse than they expected. Insurers that were especially profitable, for their part, would have to return to HHS some of the money they earned on the exchanges ''
According to an article in Forbes, risk corridors "had been a successful part of the Medicare prescription drug benefit, and the ACA 's risk corridors were modeled after Medicare 's Plan D. '' They operated on the principle that "more participation would mean more competition, which would drive down premiums and make health insurance more affordable '' and "(w) hen insurers signed up to sell health plans on the exchanges, they did so with the expectation that the risk - corridor program would limit their downside losses. '' The risk corridors succeeded in attracting ACA insurers. The program did not pay for itself as planned with "accumulated losses '' up to $8.3 billion for 2014 and 2015 alone. Authorization had to be given so that HHS could pay insurers from "general government revenues ''. Congressional Republicans "railed against '' the program as a ' bailout ' for insurers. Then - Rep. Jack Kingston (R - Ga.), on the Appropriations Committee that funds the Department of Health and Human Services and the Labor Department "(slipped) in a sentence '' -- Section 227 -- in the "massive '' appropriations Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547) that said that no funds in the discretionary spending bill "could be used for risk - corridor payments. '' This effectively "blocked the administration from obtaining the necessary funds from other programs '' and placed Congress in a potential breach of contract with insurers who offered qualified health plans, under the Tucker Act as it did not pay the insurers.
On February 10, 2017, in the Moda Health v the US Government, Moda, one of the insurers that struggled financially because of the elimination of the risk corridor program, won a "$214 - million judgment against the federal government ''. On appeal, judge Thomas C. Wheeler stated, "the Government made a promise in the risk corridors program that it has yet to fulfill. Today, the court directs the Government to fulfill that promise. After all, to say to (Moda), ' The joke is on you. You should n't have trusted us, ' is hardly worthy of our great government. ''
Temporary reinsurance for insurance for insurers against unexpectedly high claims was a program that ran from 2014 through 2016. It was intended to limit insurer losses.
Of the three risk management programs, only risk adjustment was permanent. Risk adjustment attempts to spread risk among insurers to prevent purchasers with good knowledge of their medical needs from using insurance to cover their costs (adverse selection). Plans with low actuarial risk compensate plans with high actuarial risk.
ACA revised and expanded Medicaid eligibility starting in 2014. Under the law as written, all U.S. citizens and legal residents with income up to 133 % of the poverty line, including adults without dependent children, would qualify for coverage in any state that participated in the Medicaid program. The federal government paid 100 % of the cost of Medicaid eligibility expansion in participating states in 2014, 2015, and 2016; and will pay 95 % in 2017, 94 % in 2018, 93 % in 2019, and 90 % in 2020 and all subsequent years. The law provides a 5 % "income disregard '', making the effective income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138 % of the poverty level.
However, the Supreme Court ruled in NFIB v. Sebelius that this provision of the ACA was coercive, and that the federal government must allow states to continue at pre-ACA levels of funding and eligibility if they chose.
Spending reductions included a reduction in Medicare reimbursements to insurers and drug companies for private Medicare Advantage policies that the Government Accountability Office and Medicare Payment Advisory Commission found to be excessively costly relative to government Medicare; and reductions in Medicare reimbursements to hospitals that failed standards of efficiency and care.
Income from self - employment and wages of single individuals in excess of $200,000 annually are subject to an additional tax of 0.9 %. The threshold amount is $250,000 for a married couple filing jointly (threshold applies to joint compensation of the two spouses), or $125,000 for a married person filing separately.
In ACA 's sister act, the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, an additional Medicare tax of 3.8 % was applied to unearned income, specifically the lesser of net investment income or the amount by which adjusted gross income exceeds $200,000 ($250,000 for a married couple filing jointly; $125,000 for a married person filing separately.)
Excise taxes for the Affordable Care Act raised $16.3 billion in fiscal year 2015 (17 % of all excise taxes collected by the Federal Government). $11.3 billion was raised by an excise tax placed directly on health insurers based on their market share. The ACA also includes an excise tax of 40 % ("Cadillac tax '') on total employer premium spending in excess of specified dollar amounts ($10,200 for single coverage and $27,500 for family coverage) indexed to inflation, originally scheduled to take effect in 2018, but delayed until 2020 by the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016. Annual excise taxes totaling $3 billion were levied on importers and manufacturers of prescription drugs. An excise tax of 2.3 % on medical devices and a 10 % excise tax on indoor tanning services were applied as well.
The State Children 's Health Insurance Program (CHIP) enrollment process was simplified.
Dependents were permitted to remain on their parents ' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, including dependents who no longer live with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent 's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.
Businesses that employ 50 or more people but do not offer health insurance to their full - time employees pay a tax penalty if the government has subsidized a full - time employee 's healthcare through tax deductions or other means. This is commonly known as the employer mandate. This provision was included to encourage employers to continue providing insurance once the exchanges began operating. Approximately 44 % of the population was covered directly or indirectly through an employer.
The act includes a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. These include Medicare payment changes to discourage hospital - acquired conditions and readmissions, bundled payment initiatives, the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation, the Independent Payment Advisory Board, and the creation of Accountable care organizations.
Health care cost / quality initiatives including incentives to reduce hospital infections, to adopt electronic medical records, and to coordinate care and prioritize quality over quantity.
The Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRPP) was established as an addition to the Social Security Act, in an effort to reduce hospital readmissions. This program penalizes hospitals with higher than expected readmission rates by decreasing their Medicare reimbursement rate.
The Medicare payment system switched from fee - for - service to bundled payments. A single payment was to be paid to a hospital and a physician group for a defined episode of care (such as a hip replacement) rather than individual payments to individual service providers. In addition, the Medicare Part D coverage gap (commonly called the "donut hole '') was to shrink incrementally, closing completely by January 1, 2020.
The Act allowed the creation of Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs), which are groups of doctors, hospitals and other providers that commit to give coordinated, high quality care to Medicare patients. ACOs were allowed to continue using a fee for service billing approach. They receive bonus payments from the government for minimizing costs while achieving quality benchmarks that emphasize prevention and mitigation of chronic disease. If they fail to do so, they are subject to penalties.
Unlike Health Maintenance Organizations, ACO patients are not required to obtain all care from the ACO. Also, unlike HMOs, ACOs must achieve quality of care goals.
Medicare Part D participants received a 50 % discount on brand name drugs purchased after exhausting their initial coverage and before reaching the catastrophic - coverage threshold. The United States Department of Health and Human Services began mailing rebate checks in 2010. By the year 2020, the donut hole will be completely phased out.
From 2017 onwards, states can apply for a "waiver for state innovation '' that allows them to conduct experiments that meet certain criteria. To obtain a waiver, a state must pass legislation setting up an alternative health system that provides insurance at least as comprehensive and as affordable as ACA, covers at least as many residents and does not increase the federal deficit. These states can be exempt from some of ACA 's central requirements, including the individual and employer mandates and the provision of an insurance exchange. The state would receive compensation equal to the aggregate amount of any federal subsidies and tax credits for which its residents and employers would have been eligible under ACA plan, if they can not be paid under the state plan.
In May 2011, Vermont enacted Green Mountain Care, a state - based single - payer system for which they intended to pursue a waiver to implement. In December 2014, Vermont decided not to continue due to high expected costs.
An individual mandate coupled with subsidies for private insurance as a means for universal healthcare was considered the best way to win the support of the Senate because it had been included in prior bipartisan reform proposals. The concept goes back to at least 1989, when the conservative The Heritage Foundation proposed an individual mandate as an alternative to single - payer health care. It was championed for a time by conservative economists and Republican senators as a market - based approach to healthcare reform on the basis of individual responsibility and avoidance of free rider problems. Specifically, because the 1986 Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA) requires any hospital participating in Medicare (nearly all do) to provide emergency care to anyone who needs it, the government often indirectly bore the cost of those without the ability to pay.
President Bill Clinton proposed a healthcare reform bill in 1993 that included a mandate for employers to provide health insurance to all employees through a regulated marketplace of health maintenance organizations. Republican Senators proposed an alternative that would have required individuals, but not employers, to buy insurance. Ultimately the Clinton plan failed amid an unprecedented barrage of negative advertising funded by politically conservative groups and the health insurance industry and due to concerns that it was overly complex. Clinton negotiated a compromise with the 105th Congress to instead enact the State Children 's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) in 1997.
The 1993 Republican alternative, introduced by Senator John Chafee as the Health Equity and Access Reform Today Act, contained a "universal coverage '' requirement with a penalty for noncompliance -- an individual mandate -- as well as subsidies to be used in state - based ' purchasing groups '. Advocates for the 1993 bill included prominent Republicans such as Senators Orrin Hatch, Chuck Grassley, Bob Bennett and Kit Bond. Of 1993 's 43 Republican Senators, 20 supported the HEART Act. Another Republican proposal, introduced in 1994 by Senator Don Nickles (R - OK), the Consumer Choice Health Security Act, contained an individual mandate with a penalty provision; however, Nickles subsequently removed the mandate from the bill, stating he had decided "that government should not compel people to buy health insurance ''. At the time of these proposals, Republicans did not raise constitutional issues with the mandate; Mark Pauly, who helped develop a proposal that included an individual mandate for George H.W. Bush, remarked, "I do n't remember that being raised at all. The way it was viewed by the Congressional Budget Office in 1994 was, effectively, as a tax. ''
In 2006, an insurance expansion bill was enacted at the state level in Massachusetts. The bill contained both an individual mandate and an insurance exchange. Republican Governor Mitt Romney vetoed the mandate, but after Democrats overrode his veto, he signed it into law. Romney 's implementation of the ' Health Connector ' exchange and individual mandate in Massachusetts was at first lauded by Republicans. During Romney 's 2008 presidential campaign, Senator Jim DeMint praised Romney 's ability to "take some good conservative ideas, like private health insurance, and apply them to the need to have everyone insured ''. Romney said of the individual mandate: "I 'm proud of what we 've done. If Massachusetts succeeds in implementing it, then that will be the model for the nation. ''
In 2007, a year after the Massachusetts reform, Republican Senator Bob Bennett and Democratic Senator Ron Wyden introduced the Healthy Americans Act, which featured an individual mandate and state - based, regulated insurance markets called "State Health Help Agencies ''. The bill initially attracted bipartisan support, but died in committee. Many of the sponsors and co-sponsors remained in Congress during the 2008 healthcare debate.
By 2008 many Democrats were considering this approach as the basis for healthcare reform. Experts said that the legislation that eventually emerged from Congress in 2009 and 2010 bore similarities to the 2007 bill and that it was deliberately patterned after Romney 's state healthcare plan.
Healthcare reform was a major topic during the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries. As the race narrowed, attention focused on the plans presented by the two leading candidates, Hillary Clinton and the eventual nominee, Barack Obama. Each candidate proposed a plan to cover the approximately 45 million Americans estimated to not have health insurance at some point each year. Clinton 's proposal would have required all Americans to obtain coverage (in effect, an individual mandate), while Obama 's proposal provided a subsidy but rejected the use of an individual mandate.
During the general election, Obama said that fixing healthcare would be one of his top four priorities as president. Obama and his opponent, Sen. John McCain, proposed health insurance reforms though they differed greatly. Senator John McCain proposed tax credits for health insurance purchased in the individual market, which was estimated to reduce the number of uninsured people by about 2 million by 2018. Obama proposed private and public group insurance, income - based subsidies, consumer protections, and expansions of Medicaid and SCHIP, which was estimated at the time to reduce the number of uninsured people by 33.9 million by 2018.
After his inauguration, Obama announced to a joint session of Congress in February 2009 his intent to work with Congress to construct a plan for healthcare reform. By July, a series of bills were approved by committees within the House of Representatives. On the Senate side, from June to September, the Senate Finance Committee held a series of 31 meetings to develop a healthcare reform bill. This group -- in particular, Democrats Max Baucus, Jeff Bingaman and Kent Conrad, along with Republicans Mike Enzi, Chuck Grassley and Olympia Snowe -- met for more than 60 hours, and the principles that they discussed, in conjunction with the other committees, became the foundation of the Senate healthcare reform bill.
Congressional Democrats and health policy experts like MIT economics professor Jonathan Gruber and David Cutler argued that guaranteed issue would require both community rating and an individual mandate to ensure that adverse selection and / or "free riding '' would not result in an insurance "death spiral ''. This approach was taken because the president and congressional leaders had concluded that more progressive plans, such as the (single - payer) Medicare for All act, could not obtain filibuster - proof support in the Senate. By deliberately drawing on bipartisan ideas -- the same basic outline was supported by former Senate majority leaders Howard Baker, Bob Dole, Tom Daschle and George J. Mitchell -- the bill 's drafters hoped to garner the votes necessary for passage.
However, following the adoption of an individual mandate, Republicans came to oppose the mandate and threatened to filibuster any bills that contained it. Senate minority leader Mitch McConnell, who led the Republican congressional strategy in responding to the bill, calculated that Republicans should not support the bill, and worked to prevent defections:
It was absolutely critical that everybody be together because if the proponents of the bill were able to say it was bipartisan, it tended to convey to the public that this is O.K., they must have figured it out.
Republican Senators, including those who had supported previous bills with a similar mandate, began to describe the mandate as "unconstitutional ''. Journalist Ezra Klein wrote in The New Yorker that "a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition. '' Reporter Michael Cooper of The New York Times wrote that: "the provision... requiring all Americans to buy health insurance has its roots in conservative thinking. ''
The reform negotiations also attracted attention from lobbyists, including deals between certain lobby groups and the advocates of the law to win the support of groups that had opposed past reforms, as in 1993. The Sunlight Foundation documented many of the reported ties between "the healthcare lobbyist complex '' and politicians in both parties.
During the August 2009 summer congressional recess, many members went back to their districts and held town hall meetings on the proposals. The nascent Tea Party movement organized protests and many conservative groups and individuals attended the meetings to oppose the proposed reforms. Many threats were made against members of Congress over the course of the debate.
When Congress returned from recess, in September 2009 President Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress supporting the ongoing Congressional negotiations. He acknowledged the polarization of the debate, and quoted a letter from the late Senator Edward "Ted '' Kennedy urging on reform: "what we face is above all a moral issue; that at stake are not just the details of policy, but fundamental principles of social justice and the character of our country. '' On November 7, the House of Representatives passed the Affordable Health Care for America Act on a 220 -- 215 vote and forwarded it to the Senate for passage.
The Senate began work on its own proposals while the House was still working. The United States Constitution requires all revenue - related bills to originate in the House. To formally comply with this requirement, the Senate used H.R. 3590, a bill regarding housing tax changes for service members. It had been passed by the House as a revenue - related modification to the Internal Revenue Code. The bill became the Senate 's vehicle for its healthcare reform proposal, discarding the bill 's original content. The bill ultimately incorporated elements of proposals that were reported favorably by the Senate Health and Finance committees. With the Republican Senate minority vowing to filibuster, 60 votes would be necessary to pass the Senate. At the start of the 111th Congress, Democrats had only 58 votes; the Senate seat in Minnesota ultimately won by Al Franken was still undergoing a recount, while Arlen Specter was still a Republican (he became a Democrat in April, 2009).
Negotiations were undertaken attempting to satisfy moderate Democrats and to bring Republican senators aboard; particular attention was given to Republicans Bennett, Enzi, Grassley and Snowe. On July 7 Franken was sworn into office, providing a potential 60th vote. On August 25 Ted Kennedy -- a longtime healthcare reform advocate -- died. Paul Kirk was appointed as Senator Kennedy 's temporary replacement on September 24.
After the Finance Committee vote on October 15, negotiations turned to moderate Democrats. Majority leader Harry Reid focused on satisfying centrists. The holdouts came down to Joe Lieberman of Connecticut, an independent who caucused with Democrats, and conservative Nebraska Democrat Ben Nelson. Lieberman 's demand that the bill not include a public option was met, although supporters won various concessions, including allowing state - based public options such as Vermont 's Green Mountain Care.
The White House and Reid addressed Nelson 's concerns during a 13 - hour negotiation with two concessions: a compromise on abortion, modifying the language of the bill "to give states the right to prohibit coverage of abortion within their own insurance exchanges '', which would require consumers to pay for the procedure out of pocket if the state so decided; and an amendment to offer a higher rate of Medicaid reimbursement for Nebraska. The latter half of the compromise was derisively termed the "Cornhusker Kickback '' and was repealed in the subsequent reconciliation amendment bill.
On December 23, the Senate voted 60 -- 39 to end debate on the bill: a cloture vote to end the filibuster. The bill then passed, also 60 -- 39, on December 24, 2009, with all Democrats and two independents voting for it, and all Republicans against (except Jim Bunning, who did not vote). The bill was endorsed by the AMA and AARP.
On January 19, 2010, Massachusetts Republican Scott Brown was elected to the Senate in a special election to replace Kennedy, having campaigned on giving the Republican minority the 41st vote needed to sustain Republican filibusters. His victory had become significant because of its effects on the legislative process. The first was psychological: the symbolic importance of losing Kennedy 's traditionally Democratic Massachusetts seat made many Congressional Democrats concerned about the political cost of passing a bill.
Brown 's election meant Democrats could no longer break a filibuster in the Senate. In response, White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel argued that Democrats should scale back to a less ambitious bill; House Speaker Nancy Pelosi pushed back, dismissing Emanuel 's scaled - down approach as "Kiddie Care ''.
Obama remained insistent on comprehensive reform. The news that Anthem Blue Cross in California intended to raise premium rates for its patients by as much as 39 % gave him new evidence of the need for reform. On February 22, he laid out a "Senate - leaning '' proposal to consolidate the bills. He held a meeting with both parties ' leaders on February 25. The Democrats decided that the House would pass the Senate 's bill, to avoid another Senate vote.
House Democrats had expected to be able to negotiate changes in a House - Senate conference before passing a final bill. Since any bill that emerged from conference that differed from the Senate bill would have to pass the Senate over another Republican filibuster, most House Democrats agreed to pass the Senate bill on condition that it be amended by a subsequent bill. They drafted the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which could be passed by the reconciliation process.
Per the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, reconciliation can not be subject to a filibuster. But reconciliation is limited to budget changes, which is why the procedure was not used to pass ACA in the first place; the bill had inherently non-budgetary regulations. Although the already - passed Senate bill could not have been passed by reconciliation, most of House Democrats ' demands were budgetary: "these changes -- higher subsidy levels, different kinds of taxes to pay for them, nixing the Nebraska Medicaid deal -- mainly involve taxes and spending. In other words, they 're exactly the kinds of policies that are well - suited for reconciliation. ''
The remaining obstacle was a pivotal group of pro-life Democrats led by Bart Stupak who were initially reluctant to support the bill. The group found the possibility of federal funding for abortion significant enough to warrant opposition. The Senate bill had not included language that satisfied their concerns, but they could not address abortion in the reconciliation bill as it would be non-budgetary. Instead, Obama issued Executive Order 13535, reaffirming the principles in the Hyde Amendment. This won the support of Stupak and members of his group and assured the bill 's passage. The House passed the Senate bill with a 219 -- 212 vote on March 21, 2010, with 34 Democrats and all 178 Republicans voting against it. The next day, Republicans introduced legislation to repeal the bill. Obama signed ACA into law on March 23, 2010. Since passage, Republicans have voted to repeal all or parts of the Affordable Care Act over sixty times; no such attempt by Republicans has been successful. The amendment bill, The Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, cleared the House on March 21; the Senate passed it by reconciliation on March 25, and Obama signed it on March 30.
The law has caused a significant reduction in the number and percentage of people without health insurance. The CDC reported that the percentage of people without health insurance fell from 16.0 % in 2010 to 8.9 % during the January -- June 2016 period. The uninsured rate dropped in every congressional district in the U.S. between 2013 and 2015. The Congressional Budget Office reported in March 2016 that there were approximately 12 million people covered by the exchanges (10 million of whom received subsidies to help pay for insurance) and 11 million made eligible for Medicaid by the law, a subtotal of 23 million people. An additional 1 million were covered by the ACA 's "Basic Health Program, '' for a total of 24 million. CBO also estimated that the ACA would reduce the net number of uninsured by 22 million in 2016, using a slightly different computation for the above figures totaling ACA coverage of 26 million, less 4 million for reductions in "employment - based coverage '' and "non-group and other coverage. ''
The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) estimated that 20.0 million adults (aged 18 -- 64) gained healthcare coverage via ACA as of February 2016, a 2.4 million increase over September 2015. HHS estimated that this 20.0 million included: a) 17.7 million from the start of open enrollment in 2013 - 2016; and b) 2.3 million young adults aged 19 -- 25 who initially gained insurance from 2010 - 2013, as they were allowed to remain on their parent 's plans until age 26. Of the 20.0 million, an estimated 6.1 million were aged 19 -- 25. Similarly, the Urban Institute issued a report in December 2016 that said that about 19.2 million non-elderly Americans had gained health insurance coverage from 2010 to 2015. In March 2016, the CBO reported that there were approximately 27 million people without insurance in 2016, a figure they expected would range from 26 - 28 million through 2026. CBO also estimated the percentage of insured among all U.S. residents would remain at 90 % through that period, 92 - 93 % excluding unauthorized immigrants.
Those states that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3 % uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while those that did not expand Medicaid had a 14.1 % uninsured rate, among adults aged 18 to 64. As of December 2016 there were 32 states (including Washington DC) that had adopted the Medicaid extension, while 19 states had not.
By 2017, nearly 70 % of those on the exchanges could purchase insurance for less than $75 / month after subsidies, which rose to offset significant pre-subsidy price increases in the exchange markets. Healthcare premium cost increases in the employer market continued to moderate. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69 % from 2000 - 2005, but only 27 % from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3 % increase from 2015 to 2016.
The ACA also helps reduce income inequality measured after taxes, due to higher taxes on the top 5 % of income earners and both subsidies and Medicaid expansion for lower - income persons. CBO estimated that subsidies paid under the law in 2016 averaged $4,240 per person for 10 million individuals receiving them, roughly $42 billion. For scale, the subsidy for the employer market, in the form of exempting from taxation those health insurance premiums paid on behalf of employees by employers, was approximately $1,700 per person in 2016, or $266 billion total in the employer market. The employer market subsidy was not changed by the law.
As of August 2016, 15 states operated their own exchanges. Other states either used the federal exchange, or operated in partnership with or supported by the federal government.
As of December 2016 there were 32 states (including Washington DC) that had adopted the Medicaid extension, while 19 states had not. Those states that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3 % uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while those that did not expand Medicaid had a 14.1 % uninsured rate, among adults aged 18 to 64. Following the Supreme Court ruling in 2012, which held that states would not lose Medicaid funding if they did n't expand Medicaid under the ACA, several states rejected expanded Medicaid coverage. Over half of the national uninsured population lived in those states. In a report to Congress, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) estimated that the cost of expansion was $6,366 per person for 2015, about 49 percent above previous estimates. An estimated 9 million to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage, mostly low - income adults. The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated in October 2015 that 3.1 million additional people were not covered because of states that rejected the Medicaid expansion.
States that rejected the Medicaid expansion could maintain their Medicaid eligibility thresholds, which in many states were significantly below 133 % of the poverty line. Many states did not make Medicaid available to childless adults at any income level. Because subsidies on exchange insurance plans were not available to those below the poverty line, such individuals had no new options. For example, in Kansas, where only able - bodied adults with children and with an income below 32 % of the poverty line were eligible for Medicaid, those with incomes from 32 % to 100 % of the poverty level ($6,250 to $19,530 for a family of three) were ineligible for both Medicaid and federal subsidies to buy insurance. Absent children, able - bodied adults were not eligible for Medicaid in Kansas.
Studies of the impact of state decisions to reject the Medicaid expansion calculated that up to 6.4 million people could fall into this status. The federal government initially paid for 100 % of the expansion (through 2016). The subsidy tapered to 90 % by 2020 and continued to shrink thereafter. Several states argued that they could not afford their 10 % contribution. Studies suggested that rejecting the expansion would cost more than expanding Medicaid due to increased spending on uncompensated emergency care that otherwise would have been partially paid for by Medicaid coverage,
A 2016 study led by Harvard University health economics professor Benjamin Sommers found that residents of Kentucky and Arkansas, which both accepted the Medicaid expansion, were more likely to receive health care services and less likely to incur emergency room costs or have trouble paying their medical bills than before the expansion. Residents of Texas, which did not accept the Medicaid expansion, did not see a similar improvement during the same period. Kentucky opted for increased managed care, while Arkansas subsidized private insurance. The new Arkansas and Kentucky governors have proposed reducing or modifying their programs. Between 2013 and 2015, the uninsured rate dropped from 42 % to 14 % in Arkansas and from 40 % to 9 % in Kentucky, compared with 39 % to 32 % in Texas. Specific improvements included additional primary and preventive care, fewer emergency departments visits, reported higher quality care, improved health, improved drug affordability, reduced out - of - pocket spending and increased outpatient visits, increased diabetes screening, glucose testing among diabetes patients and regular care for chronic conditions.
A 2016 DHHS study found that states that expanded Medicaid had lower premiums on exchange policies, because they had fewer low - income enrollees, whose health on is worse than that of those with higher income.
The law is designed to pay subsidies in the form of tax credits to the individuals or families purchasing the insurance, based on income levels. Higher income consumers receive lower subsidies. While pre-subsidy prices rose considerably from 2016 to 2017, so did the subsidies, to reduce the after - subsidy cost to the consumer. For example, a study published in 2016 found that the average requested 2017 premium increase among 40 - year - old non-smokers was about 9 percent, according to an analysis of 17 cities, although Blue Cross Blue Shield proposed increases of 40 percent in Alabama and 60 percent in Texas. However, some or all of these costs are offset by subsidies, paid as tax credits. For example, the Kaiser Foundation reported that for the second - lowest cost "Silver plan '' (a plan often selected and used as the benchmark for determining financial assistance), a 40 - year old non-smoker making $30,000 per year would pay effectively the same amount in 2017 as they did in 2016 (about $208 / month) after the subsidy / tax credit, despite large increases in the pre-subsidy price. This was consistent nationally. In other words, the subsidies increased along with the pre-subsidy price, fully offsetting the price increases.
Healthcare premium cost increases in the employer market continued to moderate after the implementation of the law. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69 % from 2000 - 2005, but only 27 % from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3 % increase from 2015 to 2016. From 2008 - 2010 (before passage of the ACA) health insurance premiums rose by an average of 10 % per year.
Several studies found that the financial crisis and accompanying recession could not account for the entirety of the slowdown and that structural changes likely share at least partial credit. A 2013 study estimated that changes to the health system had been responsible for about a quarter of the recent reduction in inflation. Paul Krawzak claimed that even if cost controls succeed in reducing the amount spent on healthcare, such efforts on their own may be insufficient to outweigh the long - term burden placed by demographic changes, particularly the growth of the population on Medicare.
In a 2016 review of the ACA published in JAMA, Barack Obama himself wrote that from 2010 through 2014 mean annual growth in real per - enrollee Medicare spending was negative, down from a mean of 4.7 % per year from 2000 through 2005 and 2.4 % per year from 2006 to 2010; similarly, mean real per - enrollee growth in private insurance spending was 1.1 % per year over the period, compared with a mean of 6.5 % from 2000 through 2005 and 3.4 % from 2005 to 2010.
While health insurance premium costs have moderated, some of this is because of insurance policies that have a higher deductible, co-payments and out - of - pocket maximums that shift costs from insurers to patients. In addition, many employees are choosing to combine a health savings account with higher deductible plans, making the impact of the ACA difficult to determine precisely.
For those who obtain their insurance through their employer ("group market ''), a 2016 survey found that:
For the "non-group '' market, of which two - thirds are covered by the ACA exchanges, a survey of 2015 data found that:
Insurance coverage helps save lives, by encouraging early detection and prevention of dangerous medical conditions. According to a 2014 study, the ACA likely prevented an estimated 50,000 preventable patient deaths from 2010 to 2013. City University public health professors David Himmelstein and Steffie Woolhandler wrote in January 2017 that a rollback of the ACA 's Medicaid expansion alone would cause an estimated 43,956 deaths annually.
The CBO reported in several studies that the ACA would reduce the deficit, and that repealing it would increase the deficit. The 2011 comprehensive CBO estimate projected a net deficit reduction of more than $200 billion during the 2012 -- 2021 period: it calculated the law would result in $604 billion in total outlays offset by $813 billion in total receipts, resulting in a $210 billion net deficit reduction. The CBO separately predicted that while most of the spending provisions do not begin until 2014, revenue would exceed spending in those subsequent years. The CBO claimed that the bill would "substantially reduce the growth of Medicare 's payment rates for most services; impose an excise tax on insurance plans with relatively high premiums; and make various other changes to the federal tax code, Medicare, Medicaid, and other programs '' -- ultimately extending the solvency of the Medicare trust fund by 8 years.
This estimate was made prior to the Supreme Court 's ruling that enabled states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion, thereby forgoing the related federal funding. The CBO and JCT subsequently updated the budget projection, estimating the impact of the ruling would reduce the cost estimate of the insurance coverage provisions by $84 billion.
The CBO in June 2015 forecasted that repeal of ACA would increase the deficit between $137 billion and $353 billion over the 2016 -- 2025 period, depending on the impact of macroeconomic feedback effects. The CBO also forecasted that repeal of ACA would likely cause an increase in GDP by an average of 0.7 % in the period from 2021 to 2015, mainly by boosting the supply of labor.
Although the CBO generally does not provide cost estimates beyond the 10 - year budget projection period because of the degree of uncertainty involved in the projection, it decided to do so in this case at the request of lawmakers, and estimated a second decade deficit reduction of $1.2 trillion. CBO predicted deficit reduction around a broad range of one - half percent of GDP over the 2020s while cautioning that "a wide range of changes could occur ''.
The CBO cost estimates were criticized because they excluded the effects of potential legislation that would increase Medicare payments by more than $200 billion from 2010 to 2019. However, the so - called "doc fix '' is a separate issue that would have existed whether or not ACA became law - omitting its cost from ACA was no different from omitting the cost of other tax cuts.
Uwe Reinhardt, a Princeton health economist, wrote. "The rigid, artificial rules under which the Congressional Budget Office must score proposed legislation unfortunately can not produce the best unbiased forecasts of the likely fiscal impact of any legislation '', but went on to say "But even if the budget office errs significantly in its conclusion that the bill would actually help reduce the future federal deficit, I doubt that the financing of this bill will be anywhere near as fiscally irresponsible as was the financing of the Medicare Modernization Act of 2003. '' Douglas Holtz - Eakin, CBO director during the George W. Bush administration, who later served as the chief economic policy adviser to U.S. Senator John McCain 's 2008 presidential campaign, alleged that the bill would increase the deficit by $562 billion because, he argued, it front - loaded revenue and back - loaded benefits.
Scheiber and Cohn rejected critical assessments of the law 's deficit impact, arguing that predictions were biased towards underestimating deficit reduction. They noted that for example, it is easier to account for the cost of definite levels of subsidies to specified numbers of people than account for savings from preventive healthcare, and that the CBO had a track record of overestimating costs and underestimating savings of health legislation; stating, "innovations in the delivery of medical care, like greater use of electronic medical records and financial incentives for more coordination of care among doctors, would produce substantial savings while also slowing the relentless climb of medical expenses... But the CBO would not consider such savings in its calculations, because the innovations had n't really been tried on such large scale or in concert with one another -- and that meant there was n't much hard data to prove the savings would materialize. ''
In 2010, David Walker, former U.S. Comptroller General then working for The Peter G. Peterson Foundation, stated that the CBO estimates are not likely to be accurate, because they were based on the assumption that the law would not change. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities objected that Congress had a good record of implementing Medicare savings. According to their study, Congress followed through on the implementation of the vast majority of provisions enacted in the past 20 years to produce Medicare savings, although not the payment reductions addressed by the annual "doc fix ''.
CBO estimated in June 2015 that repealing the ACA would:
In 2015 the Center for Economic and Policy Research found no evidence that companies were reducing worker hours to avoid ACA requirements for employees working over 30 hours per week.
The CBO estimated that the ACA would slightly reduce the size of the labor force and number of hours worked, as some would no longer be tethered to employers for their insurance. Cohn, citing CBO 's projections, claimed that ACA 's primary employment effect was to alleviate job lock: "People who are only working because they desperately need employer - sponsored health insurance will no longer do so. '' He concluded that the "reform 's only significant employment impact was a reduction in the labor force, primarily because people holding onto jobs just to keep insurance could finally retire '', because they have health insurance outside of their jobs.
The employer mandate requires employers meeting certain criteria to provide health insurance to their workers. The mandate applies to employers with more than 50 employees that do not offer health insurance to their full - time workers. Critics claimed that the mandate created a perverse incentive for business to keep their full - time headcount below 50 and to hire part - time workers instead. Between March 2010 and 2014 the number of part - time jobs declined by 230,000, while the number of full - time jobs increased by 2 million. In the public sector full - time jobs turned into part - time jobs much more than in the private sector. A 2016 study found only limited evidence that ACA had increased part - time employment.
Several businesses and the state of Virginia added a 29 - hour - a-week cap for their part - time employees, to reflect the 30 - hour - or - more definition for full - time worker. As of yet, however, only a small percent of companies have shifted their workforce towards more part - time hours (4 % in a survey from the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis). Trends in working hours and the effects of the Great Recession correlate with part - time working hour patterns. The impact of this provision may have been offset by other factors, including that health insurance helps attract and retain employees, increases productivity and reduces absenteeism; and the lower training and administration costs of a smaller full - time workforce over a larger part - time work force. Relatively few firms employ over 50 employees and more than 90 % of them offered insurance. Workers without employer insurance could purchase insurance on the exchanges.
Most policy analysts (on both right and left) were critical of the employer mandate provision. They argued that the perverse incentives regarding part - time hours, even if they did not change existing plans, were real and harmful; that the raised marginal cost of the 50th worker for businesses could limit companies ' growth; that the costs of reporting and administration were not worth the costs of maintaining employer plans; and noted that the employer mandate was not essential to maintain adequate risk pools. The effects of the provision generated vocal opposition from business interests and some unions not granted exemptions.
A 2013 / 4 survey by the National Association for Business Economics found that about 75 percent of those surveyed said ACA had n't influenced their planning or expectations for 2014, and 85 percent said the law would n't prompt a change in their hiring practices. Some 21 percent of 64 businesses surveyed said that the act would have a harmful effect and 5 percent said it would be beneficial.
From the start of 2010 to November 2014, 43 hospitals in rural areas closed. Critics claimed that the new law caused these hospitals to close. Many of these rural hospitals were built using funds from the 1946 Hill -- Burton Act, to increase access to medical care in rural areas. Some of these hospitals reopened as other medical facilities, but only a small number operated emergency rooms (ER) or urgent care centers.
Between January 2010 and 2015, a quarter of emergency room doctors said they had seen a major surge in patients, while nearly half had seen a smaller increase. Seven in ten ER doctors claimed that they lacked the resources to deal with large increases in the number of patients. The biggest factor in the increased number of ER patients was insufficient primary care providers to handle the larger number of insured patients.
Insurers claimed that because they have access to and collect patient data that allow evaluations of interventions, they are essential to ACO success. Large insurers formed their own ACOs. Many hospitals merged and purchased physician practices. The increased market share gave them more leverage in negotiations with insurers over costs and reduced patient care options.
Prior to the law 's passage, polling indicated the public 's views became increasingly negative in reaction to specific plans discussed during the legislative debate over 2009 and 2010. Polling statistics showed a general negative opinion of the law; with those in favor at approximately 40 % and those against at 51 %, as of October 2013. About 29 % of whites approve of the law, compared with 61 % of Hispanics and 91 % of African Americans. Opinions were divided by age of the person at the law 's inception, with a solid majority of seniors opposing the bill and a solid majority of those younger than forty years old in favor.
Specific elements were popular across the political spectrum, while others, such as the mandate to purchase insurance, were widely disliked. In a 2012 poll 44 % supported the law, with 56 % against. By party affiliation, 75 % of Democrats, 27 % of Independents and 14 % of Republicans favored the law overall. 82 % favored banning insurance companies from denying coverage to people with pre-existing conditions, 61 % favored allowing children to stay on their parents ' insurance until age 26, 72 % supported requiring companies with more than 50 employees to provide insurance for their employees, and 39 % supported the individual mandate to own insurance or pay a penalty. By party affiliation, 19 % of Republicans, 27 % of Independents, and 59 % of Democrats favored the mandate. Other polls showed additional provisions receiving majority support, including the creation of insurance exchanges, pooling small businesses and the uninsured with other consumers so that more people can take advantage of large group pricing benefits and providing subsidies to individuals and families to make health insurance more affordable.
In a 2010 poll, 62 % of respondents said they thought ACA would "increase the amount of money they personally spend on health care '', 56 % said the bill "gives the government too much involvement in health care '', and 19 % said they thought they and their families would be better off with the legislation. Other polls found that people were concerned that the law would cost more than projected and would not do enough to control costs.
Some opponents believed that the reform did not go far enough: a 2012 poll indicated that 71 % of Republican opponents rejected it overall, while 29 % believed it did not go far enough; independent opponents were divided 67 % to 33 %; and among the much smaller group of Democratic opponents, 49 % rejected it overall and 51 % wanted more. In June 2013, a majority of the public (52 -- 34 %) indicated a desire for "Congress to implement or tinker with the law rather than repeal it ''. After the Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate, a 2012 poll held that "most Americans (56 %) want to see critics of President Obama 's health care law drop efforts to block it and move on to other national issues ''. A 2014 poll reported that 48.9 % of respondents had an unfavorable view of ACA vs. 38.3 % who had a favorable view (of more than 5,500 individuals).
A 2014 poll reported that 26 % of Americans support ACA. Another held that 8 % of respondents say that the Affordable Care Act "is working well the way it is ''. In late 2014, a Rasmussen poll reported Repeal: 30 %, Leave as is: 13 %, Improve: 52 %.
In 2015, a CBS News / New York Times poll reported that 47 % of Americans approved the health care law. This was the first time that a major poll indicated that more respondents approved ACA than disapproved of it. The recurring Kaiser Health Tracking Poll from December 2016 reported that: a) 30 % wanted to expand what the law does; b) 26 % wanted to repeal the entire law; c) 19 % wanted to move forward with implementing the law as it is; and d) 17 % wanted to scale back what the law does, with the remainder undecided.
Separate polls from Fox News and NBC / WSJ both taken during January 2017 indicated more people viewed the law favorably than did not for the first time. One of the reasons for the improving popularity of the law is that Democrats who opposed it in the past (many prefer a "Medicare for All '' approach) have shifted their positions since the ACA is under threat of repeal.
A January 2017 Morning Consult poll showed that 35 % of respondents either believed that "Obamacare '' and the "Affordable Care Act '' were different or did not know. Approximately 45 % were unsure whether the "repeal of Obamacare '' also meant the "repeal of the Affordable Care Act. '' 39 % did not know that "many people would lose coverage through Medicaid or subsidies for private health insurance if the A.C.A. were repealed and no replacement enacted, '' with Democrats far more likely (79 %) to know that fact than Republicans (47 %).
A 2017 study found that personal experience with public health insurance programs leads to greater support for the Affordable Care Act, and the effects appear to be most pronounced among Republicans and low - information voters.
The term "Obamacare '' was originally coined by opponents as a pejorative. The term emerged in March 2007 when healthcare lobbyist Jeanne Schulte Scott used it in a health industry journal, writing "We will soon see a ' Giuliani - care ' and ' Obama - care ' to go along with ' McCain - care ', ' Edwards - care ', and a totally revamped and remodeled ' Hillary - care ' from the 1990s ''. According to research by Elspeth Reeve, the expression was used in early 2007, generally by writers describing the candidate 's proposal for expanding coverage for the uninsured. It first appeared in a political campaign by Mitt Romney in May 2007 in Des Moines, Iowa. Romney said, "In my state, I worked on healthcare for some time. We had half a million people without insurance, and I said, ' How can we get those people insured without raising taxes and without having government take over healthcare? ' And let me tell you, if we do n't do it, the Democrats will. If the Democrats do it, it will be socialized medicine; it 'll be government - managed care. It 'll be what 's known as Hillarycare or Barack Obamacare, or whatever you want to call it. ''
By mid-2012, Obamacare had become the colloquial term used by both supporters and opponents. In contrast, the use of "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act '' or "Affordable Care Act '' became limited to more formal and official use. Use of the term in a positive sense was suggested by Democrat John Conyers. Obama endorsed the nickname, saying, "I have no problem with people saying Obama cares. I do care. ''
In March 2012, the Obama reelection campaign embraced the term "Obamacare '', urging Obama 's supporters to post Twitter messages that begin, "I like # Obamacare because... ''.
In October 2013, the Associated Press and NPR began cutting back on use of the term. Stuart Seidel, NPR 's managing editor, said that the term "seems to be straddling somewhere between being a politically - charged term and an accepted part of the vernacular ''.
On August 7, 2009, Sarah Palin pioneered the term "death panels '' to describe groups that would decide whether sick patients were "worthy '' of medical care. "Death panel '' referred to two claims about early drafts.
One was that under the law, seniors could be denied care due to their age and the other that the government would advise seniors to end their lives instead of receiving care. The ostensible basis of these claims was the provision for an Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB). IPAB was given the authority to recommend cost - saving changes to Medicare by facilitating the adoption of cost - effective treatments and cost - recovering measures when the statutory levels set for Medicare were exceeded within any given 3 - year period. In fact, the Board was prohibited from recommending changes that would reduce payments to certain providers before 2020, and was prohibited from recommending changes in premiums, benefits, eligibility and taxes, or other changes that would result in rationing.
The other related issue concerned advance - care planning consultation: a section of the House reform proposal would have reimbursed physicians for providing patient - requested consultations for Medicare recipients on end - of - life health planning (which is covered by many private plans), enabling patients to specify, on request, the kind of care they wished to receive. The provision was not included in ACA.
In 2010, the Pew Research Center reported that 85 % of Americans were familiar with the claim, and 30 % believed it was true, backed by three contemporaneous polls. A poll in August 2012 found that 39 % of Americans believed the claim. The allegation was named PolitiFact 's "Lie of the Year '', one of FactCheck.org 's "whoppers '' and the most outrageous term by the American Dialect Society. AARP described such rumors as "rife with gross -- and even cruel -- distortions ''.
ACA requires members of Congress and their staffs to obtain health insurance either through an exchange or some other program approved by the law (such as Medicare), instead of using the insurance offered to federal employees (the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program).
ACA does not provide benefits to illegal immigrants. It explicitly denies insurance subsidies to "unauthorized (illegal) aliens ''.
One argument against the ACA is that the insurers are leaving the marketplaces, as they can not profitably cover the available pool of customers, which contains too many unhealthy participants relative to healthy participants. A scenario where prices rise, due to an unfavorable mix of customers from the insurer 's perspective, resulting in fewer customers and fewer insurers in the marketplace, further raising prices, has been called a "death spiral. '' During 2017, the median number of insurers offering plans on the ACA exchanges in each state was 3.0, meaning half the states had more and half had fewer insurers. There were five states with one insurer in 2017; 13 states with two; 11 states with three; and the remainder had four insurers or more. Wisconsin had the most, with 15 insurers in the marketplace. The median number of insurers was 4.0 in 2016, 5.0 in 2015, and 4.0 in 2014.
Further, the CBO reported in January 2017 that it expected enrollment in the exchanges to rise from 10 million during 2017 to 13 million by 2027, assuming laws in place at the end of the Obama administration were continued. Following a 2015 CBO report that reached a similar conclusion, Paul Krugman wrote: "But the truth is that this report is much, much closer to what supporters of reform have said than it is to the scare stories of the critics -- no death spirals, no job - killing, major gains in coverage at relatively low cost. ''
Opposition and efforts to repeal the legislation have drawn support from sources that include labor unions, conservative advocacy groups, Republicans, small business organizations and the Tea Party movement. These groups claimed that the law would disrupt existing health plans, increase costs from new insurance standards, and increase the deficit. Some opposed the idea of universal healthcare, viewing insurance as similar to other unsubsidized goods. President Donald Trump has repeatedly promised to "repeal and replace '' it.
As of 2013 unions that expressed concerns about ACA included the AFL - CIO, which called ACA "highly disruptive '' to union health care plans, claiming it would drive up costs of union - sponsored plans; the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, and UNITE - HERE, whose leaders sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi arguing, "ACA will shatter not only our hard - earned health benefits, but destroy the foundation of the 40 - hour work week that is the backbone of the American middle class. '' In January 2014, Terry O'Sullivan, president of the Laborers ' International Union of North America (LIUNA) and D. Taylor, president of Unite Here sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi stating, "ACA, as implemented, undermines fair marketplace competition in the health care industry. ''
In October 2016, Mark Dayton, the governor of Minnesota and a member of the Minnesota Democratic -- Farmer -- Labor Party, said that the ACA had "many good features '' but that it was "no longer affordable for increasing numbers of people '' and called on the Minnesota legislature to provide emergency relief to policyholders. Dayton later said he regretted his remarks after they were seized on by Republicans seeking to repeal the law.
Opponents challenged ACA 's constitutionality in multiple lawsuits on multiple grounds. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Supreme Court ruled on a 5 -- 4 vote that the individual mandate was constitutional when viewed as a tax, although not under the Commerce Clause.
The Court further determined that states could not be forced to participate in the Medicaid expansion. ACA withheld all Medicaid funding from states declining to participate in the expansion. The Court ruled that this withdrawal of funding was unconstitutionally coercive and that individual states had the right to opt out without losing preexisting Medicaid funding.
In March 2012, the Roman Catholic Church, while supportive of ACA 's objectives, voiced concern through the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops that aspects of the mandate covering contraception and sterilization and HHS 's narrow definition of a religious organization violated the First Amendment right to free exercise of religion and conscience. Various lawsuits addressed these concerns.
On June 25, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 -- 3 that federal subsidies for health insurance premiums could be used in the 34 states that did not set up their own insurance exchanges.
In United States House of Representatives v. Price (previously United States House of Representatives v. Burwell) the House sued the administration alleging that the money for premium subsidy payments to insurers had not been appropriated, as required for any federal government spending. The ACA subsidy that helps customers pay premiums was not part of the suit.
Without the cost - sharing subsidies, the government estimated that premiums would increase by 20 percent to 30 percent for silver plans. In 2017, the uncertainty about whether the payments would continue caused Blue Cross Blue Shield of North Carolina to try to raise premiums by 22.9 percent the next year, as opposed to an increase of only 8.8 percent that it would have sought if the payments were assured.
Officials in Texas, Florida, Alabama, Wyoming, Arizona, Oklahoma and Missouri opposed those elements of ACA over which they had discretion. For example, Missouri declined to expand Medicaid or establish a health insurance marketplace engaging in active non-cooperation, enacting a statute forbidding any state or local official to render any aid not specifically required by federal law. Other Republican politicians discouraged efforts to advertise the benefits of the law. Some conservative political groups launched ad campaigns to discourage enrollment.
ACA was the subject of unsuccessful repeal efforts by Republicans in the 111th, 112th, and 113th Congresses: Representatives Steve King (R - IA) and Michele Bachmann (R - MN) introduced bills in the House to repeal ACA the day after it was signed, as did Senator Jim DeMint (R - SC) in the Senate. In 2011, after Republicans gained control of the House of Representatives, one of the first votes held was on a bill titled "Repealing the Job - Killing Health Care Law Act '' (H.R. 2), which the House passed 245 -- 189. All Republicans and 3 Democrats voted for repeal. House Democrats proposed an amendment that repeal not take effect until a majority of the Senators and Representatives had opted out of the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program; Republicans voted down the measure. In the Senate, the bill was offered as an amendment to an unrelated bill, but was voted down. President Obama had stated that he would have vetoed the bill even if it had passed both chambers of Congress.
Following the 2012 Supreme Court ruling upholding ACA as constitutional, Republicans held another vote to repeal the law on July 11; the House of Representatives voted with all 244 Republicans and 5 Democrats in favor of repeal, which marked the 33rd, partial or whole, repeal attempt. On February 3, 2015, the House of Representatives added its 67th repeal vote to the record (239 to 186). This attempt also failed.
Strong partisan disagreement in Congress prevented adjustments to the Act 's provisions. However, at least one change, a proposed repeal of a tax on medical devices, has received bipartisan support. Some Congressional Republicans argued against improvements to the law on the grounds they would weaken the arguments for repeal.
Republicans attempted to defund its implementation, and in October 2013, House Republicans refused to fund the federal government unless accompanied with a delay in ACA implementation, after the President unilaterally deferred the employer mandate by one year, which critics claimed he had no power to do. The House passed three versions of a bill funding the government while submitting various versions that would repeal or delay ACA, with the last version delaying enforcement of the individual mandate. The Democratic Senate leadership stated the Senate would only pass a "clean '' funding bill without any restrictions on ACA. The government shutdown began on October 1. Senate Republicans threatened to block appointments to relevant agencies, such as the Independent Payment Advisory Board and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.
During a midnight congressional session starting January 11, 2017, the Senate of the 115th Congress of the United States voted to approve a "budget blueprint '' which would allow Republicans to repeal parts of the law "without threat of a Democratic filibuster. '' The plan, which passed 51 - 48, is a budget blueprint named by Senate Republicans the "Obamacare ' repeal resolution. ' '' Democrats opposing the resolution staged a protest during the vote.
House Republicans announced their replacement for the ACA, the American Health Care Act, on March 6, 2017. On March 24, 2017 the effort, led by Paul Ryan and Donald Trump, to repeal and replace the ACA failed amid a revolt among Republican representatives.
May 4, 2017, the United States House of Representatives voted to pass the American Health Care Act (and thereby repeal most of the Affordable Care Act) by a narrow margin of 217 to 213, sending the bill to the Senate for deliberation. The Senate Republican leadership announced that Senate Republicans would write their own version of the bill, instead of voting on the House version.
The Senate process began with an unprecedented level of secrecy; Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell named a group of 13 Republican Senators to draft the Senate 's substitute version in private, raising bipartisan concerns about a lack of transparency. On June 22, 2017, Republicans released the first discussion draft for an amendment to the bill, which would rename it to the "Better Care Reconciliation Act of 2017 '' (BCRA). On July 25, 2017, although no amendment proposal had yet garnered majority support, Senate Republicans voted to advance the bill to the floor and begin formal consideration of amendments. Senators Susan Collins and Lisa Murkowski were the only two dissenting Republicans making the vote a 50 -- 50 tie. Vice President Mike Pence then cast the tiebreaking vote in the affirmative.
All specific bills were defeated, however. The revised BCRA failed on a vote of 43 - 57. A subsequent "Obamacare Repeal and Reconciliation Act '' abandoned the "repeal and replace '' approach in favor of a straight repeal, but failed on a vote of 45 - 55. Finally, the "Health Care Freedom Act '', nicknamed "skinny repeal '' because it would have made the least change to the ACA, failed by 49 - 51, with Collins, Murkowski, and Senator John McCain joining all the Democrats and independents in voting against it.
Under both the ACA (current law) and the AHCA, CBO reported that the health exchange marketplaces would remain stable (i.e., no "death spiral ''). However, prominent Republican politicians including President Donald Trump and Secretary of Health and Human Services Tom Price, have taken a variety of steps to undermine the ACA, creating uncertainty that has likely adversely impacted enrollment and insurer participation. Insisting the exchanges are in difficulty is also used as an argument for passing reforms such as AHCA or BCRA. Past and ongoing Republican attempts to weaken the law have included, among others:
Once the law was signed, provisions began taking effect, in a process that continued for years. Some provisions never took effect, while others were deferred for various periods.
Plans purchased after the date of enactment, March 23, 2010, or old plans that changed in specified ways would eventually have to be replaced by ACA - compliant plans.
At various times during and after the ACA debate, Obama stated that "if you like your health care plan, you 'll be able to keep your health care plan ''. However, in fall 2013 millions of Americans with individual policies received notices that their insurance plans were terminated, and several million more risked seeing their current plans cancelled.
Obama 's previous unambiguous assurance that consumers ' could keep their own plans became a focal point for critics, who challenged his truthfulness. On November 7, 2013, President Obama stated: "I am sorry that (people losing their plans) are finding themselves in this situation based on assurances they got from me. '' Various bills were introduced in Congress to allow people to keep their plans.
In the fall of 2013, the Obama Administration announced a transitional relief program that would let states and carriers allow non-compliant individual and small group policies to renew at the end of 2013. In March 2014, HHS allowed renewals as late as October 1, 2016. In February 2016, these plans were allowed to renew up until October 1, 2017, but with a termination date no later than December 31, 2017.
In June small business tax credits took effect. For certain small businesses, the credits reached up to 35 % of premiums. At the same time uninsured people with pre-existing conditions could access the federal high - risk pool. Also, participating employment - based plans could obtain reimbursement for a portion of the cost of providing health insurance to early retirees.
In July the Pre-Existing Condition Insurance Plan (PCIP) took effect to offer insurance to those that had been denied coverage by private insurance companies because of a pre-existing condition. Despite estimates of up to 700,000 enrollees, at a cost of approximately $13,000 / enrollee, only 56,257 enrolled at a $28,994 cost per enrollee.
As of September 23, 2010, pre-existing conditions could no longer be denied coverage for children 's policies. HHS interpreted this rule as a mandate for "guaranteed issue '', requiring insurers to issue policies to such children. By 2011, insurers had stopped marketing child - only policies in 17 states, as they sought to escape this requirement.
The average beneficiary in the prior coverage gap would have spent $1,504 in 2011 on prescriptions. Such recipients saved an average $603. The 50 percent discount on brand name drugs provided $581 and the increased Medicare share of generic drug costs provided the balance. Beneficiaries numbered 2 million
In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius decided on June 28, 2012, the Supreme Court ruled that the individual mandate was constitutional when the associated penalties were construed as a tax. The decision allowed states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion. Several did so, although some later accepted the expansion.
In January 2013, the Internal Revenue Service ruled that the cost of covering only the individual employee would be considered in determining whether the cost of coverage exceeded 9.5 % of income. Family plans would not be considered even if the cost was above the 9.5 % income threshold. This was estimated to leave 2 -- 4 million Americans unable to afford family coverage under their employers ' plans and ineligible for subsidies.
A June 2013, study found that the MLR provision had saved individual insurance consumers $1.2 billion in 2011 and $2.1 billion in 2012, reducing their 2012 costs by 7.5 %. The bulk of the savings were in reduced premiums, but some came from MLR rebates.
On July 2, 2013, the Obama Administration announced that it would delay the implementation of the employer mandate until 2015.
The Community Living Assistance Services and Supports Act (or CLASS Act) was enacted as Title VIII of the ACA. It would have created a voluntary and public long - term care insurance option for employees. In October 2011 the administration announced it was unworkable and would be dropped. The CLASS Act was repealed January 1, 2013.
The launch for both the state and federal exchanges was troubled due to management and technical failings. HealthCare.gov, the website that offers insurance through the exchanges operated by the federal government, crashed on opening and suffered endless problems. Operations stabilized in 2014, although not all planned features were complete.
CMS reported in 2013 that, while costs per capita continued to rise, the rate of increase in annual healthcare costs had fallen since 2002. Per capita cost increases averaged 5.4 % annually between 2000 and 2013. Costs relative to GDP, which had been rising, had stagnated since 2009. Several studies attempted to explain the reductions. Reasons included:
On July 30, 2014, the Government Accountability Office released a non-partisan study that concluded that the administration did not provide "effective planning or oversight practices '' in developing the ACA website.
In Burwell v. Hobby Lobby the Supreme Court exempted closely held corporations with religious convictions from the contraception rule. In Wheaton College vs Burwell the Court issued an injunction allowing the evangelical college and other religiously affiliated nonprofit groups to completely ignore the contraceptive mandate.
A study found that average premiums for the second - cheapest (silver) plan were 10 - 21 % less than average individual market premiums in 2013, while covering many more conditions. Credit for the reduced premiums was attributed to increased competition stimulated by the larger market, greater authority to review premium increases, the MLR and risk corridors.
Many of the initial plans featured narrow networks of doctors and hospitals.
A 2016 analysis found that health care spending by the middle class was 8.9 % of household spending in 2014.
By the beginning of the year, 11.7 million had signed up (ex-Medicaid). On December 31, 2015, about 8.8 million consumers had stayed in the program. Some 84 percent, or about 7.4 million, were subsidized.
Bronze plans were the second most popular in 2015, making up 22 % of marketplace plan selections. Silver plans were the most popular, accounting for 67 % of marketplace selections. Gold plans were 7 %. Platinum plans accounted for 3 %. On average across the four metal tiers, premiums were up 20 % for HMOs and 18 % for EPOs. Premiums for POS plans were up 15 % from 2015 to 2016, while PPO premiums were up just 8 %.
A 2015 study found 14 % of privately insured consumers received a medical bill in the past two years from an out - of - network provider in the context of an overall in - network treatment event. Such out - of - network care is not subject to the lower negotiated rates of in - network care, increasing out - of - pocket costs. Another 2015 study found that the average out - of - network charges for the majority of 97 medical procedures examined "were 300 % or higher compared to the corresponding Medicare fees '' for those services.
Some 47 % of the 2015 ACA plans sold on the Healthcare.gov exchange lacked standard out - of - network coverage. Enrollees in such plans, typically received no coverage for out - of - network costs (except for emergencies or with prior authorization). A 2016 study on Healthcare.gov health plans found a 24 percent increase in the percentage of ACA plans that lacked standard out - of - network coverage.
The December spending bill delayed the onset of the "Cadillac tax '' on expensive insurance plans by two years, until 2020.
The average price of non-generic drugs rose 16.2 % in 2015 and 98.2 % since 2011.
As of March 2016 11.1 million people had purchased exchange plans, while an estimated 9 million to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage, mostly low - income adults. 11.1 million were still covered, a decline of nearly 13 percent. 6.1 million uninsured 19 - 25 year olds gained coverage.
A survey of New York businesses found an increase of 8.5 percent in health care costs, less than the prior year 's survey had expected. A 10 percent increase was expected for 2017. Factors included increased premiums, higher drug costs, ACA and aging workers. Some firms lowered costs by increasing cost - sharing (for higher employee contributions, deductibles and co-payments). 60 % planned to further increase cost - sharing. Coverage and benefits were not expected to change. Approximately one fifth said ACA had pushed them to reduce their workforce. A larger number said they were raising prices.
The five major national insurers expected to lose money on ACA policies in 2016. UnitedHealth withdrew from the Georgia and Arkansas exchanges for 2017, citing heavy losses. Humana exited other markets, leaving it operating in 156 counties in 11 states for 2017. 225 counties across the country had access to only a single ACA insurer. A study released in May estimated that 664 counties would have one insurer in 2017.
Aetna cancelled planned expansion of its offerings and following an expected $300 million loss in 2016 and then withdrew from 11 of its 15 states. In August 2016 Anthem said that its offerings were losing money, but also that it would expand its participation if a pending merger with Cigna was approved. Aetna and Humana 's exit for 2017 left 8 rural Arizona counties with only Blue Cross / Blue Shield.
Blue Cross / Blue Shield Minnesota announced that it would exit individual and family markets in Minnesota in 2017, due to financial losses of $500 million over three years.
Another analysis found that 17 percent of eligibles may have a single insurer option in 2017. North Carolina, Oklahoma, Alaska, Alabama, South Carolina and Wyoming were expected to have a single insurer, while only 2 percent of 2016 eligibles had only one choice.
Aetna, Humana, UnitedHealth Group also exited various individual markets. Many local Blue Cross plans sharply narrowed their networks. In 2016 two thirds of individual plans were narrow - network HMO plans.
One of the causes of insurer losses is the lower income, older and sicker enrollee population. One 2016 analysis reported that while 81 % of the population with incomes from 100 - 150 % of the federal poverty level signed up, only 45 % of those from 150 - 200 % did so. The percentage continued to decline as income rose: 2 % of those above 400 % enrolled.
The law is designed to pay subsidies in the form of tax credits to the individuals or families purchasing the insurance, based on income levels. Higher income consumers receive lower subsidies. While pre-subsidy prices rose considerably from 2016 to 2017, so did the subsidies, to reduce the after - subsidy cost to the consumer. For example, a study published in 2016 found that the average requested 2017 premium increase among 40 - year - old non-smokers was about 9 percent, according to an analysis of 17 cities, although Blue Cross Blue Shield proposed increases of 40 percent in Alabama and 60 percent in Texas. However, some or all of these costs are offset by subsidies, paid as tax credits. For example, the Kaiser Foundation reported that for the second - lowest cost "Silver plan '' (a plan often selected and used as the benchmark for determining financial assistance), a 40 - year old non-smoker making $30,000 per year would pay effectively the same amount in 2017 as they did in 2016 (about $208 / month) after the subsidy / tax credit, despite large increases in the pre-subsidy price. This was consistent nationally. In other words, the subsidies increased along with the pre-subsidy price, fully offsetting the price increases.
The number of ACA nonprofit insurance cooperatives for 2017 fell from 23 originally to 7 for 2017. The remaining 7 posted annual losses in 2015. A General Accountability Report found that co-ops ' 2015 premiums were generally below average. At the end of 2014, money co-ops and other ACA insurers had counted on risk corridor payments that did n't materialize. Maryland 's Evergreen Health claims that ACA 's risk - adjustment system does not adequately measure risk.
Newly elected Louisiana Governor John Bel Edwards issued an executive order to accept the expansion, becoming the 32nd state to do so. The program was expected to enroll an additional 300,000 Louisianans.
More than 9.2 million people signed up for care on the national exchange (healthcare.gov) for 2017, down some 400,000 from 2016. This decline was due primarily to the election of President Trump, who pulled advertising encouraging people to sign up for coverage, issued an executive order that attempts to eliminate the mandate, and has created significant uncertainty about the future of the ACA. Enrollments had been running ahead of 2016 prior to President Obama leaving office, with 9.8 million expected to sign - up, so President Trump 's actions potentially cost about 600,000 national enrollments (i.e., 9.8 million expected − 9.2 million actual = 0.6 million impact). Of the 9.2 million, 3.0 million were new customers and 6.2 million were returning. The 9.2 million excludes the 11 states that run their own exchanges, which have signed up around 3 million additional people. These figures also exclude the additional coverage due to the Medicaid expansion, which covers another approximately 10 million persons, as described in the impact section above.
In February, Humana announced that it would withdraw from the individual insurance market in 2018, citing "further signs of an unbalanced risk pool. '' That month the IRS announced that it would not require that tax returns indicate that a person has health insurance, reducing the effectiveness of the individual mandate, in response to an executive order from President Donald Trump.
Aetna CEO Mark Bertolini stated that ACA was in a "death spiral '' of escalating premiums and shrinking, skewed enrollment. However, a U.S. judge found that the Aetna CEO misrepresented why his company was leaving the exchanges; an important part of the reason was the Justice Department 's opposition to the intended merger between Aetna and Humana. Aetna announced that it would exit the exchange market in all remaining states. It stated that its losses had grown from $100 M in 2014 to $450 M in 2016. Wellmark withdrew from Iowa in April. As of May, no insurer had indicated its intention to offer ACA insurance in Nebraska. Also in May Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kansas City announced it would withdraw from Missouri and Kansas 's individual markets in 2018, potentially leaving nearly 19,000 residents in Western Missouri without a coverage option. Anthem announced plans to withdraw from Ohio and later Wisconsin and Indiana, describing the market as "volatile '' and referring to the difficulty in pricing its plans "due to the shrinking individual market as well as continual changes in federal operations, rules and guidance. ''
The CBO reported in March 2017 that the healthcare exchanges were expected to be stable; i.e., they were not in a "death spiral. '' In June, Centene announced that it intended to initiate coverage in Nevada, Kansas and Missouri and expand coverage in Ohio and Florida.
Molina Healthcare, a major Medicaid provider, said that it was considering exiting some markets in 2018, citing "too many unknowns with the marketplace program. '' Molina lost $110 million in 2016 due to having to contribute $325 million more than expected to the ACA "risk transfer '' fund that compensated insurers with unprofitable risk pools. These pools were established to help prevent insurers from artificially selecting lower - risk pools.
In May the United States House of Representatives voted to repeal the ACA using the American Health Care Act of 2017.
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who has been called as diplomate in ancient india | Diplomatic immunity - wikipedia
Diplomatic immunity is a form of legal immunity that ensures diplomats are given safe passage and are considered not susceptible to lawsuit or prosecution under the host country 's laws, but they can still be expelled. Modern diplomatic immunity was codified as international law in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961) which has been ratified by all but a handful of nations, though the concept and custom of such immunity have a much longer history dating back thousands of years. Many principles of diplomatic immunity are now considered to be customary law. Diplomatic immunity as an institution developed to allow for the maintenance of government relations, including during periods of difficulties and armed conflict. When receiving diplomats, who formally represent the sovereign, the receiving head of state grants certain privileges and immunities to ensure they may effectively carry out their duties, on the understanding that these are provided on a reciprocal basis.
Originally, these privileges and immunities were granted on a bilateral, ad hoc basis, which led to misunderstandings and conflict, pressure on weaker states, and an inability for other states to judge which party was at fault. An international agreement known as the Vienna Convention codified the rules and agreements, providing standards and privileges to all states.
It is possible for the official 's home country to waive immunity; this tends to happen only when the individual has committed a serious crime, unconnected with their diplomatic role (as opposed to, say, allegations of spying), or has witnessed such a crime. However, many countries refuse to waive immunity as a matter of course; individuals have no authority to waive their own immunity (except perhaps in cases of defection). Alternatively, the home country may prosecute the individual. If immunity is waived by a government so that a diplomat (or their family members) can be prosecuted, it must be because there is a case to answer and it is in the public interest to prosecute them. For instance, in 2002, a Colombian diplomat in London was prosecuted for manslaughter, once diplomatic immunity was waived by the Colombian government.
The concept of diplomatic immunity can be found in ancient Indian epics like Ramayana (between 3000 and 2000 BC) (traditional Hindu dating: over 100,000 years ago) and Mahabharata (around 4th century BC; traditional Hindu dating: 3000 BC), where messengers and diplomats were given immunity from capital punishment. In Ramayana, when the demon king Ravana ordered the killing of Hanuman, Ravana 's younger brother Vibhishana pointed out that messengers or diplomats should not be killed, as per ancient practices.
During the evolution of international justice, many wars were considered rebellions or unlawful by one or more combatant sides. In such cases, the servants of the "criminal '' sovereign were often considered accomplices and their persons violated. In other circumstances, harbingers of inconsiderable demands were killed as a declaration of war. Herodotus records that when heralds of the Persian king Xerxes demanded "earth and water '' (i.e., symbols of submission) of Greek cities, the Athenians threw them into a pit and the Spartans threw them down a well for the purpose of suggesting they would find both earth and water at the bottom, these often being mentioned by the messenger as a threat of siege. However, even for Herodotus, this maltreatment of envoys is a crime, and he immediately recounts a story of divine vengeance befalling Sparta for this deed.
A Roman envoy was urinated on as he was leaving the city of Tarentum. The oath of the envoy, "This stain will be washed away with blood! '', was fulfilled during the Second Punic War. The arrest and ill - treatment of the envoy of Raja Raja Chola by the king of Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras), which is now part of modern India, led to the naval Kandalur War in AD 994.
The Islamic Prophet Muhammad sent and received envoys and strictly forbade harming them. This practice was continued by the Rashidun caliphs who exchanged diplomats with the Ethiopians and the Byzantines. This diplomatic exchange continued during the Arab -- Byzantine wars.
Classical Sharia called for hospitality to be shown towards anyone who has been granted amān (or right of safe passage). Amān was readily granted to any emissary bearing a letter or another sealed document. The duration of the amān was typically a year. Envoys with this right of passage were given immunity of person and property. They were exempt from taxation, as long as they did n't engage in trade.
As diplomats by definition enter the country under safe - conduct, violating them is normally viewed as a great breach of honor, although there have been numerous cases in which diplomats have been killed. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often take terrifying vengeance against any state that violated these rights. The Mongols would often raze entire cities in retaliation for the execution of their ambassadors, and invaded and destroyed the Khwarezmid Empire after their ambassadors had been mistreated.
The British Parliament first guaranteed diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors in 1709, after Count Andrey Matveyev, a Russian resident in London, had been subjected to verbal and physical abuse by British bailiffs.
Modern diplomatic immunity evolved parallel to the development of modern diplomacy. In the 17th century, European diplomats realized that protection from prosecution was essential to doing their jobs, and a set of rules evolved guaranteeing the rights of diplomats. These were still confined to Western Europe and were closely tied to the prerogatives of nobility. Thus, an emissary to the Ottoman Empire could expect to be arrested and imprisoned upon the outbreak of hostilities between his state and the empire. The French Revolution also disrupted this system, as the revolutionary state and Napoleon imprisoned numerous diplomats who were accused of working against France. More recently, the Iran hostage crisis is universally considered a violation of diplomatic immunity. Although the hostage takers did not officially represent the state, host countries are obligated to protect diplomatic property and personnel. On the other hand, during World War II, diplomatic immunity was upheld and the embassies of the belligerents were evacuated through neutral countries.
For the upper class of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, diplomatic immunity was an easy concept to understand. The first embassies were not permanent establishments but actual visits by high - ranking representatives, often close relatives, of the sovereign or the sovereign in person. As permanent representations evolved, usually on a treaty basis between two powers, they were frequently staffed by relatives of the sovereign or high - ranking nobles.
Warfare was a status of hostilities not between individuals but between their sovereigns, and the officers and officials of European governments and armies often changed employers. Truces and ceasefires were commonplace, along with fraternization between officers of enemy armies during them. When prisoners, the officers usually gave their parole and were only restricted to a city away from the theatre of war. Almost always, they were given leave to carry their personal sidearms. Even during the French revolutionary wars, British scientists visited the French Academy. In such an atmosphere, it was easy to accept that some persons were immune to the laws. After all, they were still bound by strict requirements of honour and customs.
In the 19th century, the Congress of Vienna reasserted the rights of diplomats; and they have been largely respected since then, as the European model has spread throughout the world. Currently, diplomatic relations, including diplomatic immunity, are governed internationally by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which has been ratified by almost every country in the world.
In modern times, diplomatic immunity continues to provide a means, albeit imperfect, to safeguard diplomatic personnel from any animosity that might arise between nations. As one article put it: "So why do we agree to a system in which we 're dependent on a foreign country 's whim before we can prosecute a criminal inside our own borders? The practical answer is: because we depend on other countries to honor our own diplomats ' immunity just as scrupulously as we honor theirs. ''
In the United States, the Diplomatic Relations Act of 1978 (22 U.S.C. § 254a et seq.) follows the principles introduced by the Vienna Conventions. The United States tends to be generous when granting diplomatic immunity to visiting diplomats, because a large number of U.S. diplomats work in host countries less protective of individual rights. If the United States were to punish a visiting diplomat without sufficient grounds, U.S. representatives in other countries could receive harsher treatment. If a person with immunity is alleged to have committed a crime or faces a civil lawsuit, the State Department asks the home country to waive immunity of the alleged offender so that the complaint can be moved to the courts. If immunity is not waived, prosecution can not be undertaken. However, the State Department still has the right to expel the diplomat. In many such cases, the diplomat 's visas are canceled, and he and his family may be barred from returning to the United States. Crimes committed by members of a diplomat 's family can also result in dismissal.
Some countries have made reservations to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, but they are minor. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, other rules may also apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. The Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on a case - by - case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations. The United Nations system (including its agencies, which comprise the most recognizable international bodies such as the World Bank and many others) has a relatively standardized form of limited immunities for staff traveling on U.N. laissez - passer; diplomatic immunity is often granted to the highest - ranking officials of these agencies. Consular officials (that do not have concurrent diplomatic accreditation) formally have a more limited form of immunity, generally limited to their official duties. Diplomatic technical and administrative staff also have more limited immunity under the Vienna Convention; for this reason, some countries may accredit a member of technical or administrative staff as an attaché.
Other categories of government officials that may travel frequently to other countries may not have diplomatic passports or diplomatic immunity, such as members of the military, high - ranking government officials, ministers, and others. Many countries provide non-diplomatic official passports to such personnel, and there may be different classes of such travel documents such as official passports, service passports, and others. De facto recognition of some form of immunity may be conveyed by states accepting officials traveling on such documents, or there may exist bilateral agreements to govern such cases (as in, for example, the case of military personnel conducting or observing exercises on the territory of the receiving country).
Formally, diplomatic immunity may be limited to officials accredited to a host country, or traveling to or from their host country. In practice, many countries may effectively recognize diplomatic immunity for those traveling on diplomatic passports, with admittance to the country constituting acceptance of the diplomatic status. However, this is not universal, and diplomats have been prosecuted and jailed for crimes committed outside the country they are accredited to.
In reality, most diplomats are representatives of nations with a tradition of professional civil service, and are expected to obey regulations governing their behaviour and they suffer severe disciplinary action if they flout local laws. In many nations, a professional diplomat 's career may be compromised if they (or members of their family) disobey the local authorities or cause serious embarrassment, and such cases are, at any rate, a violation of the spirit of the Vienna Conventions.
The Vienna Convention is explicit that "without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State. '' Nevertheless, on some occasions, diplomatic immunity leads to some unfortunate results; protected diplomats have violated laws (including those that would be violations at home as well) of the host country and that country has been essentially limited to informing the diplomat 's nation that the diplomat is no longer welcome (persona non grata). Diplomatic agents are not, however, exempt from the jurisdiction of their home state, and hence prosecution may be undertaken by the sending state; for minor violations of the law, the sending state may impose administrative procedures specific to the foreign service or diplomatic mission.
Violation of the law by diplomats has included espionage, smuggling, child custody law violations, money laundering, tax evasion, making terrorist threats, slavery, preying on children over the Internet for sex, and murder.
On - duty police officer Yvonne Fletcher was murdered in London in 1984, by a person shooting from inside the Libyan embassy during a protest. The incident caused a breakdown in diplomatic relations until Libya admitted "general responsibility '' in 1999. The incident became a major factor in Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher 's decision to allow President of the United States Ronald Reagan to launch the U.S. bombing of Libya in 1986 from American bases in the United Kingdom.
In 1987 in New York City, the Human Resources Administration placed 9 - year - old Terrence Karamba in a foster home after his elementary school teachers noticed suspicious scars and injuries. He and his 7 - year - old sister, who was also placed in City custody, told officials the wounds had been inflicted by their father, Floyd Karamba, an administrative attaché at the Zimbabwean Mission to the U.N. No charges were filed, as Mr. Karamba had diplomatic immunity.
On February 1999 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Kazuko Shimokoji, wife of the Japanese Consul - General, showed up at the ER of a city hospital with two black eyes and a bruised neck. She told doctors that her husband had beaten her. When local police questioned her husband, Mr. Shimokoji said, "Yes, I punched her out and she deserved it '', and described the incident as "a cultural thing and not a big deal ''. Although an arrest warrant was issued, Mr. Shimokoji could not be arrested due to his diplomatic immunity. However, his statement to the police was widely reported in both the local and Japanese press. The subsequent public uproar prompted the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs to waive Mr. Shimokoji 's immunity. Though he pleaded guilty in Canadian court, he was given an absolute discharge. Nonetheless, he was recalled to Japan where he was reassigned to office duty and had his pay cut.
In November 2006 in New York City, Fred Matwanga, Kenyan diplomat to the U.N., was taken into police custody by officers responding to reports that he had assaulted his son; he was released after asserting diplomat immunity.
In January 2011 in Lahore, Pakistan, American embassy employee Raymond Allen Davis shot and killed two Pakistani civilians, while a third man was struck and killed by a U.S. consulate car responding to the shooting. According to Davis, they were about to rob him and he acted in self - defense. When detained by police, Davis claimed to be a consultant at the U.S. consulate in Lahore. He was formally arrested and remanded into custody. Further investigations revealed that he was working with the CIA as a contractor in Pakistan. U.S. State Department declared him a diplomat and repeatedly requested immunity under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to which Pakistan is a signatory. On March 16, 2011, Davis was released after the families of the two killed men were paid $2.4 million in diyya (a form of monetary compensation or blood money). Judges then acquitted him on all charges and Davis immediately departed Pakistan.
In April 2012 in Manila, Panamanian diplomat Erick Bairnals Shcks was accused of raping a 19 - year - old Filipino woman, but was later released from detention because Shcks "enjoys protection under the 1961 Vienna Convention ''.
In March 2013, the Supreme Court of India restricted Italian ambassador Daniele Mancini from leaving India for breaching an undertaking given to the apex court. Despite Italian and European Union protests regarding the restrictions as contrary to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the Supreme Court of India said it would be unacceptable to argue diplomatic immunity after voluntarily subjecting to court 's jurisdiction. The Italian envoy had invoked Article 32 of the Constitution of India when filing an affidavit to the Supreme Court taking responsibility for the return of the two Italian marines to India after casting their votes in the March 2012 general elections in Italy. The Indian Supreme Court opined that the Italian ambassador had waived his diplomatic immunity and could be charged for contempt. The two marines were being tried in India for the murder of two Indian fishermen off the coast of Kerala (see the 2012 Italian Navy Marines shooting incident in the Laccadive Sea).
In October 2013, Russian diplomat Dmitri Borodin was arrested in The Hague, The Netherlands, after neighbours called the police. Borodin was alleged to have been drunk and violent towards his children, aged two and four. Police were in the area because Borodin 's wife had lost control over her car while also under influence, and had rammed four parked cars near the diplomats ' house. Russia immediately demanded an apology from the Dutch government for violating Borodin 's diplomatic immunity. The row came at a time of tension between Russia and the Netherlands, after the Russian security services captured a Greenpeace vessel sailing under the Dutch flag, Arctic Sunrise, that was protesting against oil drilling in the Prirazlomnoye field.
In June 2014, the New Zealand government confirmed that Mohammed Rizalman Bin Ismail from Malaysia, aged in his 30s and employed at Malaysia 's High Commission in Wellington, had invoked diplomatic immunity when faced with charges of burglary and assault with intent to rape after allegedly following a 21 - year - old woman to her home. He returned to Malaysia in May 2014 with his family while the case was still in hearing. The New Zealand foreign ministry was criticized for allowing the defendant to leave the country, which was blamed on miscommunication between the foreign ministries of the two countries, as Prime Minister John Key expressed his view that "the man should have faced the charges in New Zealand ''. Malaysia eventually agreed to send the diplomat back to assist in investigations and he was eventually tried and detained in New Zealand.
In June 2017, in Germany a Saudi driver killed a cyclist by opening the door of his Porsche directly into the cyclist 's path without checking to see if the road was clear. Anger arose when the Saudi claimed diplomatic immunity. Police said that under normal circumstances driver would face investigation and possible prosecution on suspicion of negligent manslaughter, but prosecutors said they had no choice but to close the case because he has diplomatic immunity.
In July 2017, in Jordan, two Jordanian carpenters were invited to repair furniture at an Israeli diplomatic security agent 's residence near the Israeli Embassy. It is believed that the Jordanians and Israeli security agent quarreled over the ongoing tensions regarding the installations of metal detectors at entry points to al - Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem. One carpenter, a teenager of Palestinian origin reportedly tried to stab the Israeli security agent with his screwdriver, and the Israeli security agent shot and killed the Jordanian carpenter, and inadvertently shot the property landlord as well, a doctor, who happened to be there at the time. Israel refused to allow Jordanian authorities to question the agent, claiming diplomatic immunity under the Vienna convention.
In August 2017, Zimbabwe first lady Grace Mugabe invoked diplomatic immunity on the 15th of August after charges were laid against her by a South African model.
Diplomats and officials involved in drug smuggling have benefited from diplomatic immunity. For example, a Venezuelan general wanted in the United States on drugs charges was arrested in Aruba only to be released after the Venezuelan government protested his diplomatic immunity and threatened sanctions if Aruba did not release him.
In December 2014, Gambian diplomats were found guilty by Southwark Crown Court of London for selling tax - free tobacco from the Gambian embassy in the United Kingdom. The Crown Prosecution Service told the court that much of this was sold from the embassy without paying VAT and excise duty.
Diplomatic immunity from local employment and labor law has precipitated incidents in which diplomatic staff have been accused of abusing local workers, who are often hired for positions requiring local knowledge (such as an administrative assistant, press / PR officer) or for general labor. In such situations, the employees are in a legal limbo where the laws of neither the host country nor the diplomat 's country are enforceable. Diplomats have ignored local laws concerning minimum wages, maximum working hours, vacation and holidays, and in some cases have imprisoned employees in their homes, deprived them of their earned wages, passports, food, and communication with the outside world, abused them physically and emotionally, and invaded their privacy. Reported incidents include the following:
A particular problem is the difficulty in enforcing ordinary laws, such as prohibitions on double parking. For example, the Autobahn 555 in Cologne, Germany was nicknamed the "Diplomatenrennbahn '' (Diplomatic Raceway), back when Bonn was the capital of West Germany, because of the numerous diplomats that used to speed through the highway under diplomatic immunity. Certain cities, e.g., The Hague, have taken to impounding such cars rather than fining their owners. Diplomats ' status does not guarantee the release of impounded cars.
Diplomatic missions have their own regulations, but many require their staff to pay any fines due for parking violations. A 2006 economic study found that there was a significant correlation between home - country corruption (as measured by Transparency International) and unpaid parking fines: six countries had in excess of 100 violations per diplomat: Kuwait, Egypt, Chad, Sudan, Bulgaria and Mozambique. In particular, New York City, the home of the United Nations Headquarters, regularly protests to the United States Department of State about non-payment of parking tickets because of diplomatic status. As of 2001, the city had more than 200,000 outstanding parking tickets from diplomats, totaling more than $21.3 million, of which only $160,682 had been collected. In 1997, then - mayor Rudy Giuliani proposed to the Clinton administration that the U.S. State Department revoke the special DPL plates for diplomats who ignore parking summonses; the State Department denied Giuliani 's request.
In cities that impose a congestion charge, the decision of some diplomatic missions not to furnish payment has proved controversial. In London, embassies have amassed approximately £ 58 million in unpaid charges as of 2012, with the American embassy comprising approximately £ 6 million and the Russian, German and Japanese missions around £ 2 million each.
In January 1997, Gueorgui Makharadze, a high - ranking Georgian diplomat, caused a five - car pileup in Washington, D.C., in the United States, which killed a 16 - year - old girl. Makharadze 's claim of diplomatic immunity created a national outrage in the United States, particularly given Makharadze 's previous record of driving offenses: In April 1996, Makharadze had been charged with speeding in Virginia, and four months later, he was detained by District of Columbia police on suspicion of drunk driving. In both prior cases, charges were dismissed based on his immunity. On the basis of the media coverage, Georgia revoked Makharadze 's immunity, and he was ultimately sentenced to seven years in prison after pleading guilty to one count of involuntary manslaughter and four counts of aggravated assault.
On 27 October 1998, in Vladivostok, Russia, Douglas Kent, the American Consul General to Russia, was involved in a car accident that left a young man, Alexander Kashin, disabled. Kent was not prosecuted in a U.S. court. Under the Vienna Convention, diplomatic immunity does not apply to civil actions relating to vehicular accidents, but in 2006, the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that, since he was using his vehicle for consular purposes, Kent could not be sued civilly.
In 2001, a Russian diplomat, Andrei Knyazev, hit and killed a woman while driving drunk in Ottawa. Knyazev refused to take a breathalyzer at the scene of the crash, citing diplomatic immunity. Russia refused Canadian requests to waive his immunity, and Knyazev was expelled from Canada. Though the Russian Foreign Ministry fired him and charged him with involuntary manslaughter, and Russian and Canadian authorities cooperated in the investigation, the case caused a political storm in Canada. Many accused the Foreign Ministry of incompetence after it emerged that Knyazev had twice been previously investigated for drunk driving. The Canadian Foreign Minister had fought unsuccessfully to have Knyazev tried in Ottawa. In 2002, Knyazev was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter in Russia.
On 3 December 2004, in Bucharest, Romania, Christopher Van Goethem, an American Marine serving his embassy, ran a red traffic signal, collided with a taxi, and killed popular Romanian musician Teo Peter. Van Goethem 's blood alcohol content was estimated at 0.09 % from a breathalyser test, but he refused to give a blood sample for further testing and left for Germany before charges could be filed in Romania. The Romanian government requested the American government to lift his immunity, which it refused to do. In a court - martial, he was acquitted of manslaughter and adultery (which is still a court martial offence) but was convicted of obstruction of justice and making false statements.
On 9 December 2009, in Tanzania, Canadian Junior Envoy Jean Touchette was arrested after it was reported that he spat at a traffic police officer on duty in the middle of a traffic jam in the Banana district on the outskirts of Dar es Salaam. Canada 's High Commissioner, Robert Orr, was summoned by the Tanzanian Foreign Ministry over the incident, and the junior envoy was later recalled.
On 15 December 2009, in Singapore, the Romanian chargé d'affaires, Silviu Ionescu, was allegedly behind a drunk - driving hit - and - run accident that killed a 30 - year - old man and seriously injured two others. He left Singapore for Romania three days after the accident. The Romanian foreign ministry suspended Ionescu from his post. A coroner 's inquiry in Singapore, which included testimony by the Romanian embassy driver, concluded that Ionescu was solely responsible for the accident. An Interpol Red Notice was subsequently issued for his arrest and possible extradition notwithstanding the fact that Romania had not waived his diplomatic immunity and had commenced criminal proceedings against him in Romania. The Singapore government argued that by reason of Article 39 (2) of the Vienna Convention, Ionescu was no longer protected by diplomatic immunity.
On 10 April 2011, in Islamabad, Pakistan, Patrick Kibuta, an electrical engineer in the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan caused a vehicle collision with another vehicle, while under the influence of alcohol. Kibuta, who was driving in the opposing lane, injured a Canadian citizen residing in Islamabad, who suffered multiple fractures and required surgery. The Kohsar police impounded Mr. Kibuta 's U.N. vehicle on the scene, and a blood test confirmed that he had an elevated blood alcohol level. Charges for reckless and drunken driving were filed against Kibuta, who enjoyed diplomatic immunity.
In July 2013, Joshua Walde, an American diplomat in Nairobi, Kenya, crashed into a mini-bus, killing one man and seriously injuring eight others, who were left with no financial assistance to pay for hospital bills. United States embassy officials took the diplomat and his family out of Kenya the following day. The United States government was concerned about the impact the accident could have on bilateral relations with Kenya. Walde gave a statement to police, but was not detained due to his diplomatic immunity. Kenyan police say the case remains under investigation.
On September 12, 2015, Sheikh Khalid bin Hamad Al Thani tried to claim diplomatic immunity when his Ferrari LaFerrari and a Porsche 911 GT3 were caught on camera drag racing through a residential neighborhood in Beverly Hills. He owns the cars and a drag racing team, and is a member of Qatar 's ruling family. The Beverly Hills Police Department contacted the U.S. State Department to clarify if he had diplomatic immunity. They stated he did not. However, his face was not shown on camera, and no officer witnessed the crime, so the state of California has not yet pressed charges. He has since fled the country. The investigation is ongoing.
On 14 February 2013, a vehicle bearing diplomatic plates registered to the US Embassy got into an accident in Islamabad, Pakistan involving two residents out of which one was killed and the other survived. Murder charges were laid under Section 320 of Pakistan Penal Code against the driver of the vehicle who is a diplomat according to Pakistani officials.
Historically, the problem of large debts run up by diplomats has also caused many problems. Some financial institutions do not extend credit to diplomats because they have no legal means of ensuring the money be repaid. Local citizens and businesses are often at a disadvantage when filing civil claims against a diplomat, especially in cases of unpaid rent, alimony, and child support.
The bulk of diplomatic debt lies in the rental of office space and living quarters. Individual debts can range from a few thousand dollars to $1 million in back rent. A group of diplomats and the office space in which they work are referred to as a diplomatic mission. Creditors can not sue missions individually to collect money they owe. Landlords and creditors have found that the only thing they can do is contact a city agency to see if they can try to get some money back. They can not enter the offices or apartments of diplomats to evict them because the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act says that "the property in the United States of a foreign state shall be immune from attachment, arrest and execution '' (28 U.S.C. § 1609). This has led creditors who are owed money by diplomats to become more cautious about their renters and to change their rental or payment policies.
In one case, for example, officials from Zaire stopped paying rent to their private landlord and ran up $400,000 in debt. When the landlord sued, the U.S. State Department defended the Zaireans on the basis of diplomatic immunity, and a circuit court agreed. When the landlord finally cut off the utilities, the officials fled without paying their back rent. The landlords reportedly later reached an "amicable agreement '' with the Zaire government.
The issue of abusing diplomatic immunity in family relations, especially alimony and child support, has become so widespread that it prompted discussion at the 1995 U.N. Fourth World Conference on Women, in Beijing. Historically, the United Nations has not become involved with family disputes and has refused to garnish the wages of diplomats who owe money for child support, citing Sovereign Immunity. However, in September 1995, the incumbent head of Legal Affairs for the United Nations acknowledged there was a moral and legal obligation to take at least a partial responsibility in family disputes. Fathers working as diplomats who refused to fulfill their family - related financial duties were increasing in numbers in the United Nations: several men who had left their wives and children were still claiming U.N. dependency, travel, and education allowances for their families, though they are no longer supporting those families.
Diplomats are exempt from most taxes, but not from "charges levied for specific services rendered ''. In certain cases, whether a payment is or is not considered a tax may be disputed, such as central London 's congestion charge. It was reported in 2006 that the UAE embassy had agreed to pay their own accumulated charges of nearly £ 100,000.
There is an obligation for the receiving State not to "discriminate as between states ''; in other words, any such fees should be payable by all accredited diplomats equally. This may allow the diplomatic corps to negotiate as a group with the authorities of the receiving country.
Diplomats are exempt from import duty and tariffs for items for their personal use. In some countries, this has led to charges that diplomatic agents are profiting personally from resale of "tax free '' goods. The receiving state may choose to impose restrictions on what may reasonably constitute personal use (for example, only a certain quantity of cigarettes per day). When enacted, such restrictions are generally quite generous so as to avoid tit - for - tat responses.
On 24 April 2008, in New Orleans, Mexican press attaché Rafael Quintero Curiel was seen stealing BlackBerry PDA units from a White House press meeting room. Quintero made it all the way to the airport before members of the United States Secret Service caught up with him. He initially denied taking the devices, but after being confronted with security video, Quintero claimed it was purely accidental, gave the devices back, claimed diplomatic immunity and left New Orleans with the Mexican delegation. He was eventually fired for the incident.
The following chart outlines the immunities afforded to foreign diplomatic personnel residing in the United States. In general, these rules follow the Vienna Convention (or the New York Convention for UN officials) and apply in other countries as well (with the exceptions of immunities for United Nations officials, which can vary widely across countries based on the "Host Country Agreement '' signed between the UN and the host country, whereby additional immunities beyond those granted by the New York Convention may be established).
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what book is the story of jonah in | Book of Jonah - wikipedia
The Book of Jonah is one of the Prophets in the Bible. It tells of a Hebrew prophet named Jonah son of Amittai who is sent by God to prophesy the destruction of Nineveh but tries to escape the divine mission. Set in the reign of Jeroboam II (786 -- 746 BC), it was probably written in the post-exilic period, some time between the late 5th to early 4th century BC. The story has a long interpretive history and has become well - known through popular children 's stories. In Judaism it is the Haftarah, read during the afternoon of Yom Kippur to instill reflection on God 's willingness to forgive those who repent; it remains a popular story among Christians. It is also retold in the Quran.
Unlike the other Prophets, the book of Jonah is almost entirely narrative, with the exception of the psalm in chapter 2. The actual prophetic word against Nineveh is given only in passing through the narrative. As with any good narrative, the story of Jonah has a setting, characters, a plot, and themes. It also relies heavily on such literary devices as irony.
Nineveh, where Jonah preached, was the capital of the ancient Assyrian empire, which fell to the Babylonians and the Medes in 612 BC. The book calls Nineveh a "great city '', referring to its size (Jonah 3: 3 + 4: 11) and perhaps to its affluence as well. (The story of the city 's deliverance from judgment may reflect an older tradition dating back to the 8th -- 7th century BC) Assyria often opposed Israel and eventually took the Israelites captive in 722 -- 721 BC (see History of ancient Israel and Judah). The Assyrian oppression against the Israelites can be seen in the bitter prophecies of Nahum.
The story of Jonah is a drama between a passive man and an active God. Jonah, whose name literally means "dove '', is introduced to the reader in the very first verse. The name is decisive. While many other prophets had heroic names (e.g., Isaiah means "God has saved ''), Jonah 's name carries with it an element of passivity.
Jonah 's passive character is contrasted with the other main character: Yahweh. God 's character is altogether active. While Jonah flees, God pursues. While Jonah falls, God lifts up. The character of God in the story is progressively revealed through the use of irony. In the first part of the book, God is depicted as relentless and wrathful; in the second part of the book, He is revealed to be truly loving and merciful.
The other characters of the story include the sailors in chapter 1 and the people of Nineveh in chapter 3. These characters are also contrasted to Jonah 's passivity. While Jonah sleeps in the hull, the sailors pray and try to save the ship from the storm (1: 4 -- 6). While Jonah passively finds himself forced to act under the Divine Will, the people of Nineveh actively petition God to change his mind.
The plot centers on a conflict between Jonah and God. God calls Jonah to proclaim judgment to Nineveh, but Jonah resists and attempts to flee. He goes to Joppa and boards a ship bound for Tarshish. God calls up a great storm at sea, and, at Jonah 's insistence, the ship 's crew reluctantly cast Jonah overboard in an attempt to appease God. A great sea creature, sent by God, swallows Jonah. For three days and three nights Jonah languishes inside the fish 's belly. He says a prayer in which he repents for his disobedience and thanks God for His mercy. God speaks to the fish, which vomits out Jonah safely on dry land.
After his rescue, Jonah obeys the call to prophesy against Nineveh, causing the people of the city to repent and God to forgive them. Jonah is furious, however, and angrily tells God that this is the reason he tried to flee from Him, as he knew Him to be a just and merciful God. He then beseeches God to kill him, a request which is denied when God causes a tree to grow over him, giving him shade. Initially grateful, Jonah 's anger returns the next day, when God sends a worm to eat the plant, withering it, and he tells God that it would be better if he were dead. God then points out: "You are concerned about the bush, for which you did not labour and which you did not grow; it came into being in a night and perished in a night. And should I not be concerned about Nineveh, that great city, in which there are more than a hundred and twenty thousand people who do not know their right hand from their left, and also many animals? (NRSV) ''
Ironically, the relentless God demonstrated in the first chapter is shown to be the merciful God in the last two chapters (see 3: 10). Equally ironic, despite not wanting to go to Nineveh and follow God 's calling, Jonah becomes one of the most effective prophets of God. As a result of his preaching, the entire population of Nineveh repents before the Lord and is spared destruction. The author indicates that the city "has more than a hundred and twenty thousand people who can not tell their right hand from their left '' (4: 11a, NIV). While some commentators see this number (120,000) as a somewhat pejorative reference to ignorant or backward Ninevites, most commentators take it to refer to young infants, thus implying a population considerably larger than 120,000.
Islam also tells the story of the Prophet Jonah in the Quran. Similar to the Bible, the Quran states that Jonah was sent to his people to deliver a message to worship only one God (the Judeo - Christian God of Abraham) and to refrain from evil behavior. However, Jonah became angry with his people when they refused to listen and ignored him. Jonah gave up on his people and left his community without having instruction from God. "And remember when he (Jonah) went off in anger. '' (Quran 21: 87)
According to Islam, after Jonah left his people the sky turned red as fire and the people were filled with fear. Jonah 's people repented to God and prayed that Jonah would return to guide them to the Straight Path. God accepted their repentance and the sky returned to normal.
As told in the Quran, Jonah boarded a ship to be far away from his people. While on the ship the calm sea became violent and was tearing at the boat. After throwing their belongings overboard without any positive change, the passengers cast lots to throw someone overboard to reduce the weight. Twice Jonah 's name was drawn to be thrown overboard, which surprised the passengers because Jonah was perceived as a righteous and pious man. Jonah understood this was not a coincidence but his destiny and he jumped into the violent sea and was swallowed by a "giant fish. '' Many believe this fish was a whale.
The strong acid from fish 's belly began to eat away at Jonah 's skin and he began to repeatedly call out to God for help by saying: "None has the right to be worshipped but you oh God, glorified are you and truly I have been one of the wrongdoers! '' (Quran 21: 87)
Islam teaches that God accepted Jonah 's repentance and commanded the giant fish to spit Jonah out onto the shore. Jonah was in pain and his skin was burned from the acid in the fish 's belly. Jonah repeated his prayer and God relieved him by having a vine (gourd) cover his body to protect him and also provided him with food.
The Quran states: "And, verily, Jonah was one of the Messengers. When he ran to the laden ship, he agreed to cast lots and he was among the losers, then a big fish swallowed him and he had done an act worthy of blame. Had he not been of them who glorify God, he would have indeed remained inside its belly (the fish) until the Day of Resurrection. But We cast him forth on the naked shore while he was sick and We caused a plant of gourd to grow over him. And We sent him to a hundred thousand people or even more, and they believed, so We gave them enjoyment for a while. '' (Quran 37: 139 - 148).
Jonah returned to be with his people and guide them. The prayer made by Jonah while in the fish 's belly can be used to help anyone in times of distress: "None has the right to be worshipped but you oh God, glorified are you and truly I have been one of the wrongdoers! '' (Quran 21: 87).
The story of Jonah has numerous theological implications, and this has long been recognized. In early translations of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish translators tended to remove anthropomorphic imagery in order to prevent the reader from misunderstanding the ancient texts. This tendency is evidenced in both the Aramaic translations (e.g. the Targums) and the Greek translations (e.g. the Septuagint). As far as the Book of Jonah is concerned, Targum Jonah offers a good example of this.
In Jonah 1: 6, the Masoretic Text (MT) reads, "... perhaps God will pay heed to us... '' Targum Jonah translates this passage as: "... perhaps there will be mercy from the Lord upon us... '' The captain 's proposal is no longer an attempt to change the divine will; it is an attempt to appeal to divine mercy. Furthermore, in Jonah 3: 9, the MT reads, "Who knows, God may turn and relent (lit. repent)? '' Targum Jonah translates this as, "Whoever knows that there are sins on his conscience let him repent of them and we will be pitied before the Lord. '' God does not change His mind; He shows pity.
Fragments of the book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), most of which follows the Masoretic Text closely and with Mur XII reproducing a large portion of the text. As for the non-canonical writings, the majority of references to biblical texts were made by argumentum ad verecundiam. The Book of Jonah appears to have served less purpose in the Qumran community than other texts, as the writings make no references to it.
The earliest Christian interpretations of Jonah are found in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. Both Matthew and Luke record a tradition of Jesus ' interpretation of the Book of Jonah (notably, Matthew includes two very similar traditions in chapters 12 and 16). As with most Old Testament interpretations found in the New Testament, Jesus ' interpretation is primarily "typological '' (see Typology (theology)). Jonah becomes a "type '' for Jesus. Jonah spent three days in the belly of the fish; Jesus will spend three days in the grave. Here, Jesus plays on the imagery of Sheol found in Jonah 's prayer. While Jonah metaphorically declared, "Out of the belly of Sheol I cried, '' Jesus will literally be in the belly of Sheol. Finally, Jesus compares his generation to the people of Nineveh. Jesus fulfills his role as a type of Jonah, however his generation fails to fulfill its role as a type of Nineveh. Nineveh repented, but Jesus ' generation, which has seen and heard one even greater than Jonah, fails to repent. Through his typological interpretation of the Book of Jonah, Jesus has weighed his generation and found it wanting.
The debate over the credibility of the miracle of Jonah is not simply a modern one. The credibility of a human being surviving in the belly of a great fish has long been questioned. In c. 409 AD, Augustine of Hippo wrote to Deogratias concerning the challenge of some to the miracle recorded in the Book of Jonah. He writes:
The last question proposed is concerning Jonah, and it is put as if it were not from Porphyry, but as being a standing subject of ridicule among the Pagans; for his words are: "In the next place, what are we to believe concerning Jonah, who is said to have been three days in a whale 's belly? The thing is utterly improbable and incredible, that a man swallowed with his clothes on should have existed in the inside of a fish. If, however, the story is figurative, be pleased to explain it. Again, what is meant by the story that a gourd sprang up above the head of Jonah after he was vomited by the fish? What was the cause of this gourd 's growth? '' Questions such as these I have seen discussed by Pagans amidst loud laughter, and with great scorn.
Augustine responds that if one is to question one miracle, then one should question all miracles as well (section 31). Nevertheless, despite his apologetic, Augustine views the story of Jonah as a figure for Christ. For example, he writes: "As, therefore, Jonah passed from the ship to the belly of the whale, so Christ passed from the cross to the sepulchre, or into the abyss of death. And as Jonah suffered this for the sake of those who were endangered by the storm, so Christ suffered for the sake of those who are tossed on the waves of this world. '' Augustine credits his allegorical interpretation to the interpretation of Christ himself (Matt. 12: 39, 40), and he allows for other interpretations as long as they are in line with Christ 's.
The Ordinary Gloss, or Glossa Ordinaria, was the most important Christian commentary on the Bible in the later Middle Ages. "The Gloss on Jonah relies almost exclusively on Jerome 's commentary on Jonah (c. 396), so its Latin often has a tone of urbane classicism. But the Gloss also chops up, compresses, and rearranges Jerome with a carnivalesque glee and scholastic directness that renders the Latin authentically medieval. '' "The Ordinary Gloss on Jonah '' has been translated into English and printed in a format that emulates the first printing of the Gloss.
The relationship between Jonah and his fellow Jews is ambivalent, and complicated by the Gloss 's tendency to read Jonah as an allegorical prefiguration of Jesus Christ. While some glosses in isolation seem crudely supersessionist ("The foreskin believes while the circumcision remains unfaithful ''), the prevailing allegorical tendency is to attribute Jonah 's recalcitrance to his abiding love for his own people and his insistence that God 's promises to Israel not be overridden by a lenient policy toward the Ninevites. For the glossator, Jonah 's pro-Israel motivations correspond to Christ 's demurral in the Garden of Gethsemane ("My Father, if it be possible, let this chalice pass from me '' (Matt. 26: 39)) and the Gospel of Matthew 's and Paul 's insistence that "salvation is from the Jews '' (Jn. 4: 22). While in the Gloss the plot of Jonah prefigures how God will extend salvation to the nations, it also makes abundantly clear -- as some medieval commentaries on the Gospel of John do not -- that Jonah and Jesus are Jews, and that they make decisions of salvation - historical consequence as Jews.
NCSY director of education Dovid Bashevkin sees Jonah as a thoughtful prophet who comes to religion out of a search for theological truth and is constantly disappointed by those who come to religion to provide mere comfort in the face of adversity inherit to the human condition. "If religion is only a blanket to provide warmth from the cold, harsh realities of life, '' Bashevkin imagines Jonah asking, "(D) id concerns of theological truth and creed even matter? '' The lesson taught by the episode of the tree at the end of the book is that comfort is a deep human need that religion provides, but this need not obscure the role of God.
The Hebrew text of Jonah (1: 17 in English translation), reads dag gadol (Hebrew: דג גדול), which literally means "great fish. '' The Septuagint translates this into Greek as ketos megas, (Greek: κητος μεγας), "huge fish ''; in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters. Saint Jerome later translated the Greek phrase as piscis granda in his Latin Vulgate, and as cetus in Matthew. At some point, cetus became synonymous with whale (cf. cetyl alcohol, which is alcohol derived from whales). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2: 1 as "greate fyshe, '' and he translated the word ketos (Greek) or cetus (Latin) in Matthew as "whale ''. Tyndale 's translation was later followed by the translators of the King James Version of 1611 and has enjoyed general acceptance in English translations.
In the line 2: 1 the book refers to the fish as dag gadol, "great fish '', in the masculine. However, in the 2: 2, it changes the gender to daga, meaning female fish. The verses therefore read: "And the lord provided a great fish (dag gadol, masculine) for Jonah, and it swallowed him, and Jonah sat in the belly of the fish (still male) for three days and nights; then, from the belly of the (daga, female) fish, Jonah began to pray. '' The peculiarity of this change of gender led the later rabbis to reason that this means Jonah was comfortable in the roomy male fish, so he did n't pray, but that God then transferred him to a smaller, female fish, in which the prophet was uncomfortable, so that he prayed.
The book closes abruptly Jonah with an epistolary warning based on the emblematic trope of a fast - growing vine present in Persian narratives, and popularized in fables such as The Gourd and the Palm - tree during the Renaissance, for example by Andrea Alciato.
St. Jerome differed with St. Augustine in his Latin translation of the plant known in Hebrew as קיקיון (qīqayōn), using hedera (from the Greek, meaning "ivy '') over the more common Latin cucurbita, "gourd '', from which the English word gourd (Old French coorde, couhourde) is derived. The Renaissance humanist artist Albrecht Dürer memorialized Jerome 's decision to use an analogical type of Christ 's "I am the Vine, you are the branches '' in his woodcut Saint Jerome in His Study.
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who selects the president if this number is not reached | Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The appointment and confirmation of Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States involves several steps set forth by the United States Constitution, which have been further refined and developed by decades of tradition. Candidates are nominated by the President of the United States and must face a series of hearings in which both the nominee and other witnesses make statements and answer questions before the Senate Judiciary Committee, which can vote to send the nomination to the full United States Senate. Confirmation by the Senate allows the President to formally appoint the candidate to the court.
Article Two of the United States Constitution requires the President of the United States to nominate Supreme Court Justices and, with Senate confirmation, requires Justices to be appointed. This was for the division of power between the President and Senate by the founders, who wrote:
he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint... Judges of the supreme Court...
Upon the election of a new President, incoming White House staff prepare profiles of possible candidates for the Supreme Court, considering not only judges but also politicians and other individuals whom they consider appropriate for the role. Besides considering national figures whose views are well - known, they consider others who are less recognized. They go through published rulings, articles, speeches, and other background material to get an idea of candidates ' values and views on constitutional issues. Age, health, race, gender, and likelihood of confirmation are also factored into considerations. Once a Supreme Court vacancy opens, the President discusses the candidates with advisors. Senators also call the President with suggestions. After a first choice is decided, the candidate is contacted and called on by the President to serve on the highest court. Staffers send a vetting form for the candidate to fill out. They visit the candidate to go over tax records and payments to domestic help. Candidates whom the President has never met are interviewed by White House officials before being sent to the White House to be interviewed in person by the President. After making a final decision, the President calls the candidate, who is told to prepare a statement for an appearance in front of the national press for the President 's formal announcement.
Most Presidents nominate individuals who broadly share their ideological views. In many cases, however, a Justice 's decisions may be contrary to what the nominating President anticipated. A famous instance was Chief Justice Earl Warren; President Dwight D. Eisenhower expected him to be a conservative judge, but his decisions are arguably among the most liberal in the Court 's history. Eisenhower later called the appointment "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made ''. Another Justice whose decisions ran contrary to what was believed to be his ideology was David Souter, who was nominated to the high court in 1990 by President George H.W. Bush. Many pundits and politicians at the time expected Souter to be a conservative; however, after becoming a Justice, his opinions generally fell on the liberal side of the political spectrum.
Because the Constitution does not set any qualifications for service as a Justice, the President may nominate any individual to serve on the Court. However, that person must receive the confirmation of the Senate.
In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from special - interest groups, many of which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee, depending on whether the nominee 's track record aligns with the group 's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings, questioning nominees to determine their suitability. By convention, nominees avoid revealing too much about their views on potential cases that may come before the Court. At the close of confirmation hearings, the Committee votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report.
The Committee 's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent, beginning with Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925. Some western senators were concerned with his links to Wall Street and expressed their opposition when Stone was nominated. Stone proposed what was then the novelty of appearing before the Judiciary Committee to answer questions; his testimony helped secure a confirmation vote with very little opposition. The second nominee to appear before the Committee was Felix Frankfurter, who only addressed (at the Committee 's request) what he considered to be slanderous allegations against him. The modern practice of the Committee questioning nominees on their judicial views began with the nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in 1955; the nomination came shortly after the Court handed down the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, and several Southern senators attempted to block Harlan 's confirmation, hence the decision to testify.
Once the Committee reports out the nomination, the whole Senate considers it. A simple majority vote is required to confirm or to reject a nominee. Prior to 2017, a successful filibuster threat could add the requirement of a supermajority of 60 needed in favor of cloture, which would allow debate to end and force a final vote on confirmation. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees in its history. The most recent rejection of a nominee by vote of the full Senate came in 1987, when the Senate refused to confirm Robert Bork.
Not everyone nominated by the President has received a floor vote in the Senate. Prior to 2017 a nominee could be filibustered once debate on the nomination had begun in the full Senate. A filibuster indefinitely prolongs the debate, preventing a final vote on the nominee. President Lyndon Johnson 's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas 's ethics. President Donald Trump 's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority 's prior refusal to take up Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.
Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006 before Committee hearings had begun, citing concerns about Senate requests during her confirmation process for access to internal Executive Branch documents resulting from her position as White House Counsel. In 1987, President Ronald Reagan withdrew the nomination of Douglas H. Ginsburg because of news reports containing marijuana use allegations.
The Senate may also fail to act on the nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower 's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, the Senate failed to act on President Barack Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland in March 2016 to fill the vacancy left by the death of Antonin Scalia; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump 's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.
Before 1981 the approval process of Justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, Justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months). Some believe this is because Congress sees Justices as playing a more political role than in the past. The perceived politicization of the process has drawn criticism. For example, columnist George F. Will termed the defeat of Robert Bork 's nomination "unjust '' and, more generally, that the nomination process does "not delve deeply into the nominee 's jurisprudential thinking. '' Supreme Court nominations have caused media speculation about whether the judge leans to the left, middle, or right. One indication of the politicized selection process is how much time each nominee spends being questioned under the glare of media coverage; before 1925, nominees were never questioned; after 1955, every nominee has been required to appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee and answer questions; and the hours spent being grilled have lengthened from single digits (before 1980) to double digits today. Another example of the politicization of the process was the Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination, which remained before the Senate far longer than any other nominee.
Following is a table of the approximate number of hours that media sources estimate were spent on the questioning of Supreme Court nominees since 1925:
Once the Senate confirms the nomination by an affirmative vote, the Secretary of the Senate attests to a resolution of confirmation and transmits it to the White House. The President then prepares and signs a commission, and causes the Seal of the United States Department of Justice to be affixed to the document before the new Justice can take office. The date of commission determines a Justice 's seniority. A ceremony is held in which the Justice must take the Constitutional Oath, which is used for every federal and state officeholder below the President, and the Judicial Oath used for federal judges before entering into the execution of their office.
Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution provides that:
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Thus, when the Senate is in recess, the President may make a temporary appointment to any office requiring Senate approval, including filling vacancies on the Supreme Court, without the Senate 's advice and consent. Such a recess appointee to the Supreme Court holds office only until the end of the next Senate session (always less than two years). To continue to serve thereafter and be compensated for his or her service, the nominee must be formally nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Of the ten Justices who have received recess appointments - two Chief Justices and eight Associate Justices - only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed for a regular appointment. No president since Dwight Eisenhower (who made three such appointments) has made a recess appointment to the Supreme Court and the practice has become highly controversial even when applied to lower federal courts. During the 110th Congress, the Democratic leadership of the Senate specifically blocked Republican President George W. Bush from making any recess appointments with the use of pro forma sessions.
In 1960 the Senate passed a resolution stating that it was the sense of the Senate that recess appointments to the Supreme Court should not be made except under unusual circumstances. Being a resolution, it has no legally binding effect, but was intended as an expression of the position of the Senate and as a guide to executive actions. The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines.
Following is a list of recess appointments that have been made to the Supreme Court:
The ability of a president to appoint new justices depends on the occurrence of a vacancy on the Court. The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior '' (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior '' is well understood to mean Justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, although they can voluntarily resign or retire. A Justice can also be removed by Congressional impeachment and conviction. However, only one Justice has been impeached by the House (Samuel Chase, in 1805) and he was acquitted in the Senate. Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, once in 1953 and again in 1970), but they have not reached a vote in the House. No mechanism presently exists for removing a Justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, both unable to resign and unable to resume service.
Because Justices have indefinite tenure, it is impossible to know when a vacancy will next occur. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William H. Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer 's nomination in 1994 and the departures of Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice Sandra Day O'Connor (by death and retirement, respectively) in 2005 and 2006.
It is also theoretically possible for Congress to create additional vacancies by expanding the Court itself. The United States Constitution does not specify the size of the Supreme Court, but in Article III it authorizes the Congress to fix the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six justices. As the country grew geographically, Congress increased the number of justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits. In 1807, the court was expanded to seven members, allowing Thomas Jefferson to appoint Thomas Todd as a new Justice. The expansion to nine members in 1837 allowed Andrew Jackson to appoint John Catron, and Martin Van Buren to appoint John McKinley; and the addition of a tenth seat in 1863 allowed Abraham Lincoln to name Stephen Johnson Field to the Court. However, at the request of Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, Congress passed the Judicial Circuits Act (1866) which provided that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced; thus, the size of the Court should have eventually reached seven by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. However, this law did not play out to completion, for in the Judiciary Act of 1869, also known as the Circuit Judges Act, the number of justices was again set at nine, where it has since remained. The new seat created in 1869 was filled the following year by Ulysses S. Grant 's appointment of Joseph P. Bradley - the last justice to be appointed to a newly created seat on the Court.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937, seeking to appoint an additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement; under Roosevelt 's proposal, such appointments would continue until the Court reached a maximum size of 15 justices. Ostensibly, the proposal was made to ease the burdens of the docket on the elderly judges, but the President 's actual purpose was to pack the Court with justices who would support New Deal policies and legislation. This plan, usually called the "Court - packing Plan '', failed in Congress and proved a political disaster for Roosevelt. The balance of the Court shifted with the retirement of Willis Van Devanter and the confirmation of Hugo Black in August 1937. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven Supreme Court justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.
Despite the variability, nearly all Presidents so far have been able to appoint at least one Justice. The four exceptions are William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Andrew Johnson, and Jimmy Carter. Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Taylor likewise died early in his presidential term, although his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Johnson was denied the opportunity to appoint a Justice by a contraction in the size of the Supreme Court, which Congress may dictate. Jimmy Carter is the only President who completed at least one full term in office without making a nomination to the Court during his presidency.
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where can you carry a gun in america | Gun laws in the United states by state - wikipedia
Gun laws in the United States regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition. State laws (and the laws of Washington, D.C. and the U.S. territories) vary considerably, and are independent of existing federal firearms laws, although they are sometimes broader or more limited in scope than the federal laws.
State level laws vary significantly in their form, content, and level of restriction. Forty - four states have a provision in their state constitutions similar to the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which protects the right to keep and bear arms. The exceptions are California, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, and New York. In New York, however, the statutory civil rights laws contain a provision virtually identical to the Second Amendment. Additionally, the U.S. Supreme Court held in McDonald v. Chicago that the protections of the Second Amendment to keep and bear arms for self - defense in one 's home apply against state governments and their political subdivisions.
Firearm owners are subject to the firearm laws of the state they are in, and not exclusively their state of residence. Reciprocity between states exists in certain situations, such as with regard to concealed carry permits. These are recognized on a state - by - state basis. For example, Idaho recognizes an Oregon permit, but Oregon does not recognize an Idaho permit. Florida issues a license to carry both concealed weapons and firearms, but others license only the concealed carry of firearms. Some states do not recognize out - of - state permits to carry a firearm at all, so it is important to understand the laws of each state when traveling with a handgun.
In many cases, state firearms laws can be considerably less restrictive than federal firearms laws. This does not confer any de jure immunity against prosecution for violations of the federal laws. However, state and local police departments are not legally obligated to enforce federal gun law as per the U.S. Supreme Court 's ruling in Printz v. United States.
Firearm related matters that are often regulated by state or local laws include the following:
Act 746 allows for concealed carry without permit when upon a journey (outside of one 's county of residence).
Enhanced concealed carry permits allow for carrying in some forbidden areas such as carrying at public colleges, most public buildings, non-secure locations in an airport, churches, and more.
Machine guns may not have ammunition. 30 in. or 7.63 mm or bigger unless the gun is registered to an ammunition corporation.
With the passage of Senate Bill 880 and Assembly Bill 1135 in June 2016, the state 's assault weapon ban has been expanded to include all semi-automatic center - fire rifles and shotguns that have a "bullet button '' detachable magazine; effectively repealing a prior law that made "bullet button '' magazines required on all newly manufactured weapons with detachable magazines. The sale or transfer of such weapons will be prohibited, effective January 1, 2017. Those purchased prior to January 1, 2017 must be registered with the DOJ by the start of 2018. The definition of types of weapons that are banned has been expanded, the exact definitions should be reviewed at the California DOJ website.
Section 32310 of the Penal Code states that any person who manufactures or causes to be manufactured, imports into the state, keeps for sale, or offers or exposes for sale, or who gives, lends, buys, receives, or assembles any large - capacity magazine from a parts kit is punishable by imprisonment in a county jail not exceeding one year or imprisonment. Thus, the offenses listed can be charged as a felony or a misdemeanor at the discretion of the prosecutor. In November 2016 California voters approved Proposition 63. The referendum outlaws the possession of magazines that can hold more than ten rounds of ammunition requires background checks for all ammunition sales and mandates the reporting of lost or stolen firearms. Under Proposition 63, mere possession of a large - capacity magazine is punishable as a misdemeanor with a $100 fine or an infraction with a $100 fine. This prohibition applies to magazines acquired prior to January 1, 2000 that were previously considered "grandfathered. '' Importation, manufacture, lending, assembling a large - capacity magazine from a parts kit, or buying a large - capacity magazine remains chargeable as a felony or a misdemeanor. On June 30, 2017, a federal judge blocked the enforcement of Proposition 63 's ban on the possession of large - capacity magazines, pending the outcome of litigation concerning the ban. Magazines that would have been subject to the Proposition 63 ban are legal for private citizens to keep until the injunction is either lifted and / or the ban is upheld by the courts.
§ 27600 - 27750 (4)
On August 25, 2014, the California 's 10 - day waiting period for gun purchases was ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California which found that "the 10 - day waiting periods of Penal Code (sections 26815 (a) and 27540 (a)) violate the Second Amendment '' as applied to members of certain classifications (notably holders of concealed carry permits) and "burdens the Second Amendment rights of the Plaintiffs ''. On December 14, 2016 this ruling was overturned by a three - judge panel of the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. The plaintiffs ' petition for an en banc rehearing was denied April 4, 2017; on February 20, 2018 the Supreme Court certiorari petition was denied, meaning that the waiting period remains in effect.
There is a de facto registry of the sale (including the serial numbers) of handguns and long guns purchased in state that is maintained by the Department of Emergency Services and Public Protection (DESPP). Any transfer, be it from a dealer or private party, must be accompanied by an authorization number issued by the DESPP and a form containing personal and weapon identification (DPS - 3 - C) must be submitted to DESPP and local police. This form is collected and maintained on all guns purchased from FFL dealers as well. The DPS - 3 - C form is not required for long gun transfers made out of state, and there is no legal requirement / penalty to register firearms purchased out of state or lawfully obtained before April 1, 2014.
Connecticut has a two - step permitting process: a 60 - day Temporary permit issued by local authorities and a 5 - year Regular permit issued by the Department of Emergency Services and Public Protection (DESPP). Issuance of a Temporary permit is technically not a prerequisite to apply for a Regular permit, but in practice an applicant must await a decision from local authorities on the temporary permit application before applying to DESPP for the Regular permit. If the local permit is denied for any reason, instead one files an appeal to DESPP to have the state board re-examine the application. If the state board denies the permit (rare occurrence), a court appeal is possible. Permit needed to carry open or concealed. Exceptions for peace officers and Active - Duty military members. Out of state permits not valid in Connecticut, but non-residents may apply for a Connecticut non-resident carry permit through the mail. Non-residents must have a carry permit issued by a United States jurisdiction to apply.
HRS134 - 11 (3)
On July 24, 2018, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that Hawaii 's laws restricting open carry are unconstitutional.
No laws against open carrying long guns.
As of July 1, 2017, persons who a) are at least 18 years old, b) are protected by a protection order, c) have applied for a license, and d) are not prohibited from possessing a handgun may carry a handgun without a license for 60 days from the date of the protection order being issued.
On May 9, 2017, the Indiana Supreme Court ruled that detaining an individual based solely upon their possession of a handgun (in order to verify that they are licensed) violates the Fourth Amendment absent any other reasonable articulable suspicion of a crime being committed.
707.6
Suppressors legal as of March 31, 2016. Short barreled rifle / shotgun legal as of April 13, 2017.
May carry concealed without permit as of July 1, 2015, however permits can be issued for those who wish to have them.
remains within the borders of Kansas is not subject to any federal law, suppressor that is manufactured in Kansas and remains within the borders of Kansas are not subject to any federal law, including the NFA. A firearm manufactured in Kansas must have the words "Made in Kansas '' clearly stamped on a central metallic part, such as the receiver or frame.
On April 15, 2016, the law was further expanded to include belt and shoulder holsters and sheaths. This effectively allows for constitutional carry in Mississippi. However, some forms of concealed carrying would still require a permit (e.g. Mexican carry or concealed in an ankle holster).
Licenses still available on a shall - issue basis, issued within 45 days. The license is valid for five years. An enhanced license allows for carrying at public universities and other places.
Concealed carry is not allowed in a regular public 1 -- 12 school, courthouse, police station, detention facility, government meeting place, polling place, establishment primarily devoted to dispensing alcoholic beverages, athletic event, parade or demonstration for which a permit is required, passenger terminal of an airport, "place of nuisance '' as defined in Mississippi Code section 95 -- 3 -- 1, or a location where a sign is posted and clearly visible from at least ten feet away saying that the "carrying of a pistol or revolver is prohibited ''. With an enhanced carry permit per Mississippi Code section 97 - 37 - 7 (2) as amended by House Bill 506 of the 2011 Regular Session, the prohibited locations to carry concealed are as follows: any police, sheriff or state highway patrol station; any detention facility, prison or jail; courtrooms during a judicial proceeding; any "place of nuisance ''; and (not listed in the Mississippi statutes, but still relevant) any place where the carrying of firearms is prohibited by federal law. A license to carry a pistol or revolver is not required for open carry. A license is not required for transporting a concealed or visible firearm in a vehicle.
In June 2018, the Mississippi Supreme Court ruled that judges may not prohibit enhanced concealed carry license holders from carrying in and around courthouses as long as they do not enter a courtroom.
Concealed carry without a permit is generally allowed outside city, town, or logging camp limits.
* Nevada Attorney General Adam Laxalt opined that the law is unenforceable.
O.R.C. 2923.121
O.R.C. 2923.17
In 2011, the Oregon Court of Appeals ruled that public universities no longer have the authority to prohibit firearms on their grounds, however may still prohibit them inside buildings. This effectively legalized campus carry on grounds.
However, Oregon law allows a city or county to regulate open carry of loaded firearms in public places, but holders of concealed carry permits are exempt. (ORS 166.173) The cities of Portland, Beaverton, Tigard, Oregon City, Salem, and Independence, as well as Multnomah County have statutes which do not allow open carry of loaded firearms.
The practice of not issuing permits on a true ' shall issue ' basis has been the subject of recent litigation. In April 2015, the Rhode Island Supreme Court has ruled that a police chief must accept and review carry permit applications and must render a decision and the reasons for that decision. More significantly, the court ruled that the issuing authority must "show cause '' for denying an applicant a carry license.
Permits issued by local authorities and the Attorney General 's office are valid for concealed carry statewide.
As of July 1, 2014, due to the enhanced Castle Doctrine law, a person may keep a loaded handgun or long gun in their private vehicle without a permit.
As of July 1, 2017, persons who can legally possess / purchase a firearm and are protected by a protection order may carry a handgun without a license for 60 days from the date of the protection order being issued.
* Loaded long gun carry in public is generally illegal, with exceptions for activities such as hunting in approved areas. Unloaded long gun carry is not prohibited.
Public four - year universities (as of August 1, 2016) and public two - year colleges (as of August 1, 2017) must allow concealed carry in campus buildings as well. Universities will be allowed to designate certain sensitive areas as "gun free zones ''; these will be subject to legislative analysis.
As of 2004, may carry at public universities.
Open carry of a loaded firearm (e.g., a live round of ammunition in the firing chamber) is allowed with a permit
"(g) a nonresident traveling in or through the state, provided that any firearm is: (i) unloaded; and (ii) securely encased as defined in Section 76 - 10 - 501. '' Handguns may be loaded in any vehicle under the person 's control.
"(1) A person is justified in using force against another when and to the extent that he reasonably believes that the force is necessary to prevent or terminate the other 's unlawful entry into or attack upon his habitation; however, he is justified in the use of force which is intended or likely to cause death or serious bodily injury only if: (a) the entry is made or attempted in a violent and tumultuous manner, surreptitiously, or by stealth, and he reasonably believes that the entry is attempted or made for the purpose of assaulting or offering personal violence to any person, dwelling, or being in the habitation and he reasonably believes that the force is necessary to prevent the assault or offer of personal violence; or (b) he reasonably believes that the entry is made or attempted for the purpose of committing a felony in the habitation and that the force is necessary to prevent the commission of the felony. (2) The person using force or deadly force in defense of habitation is presumed for the purpose of both civil and criminal cases to have acted reasonably and had a reasonable fear of imminent peril of death or serious bodily injury if the entry or attempted entry is unlawful and is made or attempted by use of force, or in a violent and tumultuous manner, or surreptitiously or by stealth, or for the purpose of committing a felony. ''
"(1) (a) A person is justified in threatening or using force against another when and to the extent that the person reasonably believes that force or a threat of force is necessary to defend the person or a third person against another person 's imminent use of unlawful force. (b) A person is justified in using force intended or likely to cause death or serious bodily injury only if the person reasonably believes that force is necessary to prevent death or serious bodily injury to the person or a third person as a result of another person 's imminent use of unlawful force, or to prevent the commission of a forcible felony. ''
§ 18.2 - 287.4 § 18.2 - 282
For open carry in a vehicle, the firearm must be "properly secured in a container or compartment within the vehicle '' (ie glove box, center console, trunk, etc). The container / compartment does not have to be locked, the firearm may be within the reach of the driver or a passenger, and the firearm may be loaded. This does not preempt an employer from prohibiting firearms "at a place of employment if there is a company policy or signage prohibiting firearms on the premises. '' Furthermore, a "county or city may by ordinance make it unlawful for any person to transport, possess or carry a loaded shotgun or loaded rifle in any vehicle on any public street, road, or highway within such locality. '' However, this does not "apply to duly authorized law - enforcement officers or military personnel in the performance of their lawful duties, nor to any person who reasonably believes that a loaded rifle or shotgun is necessary for his personal safety in the course of his employment or business. ''
In addition, a firearm may be considered "open carry '' in a vehicle if the firearm is openly visible, though this is not as well established as the "secured in a container / compartment '' rule.
§ 18.2 - 308.2: 01 § 18.2 - 308.7
§ 18.2 - 282.
RCW 09.41. 110 (9) (a) and (b)
RCW 09.41. 050 CCW Reciprocity
RCW 09.41. 290 RCW 09.41. 300
Seattle and Edmonds have passed ordinances mandating safe storage of firearms when not being carried or used. Seattle 's ordinance also has reporting requirement for lost or stolen firearms within 24 hours. Both cities are being sued for violation of state preemption.
RCW 09.41. 190 RCW 09.41. 220 RCW 09.41. 225 RCW 09.41. 250 (1) (c)
RCW 09.41. 050 RCW 09.41. 060 18 USC § 926A CCW Reciprocity
§ 61 - 7 - 7
Campus carry is allowed, but buildings may be exempted if signs forbidding firearms are posted.
941.26
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how many states in india are bicameral in their governance structure | Bicameralism - wikipedia
A bicameral legislature is one in which the legislators are divided into two separate assemblies, chambers or houses. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all of the members deliberate and vote as a single group, and from some legislatures which have three or more separate assemblies, chambers or houses. As of 2015, somewhat less than half of the world 's national legislatures are bicameral.
Often, the members of the two chambers are elected or selected using different methods, which vary from country to country. This can often lead to the two chambers having very different compositions of members.
Enactment of primary legislation often requires a concurrent majority -- the approval of a majority of members in each of the chambers of the legislature. When this is the case, the legislature may be called an example of perfect bicameralism. However, in many Westminster system parliaments, the house to which the executive is responsible can overrule the other house and may be regarded as an example of imperfect bicameralism. Some legislatures lie in between these two positions, with one house only able to overrule the other under certain circumstances.
Although the ideas on which bicameralism are based can be traced back to the theories developed in ancient Sumer, ancient India and later ancient Greece, and Rome, recognizable bicameral institutions first arose in Medieval Europe where it was associated with separate representation of different estates of the realm. For example, one house would represent the aristocracy, and the other would represent the commoners as was the case in the Kingdom of England. Others, such as France under the Ancien Régime had a tricameral legislature known as the Estates General, which consisted of separate chambers for the clergymen, the nobility and the commoners.
The Founding Fathers of the United States also favoured a bicameral legislature. The idea was to have the Senate be wealthier and wiser. Benjamin Rush saw this though, and noted that, "this type of dominion is almost always connected with opulence. '' The Senate was created to be a stabilising force, elected not by mass electors, but selected by the State legislators. Senators would be more knowledgeable and more deliberate -- a sort of republican nobility -- and a counter to what Madison saw as the "fickleness and passion '' that could absorb the House.
He noted further that the "use of the Senate is to consist in its proceeding with more coolness, with more system and with more wisdom, than the popular branch ''. Madison 's argument led the Framers to grant the Senate prerogatives in foreign policy, an area where steadiness, discretion, and caution were deemed especially important ". The Senate was chosen by state legislators, and senators had to possess a significant amount of property in order to be deemed worthy and sensible enough for the position. In fact, it was not until the year 1913 that the 17th Amendment was passed, which "mandated that Senators would be elected by popular vote rather than chosen by the State legislatures ''.
As part of the Great Compromise, they invented a new rationale for bicameralism in which the Senate would have states represented equally, and the House would have them represented by population.
The British Parliament is often referred to as the Mother of Parliaments (in fact a misquotation of John Bright, who remarked in 1865 that "England is the Mother of Parliaments '') because the British Parliament has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British "three - tier '' model. Most countries in Europe and the Commonwealth have similarly organised parliaments with a largely ceremonial head of state who formally opens and closes parliament, a large elected lower house and a smaller, upper house.
A formidable sinister interest may always obtain the complete command of a dominant assembly by some chance and for a moment, and it is therefore of great use to have a second chamber of an opposite sort, differently composed, in which that interest in all likelihood will not rule.
There have been a number of rationales put forward in favour of bicameralism, federal states have often adopted it, and the solution remains popular when regional differences or sensitivities require more explicit representation, with the second chamber representing the constituent states. Nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers -- providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation -- has survived.
Growing awareness of the complexity of the notion of representation and the multifunctional nature of modern legislatures may be affording incipient new rationales for second chambers, though these do generally remain contested institutions in ways that first chambers are not. An example of political controversy regarding a second chamber has been the debate over the powers of the Canadian Senate or the election of the Senate of France.
The relationship between the two chambers varies; in some cases, they have equal power, while in others, one chamber is clearly superior in its powers. The first tends to be the case in federal systems and those with presidential governments. The latter tends to be the case in unitary states with parliamentary systems.
There are two streams of thought: Critics believe bicameralism makes meaningful political reforms more difficult to achieve and increases the risk of gridlock -- particularly in cases where both chambers have similar powers -- while proponents argue the merits of the "checks and balances '' provided by the bicameral model, which they believe help prevent the passage into law of ill - considered legislation.
Some countries, such as Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, Nigeria, and the United States, link their bicameral systems to their federal political structure.
In the United States, Australia, and Mexico, for example, each state is given the same number of seats in one of the houses of the legislature, despite the total population of each state -- it is designed to ensure that smaller states are not overshadowed by larger states, which may have more representation in the other house of the legislature.
In Canada, the country as a whole is divided into a number of Senate Divisions, each with a different number of Senators, based on a number of factors. These Divisions are Quebec, Ontario, Western Provinces, and the Maritimes, each with 24 Senators, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, each with 1 Senator, and Newfoundland and Labrador has 6 Senators, making for a total of 105 Senators.
Senators in Canada are not elected by the people but are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Senate does not originate most legislation (although a small fraction of government bills are introduced in the Senate and Senators may introduce private members ' bills in the same way as MPs) but acts as a chamber of revision almost always passing legislation approved by the House of Commons, made up of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected. The Senate must pass legislation before it becomes law and can therefore act as a wise facilitator or engage in filibuster. The Senate does not have to endure the accountability and scrutiny of parliamentary elections. Therefore, the bicameral structure of Canadian parliament is more de jure than de facto.
The bicameral Parliament of Australia consists of two Houses, the lower house is called the House of Representatives and the upper house is named the Senate. The lower house currently consists of 150 members, each elected from single member constituencies, known as electoral divisions (commonly referred to as "electorates '' or "seats '') using full - preference Instant - runoff voting. This tends to lead to the chamber being dominated by two major parties, the Liberal / National Coalition and the Labor Party. The government of the day must achieve the confidence of this House in order to gain and remain in power.
The upper house, the Senate, is also popularly elected under the single transferable vote system of proportional representation. There are a total of 76 senators: 12 senators are elected from each of the six Australian states (regardless of population) and two from each of the two autonomous internal territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).
Unlike upper houses in most Westminster parliamentary systems, the Australian Senate is vested with significant power, including the capacity to block legislation initiated by the government in the House of Representatives, making it a distinctive hybrid of British Westminster bicameralism and US - style bicameralism. As a result of proportional representation, the chamber features a multitude of parties vying for power. The governing party or coalition, which has to maintain the confidence of the lower house, rarely has a majority in the Senate and usually needs to negotiate with other parties and Independents to get legislation passed.
In the German, Indian, and Pakistani systems, the upper houses (the Bundesrat, the Rajya Sabha, and the Senate respectively) are even more closely linked with the federal system, being appointed or elected directly by the governments or legislatures of each Land, State, or Province. (This was also the case in the United States before the 17th Amendment.) Because of this coupling to the executive branch, German legal doctrine does not treat the Bundesrat as the second chamber of a bicameral system formally. Rather, it sees the Bundesrat and the Bundestag as independent constitutional bodies. Only the directly elected Bundestag is considered to be the parliament. In the German Bundesrat, the various Länder have between three and six votes; thus, while the less populated states have a lower weight, they still have a stronger voting power than would be the case in a system based purely on population, as the most populous Land currently has about 27 times the population of the least populous. The Indian Upper House does not have the states represented equally, but on the basis of their population.
There are also instances of bicameralism in countries that are not federations, but which have upper houses with representation on a territorial basis. For example, in South Africa, the National Council of Provinces (and before 1997, the Senate) has its members chosen by each Province 's legislature.
In Spain the Spanish Senate functions as a de facto territorial - based upper house, and there has been some pressure from the Autonomous Communities to reform it into a strictly territorial chamber.
The European Union maintains a bicameral legislative system which consists of the European Parliament, which is elected in general elections on the basis of universal suffrage, and the Council of the European Union which consists of members of the governments of the Member States which are competent for the relevant field of legislation. Although the European Union is not considered a state, it enjoys the power to legislate in many areas of politics; in some areas, those powers are even exclusively reserved to it.
In a few countries, bicameralism involves the juxtaposition of democratic and aristocratic elements.
The best known example is the British House of Lords, which includes a number of hereditary peers. The House of Lords represents a vestige of the aristocratic system which once predominated in British politics, while the other house, the House of Commons, is entirely elected. Over the years, there have been proposals to reform the House of Lords, some of which have been at least partly successful -- the House of Lords Act 1999 limited the number of hereditary peers (as opposed to life peers, appointed by Her Majesty on the advice of the Prime Minister) to 92, down from around 700. Of these 92, one is the Earl Marshal, a hereditary office always held by the Duke of Norfolk, one is the Lord Great Chamberlain, a hereditary office held by turns, currently by the Marquess of Cholmondeley, and the other 90 are elected by all sitting peers. Hereditary peers elected by the House to sit as representative peers sit for life; when a representative peer dies, byelections occur to fill the vacancy. The ability of the House of Lords to block legislation is curtailed by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. Peers can introduce bills except Money Bills, and all legislation must be passed by both Houses of Parliament. If it is not passed within two sessions, the House of Commons can override the Lords delay by invoking the Parliament Act. Certain pieces of legislation however must be approved by both Houses and are not able to be forced through by the Commons under the Parliament Act. This includes any bill which would extend the time length of a Parliament, private bills, bills which are sent to the House of Lords less than one month before the end of a session, and bills which originate in the House of Lords.
Life Peers are appointed either by recommendation of the Appointment Commission; the independent body that vets non-partisan peers, typically from academia, business or culture, or by Dissolution Honour, which takes place at the end of every Parliamentary term and leaving MPs may be offered a seat to keep their institutional memory. It is traditional for a peerage to be offered to every outgoing Speaker of the House of Commons.
Further reform of the Lords has been proposed; however, reform is not supported by many. Members of the House of Lords all have an aristocratic title, or are from the Clergy. 26 Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England sit as Lords Spiritual, being the Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham, the Bishop of Winchester and the next 21 longest - serving Bishops. It is usual that retiring Archbishops, and certain other Bishops, are appointed to the Crossbenches and given a life peerage. Until 2009, 12 Lords of Appeal in Ordinary sat in the House as the highest court in the land; they subsequently became justices of the newly created Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. At present, 786 people sit in the House of Lords, with 92 Hereditary, 26 being Bishops or Archbishops (the Lords Spiritual) and the rest being Life Peers. Membership is not fixed and decreases only on the death of a life peer.
Another example of aristocratic bicameralism was the Japanese House of Peers, abolished after World War II and replaced with the present House of Councillors.
Many bicameral countries like the Netherlands, the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Republic of Ireland and Romania are examples of bicameral systems existing in unitary states. In countries such as these, the upper house generally focuses on scrutinizing and possibly vetoing the decisions of the lower house.
On the other hand, in Italy the Parliament consists of two chambers that have the same role and power: the Senate (Senate of the Republic, commonly considered the upper house) and the Chamber of Deputies (considered the lower house).
In some of these countries, the upper house is indirectly elected. Members of France 's Senate, Ireland 's Seanad Éireann are chosen by electoral colleges consisting of members of the lower house, local councillors, the Taoiseach, and graduates of selected universities, while the Netherlands ' Senate is chosen by members of provincial assemblies (which in turn are directly elected).
Norway had a kind of semi-bicameral legislature with two chambers, or departments, within the same elected body, the Storting. These were called the Odelsting and Lagting and were abolished after the general election of 2009. According to Morten Søberg, there was a related system in the 1798 constitution of the Batavian Republic.
In Hong Kong, members of the unicameral Legislative Council returned from the democratically elected geographical constituencies and partially - democratic functional constituencies are required to vote separately since 1997 on motions, bills or amendments to government bills not introduced by the government. The passage of these motions, bills or amendments to government bills requires double majority in both groups simultaneously. (Before 2004, when elections to the Legislative Council from the Election Committee was abolished, members returned through the Election Committee vote with members returned from geographical constituencies.) The double majority requirement does not apply to motions, bills and amendments introduced by the government.
In some countries with federal systems, individual states (like those of the United States, Australia and a few States of India) may also have bicameral legislatures. Only three such states, Nebraska in the US, Queensland in Australia and Bavaria in Germany have later adopted unicameral systems. Brazilian states and Canadian provinces had all their upper houses abolished.
In Argentina, eight provinces have bicameral legislatures, with a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies: Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Mendoza, Salta, San Luis (since 1987) and Santa Fe. Córdoba and Tucumán changed to unicameral systems in 2001 and 2003 respectively.
In Australian states, the lower house was traditionally elected based on the one - vote - one - value principle, whereas the upper house was partially appointed and elected, with a bias towards country voters and landowners. In Queensland, the appointed upper house was abolished in 1922, while in New South Wales there were similar attempts at abolition, before the upper house was reformed in the 1970s to provide for direct election. Nowadays, the upper house both federally and in most states is elected using the Single transferable vote form of proportional representation while the lower house uses Instant - runoff voting in single member electorates. This is reversed in the state of Tasmania, where proportional representation is used for the lower house and single member electorates for the upper house.
The Legislature of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is a bicameral legislative body. It consists of two chambers. The House of Representatives has 98 delegates, elected for four - year terms by proportional representation. The House of Peoples has 58 members, 17 delegates from among each of the constituent peoples of the Federation, and 7 delegates from among the other peoples. Republika Srpska, the other entity, has a unicameral parliament, known as the National Assembly.
The German federal state of Bavaria had a bicameral legislature from 1946 to 1999, when the Senate was abolished by a referendum amending the state 's constitution. The other 15 states have used a unicameral system since their founding.
Seven Indian States, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Jammu - Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, have bicameral Legislatures, these are called legislative councils (Vidhan Parishad), one third of whom are elected every two years, there are graduate constituencies (members elected exclusively by graduates), teachers constituencies (members elected exclusively by teachers), municipal constituencies (members elected exclusively by Mayors and council members of the city Governments). From 1956 to 1958 the Andhra Pradesh Legislature was unicameral. In 1958, when the Legislative Council was formed, it became bicameral until 1 June 1985 when it was abolished. This continued until March 2007 when the Legislative Council was reestablished and elections were held for its seats. Since then the Andhra Pradesh Legislature has become once again bicameral. In Tamil Nadu, a resolution was passed on 14 May 1986 and the Legislative Council was dissolved on 1 Nov 1986. Again on 12 April 2010, a resolution was passed to bring it back bicameral, but became unsuccessful in 2011.
Under Soviet regime regional and local Soviets were unicameral. After the adoption of 1993 Russian Constitution bicameralism was introduced in some regions. Bicameral regional legislatures are still technically allowed by federal law but this clause is dormant now. The last region to switch from bicameralism to unicameralism was Sverdlovsk Oblast in 2012.
During the 1930s, the Legislature of the State of Nebraska was reduced from bicameral to unicameral with the 43 members that once comprised that state 's Senate. One of the arguments used to sell the idea at the time to Nebraska voters was that by adopting a unicameral system, the perceived evils of the "conference committee '' process would be eliminated.
A conference committee is appointed when the two chambers can not agree on the same wording of a proposal, and consists of a small number of legislators from each chamber. This tends to place much power in the hands of only a small number of legislators. Whatever legislation, if any, the conference committee finalizes must then be approved in an unamendable "take - it - or - leave - it '' manner by both chambers.
During his term as Governor of the State of Minnesota, Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesotan legislature to a single chamber with proportional representation, as a reform that he felt would solve many legislative difficulties and impinge upon legislative corruption. In his book on political issues, Do I Stand Alone?, Ventura argued that bicameral legislatures for provincial and local areas were excessive and unnecessary, and discussed unicameralism as a reform that could address many legislative and budgetary problems for states.
A 2005 report on democratic reform in the Arab world by the US Council on Foreign Relations co-sponsored by former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright urged Arab states to adopt bicameralism, with upper chambers appointed on a ' specialized basis '. The Council claimed that this would protect against the ' Tyranny of the majority ', expressing concerns that without a system of checks and balances extremists would use the single chamber parliaments to restrict the rights of minority groups.
In 2002, Bahrain adopted a bicameral system with an elected lower chamber and an appointed upper house. This led to a boycott of parliamentary elections that year by the Al Wefaq party, who said that the government would use the upper house to veto their plans. Many secular critics of bicameralism were won around to its benefits in 2005, after many MPs in the lower house voted for the introduction of so - called morality police.
A referendum on introducing a unicameral Parliament instead of the current bicameral Parliament was held in Romania on 22 November 2009. The turnout rate was 50.95 %, with 77.78 % of "Yes '' votes for a unicameral Parliament. This referendum had a consultative role, thus requiring a parliamentary initiative and another referendum to ratify the new proposed changes.
A referendum on a new constitution will be held on October 30, 2016. The constitution draft would create a bicameral Parliament instead of the current unicameral. The Senate is expected to represent the interests of territorial collectivities and Ivoirians living abroad. Two thirds of the Senate is to be elected at the same time as the general election. The remaining one third is appointed by the president elect.
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mariah carey all i want fir christmas tour | All I Want for Christmas Is You - wikipedia
"All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is a Christmas song performed by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey. She wrote and produced the song with Walter Afanasieff. Columbia Records released it on November 1, 1994, as the lead single from her fourth studio album and first holiday album, Merry Christmas. "Christmas '' is an uptempo love song that includes bell chimes and heavy back - up vocals, as well as use of synthesizers.
Two music videos were commissioned for the song: the song 's primary music video features grainy home - movie - style footage of Carey, her dogs and family during the holiday season, as well as Carey dressed in a Santa suit frolicking on a snowy mountainside. Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola makes a cameo appearance as Santa Claus, bringing Carey a gift and leaving on a red sleigh. The second video was filmed in black and white format, and features Carey dressed in 1960s style in homage to The Ronettes, alongside back up singers and female dancers. Carey has performed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in numerous live television appearances and tours throughout her career. In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You, titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) ''. Carey also re-recorded the song as a duet with Canadian singer Justin Bieber for his 2011 album Under the Mistletoe, titled "All I Want for Christmas for You (SuperFestive!) ''. The song has also been covered by many artists over the years.
In the years since its original release, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has been critically lauded; it was once called "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon '' in The New Yorker. It has become established as a Christmas standard and continues to surge in popularity each holiday season. The song was commercially successful, topping the charts in Hungary and the Netherlands while reaching number two in Australia, Japan, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and the top 10 in several other countries. The Daily Telegraph hailed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' as the most popular and most played Christmas song of the decade in the United Kingdom. Rolling Stone ranked it fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list, calling it a "holiday standard. '' In December 2015, the song peaked at 11 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it its highest peak since its original release.
With global sales of over 16 million copies, the song remains Carey 's biggest international success and the 11th best selling singles of all time. As of 2013, the song was reported to have earned $50 million in royalties.
Following the success of the singer 's 1993 career best - selling album Music Box, Carey and her management at Columbia Records began devising ideas and strategies for subsequent projects. Carey 's then - husband, Tommy Mottola, head of Columbia 's parent label Sony Music Entertainment, began mapping out possible follow ups for the singer during the pinnacle years of her career. During initial discussions regarding the thought of doing a Christmas - themed album with Carey and her writing partner of over four years, Walter Afanasieff, fear arose that it was not commercially expedient or wise to release holiday music at the peak of one 's career, as it was more often equated with a release towards the end of a musician 's waning career. Afanasieff recalled his sentiments during initial discussions for a holiday record: "Back then, you did n't have a lot of artists with Christmas albums. It was n't a known science at all back then, and there was nobody who did new, big Christmas songs. So we were going to release it as kind of an everyday, ' Hey, you know, we 're putting out a Christmas album. No big deal. ' '' Ultimately, with Mottola 's persistence and Carey 's initiative to be a "risk - taker '' as Afanasieff put it, the song and its parent album, Merry Christmas, began taking form in early - mid 1994. Recording for the album began in June, while the Carey - Afanasieff songwriting duo penned "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in late August. Often referencing herself a festive person and demonstrating a usual penchant for her love of all things Christmas, Carey began decorating the home she shared with Mottola in upstate New York (which also came equipped with a personal recording studio) with Christmas ornaments and other holiday - inspired trinkets. In doing so, Carey felt she could capture the essence and spirit of what she was singing and make her vocal performance and delivery more emotive and authentic. The songwriting pair carved out the chords, structure and melody for the song in just a quarter of an hour: "It 's definitely not ' Swan Lake, ' ' admits Afanasieff. ' But that 's why it 's so popular -- because it 's so simple and palatable! ''. At first, Afanasieff admitted that he was puzzled and "blanched '' as to where Carey wanted to take the melody and vocal scales, though she was "adamant '' in her direction for the song. In an interview with Billboard, Afanasieff described the type of relationship he and Carey shared in the studio and as songwriters for the song and in general:
It was always the same sort of system with us. We would write the nucleus of the song, the melody primary music, and then some of the words were there as we finished writing it. I started playing some rock ' n ' roll piano and started boogie woogie - ing my left hand, and that inspired Mariah to come up with the melodic (Sings.) ' I do n't want a lot for Christmas. ' And then we started singing and playing around with this rock ' n ' roll boogie song, which immediately came out to be the nucleus of what would end up being ' All I Want For Christmas Is You. ' That one went very quickly: It was an easier song to write than some of the other ones. It was very formulaic, not a lot of chord changes. I tried to make it a little more unique, putting in some special chords that you really do n't hear a lot of, which made it unique and special.
Then for the next week or two Mariah would call me and say, ' What do you think about this bit? ' We would talk a little bit until she got the lyrics all nicely coordinated and done. And then we just waited until the sessions began, which were in the summer of ' 94 where we got together in New York and started recording. And that 's when we first hear her at the microphone singing, and the rest is history.
Afanasieff flew back to California where he finished the song 's programming and production. Originally, he had a live band play the drums and other instruments with the thought of giving it a more raw and affective sound. He was unhappy with the results of the recording and subsequently scrapped the effort and used his original, personal arrangement and programmed all the instruments heard on the song (with the exception of the background vocals) including the piano, effects, drums and triangle. While Carey continued writing material in her rented home in The Hamptons, Afanasieff completed the song 's programming and awaited to rendezvous with her a final time in order to layer and harmonize the background vocals. In touching on several aspects of what excited her to record and release a Christmas album, Carey went into detail on what writing and recording the song and album meant for her: "I 'm a very festive person and I love the holidays. I 've sung Christmas songs since I was a little girl. I used to go Christmas caroling. When it came to the album, we had to have a nice balance between standard Christian hymns and fun songs. It was definitely a priority for me to write at least a few new songs, but for the most part people really want to hear the standards at Christmas time, no matter how good a new song is. ''
"All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is an uptempo song, composed with pop, soul, R&B, gospel, dance - pop and rhythmic adult contemporary influences and stylings. By early August, Carey already had two original songs written alongside Afanasieff; the "sad and balld - y '' "Miss You Most (At Christmas Time) '' and the "Gospel - tinged and religious '' "Jesus Born on This Day ''. The third and final original song the pair planned to write was to be centered and inspired and in the vein of a "Phil Spector, old rock ' n roll, sixties - sounding Christmas song ''. Critics have noted the song 's 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s influences which, in conjunction with Carey 's voice and its simple melody, heralded its recipe for success. In discussing the song 's chord progression and stylistic approaches, Slate 's Adam Ragusea hailed the song as "the only Christmas song written in the last half - century worthy of inclusion in the Great American Songbook. '' The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski attributes the song 's enduring appeal to its ambiguity in being able to pin it down as belonging to a specific era. The song begins with a "sparking '' bit of percussion "that resembles an antique music box or a whimsical snow globe. '' After Carey 's a cappella style vocal introduction, the song introduces other seasonal percussive signifiers including; celebratory church - like bells, cheerful sleigh bells, and "an underlying rhythmic beat that sounds like the loping pace of a horse or reindeer. These sounds echo religious and secular musical touchstones, without veering blatantly too much in either direction, and give the song an upbeat, joyous tone. '' In an interview in 1994, Carey described the song as "fun '', and continued: "It 's very traditional, old - fashioned Christmas. It 's very retro, kind of ' 60s. '' Afanasieff went further in breaking down the song 's musical elements: "A lush bed of keyboards, reminiscent of a small - scale Wall of Sound, cushions the song 's cheery rhythms, while a soulful vocal chorus adds robust oohs, tension - creating counter-melodies, and festive harmonies. Most notably, however, the song 's jaunty piano chords and melody keep the song merrily bouncing along. '' Critics noted the song a tad reminiscent of the works of Judy Garland and Nat King Cole, while also describing it as hearkening back to "' 60s and ' 70s Motown covers of prewar Christmas classics, such as The Jackson 5 's (and) Stevie Wonder ''. Slate 's Ragusea conceded that "All I Want For Christmas Is You '' "sounds like it could have been written in the ' 40s and locked in a Brill Building safe. ''
Lyrically, the song focuses on the yearning desire to be with a loved one for Christmas, regardless of whether they have to forgo the usual commercial aspect of the holiday season such as ornamental lights, trees, snow and presents. The song incorporates various instruments, including piano, drums, violin, oboe, flute, bell chimes, bass effect, and cowbells. The song layers background vocals throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is set in common time and in the key of G major. Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G to the high note of G. Carey wrote the song 's lyrics and melody, while Afanasieff arranged and produced the piece with synthetically created computerized equipment. Slate 's Ragusea counts "at least 13 distinct chords at work, resulting in a sumptuously chromatic melody. The song also includes what I consider the most Christmassy chord of all -- a minor subdominant, or ' iv, ' chord with an added 6, under the words ' underneath the Christmas tree, ' among other places. (You might also analyze it as a half - diminished ' ii ' 7th chord, but either interpretation seems accurate). '' According to Roch Parisien from AllMusic, the song contains "The Beach Boys - style harmonies, jangling bells, and a sleigh - ride pace, injecting one of the few bits of exuberant fun in this otherwise vanilla set. '' In a piece on the song in Vogue, a writer felt the song 's lyrics helped solidify its status over two decades later: "those lyrics could have been sung by Frank Sinatra -- well, maybe not Frank, but another singer back then. I think that 's what gives it that timeless, classic quality. ''
"All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was lauded by music critics. Parisien called the song "a year - long banger '', complimenting its instrumentation and melody. Steve Morse, editor of The Boston Globe, wrote that Carey sang with a lot of soul. According to Barry Schwartz from Stylus Magazine, "to say this song is an instant classic somehow does n't capture its amazingicity; it 's a modern standard: joyous, exhilarating, loud, with even a hint of longing. '' Schwartz praised the song 's lyrics as well, describing them as "beautifully phrased, '' and calling Carey 's voice "gorgeous '' and "sincere. '' Kyle Anderson from MTV labeled the track "a majestic anthem full of chimes, sleigh bells, doo - wop flourishes, sweeping strings and one of the most dynamic and clean vocal performances of Carey 's career ''. While reviewing the 2009 remix version, Becky Bain from Idolator called the song a "timeless classic '' and wrote, "We love the original song to pieces -- we blast it while decorating our Christmas tree and lighting our Menorah. '' In his review for Carey 's Merry Christmas II You, Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times called the song "a simple, well - crafted chestnut and one of the last great additions to the Christmas pop canon ''. Shona Craven of Scotland 's The Herald, said, "(it 's) a song of optimism and joy that maybe, just maybe, hints at the real meaning of Christmas. '' Additionally, she felt the main reason it was so successful is the subject "you '' in the lyrics, explaining, "Perhaps what makes the song such a huge hit is the fact that it 's for absolutely everyone. '' Craven opened her review with a bold statement: "Bing Crosby may well be turning in his grave, but no child of the 1980s will be surprised to see Mariah Carey 's sublime All I Want For Christmas Is You bounding up the charts after being named the nation 's top festive song. '' In a 2006 retrospective look at Carey 's career, Sasha Frere - Jones of The New Yorker said, the "charming '' song was one of Carey 's biggest accomplishments, calling it "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon ''. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, quoted and agreed with Jones ' statement, calling the song "perfection ''. In 2010, Rolling Stone ranked "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list, calling it a "holiday standard. ''
In the United Kingdom, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 5 during the week of December 10, 1994. The following week, the song peaked at No. 2, staying there for the final three weeks of December (held out of the coveted "Christmas No. 1 '' honor by East 17 's "Stay Another Day ''). As of January 27, 2017, it had spent seventy - eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart.It is also the only song to peak in the top 5 in the 1990s, 2000s and 2010s, peaking at number 4 in 2007 and number 5 in 2016. As of December 19, 2013, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has sold one million copies in the UK. On December 11, 2015, it was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipment of 1.2 million units (including streams) and remains Carey 's best - selling single in the UK. In 2010, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was named the No. 1 holiday song of the decade in the United Kingdom. The song peaked at No. 2 on the Australian Singles Chart and was certified triple - platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 210,000 units. In Denmark, it peaked at No. 4, staying in the chart for sixteen weeks and being certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' became Carey 's best - selling single in Japan. It was used as the theme song to the popular drama 29 - sai no Christmas (29 才 の クリスマス, lit. "Christmas in 29 Years, 29th Christmas ''), and was titled Koibito - tachi no Christmas (恋人 たち の クリスマス, lit. "Lovers ' Christmas ''). It sold in excess of 1.1 million units in Japan. Due to strong sales and airplay, the song re-charted in Japan in 2010, peaking at No. 6 on the Japan Hot 100. The single has been certified the Million award by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) on two different formats (compact disc and ringtone), in 1994 and 2008, respectively.
In the United States, in the first week of January 1995, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary and at No. 12 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. The song placed on these two charts again in December 1995 and in December 1996. The song was ineligible for inclusion on the Billboard Hot 100 during its original release, because it was not released commercially as a single. This rule lapsed in 1998, however, allowing the song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 (peaking at No. 83 in January 2000). The song topped the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart in December 2005, but it was unable to attain a new peak on the Billboard Hot 100 chart because it was considered a recurrent single and was thus ineligible for chart re-entry. Every December from 2005 to 2008, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Re-currents chart. In 2012, after the recurrent rule was revised to allow all songs in the top 50 onto the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the single re-entered the chart at No. 29 and eventually attained a new peak of No. 21 on the week ending January 5, 2013, however dropping out the following week. In December 2013, the song re-entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 26. It has become the best - selling holiday ringtone, and it is the first holiday ringtone to be certified double - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Additionally, of songs recorded before the year 2000, it is the nineteenth best - selling digital single and the best - selling digital single by a woman, and is also the overall best - selling holiday digital single. In December 2015, the song peaked at 11 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it its highest peak since its original release. As of November 2016, Nielsen SoundScan estimated total sales of the digital track at 3,200,000 downloads.
When the song was first released as a single in 1994, no remixes were commissioned except for the instrumental version; however, this version was not released on the single that year. Carey re-released the song commercially in Japan in 2000, with a new remix known as the So So Def remix. The remix contains new vocals and is played over a harder, more urban beat that contains a sample of Afrika Bambaataa & the Soulsonic Force 's "Planet Rock; '' it features guest vocals by Jermaine Dupri and Bow Wow. The remix appears on Carey 's compilation album Greatest Hits (2001) as a bonus track. In 2009, a remix produced by Carey and Low Sunday, called "Mariah 's New Dance Mix '', was released. The mix laid the original 1994 vocals over new electronic instrumentation. The remix garnered a positive response. MTV 's Kyle Anderson wrote that "it 's difficult to improve perfection, '' but that the remix "does dress up the song in a disco thump that should make your office Christmas party 28 percent funkier than it was last year. '' Idolator 's Becky Bain praised the song 's catchiness.
In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her thirteenth studio and second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You. Titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) '', the new version featured re-recorded vocals, softer bell ringing and stronger drumming, and an orchestral introduction that replaced the slow vocal introduction. Steven J. Horowitz from Rap - Up wrote that the new version "sound (ed) just as enjoyable as it did in 1994. '' While the song was praised, it drew criticism for being too similar to the original. Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times wrote that the new version "just seems to add a few brassy backup singers to the exact same arrangement. '' Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone agreed, writing that it was "hard to figure out what 's ' extra festive ' '' about the new version. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, also felt the new version was unnecessary. In 2011, Justin Bieber also recorded a version of the song as a duet with Carey on his holiday album, Under the Mistletoe.
Carey has performed the song during concerts as well as live televised performances. It was part of the set - list during the Japanese shows of Carey 's Daydream World Tour (1996), Butterfly World Tour (1998), Charmbracelet World Tour (2002 -- 03), and The Adventures of Mimi Tour (2006). Additionally, Carey performed the song at the 2004 Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade, which aired on ABC. Carey sang the So So Def remix version at the opening night of her Angels Advocate Tour on New Year 's Eve. On November 9, 2010, Carey taped a live Christmas Special featuring the song, which aired on December 13, 2010 on ABC. Additionally, Carey performed the song alongside "Oh Santa! '' airing on ESPN and ABC throughout the day on Christmas Day of 2010. On December 3, she performed both songs at the Walt Disney World Resort theme park, Magic Kingdom, in a performance that was taped and aired part of the Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade on ABC. She performed them again in a music video promoting the day 's NBA games that aired on both networks. Carey also included the track as the encore to her sold out, first annual Christmas concert series at the Beacon Theater in New York City. The show was entitled All I Want For Christmas Is You, A Night of Joy & Festivity. During The Late Late Show with James Corden on December 15, 2016, Mariah Carey sung this song on the popular feature Carpool Karaoke. Other singers Adele, Lady Gaga, Demi Lovato, Nick Jonas, Elton John, Selena Gomez, Gwen Stefani, Chris Martin, and the Red Hot Chili Peppers were featured in video. It has quickly gone viral, achieving over 2 million views in less than 24 hours, and 25 million views in less than three weeks.
There are three music videos for "All I Want for Christmas Is You ''. The first, primary video was shot in the style of a home movie using Super-8mm film; it was directed and filmed by Carey during the Christmas season of 1993. The video begins with Carey placing holiday ornaments on a Christmas tree and frolicking through the snowy mountainside. Outdoor scenes were shot at the Fairy Tale Forest in New Jersey, where Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola made a cameo appearance as Santa Claus. It continues with scenes of Carey getting ready for her album cover photo shoot and spending time with her dog Jack. It concludes with Santa Claus leaving Carey with a bag of presents and waving goodbye. It has more than 301 million views on YouTube as of November 1, 2017. In the song 's alternate video, inspired by The Ronettes, Carey dances in a 1960s - influenced studio surrounded by go -- go dancers. For a 1960s look, the video was filmed in black and white, with Carey in white boots and teased up hair. This video was also directed by Carey. There are two edits to this version of the video.
Another video was created for the So So Def remix, but it does not feature Carey or the hip - hop musicians that perform in the song. Instead, the video is animated and based on a scene in the video from Carey 's "Heartbreaker '' (1999). It features cartoon cameo appearances by Carey, Jermaine Dupri, Bow Wow, Luis Miguel (Carey 's boyfriend at the time), Carey 's dog Jack, and Santa Claus. Kris Kringle is credited with directing the music video. Since 2009, the song has been included in a music video accompanying ESPN 's (and their sister station, ABC) Christmas Day coverage of the NBA. The music video for the duet featuring Bieber was filmed in Macy 's department store in New York City, and features Bieber shopping with his friends whilst Carey is seen singing in the background.
Carey released a children 's book based on "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' on November 10, 2015.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Works cited
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when do you put a before a name in spanish | Spanish naming customs - wikipedia
Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a person 's name consists of a given name (simple or composite) followed by two family names (surnames). The first surname is usually the father 's first surname, and the second the mother 's first surname. In recent years, the order of the surnames can be decided at birth. Often, the practice is to use one given name and the first surname only (e.g. Miguel de Unamuno), with the full name being used in legal, formal, and documentary matters, or for disambiguation when the first surname is very common (e.g. Federico García Lorca, Gabriel García Márquez).
Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name (nombre) and two surnames (apellidos).
A composite given name comprises two (or more) single names; for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename.
The two surnames refer to each of the parental families. Traditionally, a person 's first surname is the father 's first surname (apellido paterno), and the second one is the mother 's first surname (apellido materno). For example, if a man named Eduardo Fernández Garrido marries a woman named María Dolores Martínez Ruiz and they have a child named José, there are several legal options, but their child would most usually be known as José Fernández Martínez.
However, gender equality law has allowed surname transposition since 1999, subject to the condition that every sibling must bear the same surname order recorded in the Registro Civil (civil registry), but there have been legal exceptions. From 2013, if the parents of a child were unable to agree on order of surnames, an official would decide which is to come first, with the default being the paternal name. Since June 2017, the paternal name in first order stopped being the default, and parents are required to sign an agreement where the name order is expressed explicitly. The law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. The law applies only to Spanish citizens; people of other nationalities get the surname indicated by the law in their original country.
Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the conjunction y or e (and), by the preposition de (of) or by a hyphen. For example, a person 's name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García - Iglesias, consisting of a forename (Juan Pablo), a paternal surname (Fernández de Calderón) and a maternal surname (García - Iglesias).
There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, to correctly analyse it. For example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under "Arbó '', assuming that Sebastià and Juan were both given names. However, "Juan '' was actually his first surname. To resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names ("Juan '' is rarely a surname), one must consult the person involved, or legal documents.
A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be informally addressed as (1) José Antonio, (2) José, (3) Pepe (nickname for José), (4) Antonio (Anthony), or (5) Toño (nickname for Antonio) (6) "Jose '' (plain word), (7) "Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín '' (Diminutives of José), (8) "Antoñito, Tonín or Nono '' (Diminutives of Antonio), (9) "Joseán '' (Apocopation). Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José.
Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García.
It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for a person to be referred to casually by his or her second surname. For example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (elected Prime Minister of Spain in the 2004 and 2008 general elections) is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mother 's family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, and with the painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso. As these people 's paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names (Rubalcaba, Lorca, Picasso).
It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as "Zapatero '', or Federico García Lorca under L as "Lorca ''.
In an English - speaking environment, Spanish - named people sometimes hyphenate their surnames to avoid Anglophone confusion or to fill in forms with only one space provided for last name, thus: Mr. José Antonio Gómez - Iglesias. A practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words.
Parents choose their child 's given name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil (Civil Registry) to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name; common sources of names are the parents ' taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina (nominal register), and traditional Spanish names. Legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian (Jesus, Mary, saints) and typical Spanish names (Álvaro, Jimena, etc.). Although the first part of a composite forename generally reflects the gender of the child, the second personal name need not (e.g. José María Aznar). At present, the only naming limitation is the dignity of the child, who can not be given an insulting name. Similar limitations applied against diminutive, familiar, and colloquial variants not recognized as names proper, and "those that lead to confusion regarding sex ''; however, current law allows registration of diminutive names.
Girls are often named María, honouring the Virgin Mary, by appending either a shrine, place, or religious - concept suffix - name to María. In daily life, such women omit the "Mary of the... '' nominal prefix, and use the suffix portion of their composite names as their public, rather than legal, identity. Hence, women with Marian names such as María de los Ángeles (Mary of the Angels), María del Pilar (Mary of the Pillar), and María de la Luz (Mary of the Light), are normally addressed as Ángeles (Angels), Pilar (Pillar), and Luz (Light); however, each might be addressed as María, also Maria Auxiliadora, (Our Lady of Perpetual Help). Also, parents can simply name a girl "María '', or "Mari ''. Nicknames such as Maricarmen for María del Carmen, Marisol for "María (de la) Soledad '' ("Our Lady of Solitude '', the Virgin Mary), Dolores or Lola for María de los Dolores ("Our Lady of Sorrows ''), Mercedes or Merche for María de las Mercedes ("Our Lady of Mercy ''), etc. are often used.
It is not unusual for a boy 's formal name to include María, preceded by a masculine name, e.g. José María Aznar (Joseph Mary Aznar) or Juan María Vicencio de Ripperdá (John Mary Vicencio de Ripperdá). Equivalently, a girl can be formally named María José (Mary Joseph), e.g. skier María José Rienda, and informally named Marijose, Mariajo, Majo, Ajo, Josefa, Josefina, Fina, Pepa, Pepi, Chepi, Pepita, Marisé or even José in honor of St. Joseph. María as a masculine name is often abbreviated in writing as M. (José M. Aznar), Ma. (José Ma. Aznar), or M. a (José M. a Morelos). It is unusual for any names other than the religiously significant María and José to be used in this way except for the name Jesús that is also very common and can be used as "Jesús '' or "Jesús Maria '' for a boy and "Maria Jesús '' for a girl, and can be abbreviated and "Sus '', "Chus '' and other.
The Registro Civil (Civil Registry) officially records a child 's identity as composed of a forename (simple or composite) and the two surnames; however, a child can be religiously baptized with several forenames, e.g. Felipe Juan Froilán de Todos los Santos. Until the 1960s, it was customary to baptize children with three forenames: the first was the main and the only one used by the child; if parents agreed, one of the other two was the name of the day 's saint. Nowadays, baptizing with three or more forenames is usually a royal and noble family practice.
In Spain, upon marrying, one does not change their surname. In some instances, such as high society meetings, the partner 's surname can be added after the person 's surnames using the preposition de. One Leocadia Blanco Álvarez, married to a Pedro Pérez Montilla, may be addressed as Leocadia Blanco de Pérez or as Leocadia Blanco Álvarez de Pérez. This format is not used in everyday settings and has no legal value.
In chapter V, part 2 of Don Quixote (1605, 1615), Teresa Panza reminds her husband Sancho that, properly, she should be addressed as Teresa Cascajo, by her surname, not her marital surname: "Teresa I was named in baptism, a clean and short name, without additions or embellishments, or dons and doñas; ' Cascajo ' was my father; and people call me, as your wife, ' Teresa Panza ', though by right I ought to be called Teresa Cascajo... ''
In the generational transmission of surnames, the paternal surname 's precedence eventually eliminates the maternal surnames from the family lineage. Contemporary law allows the maternal surname to be given precedence, but most people observe the traditional paternal -- maternal surname order. So the daughter and son of Ángela López Sáenz and Tomás Portillo Blanco are usually called Laura Portillo López and Pedro Portillo López, but also could be called Laura López Portillo and Pedro López Portillo. The two surnames of all of a couple 's children must be in the same order when recorded in the Registro Civil.
Patrilineal surname transmission was not always the norm in Spanish - speaking societies. Prior to the mid-eighteenth century, when the current paternal - maternal surname combination norm was adopted, Hispanophone societies often practised matrilineal surname transmission, giving children the maternal surname, and, occasionally, giving children a grandparent 's surname (borne by neither parent) for prestige -- being perceived as gentry -- and profit, flattering the matriarch or the patriarch in hope of inheriting land. The Spanish naming customs include the orthographic option of conjoining the surnames with the conjunction particle y, or e before a name starting with ' I ', ' Hi ' or ' Y ', (both meaning "and '') e.g. José Ortega y Gasset, or Tomás Portillo y Blanco, or Eduardo Dato e Iradier, following an antiquated aristocratic usage.
Not every surname is a single word; such conjoining usage is common with doubled surnames (maternal - paternal), ancestral composite surnames bequeathed to the following generations -- especially when the paternal surname is socially undistinguished. José María Álvarez del Manzano y López del Hierro is an example, his name comprising the composite single name José María, and two composite surnames Álvarez del Manzano and López del Hierro. Other examples derive from church place - names such as San José. When a person bears doubled surnames, the means of disambiguation is to insert y between the paternal and maternal surnames.
In case of illegitimacy -- when the child 's father either is unknown or refuses to recognise his son or daughter legally -- the child bears both of the mother 's surnames, which may be interchanged.
Occasionally, a person with a common paternal surname and an uncommon maternal surname becomes widely known by the maternal surname. The artist Pablo Ruiz Picasso, the poet Federico García Lorca, and the politician José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero are examples. With similar effect, the foreign paternal surname of the Uruguayan writer Eduardo Hughes Galeano (his father was British) is usually omitted. (As a boy, however, he occasionally signed his name as Eduardo Gius, using a Hispanicised approximation of the English pronunciation of "Hughes ''.) Such use of the second last name by itself is colloquial, however, and may not be applied in legal contexts.
Also rarely, a person may become widely known by both surnames, with an example being tennis player Arantxa Sánchez Vicario -- whereas her older brothers Emilio and Javier, also professional tennis players, are mainly known only by the paternal surname of Sánchez in everyday life, although they also would formally be addressed as Sánchez Vicario.
Where Basque and Romance cultures have linguistically long coexisted, the surnames denote the father 's name and the (family) house or town / village. Thus the Romance patronymic and the place - name are conjoined with the prepositional particle de ("from '' + "provenance ''). For example, in the name José Ignacio López de Arriortúa, the composite surname López de Arriortúa is a single surname, despite Arriortúa being the original family - name. This can lead to confusion, because the Spanish López and the Basque Arriortúa are discrete surnames in Spanish and Basque respectively. This pattern was also in use in other Basque districts, but was phased out in most of the Basque - speaking areas and only remained in place across lands of heavy Romance influence, i.e. some central areas of Navarre and most of Álava. To a lesser extent, this pattern has been also present in Castile, where Basque - Castilian bilingualism was common in northern and eastern areas up to the 13th century.
In Spanish, the preposition particle de ("of '') is used as a conjunction in two surname spelling styles, and to disambiguate a surname. The first style is in patronymic and toponymic spelling formulæ, e.g. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Pedro López de Ayala, and Vasco Núñez de Balboa, as in many conquistador names.
The spellings of surnames containing the prepositional particle de are written in lower - case when they follow the name, thus José Manuel de la Rúa ("of the street '') and Cunegunda de la Torre ("of the tower ''), otherwise the upper - case spellings doctor De la Rúa and señora De la Torre are used.
Bearing the de particle does not necessarily denote a noble family, especially in Castile and Alava, the de usually applied to the place - name (town or village) from which the person and his or her ancestors originated; however, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the usage of de spread as a way of denoting the bearer 's noble heritage to avoid the misperception that he or she is either a Jew or a Moor. In that time, many people, regardless of their true origins, used the particle, e.g. Miguel de Cervantes, Lope de Vega, etc.; moreover, following that fashion a high noble such as Francisco Sandoval Rojas called himself Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas. During the eighteenth century, the Spanish nobility fully embraced the French custom of using de as a nobility identifier, however, commoners also bore the de particle, which made the de usages unclear; thus, nobility was emphasised with the surname 's lineage.
In the sixteenth century, the Spanish adopted the copulative conjunction y ("and '') to distinguish a person 's surnames; thus the Andalusian Baroque writer Luis de Góngora y Argote (1561 -- 1627), the Aragonese painter Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (1746 -- 1828), the Andalusian artist Pablo Diego Ruiz y Picasso (1881 -- 1973), and the Madrilenian liberal philosopher José Ortega y Gasset (1883 -- 1955). In Hispanic America, this spelling convention was common to clergymen (e.g. Salvadoran Bishop Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez), and sanctioned by the Ley de Registro Civil (Civil Registry Law) of 1870, requiring birth certificates indicating the paternal and maternal surnames conjoined with y -- thus, Felipe González y Márquez and José María Aznar y López are the respective true names of the Spanish politicians Felipe González Márquez and José María Aznar López; however, unlike in Catalan, the Spanish usage is infrequent. In the Philippines, y and its associated usages are retained only in formal state documents such as police records, but is otherwise dropped in favour of a more American - influenced naming order.
The conjunction y avoids denominational confusion when the paternal surname might appear to be a (first) name; hence the physiologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal might appear to be named Santiago Ramón (composite) and surnamed Cajal, likewise the jurist Francisco Tomás y Valiente, and the cleric Vicente Enrique y Tarancón. Without the conjunction, the footballer Rafael Martín Vázquez, when referred to by his surnames Martín Vázquez mistakenly appears to be forenamed Martín rather than Rafael, whilst, to his annoyance, the linguist Fernando Lázaro Carreter occasionally was addressed as Don Lázaro, rather than as Don Fernando (Lázaro can be either forename or surname).
Moreover, when the maternal surname begins with an i vowel sound, written with either the vowel I (Ibarra), the vowel Y (Ybarra archaic spelling) or the combination Hi + consonant (Higueras), Spanish euphony substitutes e in place of y, thus the example of the Spanish statesman Eduardo Dato e Iradier (1856 -- 1921).
To communicate a person 's social identity, Spanish naming customs provide orthographic means, such as suffix - letter abbreviations, surname spellings, and place names, which denote and connote the person 's place in society.
h. (son of): A man named like his father, might append the lower - case suffix h. (denoting hijo, son) to his surname, thus distinguishing himself, Juan Gómez Marcos, h., from his father, Juan Gómez Marcos; the English analogue is "Jr. '' (son).
-- ez: Spanish surnames ending in - ez originated as patronymics denoting "the son of '' -- Fernández (son of Fernando), González (son of Gonzalo) -- yet not every such surname is patronymic, because in many Spanish dialects the Spanish - language letters z and s are pronounced alike, leading to the same word being spelt with either "s '' or "z ''. In Hispano - American Spanish, the - ez spellings of Chávez (Hugo Chávez), Cortez (Alberto Cortez) and Valdez (Nelson Valdez) are not patronymic surnames, because they are variant spellings of the Iberian Spanish spelling with - es, as in the names of Manuel Chaves, Hernán Cortés and Víctor Valdés. For more on the - z surnames in Spanish see Influences on the Spanish language.
Anonymous foundlings were a naming problem for civil registrars, but such anonymous children were often named toponymically, after the town where they were found. Because most foundlings were reared in church orphanages, they were often given the surnames Iglesia or Iglesias (church (es)) and Cruz (cross). Blanco (connoting "blank '' here, rather than the more usual "white '') was another option. A toponymical first surname might be followed as second surname by Iglesia or Cruz.
Foundlings often were surnamed Expósito / Expósita (Lat. exposĭtus, "exposed '', connoting "foundling ''), which marked them, and their descendants, as of low caste and social class, people without social pedigree. In the Catalan language the surname Deulofeu ("made by God '') was often given to foundlings. In 1921 Spanish law allowed the surname Expósito to be changed without charge.
In Aragón, anonymous children used to receive as well the family surname Gracia ("grace '') or de Gracia, because they were thought to survive by the grace of God.
In Spain, legal and illegal foreign immigrants retain use of their cultural naming customs, yet upon becoming Spanish citizens, they are legally obliged to assume Spanish - style names (a name and two surnames). If the naturalised person is from a one - surname culture, the actual surname is duplicated; therefore, the English name "George Albert Duran '' becomes the Spanish name "George Albert Duran Duran '', yet the law optionally allows him to adopt his mother 's maiden name (her surname), as his maternal (second) surname. Formally, Spanish naming customs conflate his name "George '' and his middle - name "Albert '' to the composite name "George Albert '', and his sole surname, "Duran '', is duplicated as his paternal and maternal surnames. The repetition of the mother 's surname was also adopted in Chile to give the children of single mothers a double surname to avoid discrimination in school.
Historically, flamenco artists seldom used their proper names. According to the flamenco guitarist Juan Serrano, this was because flamenco was considered disreputable and they did not want to embarrass their families:
We have to start with the history of the gypsies in Spain. They gained a bad reputation because of the minor crimes they had to commit to survive. They did not have any kind of jobs, they had to do something to live, and of course this created hostility. And Flamenco was the music of the Gypsies, so many high society people did not accept it -- they said Flamenco was in the hands of criminals, bandits, et cetera. And the girls, that maybe liked dancing or singing, their parents said, "Oh no, you want to be a prostitute! ''.
This tradition has persisted to the present day, even though Flamenco is now legitimate. Sometimes the artistic name consists of the home town appended to the first name (Manolo Sanlúcar, Ramón de Algeciras); but many, perhaps most, of such names are more eccentric: Pepe de la Matrona (because his mother was a midwife); Perico del Lunar (because he had a mole); Tomatito (son of a father known as Tomate (tomato) because of his red face); Sabicas (because of his childhood passion for green beans, from niño de las habicas); Paco de Lucía, born Francisco ("Paco '') Gustavo Sánchez Gomes, was known from infancy after his Portuguese mother, Lucía Gomes (de Lucía = (son) of Lucía). And many more.
Many Spanish names can be shortened into hypocoristic, affectionate "child - talk '' forms using a diminutive suffix, especially - ito and - cito (masculine) and - ita and - cita (feminine). Sometimes longer than the person 's name, a nickname is usually derived via linguistic rules. However, in contrast to English use, hypocoristic names in Spanish are only used to address a person in a very familiar environment -- the only exception being when the hypocoristic is an artistic name (e.g. Nacho Duato born Juan Ignacio Duato). The common English practice of using a nickname in the press or media, or even on business cards (such as Bill Gates instead of William Gates,) is not accepted in Spanish, being considered excessively colloquial. The usages vary by country and region; these are some usual names and their nicknames:
The official recognition of Spain 's other written languages -- Catalan, Basque, and Galician -- legally allowed the autonomous communities to re-establish their vernacular social identity, including the legal use of personal names in the local languages and written traditions -- banned since 1938 -- sometimes via the re-spelling of names from Castilian Spanish to their original languages.
The Basque - speaking territories (the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre) usually follow Spanish naming customs (given names + two family names, the two family names being usually the father 's and the mother 's).
The given names are officially in one language (Basque or Spanish) but often people use a translated or shortened version. A bilingual Basque - Spanish speaker will not necessarily bear a Basque name, and a monolingual Spanish speaker can use a Basque name or a Basque hypocoristic of an official Spanish name; e.g. a Francisco (official Spanish name) may be known as Patxi (Basque hypocoristic).
Some Basque - language names and surnames are foreign transliterations into the Basque tongue, e.g. Ander (English: "Andrew ''; Spanish: Andrés), Mikel (English: "Michael ''; Spanish: Miguel), or Ane (English: "Anne ''; Spanish: Ana). In some cases, the name 's original - language denotation is translated to Basque, i.e. Zutoia and Zedarri denote the Spanish Pilar (English: "Pillar ''). Moreover, some originally Basque names, such as Xabier and Eneko (English "Xavier '' and "Inigo '') have been transliterated into Spanish (Javier and Íñigo).
Recently, Basque names without a direct equivalent in other languages have become popular, e.g. Aitor (a legendary patriarch), Hodei ("cloud ''), Iker ("to investigate ''), and Amaia ("the end ''). Some Basque names without a direct Spanish meaning, are unique to the Basque language, for instance, Eneko, Garikoitz, Urtzi. Basque names, rather than Spanish names, are preponderant in the Basque Country, countering the Spanish - name imposition of the Franco régime requiring people being given only Spanish names at birth. After Franco 's death and the restoration of democracy in Spain, many Basque adults changed their Spanish names to the Basque equivalent, e.g. from Miguel to Mikel.
A source for modern Basque names is Sabino Arana 's Deun - Ixendegi Euzkotarra ("Basque saint - name collection '', published in 1910). Instead of the traditional Basque adaptations of Romance names, he proposed others he made up and that in his opinion were truer to the originals and adapted better to the Basque phonology. For example, his brother Luis became Koldobika, from Frankish Hlodwig. The traditionals Peru (from Spanish "Pedro ''), Pello or Piarres (from French "Pierre ''), all meaning "Peter '', became Kepa from Aramaic כיפא (Kepha). He believed that the suffix - (n) e was inherently feminine, and new names like Nekane ("pain '' + ne, "Dolores '') or Garbiñe ("clean '' + ne, "Immaculate (Conception) '') are frequent among Basque females.
Basque surnames usually denote the patronymic house of the bearer; e.g. Etxebarria -- "new house '', from etxe (house) + barri (new), denotes "related to a so - named farmhouse ''; in the same way, Garaikoetxea -- "house in the heights '', garai ("height '') + etxe ("house ''). Sometimes, surnames denote not the house itself but a characteristic of the place, e.g. Saratxaga -- "willow - place '', from saratze ("willow '') + - aga ("place of ''); Loyola, from loi ("mud '') + ola ("iron smithery ''); Arriortua -- "stone orchard '', from harri ("stone '') + ortua ("orchard ''). Before the 20th century all Basque men were considered nobles (indeed, some Basque surnames, e.g. Irujo or Medoza, were related to some of the oldest Spanish noble families), and many of them used their status to emigrate with privileges to other regions of the Spanish Empire, especially the Americas, due to which some Basque surnames became common to the Spanish - American world; e.g. Mendoza -- "cold mountain '', from mendi ("mountain '' + hotza ("cold ''); Salazar -- "Old hall '', from sala ("hall '') + zahar ("old ''). Until 1978, Spanish was the single official language of the Spanish civil registries and Basque surnames had to be registered according to the Spanish phonetical rules (for example, the Spanish "ch '' sound merges the Basque "ts '', "tx '', and "tz '', and someone whose surname in Standard Basque would be "Krutxaga '' would have to write it as "Cruchaga '', letter "k '' also not being used in Spanish). Although the democratic restoration ended this policy, allowing surnames to be officially changed into their Basque phonology, there still are many people who hold Spanish - written Basque surnames, even in the same family: a father born before 1978 would be surnamed "Echepare '' and his children, "Etxepare ''. This policy even changed the usual pronunciation of some Basque surnames. For instance, in Basque, the letter "z '' maintained a sibilant "s '' - like sound, while Spanish changed it; thus, a surname such as "Zabala '' should be properly read similar to "sabala '' (Basque pronunciation: (s̻abala)), although in Spanish, because the "z '' denotes a "th '' sound ((θ)), it would be read as "Tha - bala '' (Spanish pronunciation: (θaˈβala)). However, since the letter "z '' exists in Spanish, the registries did not force the Zabalas to transliterate their surname.
In the Basque provinces of Biscay and Gipuzkoa, it was uncommon to take a surname from the place (town or village) where one resided, unless one was a foundling; in general, people bearing surnames such as Bilbao (after the Basque city of Bilbao) are descendants of foundlings. However, in the Basque province of Alava and, to a lesser extent, in Navarre, it was common to add one 's birth village to the surname using the Spanish particle de to denote a toponymic, particularly when the surname was a common one; for instance, someone whose surname was Lopez and whose family was originally from the valley of Ayala could employ Lopez de Ayala as a surname. This latter practice is also common in Castile.
Basque compound surnames are relatively common, and were created with two discrete surnames, e.g. Elorduizapaterietxe -- Elordui + Zapaterietxe, a practice denoting family allegiances or the equal importance of both families. This custom sometimes conduced to incredibly long surnames, for compound surnames could be used to create others; for example, the longest surname recorded in Spain is Basque, Burionagonatotoricagageazcoechea, formed by Buriona+ Gonatar + Totorika + Beazcoetxea.
Finally, the nationalist leader Sabino Arana pioneered a naming custom of transposing the name - surname order to what he thought was the proper Basque language syntax order; e.g. the woman named Miren Zabala would be referred to as Zabalatar Miren -- the surname first, plus the - tar suffix denoting "from a place '', and then the name. Thus, Zabalatar Miren means "Miren, of the Zabala family ''. The change in the order is effected because in the Basque tongue, declined words (such as Zabalatar) that apply to a noun are uttered before the noun itself; another example of this would be his pen name, Arana ta Goiritar Sabin. This Basque naming custom was used in nationalist literature, not in formal, official documents wherein the Castilian naming convention is observed.
The Catalan - speaking territories also abide by the Spanish naming customs, yet usually the discrete surnames are joined with the word i ("and ''), instead of the Spanish y, and this practice is very common in formal contexts. For example, the current president of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia) is formally called El Molt Honorable Senyor Carles Puigdemont i Casamajó. Furthermore, the national language policy enumerated in article 19.1 of Law 1 / 1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames ''.
The correction, translation, and surname - change are regulated by the Registro Civil (Civil Registry) with the Decree 138 / 2007 of 26 June, modifying the Decree 208 / 1998 of 30 July, which regulates the accreditation of the linguistic correctness of names. The attributes and functions of Decree 138 / 2007 of 26 July regulate the issuance of language - correction certificates for translated Catalan names, by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Institute of Catalan Studies) in Barcelona. Nevertheless, there are Catalan surnames that conform to neither the current spelling rules nor to the traditionally correct Catalan spelling rules; a language - correction certification can be requested from the Institut d'Estudis Catalans, for names such as these:
Many Catalan names are shortened to hypocoristic forms using only the final portion of the name (unlike Spanish, which mostly uses only the first portion of the name), and with a diminutive suffix. Thus, shortened Catalan names taking the first portion of the name are probably influenced by the Spanish tradition. The influence of Spanish in hypocoristics is recent since it became a general fashion only in the twentieth century and specially since Francisco Franco 's dictatorship; example Catalan names are:
The Galician - speaking areas also abide the Spanish naming customs. Main differences are the usage of Galician given names and surnames.
Most Galician surnames have their origin in local toponymies, being these either Galician regions (Sanlés < Salnés, Carnota, Bergantiños), towns (Ferrol, Noia), parishes or villages (as Andrade). Just like elsewhere, many surnames were also generated from jobs or professions (Carpinteiro ' carpenter ', Cabaleiro ' Knight ', Ferreiro ' Smith ', Besteiro ' Crossbowman '), physical characteristics (Gago ' Twangy ', Tato ' Stutterer ', Couceiro ' Tall and thin ', Bugallo ' fat ', Pardo ' Swarthy '), or origin of the person (Franco and Francés ' French ', Portugués ' Portuguese ').
Although many Galician surnames have been historically adapted into Spanish phonetics and orthography, they are still clearly recognizable as Galician words: Freijedo, Spanish adaptation of freixedo ' place with ash - trees '; Seijo from seixo ' stone '; Doval from do Val ' of the Valley '; Rejenjo from Reguengo, Galician evolution of local Latin - Germanic word Regalingo ' Royal property '.
Specially relevant are the Galician surnames originated from medieval patronymics, present in local documentation since the 9th century, and popularized from the 12th century on. Although many of them have been historically adapted into Spanish orthography, phonetics and traditions, many are still characteristically Galician; most common ones are:
Some of them (namely Páez, Méndez, Vázquez) are characteristically Galician due to the drop of intervocalic - l -, - d -, - g - and - n -, but the most present surnames in Galicia could also be of Spanish origin (although Lugo is the only province in Spain with a majority of people surnamed López).
Some common Galician names are:
Nicknames are usually obtained from the end of a given name, or through derivation. Common suffixes include masculine - iño, - ito (as in Sito, from Luisito), - echo (Tonecho, from Antonecho) and - uco (Farruco, from Francisco); and feminine - iña, - ucha / uxa (Maruxa, Carmucha, from Maria and Carme), - uca (Beluca, from Isabeluca), and - ela (Mela, from Carmela).
As the provincial Surname distribution map (above) indicates, Mohamed is an often - occurring surname in the autonomous Mediterranean North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla (respectively registered 10,410 and 7,982 occurrences), Hispanophone Muslims use the Spanish "Mohamed '' spelling for "Muhammad ''. As such, it is often a component of Arabic names for men; hence, many Ceutan and Melillan Muslims share surnames despite not sharing a common ancestry. Furthermore, Mohamed (Muhammad) is the most popular name for new - born boys, thus it is not unusual to encounter a man named Mohamed Mohamed Mohamed: the first occurrence is the given name, the second occurrence is the paternal surname, and the third occurrence is the maternal surname.
In English the Chicago Manual of Style recommends that Spanish and Hispanophone names be indexed by the family name. When there are two family names, the indexing is done under the father 's family name; this would be the first element of the surname if the father 's and mother 's or husband 's family names are joined by a y. Depending upon the person involved, the particle de may be treated as a part of a family name or it may be separated from a family name. The indexing of Hispanophone names differs from that of Portuguese or Lusophone names, where the final element of the name is indexed because the Portuguese custom is to for the father 's surname to follow, rather than precede, the mother 's. The effect is that the father 's surname is the one indexed both for Spanish and Portuguese names.
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what is the book me before you based on | Me Before You - wikipedia
Me Before You is a romance novel written by Jojo Moyes. The book was first published on 5 January 2012 in the United Kingdom. A sequel titled After You was released 29 September 2015 through Pamela Dorman Books.
Twenty - six - year - old Louisa Clark lives with her working - class family. Unambitious and with few qualifications, she feels constantly outshone by her younger sister, Treena, an outgoing single mother. Louisa, who helps support her family, loses her job at a local café when the café closes. She goes to the Job Centre and, after several failed attempts, is offered a unique employment opportunity: help care for Will Traynor, a successful, wealthy, and once - active young man who was paralysed in a motorcycle accident two years earlier. Will 's mother, Camilla, hires Louisa despite her lack of experience, believing Louisa can brighten his spirit. Louisa meets Nathan, who cares for Will 's medical needs, and Will 's father, Steven, a friendly upper - class businessman whose marriage to Camilla is strained.
Louisa and Will 's relationship starts out rocky due to his bitterness and resentment over being disabled. Things worsen after Will 's ex-girlfriend, Alicia, and best friend Rupert reveal that they are getting married. Under Louisa 's care, Will gradually becomes more communicative and open - minded as they share experiences together. Louisa notices Will 's scarred wrists and later overhears his mother and sister discussing how he attempted suicide shortly after Camilla refused his request to end his life through Dignitas, a Swiss - based assisted suicide organisation. Horrified by his attempt, Camilla promised to honour her son 's wish, but only if he agreed to live six more months. Camilla intends to prove that, in time, he will believe his life 's worth living.
Louisa conceals knowing about Will and Camilla 's agreement. However, she tells Treena, and together they devise ways that will help convince Will to abandon his death wish. Over the next few weeks, Will loosens up and lets Louisa shave his beard and cut his shaggy hair. Louisa begins taking Will on outings and the two grow closer.
Through their frequent talks, Louisa learns that Will has travelled extensively; his favourite place is a café in Paris. Noticing how limited her life is and that she has few ambitions, Will tries to motivate Louisa to change.
Louisa continues seeing her longtime boyfriend, Patrick, though they eventually break up due to her relationship with Will. Meanwhile, Louisa 's father loses his job, causing more financial difficulties. Mr. Traynor offers Mr. Clark a position. Louisa realises that Will is trying to help her secure her freedom from her family. The two attend Alicia and Rupert 's wedding where they dance and flirt. Will tells Louisa that she is the only reason he wakes in the morning.
Louisa convinces Will to go on a holiday with her, but before they can leave, Will contracts near - fatal pneumonia. Louisa cancels the plans for a whirlwind trip. Instead, she takes Will to the island of Mauritius. The night before returning home, Louisa tells Will that she loves him. Will says he wants to confide something, but she admits that she already knows about his plans with Dignitas. Will says their time together has been special, but he can not bear to live in a wheelchair. He will be following through with his plans. Angry and hurt, Louisa storms off and does not speak to him for the remainder of the trip. When they return home, Will 's parents are pleasantly surprised by his good physical condition. Louisa, however, resigns as his caretaker, and they understand that Will intends to end his life.
On the night of Will 's flight to Switzerland, Louisa visits him one last time. They agree that the past six months have been the best in their lives. He dies shortly after in the clinic, and it is revealed that he left Louisa a considerable inheritance, meant to continue her education and to fully experience life. The novel ends with Louisa at a café in Paris, reading Will 's last words to her in a letter, that tell her to ' live well '.
The book was placed on the Richard and Judy Book Club.
Disability advocates have criticised the book and film for suggesting that life may not be worth living for some with severe disabilities.
In 2014 MGM announced it would make a film adaptation of Me Before You, to be directed by Thea Sharrock and released via Warner Bros. The film was initially set to release in August 2015 but was pushed back to 3 June 2016.
Emilia Clarke and Sam Claflin portray the main characters, and filming began in the spring of 2015. The film has grossed over $200 million worldwide.
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the little match girl full story in hindi | The Little Match Girl - wikipedia
"The Little Match Girl '' (Danish: Den Lille Pige med Svovlstikkerne, meaning "The little girl with the matchsticks '') is a short story by Danish poet and author Hans Christian Andersen. The story, about a dying child 's dreams and hope, was first published in 1845. It has been adapted to various media, including an animated short film, a television musical, and an animated virtual reality story called "Allumette ''.
On a cold New Year 's Eve, a poor, young girl tries to sell matches in the street. She is already shivering from cold and early hypothermia, and she is walking barefoot having lost her two large slippers. Still, she is too afraid to go home, because her father will beat her for not selling any matches, and also as the many cracks in their shack ca n't keep out the cold wind. The girl takes shelter in a nook or alley and sits down.
The girl lights the matches to warm herself. In their glow she sees several lovely visions, starting with a warm stove, then a luxurious holiday feast where the goose almost jumps out at her, and then a magnificent Christmas tree larger than the one at the rich merchant 's house. The girl looks skyward and sees a shooting star; she then remembers her late grandmother saying that such a falling star means someone is dying and is going to Heaven. As she lights the next match, she sees a vision of her grandmother, the only person to have treated her with love and kindness all through her life. To keep the vision of her grandmother alive for as long as she can, the girl lights the entire bundle of matches at once.
After running out of matches the child dies and her grandmother carries her soul to Heaven. The next morning, passers - by find the girl dead in the nook, frozen with a smile on her face, and guess the reason for the burnt - out matches beside her. They feel pity for her, although they had not shown kindness to her before her death. They have no way of knowing about the wonderful visions she saw before her death or how gloriously she is celebrating the New Year in Heaven with her grandmother.
"The Little Match Girl '' was first published December 1845, in Dansk Folkekalender for 1846. The work was re-published as a part of New Fairy Tales (4 March 1848), Second Volume, Second Collection (Nye Eventyr (1848), Andet Bind, Anden Samling), and again 18 December 1849 as a part of Fairy Tales (1850; Eventyr). The work was also published 30 March 1863 as a part of Fairy Tales and Stories (1863), Second Volume (Eventyr og Historier (1863), Andet Bind).
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acta crystallographica section d structural biology impact factor | Acta Crystallographica - wikipedia
Acta Crystallographica is a series of peer - reviewed scientific journals, with articles centred on crystallography, published by the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr). Originally established in 1948 as a single journal called Acta Crystallographica, there are now six independent Acta Crystallographica titles: Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations and Advances, Acta Crystallographica Section B: Structural Science, Crystal Engineering and Materials, Acta Crystallographica Section C: Structural Chemistry, Acta Crystallographica Section D: Structural Biology, Acta Crystallographica Section E: Crystallographic Communications and Acta Crystallographica Section F: Structural Biology Communications. Acta Crystallographica has been noted for the high quality of the papers that it produces, as well as the large impact that its papers have had on the field of crystallography. The current six journals form part of the journal portfolio of the IUCr, which is completed by the Journal of Applied Crystallography, the Journal of Synchrotron Radiation, the open - access IUCrJ and the open - access data publication IUCr Data.
Acta Crystallographica was established in conjunction with the foundation of the International Union of Crystallography in 1948. Both were established to maintain an international forum for crystallography after the Second World War had led to a loss of international subscription to, and the eventual nine - year closure of, the main pre-war crystallography journal, Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. The founding editor of Acta Crystallographica was P.P. Ewald, who wrote in the preface to the first issue
Acta Crystallographica is intended to offer a central place for publication and discussion of all research in this vast and ever - expanding field. It borders, naturally, on pure physics, chemistry, biology, mineralogy, technology and also on mathematics, but is distinguished by being concerned with the methods and results of investigating the arrangement of atoms in matter, particularly when that arrangement has regular features.
A steady increase in the number of submitted papers led to the journal being split into Section A, covering fundamental and theoretical studies, and Section B, dedicated to reports of structures, in 1968, together with a new journal, the Journal of Applied Crystallography. In 1983, Section C, devoted to the crystal structures of small molecules, was added, with Section B now focusing on biological, chemical, mineralogical and metallurgical crystallography. The rapid expansion in biological crystallography led to the launch of Section D in 1993. The journals launched online versions in 1999, and in 2000 the journals began to provide electronic article submission and subscription access online. This was followed by the launch of an online - only journal, Section E, for brief reports of new small - molecule structures, in 2001; this journal became fully open access in 2008. A second online - only journal, Section F, dedicated to short reports of macromolecular structures and reports on their crystallization, followed in 2005. The IUCr moved to online - only publication for all its journals from 2014.
Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations and Advances is the foundation on which the whole suite of IUCr crystallography journals are built, containing papers describing fundamental developments in crystallographic theory and practice. When Acta Crystallographica was split into two sections in 1967, Section A was named Acta Crystallographica Section A: Crystal Physics, Diffraction, Theoretical and General Crystallography. The journal 's name changed again in 1982 to Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography. The journal adopted its current title in 2013.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
Acta Crystallographica Section B: Structural Science, Crystal Engineering and Materials publishes scientific articles on structural science. Its original title in 1968 was Acta Crystallographica. Section B: Structural Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry. On the launch of Acta Crystallographica Section C in 1983, the title of Section B changed to Acta Crystallographica Section B: Structural Science.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
Acta Crystallographica Section C: Structural Chemistry is a journal for the rapid publication of research with structural content relating to the chemical sciences.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
Acta Crystallographica Section D: Structural Biology publishes articles covering all areas of structural biology, including biomolecular structures determined by NMR and cryEM as well as crystallography, and the methods used to obtain them. The journal was launched in 1993 as Acta Crystallographica Section D: Biological Crystallography with Jenny Glusker as the founding Editor. In 2003, Ted Baker and Zbigniew Dauter took over the editorship of the journal. The current Editors are Jennifer L. Martin, Randy Read and Soichi Wakatsuki. In 2016, the title was changed to Acta Crystallographica Section D: Structural Biology to reflect the expanded scope of the journal.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
Acta Crystallographica Section E: Crystallographic Communications is an open - access structural communications journal. It reports crystal structure determinations of inorganic, metal - organic and organic compounds. Since 2012, Acta Crystallogr. E has not been included in the Science Citation Index.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
Acta Crystallographica Section F is a rapid structural biology communications journal. It publishes short papers on biological structures and any aspects of structural biology.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
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sony xperia xa1 when did it come out | Sony Xperia XA1 - Wikipedia
The Sony Xperia XA1 is an Android smartphone produced by Sony. Part of the Xperia X Series, the device was unveiled along with the Sony Xperia XZ Premium, Sony Xperia XZs and Sony Xperia XA1 Ultra at the annual Mobile World Congress in February 2017.
It features a 23 megapixel rear camera, an 8 megapixel front - facing camera, headphone jack, 32 GB of on board storage (which can be expanded up to 256 GB via micro SD) and a 720p display.
It runs on Android 7.0 "Nougat '' out of the box.
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application of management control system in distribution management | Distribution management system - wikipedia
In the recent years, utilization of electrical energy increased exponentially and customer requirement and quality definitions of power were changed enormously. As the electric energy became an essential part of the daily life, its optimal usage and reliability became important. Real - time network view and dynamic decisions have become instrumental for optimizing resources and managing demands, thus making a distribution management system which could handle proper work flows, very critical.
A Distribution Management System (DMS) is a collection of applications designed to monitor & control the entire distribution network efficiently and reliably. It acts as a decision support system to assist the control room and field operating personnel with the monitoring and control of the electric distribution system. Improving the reliability and quality of service in terms of reducing outages, minimizing outage time, maintaining acceptable frequency and voltage levels are the key deliverables of a DMS.
Most distribution utilities have been comprehensively using IT solutions through their Outage Management System (OMS) that makes use of other systems like Customer Information System (CIS), Geographical Information System (GIS) and Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS). An outage management system has a network component / connectivity model of the distribution system. By combining the locations of outage calls from customers with knowledge of the locations of the protection devices (such as circuit breakers) on the network, a rule engine is used to predict the locations of outages. Based on this, restoration activities are charted out and the crew is dispatched for the same.
In parallel with this, distribution utilities began to roll out Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, initially only at their higher voltage substations. Over time, use of SCADA has progressively extended downwards to sites at lower voltage levels.
DMSs access real - time data and provide all information on a single console at the control centre in an integrated manner. Their development varied across different geographic territories. In the USA, for example, DMSs typically grew by taking Outage Management Systems to the next level, automating the complete sequences and providing an end to end, integrated view of the entire distribution spectrum. In the UK, by contrast, the much denser and more meshed network topologies, combined with stronger Health & Safety regulation, had led to early centralisation of high - voltage switching operations, initially using paper records and schematic diagrams printed onto large wallboards which were ' dressed ' with magnetic symbols to show the current running states. There, DMSs grew initially from SCADA systems as these were expanded to allow these centralised control and safety management procedures to be managed electronically. These DMSs required even more detailed component / connectivity models and schematics than those needed by early OMSs as every possible isolation and earthing point on the networks had to be included. In territories such as the UK, therefore, the network component / connectivity models were usually developed in the DMS first, whereas in the USA these were generally built in the GIS.
The typical data flow in a DMS has the SCADA system, the Information Storage & Retrieval (ISR) system, Communication (COM) Servers, Front - End Processors (FEPs) & Field Remote Terminal Units (FRTUs).
In order to support proper decision making and O&M activities, DMS solutions should support the following functions:
The various sub functions of the same, carried out by the DMS are listed below: -
Distribution network usually covers over a large area and catering power to different customers at different voltage levels. So locating required sources and loads on a larger GIS / Operator interface is often very difficult. Panning & zooming provided with normal SCADA system GUI does not cover the exact operational requirement. Network connectivity analysis is an operator specific functionality which helps the operator to identify or locate the preferred network or component very easily. NCA does the required analyses and provides display of the feed point of various network loads. Based on the status of all the switching devices such as circuit breaker (CB), Ring Main Unit (RMU) and / or isolators that affect the topology of the network modeled, the prevailing network topology is determined. The NCA further assists the operator to know operating state of the distribution network indicating radial mode, loops and parallels in the network.
In territories such as the UK a core function of a DMS has always been to support safe switching and work on the networks. Control engineers prepare switching schedules to isolate and make safe a section of network before work is carried out, and the DMS validates these schedules using its network model. Switching schedules can combine telecontrolled and manual (on - site) switching operations. When the required section has been made safe, the DMS allows a Pemit To Work (PTW) document to be issued. After its cancellation when the work has been finished, the switching schedule then facilitates restoration of the normal running arrangements. Switching components can also be tagged to reflect any Operational Restrictions that are in force.
The network component / connectivity model, and associated diagrams, must always be kept absolutely up to date. The switching schedule facility therefore also allows ' patches ' to the network model to be applied to the live version at the appropriate stage (s) of the jobs. The term ' patch ' is derived from the method previously used to maintain the wallboard diagrams.
The state estimator is an integral part of the overall monitoring and control systems for transmission networks. It is mainly aimed at providing a reliable estimate of the system voltages. This information from the state estimator flows to control centers and database servers across the network. The variables of interest are indicative of parameters like margins to operating limits, health of equipment and required operator action. State estimators allow the calculation of these variables of interest with high confidence despite the facts that the measurements may be corrupted by noise, or could be missing or inaccurate.
Even though we may not be able to directly observe the state, it can be inferred from a scan of measurements which are assumed to be synchronized. The algorithms need to allow for the fact that presence of noise might skew the measurements. In a typical power system, the State is quasi-static. The time constants are sufficiently fast so that system dynamics decay away quickly (with respect to measurement frequency). The system appears to be progressing through a sequence of static states that are driven by various parameters like changes in load profile. The inputs of the state estimator can be given to various applications like Load Flow Analysis, Contingency Analysis, and other applications.
Load flow study is an important tool involving numerical analysis applied to a power system. The load flow study usually uses simplified notations like a single - line diagram and focuses on various forms of AC power rather than voltage and current. It analyzes the power systems in normal steady - state operation. The goal of a power flow study is to obtain complete voltage angle and magnitude information for each bus in a power system for specified load and generator real power and voltage conditions. Once this information is known, real and reactive power flow on each branch as well as generator reactive power output can be analytically determined.
Due to the nonlinear nature of this problem, numerical methods are employed to obtain a solution that is within an acceptable tolerance. The load model needs to automatically calculate loads to match telemeter or forecasted feeder currents. It utilises customer type, load profiles and other information to properly distribute the load to each individual distribution transformer. Load - flow or Power flow studies are important for planning future expansion of power systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems.
Volt - VAR Control or VVC refers to the process of managing voltage levels and reactive power (VAR) throughout the power distribution systems. These two quantities are related, because as reactive power flows over an inductive line (and all lines have some inductance) that line sees a voltage drop. VVC encompasses devices that purposely inject reactive power into the grid to alter the size of that voltage drop, in addition to equipment that more directly controls voltage.
In the legacy grid, there are three primary tools for carrying out voltage management: Load Tap Changers (LTCs), voltage regulators, and capacitor banks. LTCs and voltage regulators refer to transformers with variable turns ratios that are placed at strategic points in a network and adjusted to raise or lower voltage as is necessary. Capacitor banks manage voltage by "generating '' reactive power, and have thus far been the primary tools through which true Volt / VAR control is carried out. These large capacitors are connected to the grid in shunt configuration through switches which, when closed, allow the capacitors to generate VARs and boost voltage at the point of connection. In the future, further VVC might be carried out by smart inverters and other distributed generation resources, which can also inject reactive power into a distribution network. A VVC application helps the operator mitigate dangerously low or high voltage conditions by suggesting required action plans for all VVC equipment. The plan will give a required tap position and capacitor switching state to ensure the voltage stays close to its nominal value and thus optimize Volt - VAR control function for the utility.
Beyond maintaining a stable voltage profile, VVC has potential benefits for the ampacity (current - carrying capacity) of power lines. There could be loads that contain reactive components like capacitors and inductors (such as electric motors) that strain the grid. This is because the reactive portion of these loads causes them to draw more current than an otherwise comparable, purely resistive load would draw. The extra current can result in heating up of equipment like transformers, conductors, etc. which might then need resizing to carry the total current. An ideal power system needs to control current flow by carefully planning the production, absorption and flow of reactive power at all levels in the system.
Electric Distribution Systems have long stretches of transmission line, multiple injection points and fluctuating consumer demand. These features are inherently vulnerable to instabilities or unpredicted system conditions that may lead to critical failure. Instability usually arises from power system oscillations due to faults, peak deficit or protection failures. Distribution load shedding and restoration schemes play a vital role in emergency operation and control in any utility.
An automated Load Shedding Application detects predetermined trigger conditions in the distribution network and performs predefined sets of control actions, such as opening or closing non-critical feeders, reconfiguring downstream distribution or sources of injections, or performing a tap control at a transformer. When a distribution network is complex and covers a larger area, emergency actions taken downstream may reduce burden on upstream portions of the network. In a non-automated system, awareness and manual operator intervention play a key role in trouble mitigation. If the troubles are not addressed quickly enough, they can cascade exponentially and cause major catastrophic failure.
DMS needs to provide a modular automated load shedding & restoration application which automates emergency operation & control requirements for any utility. The application should cover various activities like Under Frequency Load Shedding (UFLS), limit violation and time of day based load shedding schemes which are usually performed by the operator.
Reliability and quality of power supply are key parameters which need to be ensured by any utility. Reduced outage time duration to customer, shall improve over all utility reliability indices hence FMSR or automated switching applications plays an important role. The two main features required by a FMSR are: Switching management & Suggested switching plan
The DMS application receives faults information from the SCADA system and processes the same for identification of faults and on running switching management application; the results are converted to action plans by the applications. The action plan includes switching ON / OFF the automatic load break switches / RMUs / Sectionalizer. The action plan can be verified in study mode provided by the functionality. The switching management can be manual / automatic based on the configuration.
Load balancing via feeder reconfiguration is an essential application for utilities where they have multiple feeders feeding a load congested area. To balance the loads on a network, the operator re-routes the loads to other parts of the network. A Feeder Load Management (FLM) is necessary to allow you to manage energy delivery in the electric distribution system and identify problem areas. A Feeder Load Management monitors the vital signs of the distribution system and identifies areas of concern so that the distribution operator is forewarned and can efficiently focus attention where it is most needed. It allows for more rapid correction of existing problems and enables possibilities for problem avoidance, leading to both improved reliability and energy delivery performance.
On a similar note, Feeder Reconfiguration is also used for loss minimization. Due to several network and operational constraints utility network may be operated to its maximum capability without knowing its consequences of losses occurring. The overall energy losses and revenue losses due to these operations shall be minimized for effective operation. The DMS application utilizes switching management application for this, the losses minimization problem is solved by the optimal power flow algorithm and switching plans are created similar to above function
Distribution Load Forecasting (DLF) provides a structured interface for creating, managing and analyzing load forecasts. Accurate models for electric power load forecasting are essential to the operation and planning of a utility company. DLF helps an electric utility to make important decisions including decisions on purchasing electric power, load switching, as well as infrastructure development.
Load forecasting is classified in terms of different planning durations: short - term load forecasting or STLF (up to 1 day, medium - term load forecasting or MTLF (1 day to 1 year), and long - term load forecasting or LTLF (1 -- 10 years). To forecast load precisely throughout a year, various external factors including weathers, solar radiation, population, per capita gross domestic product seasons and holidays need to be considered. For example, in the winter season, average wind chill factor could be added as an explanatory variable in addition to those used in the summer model. In transitional seasons such as spring and fall, the transformation technique can be used. For holidays, a holiday effect load can be deducted from the normal load to estimate the actual holiday load better.
Various predictive models have been developed for load forecasting based on various techniques like multiple regression, exponential smoothing, iterative reweighted least - squares, adaptive load forecasting, stochastic time series, fuzzy logic, neural networks and knowledge based expert systems. Amongst these, the most popular STLF were stochastic time series models like Autoregressive (AR) model, Autoregressive moving average model (ARMA), Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model and other models using fuzzy logic and Neural Networks.
DLF provides data aggregation and forecasting capabilities that is configured to address today 's requirements and adapt to address future requirements and should have the capability to produce repeatable and accurate forecasts.
In any integrated energy delivery utility operation model, there are different functional modules like GIS, Billing & metering solution, ERP, Asset management system that are operating in parallel and supports routine operations. Quite often, each of these functional modules need to exchange periodic or real time data with each other for assessing present operation condition of the network, workflows and resources (like crew, assets, etc.). Unlike other power system segments, distribution system changes or grows every day, and this could be due to the addition of a new consumer, a new transmission line or replacement of equipment. If the different functional modules are operating in a non-standard environment and uses custom APIs and database interfaces, the engineering effort for managing shall become too large. Soon it will become difficult to manage the growing changes and additions which would result in making system integrations non - functional. Hence utilities can not make use of the complete benefit of functional modules and in some cases; the systems may even need to be migrated to suitable environments with very high costs.
As these problems came to light, various standardization processes for inter application data exchanges were initiated. It was understood that a standard based integration shall ease the integration with other functional modules and that it also improves the operational performance. It ensures that the utility can be in a vendor neutral environment for future expansions, which in turn means that the utility can easily add new functional modules on top of existing functionality and easily push or pull the data effectively without having new interface adapters.
IEC 61968 is a standard being developed by the Working Group 14 of Technical Committee 57 of the IEC and defines standards for information exchanges between electrical distribution system applications. It is intended to support the inter-application integration of a utility enterprise that needs to collect data from different applications which could be new or legacy.
As per IEC 61968, a DMS encapsulates various capabilities like monitoring and control of equipment for power delivery, management processes to ensure system reliability, voltage management, demand - side management, outage management, work management, automated mapping and facilities management. The crux of IEC 61968 standards is the Interface Reference Model (IRM) that defines various standard interfaces for each class of applications. Abstract (Logical) components are listed to represent concrete (physical) applications. For example, a business function like Network Operation (NO) could be represented by various business sub-functions like Network Operation Monitoring (NMON), which in turn will be represented by abstract components like Substation state supervision, Network state supervision, and Alarm supervision.
IEC 61968 recommends that system interfaces of a compliant utility inter-application infrastructure be defined using Unified Modelling Language (UML). UML includes a set of graphic notation techniques that can be used to create visual models of object - oriented software - intensive systems. The IEC 61968 series of standards extend the Common Information Model (CIM), which is currently maintained as a UML model, to meet the needs of electrical distribution. For structured document interchange particularly on the Internet, the data format used can be the Extensible Markup Language (XML). One of its primary uses is information exchange between different and potentially incompatible computer systems. XML is thus well - suited to the domain of system interfaces for distribution management. It formats the message payloads so as to load the same to various messaging transports like SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol), etc.
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brahms clarinet sonata no 2 in e flat major | Clarinet sonatas (Brahms) - wikipedia
The Clarinet Sonatas, Op. 120, Nos. 1 and 2, are a pair of works written for clarinet and piano by the Romantic composer Johannes Brahms. They were written in 1894 and are dedicated to the clarinetist Richard Mühlfeld. The sonatas stem from a period late in Brahms 's life where he "discovered '' the beauty of the sound and tonal colour of the clarinet. The form of the clarinet sonata was largely undeveloped until after the completion of these sonatas, after which the combination of clarinet and piano was more readily used in composers ' new works. These were the last chamber pieces Brahms wrote before his death and are considered two of the great masterpieces in the clarinet repertoire. Brahms also produced a frequently performed transcription of these works for viola with alterations to better suit the instrument.
By 1890, Brahms vowed to retire from composing, but his promise was short lived. In January 1891 he made a trip to Meiningen for an arts festival and was captivated by performances of Carl Maria von Weber 's Clarinet Concerto No. 1 and the Mozart Clarinet Quintet. The solo clarinetist was Richard Mühlfeld, and Brahms began a fond friendship with the man whom he so admired. The beautiful tone of "Fräulein Klarinette '' (as Brahms would nickname Mühlfeld) inspired him to begin composing again less than a year after he retired. The fruits of their friendship were four remarkable additions to the still modest clarinet repertoire of that time, including the trio in A minor for clarinet, cello and piano Op 114 (1891), the B minor quintet for clarinet and strings, Op. 115 (1891), and two clarinet sonatas. In July 1894, at his Bad Ischl retreat, Brahms completed the sonatas. He wrote to Mühlfeld on August 26th, inviting him to Bad Ischl, to perform them, stating cryptically that "it would be splendid if you brought your B ♭ clarinet. '' As Muhlfeld had other commitments that summer, he delayed responding, but went to Vienna in September to meet Brahms and to acquaint himself with the two sonatas. They were first performed (by Brahms and Mühlfeld) privately for Duke Georg and his family in September of that year. Brahms and Muhlfeld then performed them for Clara Schumann in November 1894, before their public premieres on January 7, 1895. Brahms ' experience in writing his Clarinet Quintet three years earlier led him to compose the sonatas for clarinet and piano because he preferred the sound over that of clarinet with strings. The keys of the sonatas -- F minor and E ♭ major -- correspond to the keys of the two clarinet concertos which Weber composed more than eighty years earlier.
Sonata No. 1 consists of the following movements:
The first movement is in sonata form. It begins with a solo piano introduction in three parallel octaves, outlining a recurring motif throughout the movement. The clarinet then enters with the slurred first theme. The piano takes over the theme, with the clarinet playing more of an embellishing role. It was normal in clarinet music before the sonatas for the soloist to play mostly, if not always, the melody. Brahms did not reduce the scope of the piano part to accommodate for the clarinet, but created a more equal and harmonious relationship between soloist and accompanist. The quiet transition between the two themes is in D ♭ major and features staggered entrances between the hands of the piano. The second theme introduces dotted rhythms and is marked marcato, contrasting with the first theme. It passes through many key areas quickly before finally resting on C minor.
The development begins by expanding on ideas heard in the introduction and transition. The piano plays with staggered hand entrances and joins the clarinet in recalling the second bar of the introduction. The music makes a false movement towards A ♭ major, instead landing on E major. The introduction material takes over and winds down to pp. A subito forte evokes the second theme combined with staggered entrances from both piano hands and clarinet. The second theme is finally presented and leads to the recapitulation.
The introduction is restated forte in the key of C ♯ minor. Brahms brings the key back around to F minor and the first theme, transition, and second theme are heard again. Tonally, this section does not stray far from F although the music goes through major and minor sections. A final statement of the first theme leads into the coda, marked Sostenuto ed espressivo. The coda is slower in tempo and based on material from the introduction. The movement ends quietly in F major.
The second movement is in ternary form. The clarinet introduces a simple descending theme decorated with turns. The piano writing is sparse in the first theme area. This A section is repeated twice, once ending on a half cadence and the other with a perfect authentic cadence on the home key of A ♭ major.
The B section is characterized by faster rhythmic and harmonic motion. The piano plays sixteenth notes outlining the harmonies while the clarinet continues playing a slurred melody. The harmony descends in an imitation of the A section melody through the keys D ♭ major, C ♭ major, and A major. The clarinet gets a chance to play the sixteenth notes that the piano had before the modulation to E major.
The A melody returns in the piano in the "wrong '' key of E major, moves to C major, and finally back to the A ♭ major. The A section is then restated in its entirety with a more active piano accompaniment. A short interlude of sixteenth notes in the piano alludes to the B section and a final iteration of the melody ends the movement.
The third movement is also in ternary form. The A section consists of an eight bar melody played by the clarinet, and then traded off to the piano with the clarinet lending supporting lines. A forte repeated section inverts the melody and the second ending leads to the B section.
The piano takes up a descending line syncopated between the two hands while the clarinet adds a low supporting line confined within the space of a minor third. Another repeated section lets the clarinet play the descending melody. After the repeat, the melody from the A section returns and ends the movement.
The fourth movement is in an altered rondo form that can be described as A -- B -- A ′ -- C -- B ′ -- A ''. The movement begins with three accented Fs in a piano introduction serving as a sort of call to identify the first theme. The A theme is marked leggero in the clarinet and is mostly eighth notes in stepwise motion. The contrasting B theme is made up of quarter note triplets and is more slurred and leisurely. After a bombastic return to A ′, the quiet C theme is played in the piano and then handed off to the clarinet. The clarinet then plays the "call '' from the introduction while the piano states the B theme again. Finally, the final A '' section ends with a coda and the sonata is finished in F major.
Sonata No. 2 is in three movements.
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what comes after purple belt in jiu jitsu | Brazilian jiu - jitsu ranking system - Wikipedia
The Brazilian jiu - jitsu ranking system is a means of signifying a practitioner 's increasing levels of technical knowledge and practical skill within the art of Brazilian jiu - jitsu. Colored belts that are worn as part of the uniform are awarded to the practitioner. While the ranking system 's structure shares its origins with the judo ranking system and that of all colored martial arts belts, the Brazilian jiu - jitsu ranking system grew to incorporate unique aspects and themes. The system has minor differences from Judo in areas such as a division between youths and adults and the issuance of stripes and degrees. Some distinct differences have become synonymous with the art, such as a marked informality in promotional criteria, a focus on a competitive demonstration of skill, and a conservative approach to promotion.
In 1907, Kanō Jigorō, the founder of judo, introduced the use of belts (obi) and gi (judogi) in the martial arts, replacing the practice of training in formal kimonos. In 1914, Kanō 's pupil Mitsuyo Maeda arrived in Brazil, a journey which led to the development of Brazilian jiu - jitsu. At the time Kanō used only white and black belts, with white representing the beginner, as a color of purity and simplicity, and black being the opposite, representing one who is filled with knowledge.
Some believe that Mikonosuke Kawaishi was the first to introduce additional colors in 1935 when he began teaching Judo in Paris, ten years after Carlos Gracie opened his academy in Brazil. Kawaishi thought that a more structured system of colored belts would provide the student with visible rewards to show progress, increasing motivation and retention. Since then, Brazilian jiu - jitsu, judo, and many other martial arts have adopted the use of colored belts to denote students ' progression in the arts.
The first official belt ranking system was created in 1967 by the Jiu - Jitsu Federation of Guanabara. Much of the current criteria and modern belt ranks were implemented by the Sport Jiu Jitsu International Federation (SJJIF) and International Brazilian Jiu - Jitsu Federation.
White belt is the first belt within Brazilian jiu - jitsu. The rank is held by any practitioner new to the art and has no prerequisite. Some instructors and other high - level practitioners think that a white belt 's training should emphasize escapes and defensive positioning since a white belt will often fight from inferior positions, especially when training with more experienced practitioners.
Most academies will additionally require that a white belt level practitioner works to obtain a well - rounded skills set, with a knowledge of basic offensive moves, such as common submissions and guard passes.
Blue belt is most often the second adult rank in the Brazilian jiu - jitsu. At the blue belt level, students gain a wide breadth of technical knowledge and undertake hundreds of hours of mat time to learn how to implement these moves efficiently. Blue belt is often the rank at which the student learns a large number of techniques.
Not all Brazilian jiu - jitsu schools or regulatory bodies award the blue belt as the second adult belt. Although many Brazilian jiu - jitsu organizations adhere to the IBJJF standard of awarding the yellow, orange, and green belt exclusively as part of a youth belt system (under 16 years of age), some supplement the time between white belt and blue belt with one or more belts of these colors.
The IBJJF requires that a practitioner be at least 16 years old to receive a blue belt, thereby officially entering into the adult belt system.
Purple belt is the intermediate adult ranking in Brazilian jiu - jitsu. The purple belt level practitioner has gained a large amount of knowledge, and purple belts are generally considered qualified to help instruct lower - ranked students.
The IBJJF requires students to be at least 16 years old and recommends they have spent a minimum of two years ranked as a blue belt to be eligible for a purple belt, with slightly different requirements for those graduating directly from the youth belts.
Aside from the exceptional belts awarded at the highest levels, brown belt is the highest ranking color belt in Brazilian jiu - jitsu. Brown belt typically requires at least five years of dedicated training to achieve. It is often thought of as a time for refining techniques.
The IBJJF requires that students be at least 18 years old and recommends they have spent a minimum of 18 months as a purple belt to be eligible for a brown belt.
As with many other martial arts, the black belt is the highest common belt within Brazilian jiu - jitsu, denoting an expert level of technical and practical skills. Brazilian jiu - jitsu black belts are often addressed within the art as professor, although some schools and organizations reserve this honorific for more senior black belts holders.
The IBJJF requires that a student be at least 19 years old and recommends they have spent a minimum of 1 year ranked as a brown belt to be eligible for a black belt. The black belt itself has six different degrees of expertise.
When a Brazilian jiu - jitsu black belt reaches the seventh degree, he or she is awarded an alternating red - and - black belt similar to the one earned at the sixth degree in Judo. This belt is commonly known as a coral belt. Coral belts are very experienced practitioners, most of whom have made a large impact on Brazilian jiu - jitsu, and are often addressed within the art by the title master.
The International Brazilian jiu - jitsu Federation in 2013, amended the graduation guidelines with respect to the transition between seventh degree and eighth degree black belt. In short, a practitioner who has achieved the rank of 8th degree black belt will wear a red and white belt, which is also commonly called a coral belt.
According to Renzo and Royler Gracie, in Brazilian jiu - jitsu the red belt is reserved "for those whose influence and fame takes them to the pinnacle of the art ''. It is awarded in lieu of a ninth and tenth degree black belt. If a practitioner receives his or her black belt at 19 years old, the earliest they could expect to receive a ninth degree red belt would be at the age of 67. Brazilian jiu - jitsu red belt holders are often addressed within the art by the title grandmaster. The 10th degree was given only to the pioneers of Brazilian Jiu - Jitsu, the Gracie brothers: Carlos, Oswaldo, George, Gaston and Helio.
Few published guidelines or standards determine when a practitioner is ready for promotion; the criterion is generally determined by individual instructors and / or academies. The IBJJF maintains an extensive graduation system that takes into account time - in - grade and membership standing, but makes no mention of specific performance or skill requirements. When instructors or academies comment on the criteria for promotion, the most widely accepted measures are the amount of technical and conceptual knowledge a practitioner can demonstrate, and; performance in grappling (randori) within the academy and / or competition.
Technical and conceptual knowledge are judged by the number of techniques a student can perform, and the level of skill with which they are performed in live grappling, allowing smaller and older practitioners to be recognized for their knowledge, although they may not be the strongest fighters in the school. Brazilian jiu - jitsu is a distinctly individual sport, and practitioners are encouraged to adapt the techniques to their body type, strategic preferences, and level of athleticism. The ultimate criterion for promotion is the ability to execute the techniques successfully, rather than strict stylistic compliance.
Brazilian jiu - jitsu has had an informal approach to belt promotions, in which one or more instructors subjectively agree that a given student is ready for the next rank. In recent years some academies have moved toward a more systematic, formal testing approach, especially true for lower ranked students, where the decision to promote is arguably the least contentious. One of the first instructors to publicly publish formal testing criteria was Roy Harris, who has formalized his promotion tests from white belt to black belt. Formal testing is now becoming commonplace in many Gracie Academies and organizations such as Alliance.
Some Gracie systems have introduced formal online testing where the student can upload his or her qualification videos to qualify for promotion. Formal tests are generally based around the same elements as a normal promotion, such as the student 's technical and conceptual knowledge and the ability to apply those techniques against a resisting opponent. Some tests take other aspects, such as a student 's personal character or a basic knowledge of the history of the art, into account. Formal testing may require the payment of testing fees and a require a minimum of pre-testing private lessons with the instructor.
Students are generally encouraged to compete, as this can help them gain experience. Competition allows instructors to gauge students ' abilities while grappling with a fully resisting opponent, and it is common for a promotion to follow a good competition performance. In most academies, competing is not essential for promotion, but in a minority of schools, competing is not only endorsed but is required.
In addition to the belt system, many academies award stripes as a form of intra-belt recognition of progress and skill. The cumulative number of stripes earned serves as an indication of the student 's skill level relative to others within the same belt rank. Stripes may consist of small pieces of cloth sewn onto the sleeve of the belt, or simple pieces of tape applied to it. Although the exact application, such as the number of stripes allowed for each belt, varies between institutions, the IBJJF sets out a general system under which four stripes can be added before the student may be considered for promotion to the next bjj belt. Stripes are only used for ranks prior to black belt. After black belt is achieved, the markings are known as degrees and are awarded formally. Time - in - grade and skill level are both important factors. Stripes are not used in every academy and, where they are used, they may not be applied consistently.
A tradition practiced in some Brazilian jiu - jitsu schools immediately after a promotion, is known as "running the gauntlet '' ("passar no corredor '' in Portuguese). This generally follows one of two basic patterns. The newly promoted student is hit on their back with belts -- once by each of their fellow practitioners -- as he or she walks or runs past ("faixada '' in Portuguese), or he or she may be thrown by each instructor and sometimes also by each student in the academy of equal or higher grade. Advocates for the custom argue that "running the gauntlet '' serves as a method of team building and reinforces camaraderie between classmates.
Other initiation customs may involve being hip - tossed by the instructor in a controlled manner.
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name an animal other than birds that can fly | Flying and gliding animals - wikipedia
A number of animals have evolved aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding. Flying and gliding animals (volant animals) have evolved separately many times, without any single ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times, in the insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Gliding has evolved on many more occasions. Usually the development is to aid canopy animals in getting from tree to tree, although there are other possibilities. Gliding, in particular, has evolved among rainforest animals, especially in the rainforests in Asia (most especially Borneo) where the trees are tall and widely spaced. Several species of aquatic animals, and a few amphibians and reptiles have also evolved to acquire this gliding flight ability, typically as a means of evading predators.
Animal aerial locomotion can be divided into two categories -- powered and unpowered. In unpowered modes of locomotion, the animal uses aerodynamics forces exerted on the body due to wind or falling through the air. In powered flight, the animal uses muscular power to generate aerodynamic forces. Animals using unpowered aerial locomotion can not maintain altitude and speed due to unopposed drag, while animals using powered flight can maintain steady, level flight as long as their muscles are capable of doing so.
These modes of locomotion typically require an animal start from a raised location, converting that potential energy into kinetic energy and using aerodynamic forces to control trajectory and angle of descent. Energy is continually lost to drag without being replaced, thus these methods of locomotion have limited range and duration.
Powered flight has evolved only four times (first in insects, then in pterosaurs, birds and bats). It uses muscular power to generate aerodynamic forces and to replace energy lost to drag.
Ballooning and soaring are not powered by muscle, but rather by external aerodynamic sources of energy: the wind and rising thermals, respectively. Both can continue as long as the source of external power is present. Soaring is typically only seen in species capable of powered flight, as it requires extremely large wings.
Many species will use multiple of these modes at various times; a hawk will use powered flight to rise, then soar on thermals, then descend via free - fall to catch its prey.
While gliding occurs independently from powered flight, it has some ecological advantages of its own. Gliding is a very energy - efficient way of travelling from tree to tree. An argument made is that many gliding animals eat low energy foods such as leaves and are restricted to gliding because of this, whereas flying animals eat more high energy foods such as fruits, nectar, and insects. In contrast to flight, gliding has evolved independently many times (more than a dozen times among extant vertebrates); however these groups have not radiated nearly as much as have groups of flying animals.
Worldwide, the distribution of gliding animals is uneven as most inhabit rain forests in Southeast Asia. (Despite seemingly suitable rain forest habitats, few gliders are found in India or New Guinea and none in Madagascar.) Additionally, a variety of gliding vertebrates are found in Africa, a family of hylids (flying frogs) lives in South America and several species of gliding squirrels are found in the forests of northern Asia and North America. Various factors produce these disparities. In the forests of Southeast Asia, the dominant canopy trees (usually dipterocarps) are taller than the canopy trees of the other forests. A higher start provides a competitive advantage of further glides and farther travel. Gliding predators may more efficiently search for prey. The lower abundance of insect and small vertebrate prey for carnivorous animals (such as lizards) in Asian forests may be a factor. In Australia, many mammals (and all mammalian gliders) possess, to some extent, prehensile tails.
Powered flight has evolved unambiguously only four times -- birds, bats, pterosaurs, and insects. In contrast to gliding, which has evolved more frequently but typically gives rise to only a handful of species, all three extant groups of powered flyers have a huge number of species, suggesting that flight is a very successful strategy once evolved. Bats, after rodents, have the most species of any mammalian order, about 20 % of all mammalian species. Birds have the most species of any class of terrestrial vertebrates. Finally, insects (most of which fly at some point in their life cycle) have more species than all other animal groups combined.
The evolution of flight is one of the most striking and demanding in animal evolution, and has attracted the attention of many prominent scientists and generated many theories. Additionally, because flying animals tend to be small and have a low mass (both of which increase the surface - area - to - mass ratio), they tend to fossilize infrequently and poorly compared to the larger, heavier - boned terrestrial species they share habitat with. Fossils of flying animals tend to be confined to exceptional fossil deposits formed under highly specific circumstances, resulting in a generally poor fossil record, and a particular lack of transitional forms. Furthermore, as fossils do not preserve behavior or muscle, it can be difficult to discriminate between a poor flyer and a good glider.
Insects were the first to evolve flight, approximately 350 million years ago. The developmental origin of the insect wing remains in dispute, as does the purpose prior to true flight. One suggestion is that wings initially were used to catch the wind for small insects that live on the surface of the water, while another is that they functioned in parachuting, then gliding, then flight for originally arboreal insects.
Pterosaurs were the next to evolve flight, approximately 228 million years ago. These reptiles were close relatives of the dinosaurs (and sometimes mistakenly considered dinosaurs by laymen), and reached enormous sizes, with some of the last forms being the largest flying animals ever to inhabit the Earth, having wingspans of over 9.1 m (30 ft). However, they spanned a large range of sizes, down to a 250 mm (10 in) wingspan in Nemicolopterus.
Birds have an extensive fossil record, along with many forms documenting both their evolution from small theropod dinosaurs and the numerous bird - like forms of theropod which did not survive the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Indeed, Archaeopteryx is arguably the most famous transitional fossil in the world, both due to its mix of reptilian and avian anatomy and the luck of being discovered only two years after Darwin 's publication of On the Origin of Species. However, the ecology and this transition is considerably more contentious, with various scientists supporting either a "trees down '' origin (in which an arboreal ancestor evolved gliding, then flight) or a "ground up '' origin (in which a fast - running terrestrial ancestor used wings for a speed boost and to help catch prey).
Bats are the most recent to evolve (about 60 million years ago), most likely from a fluttering ancestor, though their poor fossil record has hindered more detailed study.
Only a few animals are known to have specialised in soaring: the larger of the extinct pterosaurs, and some large birds. Powered flight is very energetically expensive for large animals, but for soaring their size is an advantage, as it allows them a low wing loading, that is a large wing areas relative to their weight, which maximizes lift. Soaring is very energetically efficient.
During a free - fall with no aerodynamic forces, the object accelerates due to gravity, resulting in increasing velocity as the object descends. During parachuting, animals use the aerodynamic forces on their body to counteract the force or gravity. Any object moving through air experiences a drag force that is proportion to surface area and to velocity squared, and this force will partially counter the force of gravity, slowing the animal 's descent to a safer speed. If this drag is oriented at an angle to the vertical, the animal 's trajectory will gradually become more horizontal, and it will cover horizontal as well as vertical distance. Smaller adjustments can allow turning or other maneuvers. This can allow a parachuting animal to move from a high location on one tree to a lower location on another tree nearby.
During gliding, lift plays an increased role. Like drag, lift is proportional to velocity squared. Gliding animals will typically leap or drop from high locations such as trees, just as in parachuting, and as gravitational acceleration increases their speed, the aerodynamic forces also increase. Because the animal can utilize lift and drag to generate greater aerodynamic force, it can glide at a shallower angle than parachuting animals, allowing it to cover greater horizontal distance in the same loss of altitude, and reach trees further away.
Unlike most air vehicles, in which the objects that generate lift (wings) and thrust (engine / propeller) are separate and the wings remained fixed, flying animals use their wings to generate both lift and thrust by moving them relative to the body. This has made the flight of organisms considerably harder to understand than that of vehicles, as it involves varying speeds, angles, orientations, areas, and flow patterns over the wings.
A bird or bat flying through the air at a constant speed moves its wings up and down (usually with some fore - aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of its wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This will generate lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards. The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole. Pterosaur flight likely worked in a similar manner, though no living pterosaurs remain for study.
Insect flight is considerably different, due to their small size, rigid wings, and other anatomical differences. Turbulence and vortices play a much larger role in insect flight, making it even more complex and difficult to study than the flight of vertebrates. There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect flight. Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling leading edge vortex. Some very small insects use the fling - and - clap or Weis - Fogh mechanism in which the wings clap together above the insect 's body and then fling apart. As they fling open, the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing. This bound vortex then moves across the wing and, in the clap, acts as the starting vortex for the other wing. Circulation and lift are increased, at the price of wear and tear on the wings.
Gliding has evolved independently in two families of tree frogs, the Old World Rhacophoridae and the New World Hylidae. Within each lineage there are a range of gliding abilities from non-gliding, to parachuting, to full gliding.
Several lizards and snakes are capable of gliding:
Bats are the only mammal with flapping or powered flight. A few other mammals glide or parachute; the best known are flying squirrels and flying lemurs.
Media related to Animal flight at Wikimedia Commons
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set up programs for unemployed artists and musicians in texas during the great depression | Works Progress Administration - wikipedia
The Works Progress Administration (WPA; renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration) was the largest and most ambitious American New Deal agency, employing millions of people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads. In a much smaller project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects.
Almost every community in the United States had a new park, bridge or school constructed by the agency. The WPA 's initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion (about 6.7 percent of the 1935 GDP).
Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided paid jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people. Most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were typically set to the prevailing wages in each area. Full employment, which was reached in 1942 and emerged as a long - term national goal around 1944, was not the goal of the WPA; rather, it tried to provide one paid job for all families in which the breadwinner suffered long - term unemployment.
"The stated goal of public building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects, '' sociologist Robert D. Leighninger asserted. "Millions of people needed subsistence incomes. Work relief was preferred over public assistance (the dole) because it maintained self - respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. ''
The WPA was a national program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments, which provided 10 -- 30 % of the costs. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, with the WPA responsible for wages (and for the salaries of supervisors, who were not on relief). WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs.
It was liquidated on June 30, 1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the worker shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years.
A joint resolution introduced January 21, 1935, the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 8, 1935. On May 6, 1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, which was dissolved. Direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program -- a major public works program directed by the WPA.
The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and close adviser to Roosevelt. Both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. Hallie Flanagan, national director of the Federal Theatre Project, wrote that "for the first time in the relief experiments of this country the preservation of the skill of the worker, and hence the preservation of his self - respect, became important. ''
The WPA was organized into the following divisions:
These ordinary men and women proved to be extraordinary beyond all expectation. They were golden threads woven in the national fabric. In this, they shamed the political philosophy that discounted their value and rewarded the one that placed its faith in them, thus fulfilling the founding vision of a government by and for its people. All its people.
The goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered. Harry Hopkins testified to Congress in January 1935 why he set the number at 3.5 million, using Federal Emergency Relief Administration data. Estimating costs at $1,200 per worker per year ($21.4 thousand in present - day terms), he asked for and received $4 billion ($71.4 billion in present - day terms). Many women were employed, but they were few compared to men.
In 1935 there were 20 million people on relief in the United States. Of these, 8.3 million were children under 16 years of age; 3.8 million were persons between the ages of 16 and 65 who were not working or seeking work. These included housewives, students in school, and incapacitated persons. Another 750,000 were person age 65 or over. Thus, of the total of 20 million persons then receiving relief, 13 million were not considered eligible for employment. This left a total of 7 million presumably employable persons between the ages of 16 and 65 inclusive. Of these, however, 1.65 million were said to be farm operators or persons who had some non-relief employment, while another 350,000 were, despite the fact that they were already employed or seeking work, considered incapacitated. Deducting this 2 million from the total of 7.15 million, there remained 5.15 million persons age 16 to 65, unemployed, looking for work, and able to work.
Because of the assumption that only one worker per family would be permitted to work under the proposed program, this total of 5.15 million was further reduced by 1.6 million -- the estimated number of workers who were members of families with two or more employable people. Thus, there remained a net total of 3.55 million workers in as many households for whom jobs were to be provided.
The WPA reached its peak employment of 3,334,594 people in November 1938. To be eligible for WPA employment, an individual had to be an American citizen, 18 or older, able - bodied, unemployed, and certified as in need by a local public relief agency approved by the WPA. The WPA Division of Employment selected the worker 's placement to WPA projects based on previous experience or training. Worker pay was based on three factors: the region of the country, the degree of urbanization, and the individual 's skill. It varied from $19 per month to $94 per month, with the average wage being about $52.50 -- $913.00 in present - day terms. The goal was to pay the local prevailing wage, but limit the hours of work to 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week; the stated minimum being 30 hours a week, or 120 hours a month.
WPA projects were administered by the Division of Engineering and Construction and the Division of Professional and Service Projects. Most projects were initiated, planned and sponsored by states, counties or cities. Nationwide projects were sponsored until 1939.
The WPA built traditional infrastructure of the New Deal such as roads, bridges, schools, courthouses, hospitals, sidewalks, waterworks, and post-offices, but also constructed museums, swimming pools, parks, community centers, playgrounds, coliseums, markets, fairgrounds, tennis courts, zoos, botanical gardens, auditoriums, waterfronts, city halls, gyms, and university unions. Most of these are still in use today. The amount of infrastructure projects of the WPA included 40,000 new and 85,000 improved buildings. These new buildings included 5,900 new schools; 9,300 new auditoriums, gyms, and recreational buildings; 1,000 new libraries; 7,000 new dormitories; and 900 new armories. In addition, infrastructure projects included 2,302 stadiums, grandstands, and bleachers; 52 fairgrounds and rodeo grounds; 1,686 parks covering 75,152 acres; 3,185 playgrounds; 3,026 athletic fields; 805 swimming pools; 1,817 handball courts; 10,070 tennis courts; 2,261 horseshoe pits; 1,101 ice - skating areas; 138 outdoor theatres; 254 golf courses; and 65 ski jumps. Total expenditures on WPA projects through June 1941 totaled approximately $11.4 billion -- the equivalent of $190 billion today. Over $4 billion was spent on highway, road, and street projects; more than $1 billion on public buildings, including the iconic Dock Street Theatre in Charleston, the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, and Timberline Lodge in Oregon 's Mount Hood National Forest.
More than $1 billion -- $16.6 billion today -- was spent on publicly owned or operated utilities; and another $1 billion on welfare projects, including sewing projects for women, the distribution of surplus commodities, and school lunch projects. One construction project was the Merritt Parkway in Connecticut, the bridges of which were each designed as architecturally unique. In its eight - year run, the WPA built 325 firehouses and renovated 2,384 of them across the United States. The 20,000 miles of water mains, installed by their hand as well, contributed to increased fire protection across the country.
The direct focus of the WPA projects changed with need. In 1935 priority projects were to improve infrastructure; roads, extension of electricity to rural areas, water conservation, sanitation and flood control. In 1936, as outlined in that year 's Emergency Relief Appropriations Act, public facilities became a focus; parks and associated facilities, public buildings, utilities, airports, and transportation projects were funded. The following year, saw the introduction of agricultural improvements, such as the production of marl fertilizer and the eradication of fungus pests. As the Second World War approached, and then eventually began, WPA projects became increasingly defense related.
One project of the WPA was funding state - level library service demonstration projects, to create new areas of library service to underserved populations and to extend rural service. Another project was the Household Service Demonstration Project, which trained 30,000 women for domestic employment. South Carolina had one of the larger statewide library service demonstration projects. At the end of the project in 1943, South Carolina had twelve publicly funded county libraries, one regional library, and a funded state library agency.
A significant aspect of the Works Progress Administration was the Federal Project Number One, which had five different parts: the Federal Art Project, the Federal Music Project, the Federal Theatre Project, the Federal Writers Project, and the Historical Records Survey. The government wanted to provide new federal cultural support instead of just providing direct grants to private institutions. After only one year, over 40,000 artists and other talented workers had been employed through this project in the United States. Cedric Larson stated that "The impact made by the five major cultural projects of the WPA upon the national consciousness is probably greater in toto than anyone readily realizes. As channels of communication between the administration and the country at large, both directly and indirectly, the importance of these projects can not be overestimated, for they all carry a tremendous appeal to the eye, the ear, or the intellect -- or all three. ''
This project was directed by Holger Cahill and in 1936, the peak for employment in this federal project, the Federal Art Project employed over 5,300 artists. The Arts Service Division created illustrations and posters for the WPA writers, musicians, and theaters. The Exhibition Division had public exhibitions of artwork from the WPA, and artists from the Art Teaching Division were employed in settlement houses and community centers to give classes to an estimated 50,000 children and adults. They set up over 100 art centers around the country that served an estimated eight million individuals.
Directed by Nikolai Sokoloff, former principal conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra, the Federal Music Project employed over 16,000 musicians at its peak. Its purpose was to establish different ensembles such as chamber groups, orchestras, choral units, opera units, concert bands, military bands, dance bands, and theater orchestras that gave an estimated 131,000 performances and programs to 92 million people each week. The Federal Music Project performed plays and dances, as well as radio dramas. In addition, the Federal Music Project gave music classes to an estimated 132,000 children and adults every week, recorded folk music, served as copyists, arrangers, and librarians to expand the availability of music, and experimented in music therapy. Sokoloff stated, "Music can serve no useful purpose unless it is heard, but these totals on the listeners ' side are more eloquent than statistics as they show that in this country there is a great hunger and eagerness for music. ''
This project was directed by Iowan Hallie Flanagan, and employed 12,700 performers at its peak. These performers presented more than 1,000 performances each month to almost one million people, produced 1,200 plays in the four years it was established, and introduced 100 new playwrights. Many performers later became successful in Hollywood including Orson Welles, John Houseman, Burt Lancaster, Joseph Cotten, Canada Lee, Will Geer, Joseph Losey, Virgil Thomson, Nicholas Ray, E.G. Marshall and Sidney Lumet. The Federal Theatre Project was the first project to end in June 1939 after four years from an end of funding from the federal government.
This project was directed by Henry Alsberg and employed 6,686 writers at its peak in 1936. By January 1939, more than 275 major books and booklets had been published by the FWP. Most famously, the FWP created the American Guide Series, which produced thorough guidebooks for every state that include descriptions of towns, waterways, historic sites, oral histories, photographs, and artwork. An association or group that put up the cost of publication sponsored each book, the cost was anywhere from $5,000 to $10,000. In almost all cases, the book sales were able to reimburse their sponsors. Additionally, another important part of this project was to record oral histories to create archives such as the Slave Narratives and collections of folklore. These writers also participated in research and editorial services to other government agencies.
This project was the smallest of Federal Project Number One and served to identify, collect, and conserve United States ' historical records. It is one of the biggest bibliographical efforts and was directed by Dr. Luther H. Evans. At its peak, this project employed more than 4,400 workers.
1940 WPA poster using Little Miss Muffet to promote reading among children.
WPA health education poster about cancer, c. 1936 -- 1938
Poster for the WPA shows various items that can be purchased at the 5 & 10 ¢ store
WPA poster advertising art classes for children
WPA poster promoting the zoo as a place to visit, showing an elephant
1936 WPA Poster for Federal Theatre Project presentation
WPA poster encouraging laborers to work for America
The share of Federal Emergency Relief Administration and WPA benefits for African Americans exceeded their proportion of the general population. The FERA 's first relief census reported that more than two million African Americans were on relief during early 1933, a proportion of the African - American population (17.8 %) that was nearly double the proportion of whites on relief (9.5 %). This was during the period of Jim Crow and racial segregation in the South, when blacks were largely disenfranchised.
By 1935, there were 3,500,000 African Americans (men, women and children) on relief, almost 35 percent of the African - American population; plus another 250,000 African - American adults were working on WPA projects. Altogether during 1938, about 45 percent of the nation 's African - American families were either on relief or were employed by the WPA.
Civil rights leaders initially objected that African Americans were proportionally underrepresented. African American leaders made such a claim with respect to WPA hires in New Jersey, stating, "In spite of the fact that Blacks indubitably constitute more than 20 percent of the State 's unemployed, they composed 15.9 % of those assigned to W.P.A. jobs during 1937. '' Nationwide in 1940, 9.8 % of the population were African American.
However, by 1941, the perception of discrimination against African Americans had changed to the point that the NAACP magazine Opportunity hailed the WPA:
It is to the eternal credit of the administrative officers of the WPA that discrimination on various projects because of race has been kept to a minimum and that in almost every community Negroes have been given a chance to participate in the work program. In the South, as might have been expected, this participation has been limited, and differential wages on the basis of race have been more or less effectively established; but in the northern communities, particularly in the urban centers, the Negro has been afforded his first real opportunity for employment in white - collar occupations.
The WPA mostly operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate, the National Youth Administration. Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; however of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black. Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation. ''
About 15 % of the household heads on relief were women, and youth programs were operated separately by the National Youth Administration. The average worker was about 40 years old (about the same as the average family head on relief).
WPA policies were consistent with the strong belief of the time that husbands and wives should not both be working (because the second person working would take one job away from some other breadwinner). A study of 2,000 female workers in Philadelphia showed that 90 % were married, but wives were reported as living with their husbands in only 18 percent of the cases. Only 2 percent of the husbands had private employment. Of the 2,000 women, all were responsible for one to five additional people in the household.
In rural Missouri, 60 % of the WPA - employed women were without husbands (12 % were single; 25 % widowed; and 23 % divorced, separated or deserted). Thus, only 40 % were married and living with their husbands, but 59 % of the husbands were permanently disabled, 17 % were temporarily disabled, 13 % were too old to work, and remaining 10 % were either unemployed or handicapped. Most of the women worked with sewing projects, where they were taught to use sewing machines and made clothing and bedding, as well as supplies for hospitals, orphanages, and adoption centers.
One WPA - funded project, the Pack Horse Library Project, mainly employed women to deliver books to rural areas in eastern Kentucky. Many of the women employed by the project were the sole breadwinners for their families.
The WPA had numerous critics, especially from conservatives. The strongest attacks were that it was the prelude for a national political machine on behalf of Roosevelt. Reformers secured the Hatch Act of 1939 that largely depoliticized the WPA.
Others complained that far left elements played a major role, especially in the New York City unit. Representative J. Parnell Thomas of the House Committee on Un-American Activities claimed in 1938 that divisions of the WPA were a "hotbed of Communists '' and "one more link in the vast and unparalleled New Deal propaganda network. ''
Much of the criticism of the distribution of projects and funding allotment is a result of the view that the decisions were politically motivated. The South, as the poorest region of the United States, received 75 percent less in federal relief and public works funds per capita than the West. Critics would point to the fact that Roosevelt 's Democrats could be sure of voting support from the South, whereas the West was less of a sure thing; swing states took priority over the other states.
There was a perception that WPA employees were not diligent workers, and that they had little incentive to give up their busy work in favor of productive jobs. Some employers said that the WPA instilled poor work habits and encouraged inefficiency. Some job applicants found that a WPA work history was viewed negatively by employers, who said they had formed poor work habits.
A Senate committee reported that, "To some extent the complaint that WPA workers do poor work is not without foundation.... Poor work habits and incorrect techniques are not remedied. Occasionally a supervisor or a foreman demands good work. '' The WPA and its workers were ridiculed as being lazy. The organization 's initials were said to stand for "We Poke Along '' or "We Putter Along '' or "We piddle around '' or "Whistle, Piss and Argue. '' These were sarcastic references to WPA projects that sometimes slowed down deliberately because foremen had an incentive to keep going, rather than finish a project.
The WPA 's Division of Investigation proved so effective in preventing political corruption "that a later congressional investigation could n't find a single serious irregularity it had overlooked, '' wrote economist Paul Krugman. "This dedication to honest government was n't a sign of Roosevelt 's personal virtue; rather, it reflected a political imperative. FDR 's mission in office was to show that government activism works. To maintain that mission 's credibility he needed to keep his administration 's record clean. And he did. ''
On December 23, 1938, after leading the WPA for 3.5 years, Harry Hopkins resigned and became the Secretary of Commerce. To succeed him Roosevelt appointed Francis C. Harrington, a colonel in the Army Corps of Engineers and the WPA 's chief engineer, who had been leading the Division of Engineering and Construction.
Following the passage of the Reorganization Act of 1939 in April 1939, the WPA was grouped with the Bureau of Public Roads, Public Buildings Branch of the Procurement Division, Branch of Buildings Management of the National Park Service, United States Housing Authority and the Public Works Administration under the newly created Federal Works Agency. Created at the same time, the Federal Security Agency assumed the WPA 's responsibility for the National Youth Administration. "The name of the Works Progress Administration has been changed to Work Projects Administration in order to make its title more descriptive of its major purpose, '' President Roosevelt wrote when announcing the reorganization.
As WPA projects became more subject to the state, local sponsors were called on to provide 25 % of project costs. As the number of public works projects slowly diminished, more projects were dedicated to preparing for war. Having languished since the end of World War I, the American military services were depopulated and served by crumbling facilities; when Germany occupied Czechoslovakia in 1938, the U.S. Army numbered only 176,000 soldiers.
On May 26, 1940, FDR delivered a fireside chat to the American people about "the approaching storm '', and on June 6 Harrington reprioritized WPA projects, anticipating a major expansion of the U.S. military. "Types of WPA work to be expedited in every possible way to include, in addition to airports and military airfields, construction of housing and other facilities for enlarged military garrisons, camp and cantonment construction, and various improvements in navy yards, '' Harrington said. He observed that the WPA had already made substantial contributions to national defense over its five years of existence, by building 85 percent of the new airports in the U.S. and making $420 million in improvements to military facilities. He predicted there would be 500,000 WPA workers on defense - related projects over the next 12 months, at a cost of $250 million. The estimated number of WPA workers needed for defense projects was soon revised to between 600,000 and 700,000. Vocational training for war industries was also begun by the WPA, with 50,000 trainees in the program by October 1940.
"Only the WPA, having employed millions of relief workers for more than five years, had a comprehensive awareness of the skills that would be available in a full - scale national emergency, '' wrote journalist Nick Taylor. "As the country began its preparedness buildup, the WPA was uniquely positioned to become a major defense agency. ''
Harrington died suddenly, aged 53, on September 30, 1940. Notably apolitical -- he boasted that he had never voted -- he had deflected Congressional criticism of the WPA by bringing attention to its building accomplishments and its role as an employer. Harrington 's successor, Howard O. Hunter, served as head of the WPA until May 1, 1942.
Unemployment ended with war production for World War II, as millions of men joined the services, and cost - plus contracts made it attractive for companies to hire unemployed men and train them.
Concluding that a national relief program was no longer needed, Roosevelt directed the Federal Works Administrator to end the WPA in a letter December 4, 1942. "Seven years ago I was convinced that providing useful work is superior to any and every kind of dole. Experience had amply justified this policy, '' FDR wrote:
By building airports, schools, highways, and parks; by making huge quantities of clothing for the unfortunate; by serving millions of lunches to school children; by almost immeasurable kinds and quantities of service the Work Projects Administration has reached a creative hand into every county in this Nation. It has added to the national wealth, has repaired the wastage of depression, and has strengthened the country to bear the burden of war. By employing eight millions of Americans, with thirty millions of dependents, it has brought to these people renewed hope and courage. It has maintained and increased their working skills; and it has enabled them once more to take their rightful places in public or in private employment.
Roosevelt ordered a prompt end to WPA activities to conserve funds that had been appropriated. Operations in most states ended February 1, 1943. With no funds budgeted for the next fiscal year, the WPA ceased to exist after June 30, 1943.
"The agencies of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration had an enormous and largely unrecognized role in defining the public space we now use '', wrote sociologist Robert D. Leighninger. "In a short period of ten years, the Public Works Administration, the Works Progress Administration, and the Civilian Conservation Corps built facilities in practically every community in the country. Most are still providing service half a century later. It is time we recognized this legacy and attempted to comprehend its relationship to our contemporary situation. ''
Alabama National Guard Armory, Guntersville, Alabama (1936)
Prairie County Courthouse, DeValls Bluff, Arkansas (1939)
Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles, California (1933)
Santa Ana City Hall, Santa Ana, California (1935)
Leon High School, Tallahassee, Florida (1936 -- 37)
Government House, St. Augustine, Florida (1937)
Fort Hawkins, Macon, Georgia (1936 -- 38)
Boise High School Gymnasium, Boise, Idaho (1936)
Midway International Airport, Chicago, Illinois (1935 -- 39)
Gregg Park Bandshell, Vincennes, Indiana (1939)
Canoe house, University of Iowa (1937)
Jenkins Culvert, Gove County, Kansas (1938)
Louisville Fire Department Headquarters, Louisville, Kentucky (1936)
Alvar Street Branch, New Orleans Public Library (1940)
WPA Field House and Pump Station, Scituate, Massachusetts (1938)
Detroit Naval Armory, Detroit, Michigan (1936 -- 39)
Brandon Auditorium and Fire Hall, Brandon, Minnesota (1936)
Milaca Municipal Hall, Milaca, Minnesota (1936)
Upland Auditorium, Upland, Nebraska (1936)
Jackie Robinson Play Center, Harlem, New York (1936)
LaGuardia Airport, Queens, New York (1937 -- 39)
U.S. Post Office, Rhinebeck, New York (1940)
Robeson County Agricultural Building, Lumberton, North Carolina (1937)
Emmons County Courthouse, Linton, North Dakota (1934)
Rubber Bowl Stadium, Akron, Ohio (1940)
Timberline Lodge, Mt. Hood National Forest, Oregon (1936 -- 38)
Oregon State Library, Salem, Oregon (1939)
Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1938 -- 39)
McCoy Stadium, Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1942)
Dock Street Theatre, Charleston, South Carolina (1937)
Liberty Colored High School, Liberty, South Carolina (1937)
Dinosaur Park, Rapid City, South Dakota (1936)
Bristol Municipal Stadium, Bristol, Tennessee (1934)
Dealey Plaza, Dallas, Texas (1940)
Schoolhouse, Lometa, Texas (1938 -- 40)
River Walk, San Antonio, Texas (1939)
City Library, Monroe, Utah (1934)
Bremerton Public Library, Bremerton, Washington (1938)
White Center Fieldhouse, White Center, Washington (1938 -- 40)
Raleigh County Courthouse, Beckley, West Virginia (1936 -- 37)
Carson Park Baseball Stadium, Eau Claire, Wisconsin (1937)
Mondeaux Lodge House, Westboro, Wisconsin (1936 -- 38)
Natrona County High School, Casper, Wyoming (1941)
WPA posters:
Libraries and the WPA:
WPA murals:
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how many types of tonsils do we have | Tonsil - wikipedia
Tonsils are collections of lymphoid tissue facing into the aerodigestive tract. The set of lymphatic tissue known as Waldeyer 's tonsillar ring includes the adenoid tonsil, two tubal tonsils, two palatine tonsils, and the lingual tonsil.
When used unqualified, the term most commonly refers specifically to the palatine tonsils, which are masses of lymphatic material situated at either side of the back of the human throat. The palatine tonsils and the nasopharyngeal tonsil are lymphoepithelial tissues located near the oropharynx and nasopharynx (parts of the throat).
Tonsils in humans include, from anterior (front), superior (top), posterior (back), and inferior (bottom):
Normally, each tonsil measures up to 2.5 cm in length, 2.0 cm in width and 1.2 cm in thickness.
Tonsils tend to reach their largest size near puberty, and they gradually undergo atrophy thereafter. However, they are largest relative to the diameter of the throat in young children.
These immunocompetent tissues are the immune system 's first line of defense against ingested or inhaled foreign pathogens, and as such frequently engorge with blood to assist in immune responses to common illnesses such as the common cold. Tonsils have on their surface specialized antigen capture cells called M cells that allow for the uptake of antigens produced by pathogens. These M cells then alert the underlying B cells and T cells in the tonsil that a pathogen is present and an immune response is stimulated. B cells are activated and proliferate in areas called germinal centres in the tonsil. These germinal centres are places where B memory cells are created and secretory antibody (IgA) is produced.
Recent studies have provided evidence that the tonsils produce T lymphocytes, also known as T - cells, in a manner similar to, but different from, the way the thymus does.
Tonsils can become enlarged (adenotonsillar hyperplasia) or inflamed (tonsillitis) and may require surgical removal (tonsillectomy). This may be indicated if they obstruct the airway or interfere with swallowing, or in patients with frequent recurrent tonsillitis. However, different mechanisms of pathogenesis for these two subtypes of tonsillar hypertrophy have been described, and may have different responses to identical therapeutic efforts. In older patients, asymmetric tonsils (also known as asymmetric tonsil hypertrophy) may be an indicator of virally infected tonsils, or tumors such as lymphoma or squamous cell carcinoma.
Tonsillitis is a disorder in which the tonsils are inflamed (sore and swollen). The most common way to treat it is with anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen, or if bacterial in origin, antibiotics, e.g. amoxicillin and azithromycin. Often severe and / or recurrent tonsillitis is treated by tonsillectomy.
A tonsillolith is material that accumulates on the tonsil. They can range up to the size of a peppercorn and are white / cream in color. The main substance is mostly calcium, but they have a strong unpleasant odor because of hydrogen sulfide and methyl mercaptan and other chemicals.
Tonsil enlargement can affect speech, making it hypernasal and giving it the sound of velopharyngeal incompetence (when space in the mouth is not fully separated from the nose 's air space). Tonsil size may have a more significant impact on upper airway obstruction for obese children than for those of average weight.
As mucosal lymphatic tissue of the aerodigestive tract, the tonsils are viewed in some classifications as belonging to both the gut - associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) and the mucosa - associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). Other viewpoints treat them (and the spleen and thymus) as large lymphatic organs contradistinguished from the smaller tissue loci of GALT and MALT.
Illustration of frontal view of tonsils
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where are richie and his mother when the film begins | La Bamba (film) - wikipedia
La Bamba is a 1987 American biographical film written and directed by Luis Valdez that follows the life and career of Chicano rock ' n ' roll star Ritchie Valens. The film stars Lou Diamond Phillips as Valens, Esai Morales, Rosanna DeSoto, Elizabeth Peña, Danielle von Zerneck, and Joe Pantoliano. The film depicts the effect Valens ' career had on the lives of his half - brother Bob Morales, his girlfriend Donna Ludwig and the rest of his family.
In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Richard Steven Valenzuela (Phillips) is a normal teenage boy who becomes a rock ' n ' roll superstar under the stage name Ritchie Valens. He meets and falls in love with high school classmate Donna Ludwig (von Zerneck), for whom he writes a song that became a number two hit ("Donna ''). However, Donna 's father is shown as having issues with his daughter dating a Mexican - American, which causes friction between Ritchie and Donna. The movie also has several subplots, such as his relationship with his mother Connie Valenzuela (DeSoto) and half - brother Bob Morales (Esai Morales), and the jealousy Bob felt toward Ritchie 's success.
In one scene, Bob wins an important art contest that helps promising cartoonists, only to throw away his prize because, in his mind, his mother does not seem to care enough. Bob resorts to drinking heavily and, at one point, leads him to yelling in a drunken rage in front of his mother 's door, "I want to see my daughter! '' in reference to the child he sired with Ritchie 's first girlfriend Rosie (Peña). However, when they get an opportunity, Ritchie and Bob sneak out for a good time. On one occasion, they take a road trip to Tijuana, visiting one of the local clubs where Ritchie discovers what would eventually become his signature song, "La Bamba ''.
Ritchie 's has a fear of flying, triggered by a recurring dream resulting from a midair collision between two planes over Ritchie 's school which killed his best friend. Ritchie initially manages to avoid flying to his concerts and appearances, but has to conquer his fear when invited to perform "Donna '' on American Bandstand. Ritchie 's record producer and manager, Bob Keane (Pantoliano), helps him by giving him a little vodka to calm his nerves during the flight to Philadelphia for the Bandstand appearance.
As Ritchie becomes more famous, his responsibilities change, and he eventually joins the ill - fated Winter Dance Party tour with Buddy Holly (Marshall Crenshaw) and "The Big Bopper '' (Stephen Lee) after "La Bamba '' and "Donna '' reach the top of the Billboard charts. Ritchie, Holly, and Bopper take off in an airplane during a snowstorm for their fateful flight on February 3, 1959. Before the ill - fated flight, Ritchie makes a call to his brother, wherein they patch up their differences. He even invites Bob to fly out to Chicago to join the tour for family support.
The next day, as Bob is fixing his mother 's car, he hears the news bulletin on the radio that his brother 's plane crashed without any survivors. Bob darts out of his driveway in an attempt to get to his mother before she hears the news. Unfortunately, by the time he gets there, she stands immobile. The news of Ritchie 's death hits the Valenzuela family, Bob, and Donna very hard. In the final scene, the cars to Ritchie 's funeral are shown driving slowly into San Fernando Mission Cemetery and Bob is then seen walking across a bridge and screaming out Ritchie 's name, remembering all the good times they had together, accompanied by the Santo & Johnny instrumental "Sleep Walk. ''
Lou Diamond Phillips (as Ritchie) is then shown in an earlier scene performing Valens ' version of "La Bamba '' accompanied by the closing credits. In the movie David Hidalgo of Los Lobos provided the singing voice.
Also featured are several members of the Valenzuela family and director Luis Valdez 's family, including:
The film opened in wide release in the United States on July 24, 1987. In Australia it opened on September 17, 1987.
In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $5,698,884. La Bamba eventually grossed $52,678,820 in the United States in 12 weeks.
Roger Ebert liked the film and the screenplay, writing, "This is a good small movie, sweet and sentimental, about a kid who never really got a chance to show his stuff. The best things in it are the most unexpected things: the portraits of everyday life, of a loving mother, of a brother who loves and resents him, of a kid growing up and tasting fame and leaving everyone standing around at his funeral shocked that his life ended just as it seemed to be beginning. ''
Janet Maslin, writing for The New York Times, was impressed with Lou Diamond Phillips ' performance, and wrote, "A film like this is quite naturally a showcase for its star, and as Valens, Lou Diamond Phillips has a sweetness and sincerity that in no way diminish the toughness of his onstage persona. The role is blandly written, but Mr. Phillips gives Valens backbone. ''
The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 96 % of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8 / 10.
Wins
Nominations
Because the movie is a celebration of 1950s rock and roller Ritchie Valens, his music and the music of his contemporaries play a central part in the film.
An original motion picture soundtrack album was released on June 30, 1987 on Warner Bros. Records. The album contained 12 tracks. The first six songs consist of Los Lobos covers of Ritchie Valens ' songs: "La Bamba '', "Come On Let 's Go '', "Ooh My Head '', "We Belong Together '', "Framed '', and "Donna ''.
Other performers include: Howard Huntsberry, Marshall Crenshaw, Brian Setzer, and Bo Diddley performing a new version of his blues classic "Who Do You Love? ''.
Some songs like The Big Bopper 's "Chantilly Lace '' were omitted from the release. Other omitted songs were "Oh Boy '', "Rip It Up '', "The Paddi Wack Song '' (written by Valens), and "Sleep Walk '' by Santo & Johnny (used in the final and initial scenes).
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Gary Lewis & The Playboys - 1965 - This Diamond Ring - Tijuana Wedding
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who the girl in you rock my world | You Rock My World - wikipedia
"You Rock My World '' is a song by American singer Michael Jackson from his tenth and final studio album released during his lifetime, Invincible (2001). It was released as the lead single from the album on August 22, 2001 by Epic Records. This was his last song to top various charts during his lifetime. Produced by Jackson and Rodney "Darkchild '' Jerkins and written by Jackson, Jerkins, Fred Jerkins III, LaShawn Daniels and Nora Payne, the song is musically a disco - pop song with influences from Jackson 's songs from his previous studio albums with Quincy Jones.
"You Rock My World '' was commercially successful worldwide and peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Jackson 's first top ten song in the United States in over six years, and his last in the country until "Love Never Felt So Good '' (a duet with Justin Timberlake) hit number 9 in 2014. This success was achieved on airplay alone, as the song was not released as a commercial single in the United States. "You Rock My World '' topped the French music chart for three consecutive weeks. It also reached the top ten in Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
As part of promotion for the song, a music video was released. The video, which is thirteen and a half minutes long, was directed by Paul Hunter and features Chris Tucker and Marlon Brando. In the video, Jackson and Tucker portray men who are trying to gain a woman 's affection. The video has been compared to Jackson 's previous videos "Smooth Criminal '' and "The Way You Make Me Feel '' and has received mixed reviews. The song was performed only twice by Jackson; at Madison Square Garden in New York City at two concerts in September 2001 to celebrate Jackson 's career as a solo artist. Footage of the performance was shown in the two - hour CBS television special, Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration. The track was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 44th Grammy Awards.
"You Rock My World '' was recorded by Michael Jackson for his studio album, Invincible (2001). The song was written and composed by Michael Jackson and produced by Jackson and Jerkins. "You Rock My World '' was officially released as the lead single from the album in mid-August 2001, by Epic Records. Prior to the singles official release it had been leaked to two New York radio stations on Friday, August 17. Immediately after the songs radio airplay the radio stations had received "a herd of (radio) callers asking for more. '' "You Rock My World '' was first played on the WJTM - FM station at 6 p.m., with WKTU - FM airing the song 45 minutes later. Both stations had played the single every two hours until around 6 p.m. Saturday, when Jackson 's record label, Epic Records, called the program director for both stations, Frankie Blue, who was also a friend of Jackson, and asked him to stop. Blue later recalled, "They informed me of the dangers of playing a song too early. '' He refused to say how the song came into his possession.
"You Rock My World '' is credited as being an uptempo disco - pop and R&B song that has vibrating vocal harmonies. The song is played in the time signature of common time in the key E minor, with Jackson 's vocal range spanning from the tonal nodes of E3 to Bb4. "You Rock My World '' has a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute. The chord progression in the song is Em7 -- C9 - Bm7 -- Am7 -- D -- Em7. The song 's composition has been compared to Jackson 's previous material with Quincy Jones from the 1970s and 1980s, as well as the disco - theme from Jackson 's 1979 single, "Do n't Stop ' Til You Get Enough ''. Chris Tucker voices the vocal introduction of the song while all the instruments heard on the track were played by Jackson and Rodney Jerkins. Lyrically, the song 's lyrics are about being in love, as well as the effect that it can have, as evident in the opening line, "My life will never be the same, ' cause, girl, you came and changed the way I walk, the way I talk, I can not explain ''.
"You Rock My World '' received generally mixed reviews from music critics. Praise was mainly directed at the song 's composition, while dissatisfaction towards the song was expressed by critics because they felt that the track was not Jackson 's best material. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic listed "You Rock My World '' as being a highlight for the Invincible album. Reviewer Andrew Hamilton, also of AllMusic, stated that, "If anybody other than Michael Jackson had released ' You Rock My World ' with the tons of publicity and promotion it was accorded, it would have slam dunked the charts and been a multiple award winner. It sold well and got play everywhere, but too many critics panned the song and the album it came from as not being good enough for an artist on Jackson 's level. '' Hamilton commented that people should "give Michael credit '' because he was able to maintain a respectable career as a recording artist over the years of his later career.
James Hunter of Rolling Stone praised the song 's vocal rhythms as being "finely sculpted '' and "exquisite ''. He noted that the song shows similarities to Jackson 's previous material with Quincy Jones. Mark Beaumont, a writer for NME, described the song as being a "disco classic '' and commented that he felt that the song 's brief intro was "funnier than Chris Evans on fire ''. Catherine Halaby of Yale Daily News stated that the song "showcases the best of ' classic Michael ' '', and described the song as being "funky, catchy, upbeat, not too creepy ''. "You Rock My World '' was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance - Male at the 44th Grammy Awards, but it lost the award to James Taylor 's "Do n't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight ''. It was Jackson 's first Grammy nomination since 1997, for his single "Earth Song '', and his first nomination in that category since 1995.
"You Rock My World '' was commercially successful, generally charting within the top ten positions on music charts worldwide. The song was one of Jackson 's last hit singles in the United States in the final years of his career. "You Rock My World '' charted within the top twenty positions on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 15, 2001. The following week, the song charted at its peak position, number ten. It became Jackson 's highest charting single since his 1995 number - one single, "You Are Not Alone ''. "You Rock My World '' also charted at number seven and thirteen on Billboard 's Pop chart and R&B / Hip - Hop Songs respectively. Notably, these chart positions were attained based on airplay alone, as no commercial single was issued in the United States. Fred Bronson, Billboard 's chart expert at the time, remarked, "Certainly, if a commercial single had been available, it would have peaked higher - perhaps even at no. 1 ''. The song also charted within the top ten positions, peaking at number two, on the Canadian RPM Hot 100 chart. "You Rock My World '' debuted on the United Kingdom Singles Chart at number two, which was its peak position in the country, on October 20. The song remained within the top twenty positions on the chart for four consecutive weeks, and remained within the top 100 positions for fifteen consecutive weeks from October 20, 2001, to January 26, 2002. "You Rock My World '' debuted on the French Singles Chart on October 13, 2001, at the number one position. The song remained at the number one position on the chart for three consecutive weeks, and remained within the top twenty positions for ten consecutive weeks. The song debuted on the Dutch Singles Charts at number four on October 20, and the following week, charted at its peak position, number two. "You Rock My World '' debuted on the Finnish Singles Chart on the forty first week of 2001, at its peak position, number two. After three weeks, the song fell off the charts.
The song debuted at its peak position, number two, in Norway in the 42nd second week of 2001. The song remained on the chart for six consecutive weeks, charting within the top twenty positions. "You Rock My World '' entered New Zealand charts on September 16, at number thirty one. After seven weeks, the song charted at its peak position, number thirteen, and remained on the chart for twelve weeks in 2001. "You Rock My World '' debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at its peak position, number four. After the song charted within the top fifty positions for five consecutive weeks, it fell off the chart, and re-entered two weeks later at number thirty seven, and fell off the chart for the second time on January 6, 2002. "You Rock My World '' debuted on the Italian Singles Chart on November 11, at its peak position number three, and remained within the top ten positions for four weeks in 2001. The song peaked at number two and four on the Belgium Flanders and Walonia charts in 2001. On the Austrian Singles Chart, the song debuted at its peak position, number nine, on October 21, and it remained on the chart for a total of eight weeks.
After Jackson 's death in June 2009, "You Rock My World '' re-entered music charts worldwide and re-entered Billboard charts for the first time in almost eight years. The song also peaked at number sixty two on Billboard 's Digital Songs chart on July 11, 2009. The song re-entered the United Kingdom Singles Chart on July 4, charting at number ninety - seven. The following week the song charted at its peak position, number sixty, and charted out of the top 100 positions after spending three weeks on the chart. "You Rock My World '' re-entered the Australian Singles Chart for the third time on July 19, at number fifty. The song remained on the chart for only one week.
In late August 2001, Jackson and Sony Music began a promotional campaign for "You Rock My World ''. As part of promotion for the single, as well as the album, Jackson made a public appearance by celebrating his 43rd birthday -- one day late -- by presiding over the NASDAQ market opening ceremony in Times Square on Thursday morning, on August 30, 2001. Jackson only performed "You Rock My World '' twice. The only performances of "You Rock My World '' was during two concerts in early September 2001, which was to celebrate Jackson 's 30th year as solo artist, at Madison Square Garden. Tucker, who is part of the song 's dialogue and video, was part of the live performance. Footage of the second concert on September 10 was shown in a two - hour television special, titled Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration, which was aired on CBS in November of the same year.
The music video for "You Rock My World '' was directed by Paul Hunter, and was released in 2001. The video, which is over thirteen minutes long, was described as being a short film. The dance performed during the video consists of fragments from the canceled "Dangerous '' music video. The video consists of Jackson 's and Tucker 's characters trying to gain a woman 's (Kishaya Dudley) affection by subsequently following her around the neighborhood. The video for "You Rock My World '' was thought to be the last music video to feature any participation from Jackson before the video for "One More Chance '' was unearthed (his following videos would consist of archive footage of himself and others). The video has been compared to Jackson 's previous 1980s music videos for his singles, "Smooth Criminal '' (1987), "Bad '' (1987), and "The Way You Make Me Feel '' (1987), all from his 1987 studio album, Bad. In the video, Jackson can be seen wearing a blazer and his traditional hat. The video features appearances from Marlon Brando, Michael Madsen and Billy Drago. The video won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Music Video at the award shows 2002 ceremony. In several instances in the video, Tucker 's character makes several references to previous songs by Michael Jackson, such as "Beat It '', "P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing) '', "The Girl Is Mine '', "Bad '', "Dangerous '', and "Billie Jean ''. The short version of the music video appears on Number Ones, and the long version appears on Michael Jackson 's Vision.
In Episode 10 of the first season of the CW series Hellcats, "Pledging My Love '', the cheerleading team, led by Derrick Altman (played by D.B. Woodside), danced to a shortened version of "You Rock My World '' as a means for Altman to propose to coach Vanessa Lodge (played by Sharon Leal). The number was choreographed by episode director Debbie Allen.
"You Rock My World '' was performed twice live during the 30th anniversary concerts performed in late 2001. In the second concert, he was joined by Usher and Chris Tucker at the end, who danced with him. It was the only full song from Invincible that Jackson had performed live. The song was set to be performed in his This Is It concerts on certain days replacing "The Way You Make Me Feel '', but he died before the concerts took place.
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episodic memory consists of personal facts and memories of one's personal history | Memory - wikipedia
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
Memory is vital to experiences and related to limbic systems, it is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, nor personal identity (Eysenck, 2012).
Often memory is understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short - term (or working) memory, and long - term memory (Baddely, 2007). This can be related to the neuron. The sensory processor allows information from the outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to with various levels of focus and intent. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor. Information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material. Finally, the function of long - term memory is to store data through various categorical models or systems (Baddely, 2007).
Explicit and implicit functions of memory are also known as declarative and non-declarative systems (Squire, 2009). These systems involve the purposeful intention of memory retrieval and storage, or lack thereof. Declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data (Graf & Schacter, 1985). Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning (Eysenck, 2012), while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane (Schacter & Addis, 2007; Szpunar, 2010). Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory (Eysenck, 2012).
Non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information (Foerde & Poldrack, 2009). An example of a non-declarative process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory, or a priming phenomenon (Eysenck, 2012; Foerde & Poldrack, 2009; Tulving & Schacter, 1990). Priming is the process of subliminally arousing specific responses from memory and shows that not all memory is consciously activated (Tulving & Schacter, 1990), whereas procedural memory is the slow and gradual learning of skills that often occurs without conscious attention to learning (Eysenck, 2012; Foerde & Poldrack, 2009).
Memory is not a perfect processor, and is affected by many factors. The manner information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted. The amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage (Eysenck, 2012). Also, the storage process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage, such as the hippocampus (Squire, 2009). Finally, the retrieval of information from long - term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long - term memory (Eysenck, 2012). Normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of memory.
Memory loss is usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia.
Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see '' more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted by George Sperling (1963) using the "partial report paradigm ''. Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report '' procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory can not be prolonged via rehearsal.
Three types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information; a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information, another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that have been perceived for short durations. Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a database for touch stimuli.
Short - term memory is also known as working memory. Short - term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short - term memory was 7 ± 2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7 ± 2 ''). Modern estimates of the capacity of short - term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4 -- 5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten - digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three - digit chunk (456) and lastly a four - digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.
Short - term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964) found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically. Conrad 's (1964) study, however, deals with the encoding of written text; thus, while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalisations to all forms of memory can not be made.
The storage in sensory memory and short - term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long - term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven - digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short - term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long - term memory.
While short - term memory encodes information acoustically, long - term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long - term. Another part of long - term memory is episodic memory, "which attempts to capture information such as ' what ', ' when ' and ' where ' ''. With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.
Short - term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long - term memory, on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short - term to long - term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. It was thought that without the hippocampus new memories were unable to be stored into long - term memory and that there would be a very short attention span, as first gleaned from patient Henry Molaison after what was thought to be the full removal of both his hippocampi. More recent examination of his brain, post-mortem, shows that the hippocampus was more intact than first thought, throwing theories drawn from the initial data into question. The hippocampus may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.
Research has suggested that long - term memory storage in humans may be maintained by DNA methylation, and the ' prion ' gene.
The multi-store model (also known as Atkinson -- Shiffrin memory model) was first described in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
The multi-store model has been criticised for being too simplistic. For instance, long - term memory is believed to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such as episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which information eventually reaches long - term storage, but evidence shows us capable of remembering things without rehearsal.
The model also shows all the memory stores as being a single unit whereas research into this shows differently. For example, short - term memory can be broken up into different units such as visual information and acoustic information. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986), patient ' KF ' demonstrated certain deviations from the Atkinson -- Shiffrin model. Patient KF was brain damaged, displaying difficulties regarding short - term memory. Recognition of sounds such as spoken numbers, letters, words and easily identifiable noises (such as doorbells and cats meowing) were all impacted. Visual short - term memory was unaffected, suggesting a dichotomy between visual and audial memory.
In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a "working memory model '' that replaced the general concept of short - term memory with an active maintenance of information in the short - term storage. In this model, working memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo - spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer (Baddeley 's model of working memory).
The central executive essentially acts as an attention sensory store. It channels information to the three component processes: the phonological loop, the visuo - spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.
The phonological loop stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop: the articulatory process (for example the repetition of a telephone number over and over again). A short list of data is easier to remember.
The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (such as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the windows on a house or imagining images).
The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long - term memory and semantical meaning.
The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word - length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague. Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics.
Researchers distinguish between recognition and recall memory. Recognition memory tasks require individuals to indicate whether they have encountered a stimulus (such as a picture or a word) before. Recall memory tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned information. For example, individuals might be asked to produce a series of actions they have seen before or to say a list of words they have heard before.
Topographic memory involves the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places. Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic memory.
Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of unique and highly emotional events. People remembering where they were or what they were doing when they first heard the news of President Kennedy 's assassination, the Sydney Siege or of 9 / 11 are examples of flashbulb memories.
Anderson (1976) divides long - term memory into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories.
Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.
Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, concerning information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France ''. Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Episodic memories often reflect the "firsts '' in life such as a first kiss, first day of school or first time winning a championship. These are key events in one 's life that can be remembered clearly. Autobiographical memory -- memory for particular events within one 's own life -- is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon.
In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. It can best be summarized as remembering how to do something. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition -- no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
A characteristic of procedural memory is that the things remembered are automatically translated into actions, and thus sometimes difficult to describe. Some examples of procedural memory include the ability to ride a bike or tie shoelaces.
Another major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospective memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event - and time - based prospective remembering. Time - based prospective memories are triggered by a time - cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event - based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox / letter example), and lists, sticky - notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to enhance prospective memory.
Infants do not have the language ability to report on their memories and so verbal reports can not be used to assess very young children 's memory. Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants ' recognition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess infants ' recognition memory and the deferred and elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants ' recall memory.
Techniques used to assess infants ' recognition memory include the following:
Techniques used to assess infants ' recall memory include the following:
Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older children and adults ' memory. Some examples are:
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory.
Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are usually attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long - term potentiation and long - term depression. However, this has been questioned on computational as well as neurophysiological grounds by the cognitive scientist Charles R. Gallistel and others.
In general, the more emotionally charged an event or experience is, the better it is remembered; this phenomenon is known as the memory enhancement effect. Patients with amygdala damage, however, do not show a memory enhancement effect.
Hebb distinguished between short - term and long - term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short - term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long - term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage. This memory loss includes retrograde amnesia which is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the time of brain damage.
Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience - independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after - effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007).
One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Convergence - divergence zones might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved. Considering that there are several kinds of memory, depending on types of represented knowledge, underlying mechanisms, processes functions and modes of acquisition, it is likely that different brain areas support different memory systems and that they are in mutual relationships in neuronal networks: "components of memory representation are distributed widely across different parts of the brain as mediated by multiple neocortical circuits ''.
Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy. A notable initial success was the association of APOE with memory dysfunction in Alzheimer 's Disease. The search for genes associated with normally varying memory continues. One of the first candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene KIBRA, which appears to be associated with the rate at which material is forgotten over a delay period. There has been some evidence that memories are stored in the nucleus of neurons.
Up until the mid-1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information. A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6 - months can recall information after a 24 - hour delay. Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6 - month - olds can recall information after a 24 - hour period, 9 - month - olds after up to five weeks, and 20 - month - olds after as long as twelve months. In addition, studies have shown that with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas 14 - month - olds can recall a three - step sequence after being exposed to it once, 6 - month - olds need approximately six exposures in order to be able to remember it.
Although 6 - month - olds can recall information over the short - term, they have difficulty recalling the temporal order of information. It is only by 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions of a two - step sequence in the correct temporal order -- that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2. In other words, when asked to imitate a two - step action sequence (such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9 - month - olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6 - month - olds) can only recall one step of a two - step sequence. Researchers have suggested that these age differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6 - months.
In fact, the term ' infantile amnesia ' refers to the phenomenon of accelerated forgetting during infancy. Importantly, infantile amnesia is not unique to humans, and preclinical research (using rodent models) provides insight into the precise neurobiology of this phenomenon. A review of the literature from behavioral neuroscientist Dr Jee Hyun Kim suggests that accelerated forgetting during early life is at least partly due to rapid growth of the brain during this period.
One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer 's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer 's (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals ' performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal order in which they learned information; source memory tasks that require them to remember the specific circumstances or context in which they learned information; and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example.
Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain 's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer 's disease and Parkinson 's disease can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that affects an individual 's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they can not forget small details that otherwise would not be stored. Korsakoff 's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff 's psychosis, amnesic - confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the prefrontal cortex.
While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of word retrieval from memory is the tip - of - the - tongue phenomenon. Sufferers of Anomic aphasia (also called Nominal aphasia or Anomia), however, do experience the tip - of - the - tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.
Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French -- this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.
Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats. An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans. In this study, 48 healthy female and male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or ' Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test ') for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty - four hours later, both groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) as well as how many they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30 % fewer words than the control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.
However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even when learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. Seventy - two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards -- a computerized version of the card game "Concentration '' or "Memory ''. The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again present, or in a different room without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object - location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.
This research on the effects of stress on memory may have practical implications for education, for eyewitness testimony and for psychotherapy: students may perform better when tested in their regular classroom rather than an exam room, eyewitnesses may recall details better at the scene of an event than in a courtroom, and persons suffering from post-traumatic stress may improve when helped to situate their memories of a traumatic event in an appropriate context.
Stressful life experiences may be a cause of memory loss as a person ages. Glucocorticoids that are released during stress, damage neurons that are located in the hippocampal region of the brain. Therefore, the more stressful situations that someone encounters, the more susceptible they are to memory loss later on. The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus are destroyed due to glucocorticoids decreasing the release of glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This high level of extracellular glutamate allows calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in return kills neurons. Stressful life experiences can also cause repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind. This directly relates to traumatic events in one 's past such as kidnappings, being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a child.
The more long term the exposure to stress is, the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the function of the hippocampus. Research shows that subjects placed in a stressful situation for a short amount of time still have blood glucocorticoid levels that have increased drastically when measured after the exposure is completed. When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they often have difficulties. Prenatal stress also hinders the ability to learn and memorize by disrupting the development of the hippocampus and can lead to unestablished long term potentiation in the offspring of severely stressed parents. Although the stress is applied prenatally, the offspring show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are subjected to stress later on in life.
Making memories occurs through a three - step process, which can be enhanced by sleep. The three steps are as follows:
Sleep affects memory consolidation. During sleep, the neural connections in the brain are strengthened. This enhances the brain 's abilities to stabilize and retain memories. There have been several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory, as memories are enhanced through active consolidation. System consolidation takes place during slow - wave sleep (SWS). This process implicates that memories are reactivated during sleep, but that the process does n't enhance every memory. It also implicates that qualitative changes are made to the memories when they are transferred to long - term store during sleep. During sleep, the hippocampus replays the events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortex then reviews and processes memories, which moves them into long - term memory. When one does not get enough sleep it makes it more difficult to learn as these neural connections are not as strong, resulting in a lower retention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes it harder to focus, resulting in inefficient learning. Furthermore, some studies have shown that sleep deprivation can lead to false memories as the memories are not properly transferred to long - term memory. One of the primary functions of sleep is thought to be the improvement of the consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test. Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day, suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal.
Although people often think that memory operates like recording equipment, it is not the case. The molecular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct phases covering a time window from seconds to even a lifetime. In fact, research has revealed that our memories are constructed: "current hypotheses suggest that constructive processes allow individuals to simulate and imagine future episodes, happenings, and scenarios. Since the future is not an exact repetition of the past, simulation of future episodes requires a complex system that can draw on the past in a manner that flexibly extracts and recombines elements of previous experiences -- a constructive rather than a reproductive system. '' People can construct their memories when they encode them and / or when they recall them. To illustrate, consider a classic study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) in which people were instructed to watch a film of a traffic accident and then asked about what they saw. The researchers found that the people who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? '' gave higher estimates than those who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? '' Furthermore, when asked a week later whether they had seen broken glass in the film, those who had been asked the question with smashed were twice more likely to report that they had seen broken glass than those who had been asked the question with hit. There was no broken glass depicted in the film. Thus, the wording of the questions distorted viewers ' memories of the event. Importantly, the wording of the question led people to construct different memories of the event -- those who were asked the question with smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they had actually seen. The findings of this experiment were replicated around the world, and researchers consistently demonstrated that when people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation effect.
Research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced could result in false memories. For instance, Goff and Roediger (1998) asked participants to imagine that they performed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then later asked them whether they had done such a thing. Findings revealed that those participants who repeatedly imagined performing such an act were more likely to think that they had actually performed that act during the first session of the experiment. Similarly, Garry and her colleagues (1996) asked college students to report how certain they were that they experienced a number of events as children (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and then two weeks later asked them to imagine four of those events. The researchers found that one - fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children. That is, when asked to imagine the events they were more confident that they experienced the events.
Research reported in 2013 revealed that it is possible to artificially stimulate prior memories and artificially implant false memories in mice. Using optogenetics, a team of RIKEN - MIT scientists caused the mice to incorrectly associate a benign environment with a prior unpleasant experience from different surroundings. Some scientists believe that the study may have implications in studying false memory formation in humans, and in treating PTSD and schizophrenia.
A UCLA research study published in the June 2008 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy '' diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long - term follow - up was conducted; it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly improve memory known as the art of memory.
The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a report which includes in pages 14 -- 16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay intellectually active through learning, training or reading, to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition.
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is cramming: an intensive memorization in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so - called Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.
Plants lack a specialized organ devoted to memory retention, and so plant memory has been a controversial topic in recent years. New advances in the field have identified the presence of neurotransmitters in plants, adding to the hypothesis that plants are capable of remembering. Action potentials, a physiological response characteristic of neurons, have been shown to have an influence on plants as well, including in wound responses and photosynthesis. In addition to these homologous features of memory systems in both plants and animals, plants have also been observed to encode, store and retrieve basic short - term memories.
One of the most well - studied plants to show rudimentary memory is the Venus flytrap. Native to the subtropical wetlands of the eastern United States, Venus Fly Traps have evolved the ability to obtain meat for sustenance, likely due to the lack of nitrogen in the soil. This is done by two trap - forming leaf tips that snap shut once triggered by a potential prey. On each lobe, three triggers hairs await stimulation. In order to maximize the benefit to cost ratio, the plant enables a rudimentary form of memory in which two trigger hairs must be stimulated within 30 seconds in order to result in trap closure. This system ensures that the trap only closes when potential prey is within grasp.
The time lapse between trigger hair stimulations suggests that the plant can remember an initial stimulus long enough for a second stimulus to initiate trap closure. This memory is n't encoded in a brain, as plants lack this specialized organ. Rather, information is stored in the form of cytoplasmic calcium levels. The first trigger causes a subthreshold cytoplasmic calcium influx. This initial trigger is n't enough to activate trap closure, and so a subsequent stimulus allows for a secondary influx of calcium. The latter calcium rise superimposes on the initial one, creating an action potential that passes threshold, resulting in trap closure. Researchers, to prove that an electrical threshold must be met to stimulate trap closure, excited a single trigger hair with a constant mechanical stimulus using Ag / AgCl electrodes. The trap closed after only a few seconds. This experiment gave evidence to demonstrate that the electrical threshold, not necessarily the number of trigger hair stimulations, was the contributing factor in Venus Fly Trap memory. It has been shown that trap closure can be blocked using uncouplers and inhibitors of voltage - gated channels. After trap closure, these electrical signals stimulate glandular production of jasmonic acid and hydrolases, allowing for digestion of the prey.
The field of plant neurobiology has gained a large amount of interest over the past decade, leading to an influx of research regarding plant memory. Although the Venus flytrap is one of the more highly studied, many other plants exhibit the capacity to remember, including the Mimosa pudica through an experiment conducted by Monica Gagliano and colleagues in 2013. As the field expands, it is likely that we will learn more about the capacity of a plant to remember.
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where is pirates of the caribbean 4 filmed | Pirates of the Caribbean: on Stranger Tides - Wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides is a 2011 American fantasy swashbuckler film, the fourth installment in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to At World 's End (2007). It is the first film in the series not to be directed by Gore Verbinski, being replaced by Rob Marshall. Jerry Bruckheimer again served as producer. The film is technically a stand - alone sequel to the previous installments. In the film, which draws its plot loosely from the novel On Stranger Tides by Tim Powers, Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) is joined by Angelica (Penélope Cruz) in his search for the Fountain of Youth, confronting the infamous pirate Blackbeard (Ian McShane). The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and released in the United States on May 20, 2011. It was the first film in the series to be released in the Disney Digital 3 - D and IMAX 3D formats.
Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio first learned of Powers ' novel On Stranger Tides during the back - to - back production of Dead Man 's Chest (2006) and At World 's End, and considered it a good starting point for a new film in the series. Pre-production started after the end of the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, with Depp collaborating with the writers on the story design. Principal photography lasted for 106 days between June and November 2010, with locations in Hawaii, the United Kingdom, Puerto Rico and California. Filming employed 3D cameras similar to those used in the production of the 2009 film Avatar, and ten companies were involved with the film 's visual effects. Following inflated production costs ballooned the net budget to $379 million, the film is currently regarded as the most expensive film ever made.
On Stranger Tides broke many box office records upon release, was the third highest - grossing film of 2011, and it stands as the 26th - highest - grossing film of all time worldwide when not adjusting for inflation. Critical reviews were mixed, with the film receiving criticism over its writing, directing, excessiveness and lack of originality; positive mentions were given on the acting, action sequences, music, visuals and the running time for being much shorter than the previous two films. A fifth film, titled Dead Men Tell No Tales, was released in 2017.
After a failed attempt to rescue his first mate, Joshamee Gibbs, in London, Captain Jack Sparrow is brought before King George II. The king wants Jack to guide an expedition to the Fountain of Youth before King Ferdinand and the Spanish Navy can locate it. Jack 's old nemesis, Captain Hector Barbossa, now a privateer in service to the British Navy after losing his leg and ship, the Black Pearl, which he says was sunk, is heading the expedition.
Jack refuses the offer and escapes. He meets up with his father, Captain Teague, who warns Jack about the Fountain 's rituals. Jack learns someone is impersonating him to recruit a crew to find the Fountain. The impostor is Angelica, Jack 's former lover, and the daughter of the ruthless pirate Blackbeard, who practices voodoo magic and wields the mythical "Sword of Triton '' that controls his ship, the Queen Anne 's Revenge. While Jack is shanghaied aboard Blackbeard 's ship, Gibbs escapes execution by memorizing and destroying Jack 's map showing the Fountain 's location, forcing Barbossa to take him along.
Meanwhile, after a failed mutiny aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge, Jack is forced to guide the crew to the Fountain. Blackbeard seeks the Fountain 's power to circumvent his predestined fatal encounter with a "one - legged man '', who happened to be Barbossa. Jack must find two silver chalices aboard Juan Ponce de León 's missing flagship, the Santiago. The Fountain 's water must simultaneously be drunk by two people from the chalices. Drinking from one chalice containing a mermaid 's tear will extend life; the second person dies, their remaining years of life transferred to the other drinker. Jack also discovers that the Black Pearl was captured and shrunk before being added to Blackbeard 's collection of other shrunken ships in bottles.
The Queen Anne 's Revenge heads for Whitecap Bay to find and harvest mermaid tears. After managing to lure in a mermaid named Tamara, she summons other mermaids to attack the crew before Jack causes an explosion that scares them away. A mermaid named Syrena is caught, but Philip Swift, a captive missionary, falls in love with her. Reaching Ponce de León 's ship on an uncharted island, Angelica and Blackbeard coerce Jack into retrieving both chalices. Jack locates the grounded, decaying vessel, only to find Barbossa there. Both guess that the Spanish have taken the chalices, after they are nowhere to be found on the vessel.
Jack and Barbossa team up to sneak into the Spanish camp and steal the chalices. Barbossa reveals he only wants revenge against Blackbeard for attacking the Black Pearl, and his leg being amputated. Jack and Barbossa escape with the chalices. Meanwhile, Syrena, reciprocating Philip 's love, is tricked into shedding a tear. Blackbeard collects it, leaving her to die of dehydration while Philip is forced to go with them. Jack returns with the chalices and bargains with Blackbeard for Angelica 's safety, Jack 's confiscated magical compass (which they took from him before sending him to get the chalices), and Gibbs ' release. In return, Jack vows to give Blackbeard the chalices and lead him to the Fountain; Blackbeard agrees, and Gibbs is set free with the compass.
At the Fountain, Blackbeard 's crew is confronted by Barbossa and his men and they battle while Barbossa and Blackbeard fight. The Spanish suddenly arrive, intending to destroy the Fountain, believing its power an abomination against God. They crush the chalices and throw them in the swamp. When Barbossa stabs Blackbeard with a poisoned sword, Angelica pulls it out but is cut and poisoned. Jack notices Angelica is poisoned and begins frantically searching the swamp for the chalices. Barbossa obtains Blackbeard 's magic sword and gains control of the Queen Anne 's Revenge and her crew. Despite resistance from Blackbeard 's crew, the Spanish successfully pull down a pillar, crushing the Fountain of Youth. The Spanish army leaves once the fountain is in ruins. Philip is mortally wounded, but he returns to free Syrena. She helps Jack retrieve the missing chalices and gives them to him, telling him not to waste her tear. Syrena goes back to the dying Philip. She says she can save him if he asks her to. When he asks for her forgiveness, she kisses him and takes him underwater.
With Blackbeard and Angelica both nearing death, Jack retrieves the last remaining drops of water from the destroyed fountain and puts the tear in one of them. Knowing that one of them must be sacrificed, he wants Angelica to drink from the chalice containing the tear. Instead, Blackbeard drinks it, asking his daughter to save him. Angelica agrees and drinks from the second chalice. Jack is upset to lose Angelica, but reveals that he made a mistake about which chalice contained the tear. Neither of the two are happy, and they both believe Jack deliberately tricked them. Angelica 's wounds are healed as the Fountain fatally consumes Blackbeard 's body, killing him.
Eventually, Jack and Angelica admit their love for each other, yet he distrusts her intentions (aware that she may try to avenge her father) and strands her on a cay. Now wielding Blackbeard 's magical sword, Barbossa captains the Queen Anne 's Revenge and returns to piracy. Jack finds Gibbs, who had used the compass to locate the Revenge. He reclaims the shrunken Black Pearl and the other conquered ships in bottles, carrying them in a gunny sack. The two leave, hoping to revert the Black Pearl to its original size and continue living the pirates ' life.
In a post-credits scene, a voodoo doll of Jack crafted by Blackbeard washes ashore and is found by Angelica, who then smiles.
Shortly before the premiere of At World 's End, Jerry Bruckheimer stated it was the end of the trilogy, but the idea of a spin - off was still possible. After the film 's successful opening weekend, Dick Cook, then Chairman of the Walt Disney Studios, said he was interested in a fourth installment. Los Angeles Times also reported that rights to a book were bought. Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio had started working on a script in 2007, but they were interrupted by the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, and only resumed in mid-2008.
In June 2009, Bruckheimer indicated Disney would prefer the fourth installment of Pirates to be released before The Lone Ranger film, which he, Johnny Depp, Ted Elliott, and Terry Rossio had been working on for release on May 20, 2011. He hoped Gore Verbinski would return to direct the fourth film, as his BioShock film adaptation had been put on hold. As Verbinski was unavailable due to his commitment with Rango the same year, Bruckheimer suggested Rob Marshall, who he considered a "premiere filmmaker '', stating that "Every film (Marshall) made I thought was unique and different. '' On July 21, 2009, Marshall accepted the job, because of the "whole new story line and set of characters. It felt new, and that was important to me. '' Marshall said the film provided him a long - awaited opportunity to work with Depp, and that his directing was helped by his experience as a choreographer -- "the action sequences felt like big production numbers. '' On September 11, 2009, at Disney 's D23 convention during a Disney event, Cook and Johnny Depp, in full Captain Jack Sparrow costume, announced that a fourth Pirates film was in development. The title was announced as Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. Marshall visited the Pirates of the Caribbean ride in Disneyland for inspiration, eventually paying homage with a skeleton holding a magnifying glass in Ponce de León 's ship. An appearance of "Old Bill '', the pirate who tries to share his rum with a cat, was also filmed but cut. Pintel and Ragetti were originally supposed to make an appearance, but director Rob Marshall opted out of the idea as he feared their roles would be cut.
Cook resigned in September 2009 after working for Disney for over 38 years. Depp 's faith in Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides was somewhat shaken after the resignation, with Depp explaining that "There 's a fissure, a crack in my enthusiasm at the moment. It was all born in that office ''. Depp also explained Cook was one of the few who accepted his portrayal of Jack Sparrow: "When things went a little sideways on the first Pirates movie and others at the studio were less than enthusiastic about my interpretation of the character, Dick was there from the first moment. He trusted me ''.
During production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End, writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio discovered Tim Powers ' 1987 novel On Stranger Tides, which they considered a good foundation on which to base "a new chapter '' in the Pirates series. Disney bought the rights to the novel in April 2007. Rossio stated that he and Elliot had considered using Blackbeard and the Fountain of Youth in the story before reading the book, "but whenever you say those words, Powers ' novel comes to mind. There was no way we could work in that field without going into territory Tim had explored. '' However, they denied that it would be a straight version of the novel: "Blackbeard came from the book, and in the book there is a daughter character, too. But Jack Sparrow is not in the book, nor is Barbossa. So I would n't call this an adaptation. '' Rossio declared the script was written to be a standalone film, "kind of a James Bond sort of thing '', instead of the "designed to be a trilogy '' structure of the previous installments. They hoped to "design a story that would support new characters, '' as characters such as Will Turner would not return. Bruckheimer added that there was a decision to "streamline the story a little bit, make it a little simpler and not have as many characters to follow '', as the number of characters and subplots in At World 's End caused the film to have an unwieldy length. The duo decided to employ another sea myth alluded in the previous episodes: mermaids, which are briefly referenced in the book. The mermaids ' role expanded in the script, which included a vast attack sequence.
Depp was deeply involved with the story design, frequently meeting the writers to show what he was interested in doing, and in the words of Rossio, being "involved in coming up with story lines, connecting characters, creating moments that we would then fashion, shape and then go back. '' Among Depp 's suggestions were turning Phillip into a missionary and having a Spanish contingent following the protagonists. Afterwards, Rob Marshall and executive producer John DeLuca met Rossio and Elliot, and did alterations of their own, including building the female lead.
Depp signed on to return as Captain Jack Sparrow in September 2008, saying that he would come back if the script was good. Almost a year later, Disney announced that Depp would be paid $55.5 million for his role, realizing that without him the franchise would be "dead and buried. '' Geoffrey Rush expressed interest in returning to his role as Barbossa, and Bruckheimer later confirmed his presence. Rush was positive on Barbossa having lost a leg, as he considered the disability made him "angrier, more forceful and resilient as a character '', and had to work with the stunt team for an accurate portrayal of the limp and usage of crutch, particularly during sword fighting scenes. While the production team considered a prop pegleg to be put over Rush 's leg, the tight schedule caused it to be replaced with a blue sock that was replaced digitally, with a knob on the shoe to give Rush a reference for his walk. Three other actors from the previous films returned, Kevin McNally as Joshamee Gibbs, Greg Ellis as Lt. Theodore Groves, and Damian O'Hare as Lt. Gilette. Keith Richards also had a cameo, reprising his role as Captain Teague from At World 's End; he and Depp tried to persuade Mick Jagger to audition for the part of a pirate elder. Previous cast members Orlando Bloom and Keira Knightley stated that they would not reprise their roles, as they wanted to be involved in different films. They both thought the storyline involving their characters had gone as far as it could. On August 1, 2009, Bill Nighy expressed his desire to return as Davy Jones, who died in the previous film, saying the possibility to resurrect the character, but at the end, his inclusion was scrapped. On February 5, 2010, Mackenzie Crook also announced he would not be reprising his role of Ragetti, stating, "They have n't asked me. But actually I do n't mind that at all. I 'm a fan of the first one especially and I think the trilogy we 've made is great. I 'd almost like them to leave it there. ''
New cast members include Ian McShane, who plays the notorious pirate and primary antagonist of the film, Blackbeard, and Penélope Cruz, who plays Angelica, Jack Sparrow 's love interest. According to Marshall, McShane was chosen because "he can play something evil but there 's always humor behind it as well '' and the actor accepted the job due to both the "very funny and charming '' script and the opportunity to work with Marshall. The beard took one hour and a half to get applied, and McShane likened the character 's costume to "a real biker pirate -- it 's all black leather. '' Marshall said Cruz was the only actress considered for the role, as she fit the description as "an actress who could not only go toe to toe with Johnny and match him, but also needed to be all the things that Jack Sparrow is in a way. She needed to be funny and clever and smart and crafty and beautiful '', and invited her for the role as they wrapped the production of Nine. The actress spent two months working out and learning fencing for the role. During filming, Cruz discovered she was pregnant, leading the costume department to redesign her wardrobe to be more elastic, and the producers to hire her sister Mónica Cruz to double for Penélope in risky scenes. Depp recommended Stephen Graham, who worked with him in Public Enemies, to play Scrum, a Machiavellian pirate and sidekick to Jack Sparrow, and Richard Griffiths for the role of King George II, as Depp was a fan of Griffiths ' work on Withnail and I. Sam Claflin, a recent drama school graduate with television experience, was chosen to play the missionary Philip, and British actor Paul Bazely also joined the cast. Spanish news website El Pais reported that the film had four Spanish actors: Cruz, Bergès - Frisbey, Óscar Jaenada, and Juan Carlos Vellido. Jaenada was picked for both his work in The Losers and a recommendation by Cruz.
Casting for mermaids required the actresses to have natural breasts -- no implants. As Bruckheimer explained to EW, "I do n't think they had breast augmentation in the 1700s, (...) So it 's natural for casting people to say, ' We want real people. ' '' Marshall invited Spanish - French actress Àstrid Bergès - Frisbey to play Syrena after seeing her in a French magazine article on up - and - coming actresses. Bergès - Frisbey had to take lessons of English, swimming and breath control for the role. The rest of the mermaid portrayers, such as Australian supermodel Gemma Ward, were chosen for having "exotic sense, an otherworldly sensibility, but also under those layers a deadly quality '', according to Marshall, and had to take swimming lessons to learn movements such as the dolphin and eggbeater kicks.
Principal photography began on June 14, 2010, in Hawaii. Filming was moved to California in August 2010, primarily at the Long Beach shore and a recreation of Whitecap Bay done in the Universal Studios backlot, as the original Hawaiian location on Halona Cove was plagued with strong tides. After a brief shoot in Puerto Rico, with locations in both Palomino Island and the Fort of San Cristóbal in San Juan, production moved to the United Kingdom in September, where principal photography wrapped on November 18 after 106 days of shooting. Locations included Hampton Court Palace in London, Knole House in Kent, and Old Royal Naval College at Greenwich. Interiors were shot at London 's Pinewood Studios, and a replica of an 18th - century London street was built on the backlot alongside the soundstages. The producers also considered using New Orleans as a location. In October, security was breached at the UK site when a celebrity impersonator gained access to filming at the Old Royal Naval College by dressing up as Captain Jack.
After the joint production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End cost over $300 million, Disney decided to give a lower budget to the fourth installment. Many costs had to be cut, including moving primary production to Hawaii and London, where tax credits are more favorable, and having a shorter shooting schedule and fewer scenes featuring special effects compared to At World 's End. The tighter schedule -- according to Bruckheimer, "We had a 22 - week post, and for a picture like this, with almost 1,200 visual effects shots, it 's usually 40 weeks '' -- meant that Marshall supervised editing of sequences during filming. The British financial statements of the film revealed total expenditures of £ 240.7 million ($410.6 million) by 2013, with Disney receiving a rebate of $32.1 million from the British government, making Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides the most expensive film ever made to date.
Bruckheimer said the decision to film in 3D was made due to its being "immersive filmmaking; I think it makes you part of the actual filming because you 're part of the screen. '' Bruckheimer described it as the first major "exterior movie '' to be shot in 3D, as Avatar was mostly done in sound stages. At first Marshall was not much interested in 3D, but the director eventually considered it a film that could benefit from the format. "You are on an adventure and with the 3D experience you are inside that adventure. '' While the original plan was to add 3D effects during post-production, the decision was made to shoot digitally with 3D cameras. Only one sequence was shot conventionally and needed a 3D conversion. The cameras were improved versions of the ones James Cameron developed for Avatar, which were made more compact for extra mobility. This meant the cameras could be brought into locations such as the Hawaiian jungle.
The Queen Anne 's Revenge was built atop the Sunset, the same ship used to depict the Black Pearl in previous installments. On February 2010, the Sunset was sailed from Long Beach to a shipyard in Hawaii for the reforms, where a big concern was to make it imposing, with three stories, without sacrificing actual seakeeping. Given Blackbeard was meant to be the meanest pirate to appear in the series, the look for the Queen Anne 's Revenge was ominous, with sails dyed blood red, various elements on fire, and a decoration based on skulls and bones (drawing inspiration from the Sedlec Ossuary in Czech Republic). Damage from cannon fire was also added to show that "not only Blackbeard was a dying man, but his ship is also a dying ship ''. The ship 's figurehead also drew inspiration from Blackbeard 's pirate flag. The replica ship HMS Surprise was used for Barbossa 's ship, the HMS Providence, and all the scenes aboard the Providence were shot on the Long Beach shore as the Surprise could not be sailed to Hawaii. Over 50 designs were considered for the Fountain of Youth, with the final one representing a temple built by an ancient civilization around the Fountain, which itself was located in a round rocky structure to represent "the circle of life ''. The locations leading up to the Fountain were shot in the Hawaiian islands of Kauai and Oahu, but the Fountain itself was built at the 007 Stage on Pinewood.
On Stranger Tides employed 1,112 shots of computer - generated imagery, which were done by ten visual effects companies. Cinesite visual effects supervisor Simon Stanley - Clamp claimed that the most difficult part was doing the effects in 3D: "Rotoscoping is tricky. Cleaning up plates is double the work, and tracking has to be spot on. '' The lead companies, with over 300 effects each, were Industrial Light & Magic -- responsible for, among others, the mermaids and most water effects -- and Moving Picture Company, who created digital ships and environment extensions, such as changing weather and designing cliffs and waterfalls. Filming the mermaids involved eight model - actresses, who portrayed them outside the water, as well as 22 synchronized swimming athletes and a group of stuntwomen, both of whom wore motion capture suits to be later replaced by digital mermaids. Mermaid corpses were depicted by plaster models. The design tried to avoid the traditional representations of mermaids in paintings and literature, instead going for a scaly body with a translucent membrane inspired by both jellyfish and the fabric employed in ballet tutus. To make the mermaids more menacing underwater, the faces of the actresses had some digital touch - ups on the underwater scenes, adding sharper teeth and a shimmery fish scale quality on the skin. ILM also handled Blackbeard 's death, where Ian McShane 's actual performance was covered by digital doubles which turned him into a "boiling mass of blood and clothing '', and a hurricane - like formation that represented "the waters of the Fountain taking his life ''. Cinesite handled the recreation of London and Barbossa 's peg leg, CIS Hollywood did 3D corrections and minor shots, and Method Studios created matte paintings.
The film 's score was written by Hans Zimmer, who had worked in all of the previous entries in the franchise; being the main composer for the second and third installments. Zimmer said that he tried to incorporate a rock n ' roll sound, as he felt "pirates were the rock ' n ' rollers of many, many years ago '', and Spanish elements, which led to a collaboration with Mexican guitarists Rodrigo y Gabriela and a tango song written by Penélope Cruz 's brother Eduardo. American composer Eric Whitacre contributed several choir - based cues, as well as regular assistant Geoff Zanelli.
On January 6, 2010, Disney announced that the film would be released in the United States and Canada on May 20, 2011, following Columbia Pictures ' announcement of a delay in the Spider - Man reboot and Paramount Pictures slating Thor for May 6, 2011. The film was released in IMAX 3D, as well as traditional 2D and IMAX format, with Dolby 7.1 surround sound. This film was also the first film to be released in the 4DX motion theaters in Mexico and in the Western Hemisphere, featuring strobe lights, tilting seats, blowing wind and fog and odor effects. It is available exclusively at select Cinépolis cinemas.
The world premiere of On Stranger Tides was on May 7, 2011, at a premium ticket screening at Disneyland in Anaheim, California, home of the original Pirates of the Caribbean ride that inspired the film series. Many of the film 's stars were in attendance. Two other early screenings followed, one in Moscow on May 11, and another during the Cannes International Film Festival on May 14. The international release dates fell within May 18 and 20, with opening dates in the United Kingdom on May 18, in Australia on May 19, and in North America on May 20. The film was released on a then - record 402 IMAX screens, 257 screens in North America, and 139 in other territories. The total number of theaters was 4,155 in North America and 18,210 worldwide.
Disney 's marketing president, MT Carney, said that the film 's advertising campaign was intended "to remind people of why they fell in love with Jack Sparrow in the first place and also introduce new elements in a way that was elegant ''. Sony Pictures ' former marketing president, Valerie Van Galder, was hired as a consultant. The first footage from the film appeared on Entertainment Tonight on December 4, 2010. Three trailers were released, one in December, which had a 3D version included with the release of Tron: Legacy and broadcast by ESPN 3D; a Super Bowl XLV spot on February 2011, which was later released online in an extended version; and a final trailer in March that focused more on the plot than the previous trailer and commercials.
Promotional tie - ins included Lego Pirates of the Caribbean toy sets and a related video game, a cell phone app by Verizon Wireless, a special edition of Pirate 's Booty, lines of nail polish by OPI, clothing from Hot Topic, and jewelry from Swarovski. Goldline International produced replicas of the "Pieces of Eight '' coins from the movies and gold Mexican Escudo coins, which were given in sweepstakes at the El Capitan Theatre. At Disney California Adventure Park, the Pirates of the Caribbean segment of the World of Color show was extended to include visual clips and music from On Stranger Tides.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - Ray on September 12, 2011 in the UK, topping both the Blu - ray and DVD sales charts during its first two weeks. The film had its high - definition home release on October 18, 2011 in the United States and Canada. Three different physical packages were made available: a 2 - disc combo pack (Blu - ray and DVD), a 5 - disc combo pack (2 - disc Blu - ray, 1 - disc Blu - ray 3D, 1 - disc DVD, and 1 - disc Digital Copy), and a 15 - disc collection featuring all four Pirates movies. On Stranger Tides was also released as a movie download in both high definition and 3D. The regular DVD edition came out on December 6.
In its first week of release, it sold 1.71 million Blu - ray units and generated $48.50 million, topping the weekly Blu - ray chart. However these results were quite skewed due to the one - month delay of its DVD - only release. It sold 3.20 million Blu - ray units ($83.46 million) after 11 weeks. It has also sold 1.12 million DVD units ($19.32 million). Upon its television premiere on December 29, 2013 in the UK on BBC One, it was watched by a total of 5.4 million viewers, making it the third-most watched program that night, according to overnight figures.
On Stranger Tides earned $241.1 million in the North America and $804.6 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.045 billion. It is the 23rd highest - grossing film worldwide, the third - highest - grossing 2011 film, the second-most successful installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean series, the eleventh - highest - grossing Disney feature and the third highest - grossing fourth film in a franchise (behind Jurassic World and Transformers: Age of Extinction). On its worldwide opening weekend, it grossed $350.6 million, surpassing At World 's End 's $344 million opening as best in the series and ranking as the seventh - highest worldwide opening. It scored an IMAX worldwide opening - weekend record with $16.7 million (first surpassed by Transformers: Dark of the Moon).
It set records for the least time to reach $500, $600, and $700 million worldwide (in 10, 12 and 16 days, respectively). The first of these records was first surpassed by Dark of the Moon and the other two by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2. After 46 days in theaters (July 2, 2011), it became the eighth film in cinema history and the fourth film released by Walt Disney Studios to cross the $1 - billion - mark. It set a record for the fastest Disney - distributed film to reach the milestone (first surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers) and it is the fifth - fastest film overall to achieve this.
During its Thursday - midnight showings, On Stranger Tides earned $4.7 million from 2,210 theaters, and $34,860,549 in total on its opening day. It earned $90.2 million on its opening weekend, topping the weekend box office, but earning much less than its two immediate predecessors (At World 's End -- $114.7 million and Dead Man 's Chest -- $135.6 million) and the directly preceding Johnny Depp spectacle (Alice in Wonderland -- $116.1 million). 3D showings accounted for only 46 % of its opening - weekend gross. It closed on September 29, 2011, with a $241.1 million gross, ranking as the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2011 and the least profitable film of the franchise. However, it was the top - grossing movie during May 2011 (with $166.8 million by May 31).
Outside North America, On Stranger Tides is the sixth - highest - grossing film, the third - highest - grossing Disney film, the second - highest - grossing 2011 film and the highest - grossing film of the Pirates of the Caribbean series. It is the highest - grossing Pirates film in at least 58 territories.
During its opening day (Wednesday, May 18, 2011), On Stranger Tides made $18.5 million from 10 territories. It added 37 territories and $25.7 million on Thursday, for a two - day total of $44.2 million, and on Friday, it expanded to almost all countries, earning $46.2 million for a three - day total of $92.1 million. On its five - day opening weekend as a whole, it earned a then - record $260.4 million from 18,210 screens in more than 100 territories, in all which it reached first place at the box office. The record debut was surpassed later in the same summer season by Deathly Hallows Part 2. Earnings originating from 3 - D showings accounted for 66 % of the weekend gross, which was a much greater share than in North America. Its highest - grossing countries during its first weekend were Russia and the CIS ($31.42 million including previews), China ($22.3 million) and Germany ($20.53 million). It dominated for three weekends at the overseas box office despite competition from The Hangover Part II, Kung Fu Panda 2, and X-Men: First Class. It reached the $300, $400 and $500 - million - mark at the box office outside North America in record time (7, 11 and 14 days respectively), records first surpassed by Deathly Hallows -- Part 2.
On Stranger Tides set opening day records in both Russia (including the CIS) and Sweden. Subsequently, it set opening - weekend records in Latin America, the Middle East, Russia, Norway, Ukraine and Turkey, still retaining the record in Russia ($26.8 million) and Ukraine ($2.15 million). Its highest - grossing market after North America is Japan ($108.9 million), followed by China ($71.8 million) and Russia and the CIS ($63.7 million). It is the highest - grossing film of 2011 in Russia and the CIS, Austria, Ukraine, Greece, Portugal and Angola, South Africa, Romania, Bulgaria, Egypt, Estonia, and Latvia.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 33 % based on 259 reviews, with an average rating of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It 's shorter and leaner than the previous sequel, but this Pirates runs aground on a disjointed plot and a non-stop barrage of noisy action sequences. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, gives the film an average score of 45 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert gave On Stranger Tides two out of four stars, saying that although the removal of Knightley and Bloom as well as the addition of Cruz were positive aspects, the film in general was "too much of a muchness '' for him. Tom Long of The Detroit News gave a D+, saying that Jack Sparrow had "worn out his welcome ''. Despite the more linear plot, "the movie is still ridiculous ''. He found On Stranger Tides to be "precisely what you 'd expect of the fourth installment of a movie based on an amusement park ride: a whole lot of noise, plenty of stunts and complete silliness. '' British film critic Mark Kermode gave the film an overwhelmingly negative review on his 5 Live show, saying "it 's not as staggeringly misjudged as the third part, because it is just nothing, it is just a big empty nothing, whereas part three I think was an active atrocity, it 's just nothing at all ''.
As with the previous films, the plot was criticized as incoherent and confusing. The Arizona Republic critic Bill Goodykoontz rated the film two out of five, stating that "the movie is a series of distractions tossed together in the hopes that they will come together in a coherent story. That never really happens. '' Online reviewer James Berardinelli considered the script "little more than a clothesline from which to dangle all of the obligatory set pieces '', and USA Today 's Claudia Puig found On Stranger Tides "familiar and predictable... often incoherent and crammed with pointless details. ''
Mike Scott from The Times - Picayune mentions that "while this latest chapter is n't quite sharp enough to restore the sense of discovery that made that first outing so darn exciting, it 's enough to make up for most of the missteps that made the third one so darn arrgh - inducing. '' Writing for The A.V. Club, Tasha Robinson described On Stranger Tides as "a smaller film than past installments, by design and necessity '', and felt that "the series has needed this streamlining '' as the film "feels lightweight, but that 's still better than bloated. ''
On Stranger Tides also had positive reviews; some critics found the film to be entertaining and well - made. Richard Roeper gave the film a B+, describing it as "the most fun installment since the first '', calling the story "pure cartoon, but a lot easier to follow than the other sequels '', and summing as "the franchise is getting tired, but Penelope energizes it. '' Along the same lines, Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, writing that it "feels as fresh and bracingly exhilarating as the day Jack Sparrow first swashed his buckle, infusing new reckless energy into a franchise that shows no signs of furling its sails ''. She said that Marshall "swiftly and without fuss delivers the action set pieces and eye - popping escapism '' and praised Depp, Cruz, and McShane 's performances. Ray Bennett from The Hollywood Reporter considered that Marshall "shows terrific flair with all the usual chases and sword fights, and he handles the 3D well '', and welcomed Penélope Cruz 's character, saying she "brings her Oscar - winning vivacity '' and had "lively sexual tension '' with Depp. Writing for The Globe and Mail, Rick Groen found the action scenes to range from "merely competent to tritely cluttered '', but he was pleased with the overall result, calling McShane a "fresh villain '' whose "stentorian tones are welcome anywhere ''. Variety 's Andrew Barker considered the film derivative, but accessible. "It has nary an original idea and still does n't make much sense, but it 's lost all pretensions that it should ''. He praised Geoffrey Rush, stating that he "not only gets the funniest lines and reaction shots, but also starts to siphon away much of the roguish charm that used to be Depp 's stock and trade. ''
The film was nominated for four Teen Choice Awards: Sci - Fi / Fantasy Movie, Sci - Fi / Fantasy Actor, Sci - Fi / Fantasy Actress, and Villain. Its trailer and TV spot were nominated for Golden Trailer Awards. The film won Best Movie for Mature Audiences Award at the 2012 Movieguide Awards.
On May 29, 2013, it was announced that Kon - Tiki directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg would be directing Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales.
While earlier reports stated Dead Men Tell No Tales would be released between 2015 and 2016, Disney announced in 2014 that the film would enter theaters on July 2017. Production began in late February 2015 in Australia.
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where did she come from where did she go song | Cotton - eyed Joe - wikipedia
"Cotton - Eyed Joe '' (also known as "Cotton - Eye Joe '') is a traditional American country folk song popular at various times throughout the United States and Canada, although today it is most commonly associated with the American South. In the Roud index of folksongs it is No. 942.
"Cotton - Eyed Joe '' has inspired both a partner dance and more than one line dance that is often danced at country dance venues in the U.S. and around the world. The 1980 film Urban Cowboy sparked a renewed interest in the dance. In 1985, The Moody Brothers ' version of the song received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Country Instrumental Performance ''. Irish group The Chieftains received a Grammy nomination for "Best Country Vocal Collaboration '' for their version of the song with lead vocals by Ricky Skaggs on their 1992 album, Another Country. In 1994, a version of the song recorded by the Swedish band Rednex as "Cotton Eye Joe '' became popular worldwide.
The origins of this song are unclear, although it pre-dates the 1861 -- 1865 American Civil War. American folklorist Dorothy Scarborough (1878 -- 1935) noted in her 1925 book On the Trail of Negro Folk - songs, that several people remember hearing the song before the war. Scarborough 's account of the song came from her sister, Mrs. George Scarborough, who learned the song from "the Negroes on a plantation in Texas, and other parts from a man in Louisiana. '' The man in Louisiana knew the song from his earliest childhood and heard slaves singing it on plantations. Both the dance and the song had many variants. American publishing house Harper and Brothers published a version in 1882, heard by author Louise Clarke Pyrnelle (born 1850) on the Alabama plantation of her father when she was a child, that was later republished in 1910:
"Cotton - eyed Joe, Cotton - eyed Joe,
What did make you sarve me so, Fur ter take my gal erway fum me, An ' cyar her plum ter Tennessee? Ef it had n't ben fur Cotton - eyed Joe, I 'd er been married long ergo. "His eyes wuz crossed, an ' his nose wuz flat, An ' his teef wuz out, but wat uv dat? Fur he wuz tall, an ' he wuz slim, An ' so my gal she follered him. Ef it had n't ben fur Cotton - eyed Joe, I 'd er been married long ergo. "No gal so hansum could be foun ', Not in all dis country roun ', Wid her kinky head, an ' her eyes so bright, Wid her lips so red an ' her teef so white. Ef it had n't ben fur Cotton - eyed Joe, I 'd been married long ergo. "An ' I loved dat gal wid all my heart, An ' she swo ' fum me she 'd never part; But den wid Joe she runned away, An ' lef ' me hyear fur ter weep all day. O Cotton - eyed Joe, O Cotton - eyed Joe, What did make you sarve me so? O Joe, ef it had n't er ben fur you, I 'd er married dat gal fur true. ''
By 1884, the same year Mark Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was published, the fiddle - based song was referred to as "an old, familiar air. '' In 1925, another version was recorded by folklorist Dorothy Scarborough and published.
Do n't you remember, do n't you know,
Do n't you remember Cotton - eyed Joe? Cotton - eyed Joe, Cotton - eyed Joe, What did make you treat me so? I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe! Cotton - eyed Joe, Cotton - eyed Joe, He was de nig dat sarved me so, -- Tuck my gal away fum me, Carried her off to Tennessee. I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago If it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. Hi 's teeth was out an ' his nose was flat, His eyes was crossed, -- but she did n't mind dat. Kase he was tall, and berry slim, An ' so my gal she follered him. I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. She was de prettiest gal to be found Anywhar in de country round; Her lips was red an ' her eyes was bright, Her skin was black but her teeth was white. I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. Dat gal, she sho ' had all my love, An swore fum ne she 'd never move, But Joe hoodooed her, do n't you see, An ' she run off wid him to Tennessee, I 'd ' a ' been married forty years ago, Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. ''
Scarborough noted that the song seemed to be well known in the South prior to the Civil War, and parts of it had been sent in by various persons.
Over the years, many different versions of the song have been performed and / or recorded with many different versions of the lyrics (and many without lyrics). "Cotton - Eyed Joe '', on occasion referred to as "The South Texas National Anthem '', was played for minstrel - type jigs, and it has long been popular as a square dance hoedown and a couple dance polka.
A resident of Central Texas who learned the dance in Williamson County in the early 1880s described it as nothing but a heel and toe "poker '' with fringes added. These fringes added to the heel and toe polka were clog steps which required skill and extraversion on the part of the dancer.
During the first half of the twentieth century the song was a widely known folk song all over English - speaking North America.
One discography lists 134 recorded versions released since 1950. In more recent decades, the song has waned in popularity in most regions except some parts of the American South where it is still a popular folk song.
A list of the possible meanings of the term "cotton - eyed '' that have been proposed includes: to be drunk on moonshine, or to have been blinded by drinking wood alcohol, turning the eyes milky white; a black person with very light blue eyes; someone whose eyes were milky white from bacterial infections of Trachoma or syphilis, cataracts or glaucoma; the contrast of dark skin tone around white eyeballs in black people; and possibly pterygium, a reddish - white corneal overgrowth associated with chronic sun exposure.
Bob Wills and Adolph Hofner and His San Antonians both recorded the song, and Hofner 's version (Columbia 37658), issued in 1941, apparently being the one that did the most to popularize the song.
A 1967 instrumental version of the song (KIKR k202) by Al Dean, who recalled the song called "The Gingerbread Man '' in South Texas, inspired a new round dance polka for couples. This dance was adapted into a simplified version as a nonpartner waist - hold, spoke line routine. Heel and toe polka steps were replaced with a cross-lift followed by a kick with two - steps. The lift and kick are sometimes accompanied by shouts of "whoops, whoops, '' or the barn yard term "bull shit '', mimicking the act of kicking off barnyard muck. The practice continues to this day. The Kickin ′ album included "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' by Dean. (KIK - R: 10012)
One version of a dance called "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' can be found in the 1975 edition of Encyclopedia of Social Dance. This version has the men on the inside of a circle facing out, and the women on the outside facing in. The dance consists of eight kick steps, side, close left together, right together, and a series of struts.
The spoke line version gained popularity not only in Texas, but across the US and overseas in the 1980s.
Ray Benson of the Western Swing band Asleep at the Wheel talks about playing the Bob Wills version of "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' in Texas in the 1970s when the dance was very much alive.
A Western "Craze '' followed the 1980 release of Urban Cowboy.
"Cotton - Eyed Joe '', and its continued popularity in Texas, was referred to in the lyrics to Alabama 's song "If You 're Gonna Play in Texas. '' "I remember down in Houston we were puttin ' on a show when a cowboy in the back stood up and yelled, ' Cotton - Eyed Joe '! ''
In Merle Haggard 's "Texas Fiddle Song '', the final verse makes reference to the "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' and features the melody of both the Bob Wills and Al Dean versions.
The song has become a staple song played at many professional and college baseball games during the seventh - inning stretch with the preference going to the Rednex version.
In August 1994, Swedish recording group Rednex covered the song as "Cotton Eye Joe '' for their album Sex & Violins, combining their style with traditional American instruments, such as banjos, and fiddles. In 2002, "Cotton Eye Joe '' was remixed in a dance version, and was released from Rednex 's greatest hits album, The Best of the West.
The Rednex version of the song (using "Eye '' instead of "Eyed ''), along with a dance - mix version, was very successful in Europe, where it remained at number one in Norway for 15 weeks, Switzerland for 13 weeks, Germany for 10 weeks, Sweden for 8 weeks, Austria for 7 weeks, 3 weeks on the UK Singles Chart and 2 weeks on the Dutch Top 40. In Oceania, it topped the New Zealand Singles Chart for 6 consecutive weeks. In Australia it peaked at number 8 in April 1995. In the US, it peaked at number 25 in March 1995.
The Country and Irish singer Lee Matthews released his version of the song with new added lyrics. The single on his own independent label topped the Irish Country Singles Download Chart in January 2015.
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how many variables are there in the factorial research design of 2×3×2 | Factorial experiment - wikipedia
In statistics, a full factorial experiment is an experiment whose design consists of two or more factors, each with discrete possible values or "levels '', and whose experimental units take on all possible combinations of these levels across all such factors. A full factorial design may also be called a fully crossed design. Such an experiment allows the investigator to study the effect of each factor on the response variable, as well as the effects of interactions between factors on the response variable.
For the vast majority of factorial experiments, each factor has only two levels. For example, with two factors each taking two levels, a factorial experiment would have four treatment combinations in total, and is usually called a 2 × 2 factorial design.
If the number of combinations in a full factorial design is too high to be logistically feasible, a fractional factorial design may be done, in which some of the possible combinations (usually at least half) are omitted.
Factorial designs were used in the 19th century by John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert of the Rothamsted Experimental Station.
Ronald Fisher argued in 1926 that "complex '' designs (such as factorial designs) were more efficient than studying one factor at a time.
Fisher wrote,
"No aphorism is more frequently repeated in connection with field trials, than that we must ask Nature few questions, or, ideally, one question, at a time. The writer is convinced that this view is wholly mistaken. ''
Nature, he suggests, will best respond to "a logical and carefully thought out questionnaire ''. A factorial design allows the effect of several factors and even interactions between them to be determined with the same number of trials as are necessary to determine any one of the effects by itself with the same degree of accuracy.
Frank Yates made significant contributions, particularly in the analysis of designs, by the Yates analysis.
The term "factorial '' may not have been used in print before 1935, when Fisher used it in his book The Design of Experiments.
Many experiments examine the effect of only a single factor or variable. Compared to such one - factor - at - a-time (OFAT) experiments, factorial experiments offer several advantages
In his book, "Improving Almost Anything '', the famous statistician George Box gives many examples of the benefits of factorial experiments. Here is one. Engineers at the bearing manufacturer SKF wanted to know if changing to a less expensive "cage '' design would affect bearing life. The engineers asked Christer Hellstrand, a statistician, for help in designing the experiment.
Box reports the following. "The results were assessed by an accelerated life test.... The runs were expensive because they needed to be made on an actual production line and the experimenters were planning to make four runs with the standard cage and four with the modified cage. Christer asked if there were other factors they would like to test. They said there were, but that making added runs would exceed their budget. Christer showed them how they could test two additional factors "for free '' -- without increasing the number of runs and without reducing the accuracy of their estimate of the cage effect. In this arrangement, called a 2 × 3 factorial design, each of the three factors would be run at two levels and all the eight possible combinations included. The various combinations can conveniently be shown as the vertices of a cube... ""In each case, the standard condition is indicated by a minus sign and the modified condition by a plus sign. The factors changed were heat treatment, outer ring osculation, and cage design. The numbers show the relative lengths of lives of the bearings. If you look at (the cube plot), you can see that the choice of cage design did not make a lot of difference.... But, if you average the pairs of numbers for cage design, you get the (table below), which shows what the two other factors did.... It led to the extraordinary discovery that, in this particular application, the life of a bearing can be increased fivefold if the two factor (s) outer ring osculation and inner ring heat treatments are increased together. ''
"Remembering that bearings like this one have been made for decades, it is at first surprising that it could take so long to discover so important an improvement. A likely explanation is that, because most engineers have, until recently, employed only one factor at a time experimentation, interaction effects have been missed. ''
The simplest factorial experiment contains two levels for each of two factors. Suppose an engineer wishes to study the total power used by each of two different motors, A and B, running at each of two different speeds, 2000 or 3000 RPM. The factorial experiment would consist of four experimental units: motor A at 2000 RPM, motor B at 2000 RPM, motor A at 3000 RPM, and motor B at 3000 RPM. Each combination of a single level selected from every factor is present once.
This experiment is an example of a 2 (or 2 × 2) factorial experiment, so named because it considers two levels (the base) for each of two factors (the power or superscript), or # levels, producing 2 = 4 factorial points.
Designs can involve many independent variables. As a further example, the effects of three input variables can be evaluated in eight experimental conditions shown as the corners of a cube.
This can be conducted with or without replication, depending on its intended purpose and available resources. It will provide the effects of the three independent variables on the dependent variable and possible interactions.
The notation used to denote factorial experiments conveys a lot of information. When a design is denoted a 2 factorial, this identifies the number of factors (3); how many levels each factor has (2); and how many experimental conditions there are in the design (2 = 8). Similarly, a 2 design has five factors, each with two levels, and 2 = 32 experimental conditions. Factorial experiments can involve factors with different numbers of levels. A 2 3 design has five factors, four with two levels and one with three levels, and has 16 × 3 = 48 experimental conditions.
To save space, the points in a two - level factorial experiment are often abbreviated with strings of plus and minus signs. The strings have as many symbols as factors, and their values dictate the level of each factor: conventionally, − (\ displaystyle -) for the first (or low) level, and + (\ displaystyle +) for the second (or high) level. The points in this experiment can thus be represented as − − (\ displaystyle --), + − (\ displaystyle + -), − + (\ displaystyle - +), and + + (\ displaystyle + +).
The factorial points can also be abbreviated by (1), a, b, and ab, where the presence of a letter indicates that the specified factor is at its high (or second) level and the absence of a letter indicates that the specified factor is at its low (or first) level (for example, "a '' indicates that factor A is on its high setting, while all other factors are at their low (or first) setting). (1) is used to indicate that all factors are at their lowest (or first) values.
For more than two factors, a 2 factorial experiment can usually be recursively designed from a 2 factorial experiment by replicating the 2 experiment, assigning the first replicate to the first (or low) level of the new factor, and the second replicate to the second (or high) level. This framework can be generalized to, e.g., designing three replicates for three level factors, etc.
A factorial experiment allows for estimation of experimental error in two ways. The experiment can be replicated, or the sparsity - of - effects principle can often be exploited. Replication is more common for small experiments and is a very reliable way of assessing experimental error. When the number of factors is large (typically more than about 5 factors, but this does vary by application), replication of the design can become operationally difficult. In these cases, it is common to only run a single replicate of the design, and to assume that factor interactions of more than a certain order (say, between three or more factors) are negligible. Under this assumption, estimates of such high order interactions are estimates of an exact zero, thus really an estimate of experimental error.
When there are many factors, many experimental runs will be necessary, even without replication. For example, experimenting with 10 factors at two levels each produces 2 = 1024 combinations. At some point this becomes infeasible due to high cost or insufficient resources. In this case, fractional factorial designs may be used.
As with any statistical experiment, the experimental runs in a factorial experiment should be randomized to reduce the impact that bias could have on the experimental results. In practice, this can be a large operational challenge.
Factorial experiments can be used when there are more than two levels of each factor. However, the number of experimental runs required for three - level (or more) factorial designs will be considerably greater than for their two - level counterparts. Factorial designs are therefore less attractive if a researcher wishes to consider more than two levels.
A factorial experiment can be analyzed using ANOVA or regression analysis. It is relatively easy to estimate the main effect for a factor. To compute the main effect of a factor "A '', subtract the average response of all experimental runs for which A was at its low (or first) level from the average response of all experimental runs for which A was at its high (or second) level.
Other useful exploratory analysis tools for factorial experiments include main effects plots, interaction plots, Pareto plots, and a normal probability plot of the estimated effects.
When the factors are continuous, two - level factorial designs assume that the effects are linear. If a quadratic effect is expected for a factor, a more complicated experiment should be used, such as a central composite design. Optimization of factors that could have quadratic effects is the primary goal of response surface methodology.
Montgomery gives the following example of analysis of a factorial experiment:.
An engineer would like to increase the filtration rate (output) of a process to produce a chemical, and to reduce the amount of formaldehyde used in the process. Previous attempts to reduce the formaldehyde have lowered the filtration rate. The current filtration rate is 75 gallons per hour. Four factors are considered: temperature (A), pressure (B), formaldehyde concentration (C), and stirring rate (D). Each of the four factors will be tested at two levels.
Onwards, the minus (−) and plus (+) signs will indicate whether the factor is run at a low or high level, respectively.
Plot of the main effects showing the filtration rates for the low (−) and high (+) settings for each factor.
Plot of the interaction effects showing the mean filtration rate at each of the four possible combinations of levels for a given pair of factors.
The non-parallel lines in the A: C interaction plot indicate that the effect of factor A depends on the level of factor C. A similar results holds for the A:D interaction. The graphs indicate that factor B has little effect on filtration rate. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) including all 4 factors and all possible interaction terms between them yields the coefficient estimates shown in the table below.
Because there are 16 observations and 16 coefficients (intercept, main effects, and interactions), p - values can not be calculated for this model. The coefficient values and the graphs suggest that the important factors are A, C, and D, and the interaction terms A: C and A:D.
The coefficients for A, C, and D are all positive in the ANOVA, which would suggest running the process with all three variables set to the high value. However, the main effect of each variable is the average over the levels of the other variables. The A: C interaction plot above shows that the effect of factor A depends on the level of factor C, and vice versa. Factor A (temperature) has very little effect on filtration rate when factor C is at the + level. But Factor A has a large effect on filtration rate when factor C (formaldehyde) is at the − level. The combination of A at the + level and C at the − level gives the highest filtration rate. This observation indicates how one - factor - at - a-time analyses can miss important interactions. Only by varying both factors A and C at the same time could the engineer discover that the effect of factor A depends on the level of factor C.
The best filtration rate is seen when A and D are at the high level, and C is at the low level. This result also satisfies the objective of reducing formaldehyde (factor C). Because B does not appear to be important, it can be dropped from the model. Performing the ANOVA using factors A, C, and D, and the interaction terms A: C and A: D, gives the result shown in the following table, in which all the terms are significant (p - value < 0.05).
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what is meat tenderizer and what does it do | Meat tenderizer - Wikipedia
A meat tenderizer, meat mallet, or meat pounder is a hand - powered tool used to tenderize slabs of meat in preparation for cooking. Although a meat tenderizer can be made out of virtually any object, there are three types manufactured specifically for tenderizing meat.
Tenderizing meat with the mallet softens the fibers, making the meat easier to chew and to digest. It is useful when preparing particularly tough cuts of steak, and works well when broiling or frying the meat. It is also used to "pound out '' dishes such as chicken - fried steak, palomilla, or schnitzel, to make them wider and thinner.
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what is the monkeys name in the movie aladdin | List of Disney 's Aladdin characters - wikipedia
Disney 's Aladdin franchise features an extensive cast of fictional characters.
The lead character of the series is Aladdin, who was originally a street urchin. During the course of the franchise, he starts living in the palace of Agrabah and becomes engaged to Princess Jasmine.
Aladdin (Arabic: علاء الدين , ʻAlāʼ ad - Dīn), is the protagonist of the franchise, a street child who ends up becoming the prince of Agrabah after meeting Jasmine in the streets and being recruited by Jafar to retrieve the magical lamp from the Cave of Wonders. He is voiced by Scott Weinger when speaking and Brad Kane when singing.
Jasmine is the rebellious princess of Agrabah, who flees the palace in revolt to her obligation to be married to a prince. While on the run, she meets Aladdin in the streets, and later becomes his wife. She is voiced by Linda Larkin when speaking and Lea Salonga when singing.
Genie is a jinni and is never given a proper name. He was portrayed by Robin Williams in the first film. Following a contract dispute between Williams and the Walt Disney Company, Dan Castellaneta voiced the Genie throughout the direct - to - video feature The Return of Jafar, as well as the television series, before Williams reprised the role for the final installment, Aladdin and the King of Thieves, as well as for the character 's own mini-series, Great Minds Think for Themselves. Jim Meskimen took over the role in Disney Think Fast (2008) and Kinect: Disneyland Adventures (2011) and currently voices him, after Williams ' death in 2014.
After Williams ' death in 2014, a dedicated drawing of the Genie appeared at the end of the first film on television programs.
Jafar (Arabic: جعفر Ja'far ) appears in the first two films as the main antagonist and Aladdin 's archenemy, he is voiced by Jonathan Freeman in the films and the Kingdom Hearts series of video games. An inspiration to the character is the villain Jafar, played by Conrad Veidt in The Thief of Bagdad, from which Aladdin borrows several character ideas and plot elements. The Jafar of Disney 's Aladdin plays essentially the same part as the character from the 1940s movie, and is drawn with notable similarity to Conrad Veidt 's looks. His name comes from Ja'far ibn Yahya the grand vizier, eventually executed by Harun al - Rashid for sleeping with his sister, who is featured in the original Arabian Nights Persian tales.
Animator Andreas Deja decided to design Jafar in a way he was contrasting to the other characters, with many vertical lines against the curvy designs based on Al Hirschfeld. Jonathan Freeman, who composers Alan Menken and Howard Ashman met when he auditioned for Little Shop of Horrors and had previously invited Freeman to audition for both The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast, said that the artwork was what got him truly interested in the role, declaring that "once I saw those heavy lidded eyes, that long narrow face, I knew that Jafar was going to be something really special ''. He was the first actor cast, and spent one year and nine months recording dialogue, for months without any other actors to interact, and later interrupting theater tours to fly to Los Angeles and record newly written lines. When Deja first met Freeman, he was surprised to see the lack of physical similarity to the character but also included some of Freeman 's acting and gesturing into Jafar 's animation.
In Aladdin, Jafar is the Grand Vizier of Agrabah, the Sultan 's most trusted advisor and is also an evil sorcerer. Jafar secretly plots to possess the Genie 's magical oil lamp and wish to be the ruler of Agrabah. Early in the film, Aladdin is imprisoned in the palace dungeons, as arranged by Jafar using his influence over the guards. Jafar (disguised as a fellow prisoner) approaches him, striking a deal with Aladdin. In exchange for Aladdin 's help in retrieving the lamp from the Cave of Wonders, Jafar reveals an escape route from the prison and promises him a reward if he succeeds, who soon reveals that the reward is death. When the plan fails, Aladdin and the lamp are lost. When Iago suggests an alternative plan, Jafar next decides to, using the hypnotic powers of his snake - headed staff, manipulate the Sultan into mandating a marriage between himself and Princess Jasmine, but he is impeded by Aladdin, who had discovered the Genie and used his first wish to become a prince. After a second attempt by Jafar on his life, Aladdin (with the help of the Genie) survives and then exposes Jafar 's plot, but Jafar learns that Aladdin possesses the lamp. Iago steals the lamp from Aladdin and Jafar becomes the Genie 's master. Jafar uses his first two wishes to become Sultan and the world 's most powerful sorcerer. Jafar assumes control of the palace (which is lifted off the ground and put on the main top of a mountain by Genie) and banishes Aladdin to a frozen wasteland. Aladdin returns and battles Jafar and reminds him that he is only the second-most powerful being on Earth after Genie, who was the one who gave him his power in the first place. Realizing that Aladdin is right, Jafar uses his final wish to become an all - powerful genie, in an attempt to rule the whole universe. However, Jafar is angered to realize that Aladdin has tricked him into wasting his wish into becoming a genie, since genies are not free beings, and becomes trapped in an oil lamp of his own, and the lamp is sent into the Cave of Wonders.
In The Return of Jafar, Jafar 's lamp is found by Abis Mal, who releases Jafar from the lamp. Jafar plots to seeks revenge on Aladdin. He nearly succeeds at killing Aladdin and taking control of the palace, but Iago, who has changed sides, thwarts his plans and destroys his lamp, killing him. Jafar did not appear in Aladdin and the King of Thieves or in the television series, but was often referred to by name by characters.
In an episode of Hercules: The Animated Series called "Hercules and the Arabian Night '', Jafar makes another attempt at revenge and is temporarily resurrected by Hercules 's arch - enemy, Hades. He has lost his status as an all - powerful immortal genie after dying, but Hades gives him a new cobra staff that makes him flesh and blood as long as he holds it, and the two villains team up to get rid of Aladdin and Hercules. However, due to Aladdin 's wit and Hercules 's strength, Jafar is defeated for the final time, being pulled into the River Styx forever.
Jafar debuted in Kingdom Hearts as one of the members of Maleficent 's inner circle. Here, he plans to use The Heartless and take over Agrabah while attempting to locate both Jasmine (as she is one of the Princesses of Heart) and Agrabah 's Keyhole. Jafar eventually manages to steal Genie 's lamp from Aladdin and kidnap Jasmine in the process. Sora, Aladdin, Donald Duck and Goofy track him to the Cave of Wonders, where Jafar used his first wish to reveal the world 's keyhole. Upon arrival in the lamp chamber, they engage Jafar in battle after he used his second wish to enlist Genie 's help in the fight. Upon his defeat, Jafar uses his final wish to become a Genie and battles the team again, only to be defeated and sealed away in the lamp.
In Kingdom Hearts II, Jafar 's lamp is found by the Peddler, making him a target for Pete as he reveals his intent to make Jafar into a Heartless under his control. Once Pete is driven off, the lamp is placed within the palace for safe keeping. However, Jafar is later released by the Peddler and he threatens Iago into helping him get Sora and his friends on a wild goose chase to their death while he captures Princess Jasmine. But after the heroes arrive, with Iago taking a hit meant for Aladdin, Sora defeats Jafar, causing him to implode with his lamp dissolving soon after. Facsimiles of Jafar appear in Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, based on Sora 's memories, and Kingdom Hearts: Coded, based on the digitized data from Jiminy 's Journal.
In the Disney 's Hollywood Studios version of Fantasmic! Nighttime Show Spectacular, Jafar is one of the villains the Evil Queen evokes to fight Mickey Mouse and ruin his imagination. Jafar appears with Maleficent, Ursula and Oogie Boogie in Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom Halloween - themed fireworks program HalloWishes at Mickey 's Not - So - Scary Halloween Party. Jafar is featured in many episodes of Disney 's House of Mouse where he is often found in the audience. In one episode named "Donald 's Lamp Trade '', Jafar hypnotizes Donald Duck to steal a lamp for him, but it turns out that he only wanted a clock - like lamp and not the real magical one. Jafar also appears in another episode named "Pete 's House of Villains '' in which he keeps the other Aladdin characters from coming into House of Mouse. He also appears briefly in Mickey 's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse and appears in Mickey 's House of Villains as the leader of Disney Villains.
A live - action version of Jafar appears in the Once Upon a Time spin - off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. Naveen Andrews portrays the character, an ally of the Red Queen. In this continuity, Jafar is the illegitimate son of the Sultan, and his interest in genies stems from his mentor and lover, Amara, who discovered a ritual that could be used to rewrite the laws of magic using the power of three genies and two sorcerers. Jafar betrayed Amara by transforming her into his serpent staff so that he could have her power for himself. Andrews did not reprise his role in Once Upon a Time 's sixth season due to a scheduling conflict, and he was replaced by Oded Fehr.
Iago, voiced by Gilbert Gottfried, is the sidekick to the main antagonist Jafar. The red - plumed talking bird is an apparent homage to an identically - named red parrot in the Tintin adventure The Castafiore Emerald.
Abu is Aladdin 's kleptomaniac monkey partner with a high - pitched voice and can talk a little, voiced by Frank Welker. The animators filmed monkeys at the San Francisco Zoo to study the movements Abu would have. The character is based on the similarly named Abu the thief, played by Sabu Dastagir in the 1940 version of The Thief of Bagdad.
In the first film, Abu is seen accompanying Aladdin during his daily adventures as they try to steal food to live. When Abu and Aladdin finally are about to eat, they see two children looking for food among garbage, and Abu is forced to share his stolen food with them when Aladdin voluntarily does so. After Aladdin gets arrested by Razoul on Jafar 's orders, Abu enters the dungeon but is unable to free his friend. It is a disguised Jafar who frees them in a plan to use Aladdin to get access to the Cave of Wonders and retrieve the Genie 's lamp. Inside the cave after finding a magic carpet who leads them to the lamp, Abu disobeys the command of the guardian of the cave and tries to steal a ruby, which causes a cave - in and almost costs his and Aladdin 's lives. When they are about to exit the cave, Aladdin gives Jafar the lamp and, in turn, Jafar is about to kill Aladdin, but Abu attacks him back and takes the lamp back. After meeting the Genie, Aladdin wishes to become a prince and Abu is transformed into an elephant as part of the disguise. Abu is transformed back to his original form by Jafar during the climax of the film, when he is about to attack the sorcerer. Abu and Aladdin are later sent by Jafar to a far - off place but return to Agrabah using the Magic Carpet. Once in Agrabah, Abu fights and subdues Iago, but is transformed into a toy monkey by Jafar when he tries to take the lamp back. Abu returns once again to his original form at the end of the film when Jafar is defeated.
In The Return of Jafar, Abu is first seen taking treasures from Abis Mal and his men, with Aladdin distributing them among the poor people of Agrabah, against Abu 's will. He is initially skeptical of Iago 's reform, but eventually warms up to him. Abu is one of the first to know about Jafar 's return, and is imprisoned along with the Genie. Abu and the others are freed by the Genie who was in turned freed by Iago. Abu participates in the final battle against Jafar. In Aladdin and the King of Thieves, Abu goes with Aladdin to find his father and later to the Vanishing Isle. Abu plays a supporting role in the TV series, often accompanying Aladdin in his adventures. In the episode "Much Abu About Something '', he is worshipped by a lost civilization as their great protector. During his time working with a group of circus performers, during the two - part episode "Seems Like Old Crimes '', he met his friend Aladdin. Throughout the series, he is occasionally shown at odds with Iago, but several episodes portray them as close friends with a friendly rivalry.
Abu also appears in both Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II, playing a large role in the latter with his kleptomanic habits getting him into trouble during Sora 's first return visit to Agrabah.
He can also be seen in House of Mouse as one of the many Disney characters that come to watch cartoons. Abu is usually found in the audience, sometimes playing with Iago or dancing along to the musical performances on stage.
The Magic Carpet is an ancient carpet that was found by Aladdin in the Cave of Wonders ' treasure room. It is a character without a voice, and expresses itself entirely through pantomime and movements. It is playful, as it reacts with Abu, intelligent, as it beats the Genie at chess (and most other things), and helpful, as it helps Aladdin romance Princess Jasmine during the song "A Whole New World ''. It sometimes uses its tassels as hands and feet to accentuate its feelings.
The unique faux - Persian design of Carpet was solely maintained through CGI. Advances in CGI had progressed so much since animating the ballroom sequence in Beauty and the Beast that the texture and pattern of Carpet was much easier to accomplish no matter which way it moved. Animator Randy Cartwright refused to resort to the anthropomorphic style of simply putting a face on a carpet. Instead, Cartwright used body language to make Carpet more flexible, and almost human. Computer artist Tina Price took Cartwright 's outlined form and super-imposed the Persian design that could stretch, squash, and roll up without changing. According to movie critic Leonard Maltin, this made Carpet 's animation one of the best collaborations between traditional and technologically advanced animation to date.
It was first discovered by Abu in the film, who assumed he was seeing things, as it would be playful with him until it was within Aladdin 's line of sight, wherein it would appear as a normal inanimate object. It is an old friend of The Genie; he states that he had not seen it "in a few millennia. '' After Aladdin extends his hand in friendship, Carpet becomes instantly and absolutely loyal to him. It first helps him and Abu find the magic lamp that they were sent in to retrieve, becomes instrumental in helping them escape the cave during the meltdown sequence triggered after Abu touches a forbidden gem, and finally saves them from falling to their deaths by pulling itself out from under a large boulder after Jafar betrays them. In addition, a running gag has it beating Genie at nearly every game they play, much to his distress.
When Aladdin romances Jasmine during the song "A Whole New World '', it plays a key role as it takes them on a romantic flight. Another important part it plays is Aladdin 's first solitary encounter with Jasmine as ' Prince Ali '. Jasmine pretends to seduce Aladdin, before pulling his turban over his eyes and telling him to ' jump off the balcony '. At which point Aladdin apologizes for treating her like a ' prize to be won '. He gets onto the rail of the balcony and steps off, but Jasmine does n't know that the carpet is there, and thinks he is committing suicide. She calls out ' No! ' and then sees his head pop up going "What? What? '', at which point Jasmine discovers the carpet and is invited for a ride by ' Prince Ali '. Carpet is also responsible for their first kiss, as it shoots upwards about a foot, causing them to kiss each other by accident, (neither of them mind though). Many people consider Carpet as the character who actually sets their relationship in motion.
It 's magically unraveled by Sorcerer Jafar in the climactic scene, but becomes whole again when he 's foiled.
In the second film, it engages in combat with Jafar once more, and is turned into glass and shattered. It 's again restored when Jafar 's finally killed by a reformed Iago, who pushes his lamp into the magma.
In the third film, it transports Aladdin to places such as the 40 Thieves ' hideout, though Cassim insists that they return to Agrabah on horseback; "It 's a rug. You sweep dirt under it. You do n't fly on it. At least I do n't! '' Eventually in the end, Cassim warms up to it, ordering it to save both him and Aladdin as the Vanishing Isle starts to sink away.
It appears in episodes of the animated series, both as a means of travel and a reacting character to the events of the stories. In one episode, Abis Mal kidnaps the carpet and stitches it to the sail of his ship. The magic of the carpet is strong enough to levitate an entire ship.
It is also in the Kingdom Hearts video game in the Agrabah world. Sora frees it, at which point it acts as a transport between the city of Agrabah and the Cave of Wonders. In the second installment, it plays a more key role.
In Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom, there is a ride called The Magic Carpets of Aladdin in Adventureland, which simulates flight on a carpet. There are two others versions in the world: Flying Carpets Over Agrabah in Toon Studio at the park Walt Disney Studios Park in France and Jasmine 's Flying Carpets is located in Arabian Coast at the park Tokyo DisneySea.
The Sultan (real name: Hamed Bobolonius II) is Princess Jasmine 's father and the pompous but kind ruler of Agrabah. Some aspects of the character were inspired in the Wizard of Oz, to create a bumbling authority figure. He was voiced by Douglas Seale in the first film, by Val Bettin in the sequels and the TV series and by Jeff Bennett in Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams.
In the first film, the Sultan desperately tries to find a suitor for his daughter Princess Jasmine. During the first part of the film, the Sultan is often manipulated by Jafar who uses his staff to hypnotize him. After losing the lamp to Aladdin at the Cave of Wonders, Jafar decides to trick the Sultan into arranging a marriage between himself and Princess Jasmine; however, the hypnosis is interrupted by the arrival of Aladdin transformed into "Prince Ali ''. The Sultan approves Prince Ali, but he is later tricked by Jafar and is about to force Jasmine to marry Jafar until Aladdin breaks the staff. The Sultan loses his post as ruler of Agrabah when the Genie grants Jafar his wish to become the new sultan. Jafar makes Jasmine his slave, and the Sultan as his entertainment. The Sultan becomes a marionetted jester, and is tortured by Iago as he force feeds him crackers. He and Jasmine are fortunately saved by Aladdin and free from their humiliation. At the end of the film, the Sultan changes the law so the princess can marry whomever she loves.
In The Return of Jafar, the Sultan announces that he wants to make Aladdin his new grand vizier. However, he grows suspicious of Aladdin after he defends Iago, who used to work for Jafar, and commands him to watch the bird. When Jafar returns, he takes advantage of Iago 's new position as an "ally '' to Aladdin, and makes him suggest the Sultan and Aladdin to have a discussion in a place where they are ambushed by Jafar and Abis Mal. The Sultan is imprisoned along with Aladdin 's friends, and Jafar uses his turban to frame Aladdin for his ' murder '. Luckily, Iago manages to free Genie, who then saves Aladdin from his wrongful punishment as well as the Sultan and the rest of their friends. After Iago manages to defeat Jafar by kicking his lamp into the magma, the Sultan pardons Iago and welcomes him toward his family. He is later seen at the end of the film, again requesting Aladdin to become his vizier.
In the TV series, it is revealed that he is quite adept with mechanics (Getting the Bugs Out), and his nickname is Little Bobo (as revealed in "As the Netherworld Turns ''). Twenty years before the episode "Garden of Evil '', the Sultan picked a flower for his new bride, angering the garden 's owner, Arbutus. He was allowed to go free on the condition that in twenty years, Arbutus could take the Sultan 's most valuable possession, which turns out to be his daughter.
In Aladdin and the King of Thieves, the Sultan meets Aladdin 's father, Cassim, not knowing he is the King of Thieves, and immediately accepts him. However, Razoul later reveals to the Sultan that Cassim is the King of Thieves and, with no other choice, the Sultan has Razoul incarcerate Cassim in the dungeon for life. After Aladdin helps Cassim escape the dungeon, and comes back to accept the consequences for his actions, the Sultan prepares to punish Aladdin in anger for freeing Cassim, but the Genie and Princess Jasmine come to his defense, stating that all he wanted was to give his father a second chance. The Sultan accepts his apology. At the end of the film, his wish of seeing Princess Jasmine marrying someone comes true when she marries Aladdin.
The Sultan plays a minor role in Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, giving Jasmine the job of "Royal Assistant Educator '' at the Royal Academy. Later, one of his most precious horses, Sahara, is missing from the stables, so Princess Jasmine, along with Iago, Abu and Carpet, go to find Sahara and return him to the palace.
Like many Disney characters, the Sultan can be found in the TV series House of Mouse. He can normally be found clapping with the audience at the end of a cartoon, right alongside Princess Jasmine.
The Royal Guards serve as the law enforcement for Agrabah where they patrol the palace and the streets of Agrabah:
Razoul (voiced by Jim Cummings) is the Captain of the Royal Guards of Agrabah in all three films. Although unnamed (on - screen) in the first film, his name was revealed in the sequel (he was named after layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani). During Aladdin 's life as a thief on the streets of Agrabah, Razoul chased Aladdin around with the other palace guards, although during the beginning of the first film, Aladdin gets away, causing Razoul and some of his men to fall into a stinky pile of manure. When Razoul finally succeeded in arresting Aladdin, he knocked Princess Jasmine to the ground, not recognizing her as the princess. When she revealed her true identity, he was shocked at seeing her outside the palace for the first time. When she ordered him to release Aladdin, he apologized and said that his orders came from Jafar, saying that Princess Jasmine will have to take it out with Jafar in order to secure Aladdin 's release. Even after Aladdin is accepted as Princess Jasmine 's boyfriend, Razoul still completely despises him, but nonetheless tolerates his presence in the palace. In the second film, Jafar, disguised as Jasmine, has Razoul arrest Aladdin for the murder of the Sultan and has him sentenced to death, but he was prevented by Genie and was presumably punished by the Sultan for falling into Jafar 's trick. During the TV series episode "Forget Me Lots '', when Princess Jasmine lost her memory from the Rose of Forgetfulness, Razoul was more than happy to throw Aladdin, Iago, and Abu out of the palace and into the streets, thinking that the princess had rejected Aladdin. Razoul also admitted his opinion that Aladdin was a power hungry street rat in "Destiny on Fire '' when he and Aladdin were forced to work together, though he also admitted that he would consider calling Aladdin "your highness '' if he got rid of Iago. In the episode "The Return of Malcho '', he questions Aladdin 's ability to run Agrabah as the temporary Sultan, but Aladdin proves otherwise, even with the challenges that lay before him and having to put up with both his and Iago 's pointless advice on how the real Sultan should act until Aladdin decided to do things his own way. In the end, Razoul helps Aladdin get rid of Malcho. In the third film, Razoul arrested Cassim and Iago for trying to steal The Oracle, but Aladdin helped his father escape. Razoul arrested Aladdin once more, but was knocked unconscious by Cassim. Though he tried to have Aladdin charged for this crime, Razoul 's request was denied as the Sultan decided to overlook the matter, since Aladdin only broke Cassim out of prison out of love and came back to face punishment for his actions. Later, he is shown at Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding, and is last seen catching Princess Jasmine 's wedding bouquet.
Razoul shows no sympathy towards any type of criminals and takes pleasure and pride from the authority he commands, notably seen when witnessing the Forty Thieves attack on the palace during Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding. Angrily, he declares "not in THIS palace '' before trying to repel the thieves. Despite his vicious tendencies, he does not have the same crazed lust for power as characters such as Jafar. When Aladdin was arrested for the alleged murder of the Sultan in The Return of Jafar, Razoul was obviously pleased that Aladdin was finally in a cell, and certainly not fazed by the order to execute him. He seems to enjoy acts of violence and particularly killing, although he only commits them under orders, knowing of the consequences if he behaves otherwise. This was seen when he readily tried to drown Aladdin (in disguise as Prince Ali) in the ocean under Jafar 's orders (although it can be assumed that Jafar hypnotized him with the snake staff and / or told him Prince Ali was a traitor or a spy). Despite their mutual dislike for each other, Razoul will not hesitate to save Aladdin 's life if necessary, demonstrated in "Mudder 's Day '' when Aladdin is buried under a rockslide and Razoul is the first (and only) one to rush to his rescue, and in "The Secret of Dagger Rock '', Razoul and the guards are sent by the Sultan to find and rescue Aladdin, though Razoul mutters "risking our lives for a lousy street rat ''. In "Destiny on Fire '', Razoul stops Aladdin and his friends from going in the palace when they find it in ruins (Razoul had escaped as everyone turned into slugs) and later prevents Aladdin from falling for a trap.
In each of the three films, Genie saves Aladdin from Razoul. In the first, he saves Aladdin 's life after Razoul throws him in the ocean, and in the second he saves Aladdin from being beheaded by Razoul after Razoul was duped into believing Aladdin had murder the Sultan and been sentenced to death by Princess Jasmine who was totally Jafar in disguise. In the third film, Razoul wants to punish Aladdin for freeing his father from the palace dungeons, but Genie sends him flying away with a rocket - propelled suitcase.
Fazahl (voiced by Frank Welker, understudied by Jim Cummings in "Sneeze the Day '') is one of the guards of Agrabah. He is darkly colored and very fat, with a long mustache. His lines usually make reference to food.
Hakim (voiced by Frank Welker in The Return of Jafar and the TV series, Jim Cummings in "Sneeze the Day, '' Corey Burton in Aladdin and the King of Thieves) is one of the guards of Agrabah. He is pale, very thin and tall. His lines generally put a pessimistic take on the situation.
Zagoolien (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is one of the guards of Agrabah. He is slightly paler and less fat than Fazahl.
Rajah is Princess Jasmine 's pet tiger which displays dog and cat - like behavior. He is also voiced by Frank Welker. Unlike Abu, he is not anthropomorphized, but is still able to understand human language and emotions, as seen when he is surprised by the revelation of Princess Jasmine that she has never had a true friend (except for Rajah himself), or when he assists her in her escape from the palace. In the first film, Rajah is distrustful towards Aladdin at first, but later warms up to him. He also takes part in the battle against Jafar, but is turned into a cub and imprisoned in a bird cage. He is returned to his original form at the end of the film after Aladdin finally defeats Jafar.
At the beginning of the film, when the Sultan is exasperated by Jasmine 's rejection of yet another suitor (who, incidentally leaves because Rajah bit the seat of his trousers off), the Sultan says ' Allah forbid you should have any daughters! ' to Rajah, implying that one woman is enough.
It is revealed in a children 's book based on Aladdin that Princess Jasmine adopted Rajah as a cub when she felt lonely without a friend and the Sultan gave her Rajah as a gift.
During the Sultan 's meal in The Return of Jafar, Rajah fiercely chases Iago into the room, which makes everyone discover Iago is back. In the Aladdin TV series, Rajah mainly served as a minor recurring character, though the only major part he played was in the episode "SandSwitch '' when he teamed up with Abu and Iago in undoing Sadira 's spell when she magically switched places with Princess Jasmine, since only the memories of the animals were unaffected. In Aladdin and the King of Thieves, Rajah is seen carrying Jasmine 's bridal veil. In Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, Rajah is seen delivering Jasmine her agenda. She later calls him to try to scare the children of the Royal Academy, but the children end up chasing Rajah and Jasmine into the mud and up a tree.
The Peddler (voiced by Robin Williams, singing voice by Bruce Adler) is a mysterious merchant who appears at the beginning of the original film, and later reappeared in the ending of Aladdin and the King of Thieves. The entire Peddler scene was improvised by Williams as the actor was put in front of a table with props, and started pitching them as products from a salesman 's catalogue. He implores the viewer to ' come closer ', a reference to actor Sydney Greenstreet 's many film trailers. In the original ending of Aladdin, the Peddler was revealed to be the Genie masquerading as a human, but this was cut from the final film. The directors of the movie later revealed that the Peddler is still the Genie, despite the ending being deleted.
He appears in the Kingdom Hearts series, voiced by Corey Burton, and plays a major role in Kingdom Hearts II where his greed and shrewdness are presented.
Gazeem (voiced by Charlie Adler) is Jafar 's sidekick seen just at the beginning of Aladdin, he informs Jafar that he has managed to steal the other half of the scarab amulet used to summon the Cave of Wonders, and as soon as the halves form together, it flies off to the cave 's location and they follow on horseback. When the cave forms, it demands to know who woke it up and Gazeem introduces himself. The cave warns him that only one man, the Diamond in the Rough, whom the cave does not identify, may enter. Gazeem seems unable to understand this and thus ignores the warning and prepares to enter. Just before his entry, Jafar tells him that he can have any treasure he likes, but the lamp is his. Gazeem enters the cave and breathes a sigh of relief, when suddenly, the cave roars furiously and collapses. Gazeem frantically tries to escape, but although he is still very close to the entrance, the entire cave roof comes crashing down with amazing speed, as if the cave was closing its mouth. The cave collapses and Gazeem remains trapped inside, presumably forever, much to Jafar 's shock and anger. Having lost his accomplice, Jafar realizes that Gazeem was not the Diamond in the Rough, and sets out to find this particular man who can enter the cave. When Aladdin and Abu enter the cave later on, Gazeem is nowhere to be seen, so he is presumed to have been crushed to death when the cave collapsed.
The Tiger God (voiced by Frank Welker) is a giant head of a tiger made of sand and the neutral guardian of the Cave of Wonders. Its job is to protect the Genie 's lamp and give it to those who are worthy while eliminating those who are n't. The treasures hoarded inside the cave are used to test those who are worthy to enter as touching them will also cause the Tiger God to eliminate them as well. It was done by computer - generated imagery, following reference drawings by animator Eric Goldberg.
In the film, the Tiger God was awakened by Jafar and Gazeem using the two halves of the scarab medallion, which formed the cave 's eyes. Because Gazeem is n't a Diamond in the Rough, it refused to let Gazeem enter, but (at Jafar 's urging) goes in anyway and the cave immediately kills him before turning back into a pile of sand and returning to slumber. It was awakened again by Jafar and Aladdin, and since Aladdin is a Diamond in the Rough, it allows him and Abu to enter, but warns them not to touch any of the treasures in the cave except for the lamp. Although Aladdin obeyed the cave 's warning, Abu did not. This angered the Tiger God so much that it claims that they will both perish for ignoring its warning (despite the fact that only Abu disobeyed the cave 's warning) and causes the cave to collapse. The magic carpet saves the duo but failed to escape the cave thanks to Jafar and the Tiger God again returns to eternal slumber.
In the Kingdom Hearts series, the Cave of Wonders served in the games ' storyline, such as the first game when it was under an evil influence before Sora and company gained entry into it. Unlike the movie, it does n't talk (except in Kingdom Hearts X).
On Disneyland, the Cave of Wonders head is present at the Aladdin 's Oasis open restaurant in Adventureland. The Storybook Land Canal Boats attraction at Disneyland Paris also features a tunnel shaped like the tiger head.
Prince Achmed (voiced by Corey Burton) is one of the potential suitors for Princess Jasmine. On his way to the palace, he nearly hits two peasant children with a bullwhip when they get in his way, but Aladdin intervenes and insults him. In retaliation, Achmed publicly humiliates Aladdin by kicking him into a mud puddle and telling Aladdin that he is nothing but a "worthless street rat '' and will always be one. He is next and last seen furiously stomping out of the palace with his pants ripped and underwear showing, yelling that he had never been so insulted. After that, Achmed is not seen again for the remainder of the franchise.
Farouk (voiced by Jim Cummings) is a merchant from a fruit stand. When he sees Jasmine gives an apple to a hungry boy without paying, he is about to cut off her right arm, but Aladdin stops him by claiming Princess Jasmine is his mentally handicapped sister (even going far by having Princess Jasmine to pretend that she believes that Abu is the Sultan).
Abis Mal is a childish and incompetent thief who dreams of enormous riches and does anything he can to get lots of money. His greed for money leads him from a greedy wealthy thief, to a murderous thief. His name is a pun of the word "abysmal '', which is a reference to the outcomes of all his plans. Mal is voiced by Jason Alexander. The Return of Jafar opens with Abis Mal and his minions in their hideout, stealing money from Agrabah, with Abis Mal deciding to keep all the gold and treasures for himself and only give his men 13 coins for all their work, much to the anger of his gang. Aladdin ultimately intervenes, making a fool out of Abis Mal and taking all the treasure, with the intent to return it to those who need the money. Later, Abis crosses paths with Aladdin on the Agrabah streets, and orders his minions to attack. Abis winds up in another embarrassing defeat when Iago gets in the fray. That evening, while Abis was drawing water from a well, his gang decided they hated and despised their idiotic, double - crossing boss so much that they wanted to kill him. Just before they can strike, though, Abis pulls up a black lamp and unintentionally releases Jafar, scaring Abis 's would - be murderers away in the process.
Knowing that, as a genie, he could not directly kill Aladdin, Jafar saw a chance for revenge through Abis 's partnership. Of course, he was still required to grant Abis 's three wishes. Abis 's first wish was to have "The Legendary Sunken Treasure Ship of Coeur Du Mer '' and Jafar granted it by teleporting himself and Abis to the ship itself, which was at the bottom of the ocean. Unable to breathe underwater, Abis then had to forfeit his second wish to return to the desert. Now down to one wish and threatened by Jafar to work with him if he wanted it, Abis became Jafar 's unfortunate patsy; however, when he discovered that Jafar desired revenge on Aladdin, Abis willingly decided to go along with him to get his own revenge on Aladdin. The two succeed in capturing all of Aladdin 's friends, with the ultimate finish being that Aladdin would be executed for the murder of the Sultan (although the real Sultan was still alive and captured). With his goals complete, Jafar then offers Abis Mal (now technically Jafar 's "master '') huge amounts of gold and treasure in return for using his last wish to free Jafar. Abis, however, is not convinced that Jafar 's claim is true and hesitates from wishing, suspecting that after making the wish all the treasure Jafar had conjured would merely vanish. Aladdin quickly moves in to capture Jafar 's lamp in Abis 's moment of hesitation and quickly incurs Jafar 's wrath. During the fight, Abis Mal winds up tangled in a tree, where he stays for the rest of the film. While he is stuck there, Aladdin and his friends battle Jafar and manage to destroy the lamp with Iago 's help, thus destroying Jafar permanently. In the very end after the credits Abis Mal is still tangled in the tree. He then sadly declares "Does this mean I do n't get my third wish? '' after the end credits.
Abis Mal serves as Aladdin 's most common enemy and one of the main antagonists in the television series with 13 appearances. In the TV series, Abis Mal appears to be quite well off. He continues to have minions in the form of a gang of various thieves who do his bidding and he often buys magic items which he uses in his schemes. Abis Mal 's usual plans involve looking for an ancient or powerful magic to conquer the Agrabah throne, looking for ancient and valuable treasures, or seeking revenge on Aladdin for always ruining his plans. He also seems fixated on getting himself a larger hat, and frequently had eyes for the Sultan 's. In the episode "Lost and Founded '', Abis Mal meets an ancestor of himself, Abnor Mal (pun on "abnormal ''), and tries to make him founder of Agrabah instead of the Sultan and Princess Jasmine 's ancestor, Hamed. Although he can be perceived as a primary villain in the Aladdin franchise, Abis Mal is largely a comic relief character, as his plans to become rich and powerful always end in one hilarious failure after another. In one typical example in "Forget Me Lots '', Abis Mal actually succeeded in turning Princess Jasmine into the most evil and ruthless ruler of Agrabah that ever was; however his plan to use her as a figurehead ruler backfired when she actually began to rule instead of him. Another time when his plan to use whirlwinds backfires on him as usual, his henchman Haroud Hazi Bin breaks the fourth wall and remarks how his boss is available for children 's parties. In the episode "When Chaos Comes Calling '', when Genie was having a show and tell of various guest villains, he shows three together; Abis Mal, Mozenrath and Mechanicles.
In The Return of Jafar, he postponed making his third wish in order to get revenge on Aladdin. He never got his third wish from Jafar, but in the episode "Some Enchanted Genie '', in which the Genie 's girlfriend Eden first appears, Abis Mal gets his hands on Eden 's bottle and uses all three of the wishes that holding the bottle entitles him to. All of his wishes backfire or come undone, and he is defeated once again. As in The Return of Jafar he once again wastes his wishes trying to cause pain and suffering for Aladdin and his friends. If it were n't for his obsession with getting revenge on Aladdin he probably would have managed to use at least one wish to gain the riches he desires. However, it also may be that he did n't wish for money from Eden because he already had all the money he desired, as he has been shown to be a very competent thief. This means he has wasted a total of five wishes. This makes Abis Mal the only character to have become the master of two genies instead of one
Amin Damoola is a clumsy, cowardly, and incompetent thief, who appears in four episodes. Amin always finds a way to cause trouble for Aladdin (and usually ends up in trouble himself). Some of these ways are stealing a magical glove, creating a large green dragon, and getting a bunch of magical tools from Mozenrath. In his last episode he was working for Mozenrath, and failed him; Mozenrath had given Amin a choice: succeed in stealing the Sultan and become the greatest thief of Agrabah, or face Mozenrath 's anger and regret the day he was born. Mozenrath did not take that too well, and it is likely that he possibly turned him into a mamluck (zombie) or killed him ruthlessly. However, since Amin makes a fourth appearance in the episode Sneeze the Day, Mozenrath may have forgiven him (or maybe Amin already paid his penalty or escaped Mozenrath 's wrath -- or it may be out of place in the chronology of the series).
His first name (Amin) is common in Arabic, but his last name (Damoola) is a play - on - words referring to his insatiable greed i.e. I 'm in da moola (the money). Amin 's voice is an impression of Peter Sellers as Inspector Clouseau with a slight Arabian tint.
Amin is so incompetent as a thief that he is nicknamed "Butterfingers ''. However, he dislikes this nickname so much that he is willing to start a fight.
Arbutus is a sorcerer who only appeared in the episode "Garden of Evil ''. He has the power to make vegetation and flora immediately grow and manipulate them to his will. His name comes from the genus of trees called Arbutus. The character is voiced by Ron Perlman. While not evil in nature, he has more in common with plants than with humans and sees most humans as enemies for killing his beautiful works of art for their crass purposes (wood for heat and smoke which blocks the sun, flowers to die slowly in vases, etc.). He sees himself as an artist and makes most plants grow with the intention of creating something beautiful, even during battle. He is especially appreciative of ' living beauty ' and while he prefers plants he is aware that other organisms such as birds and even humans can enhance his artwork.
Many years ago, a younger Sultan came to the garden of Arbutus because he had heard that the most beautiful flowers grew there, to pick a flower for his bride. Arbutus did not attempt to harm the Sultan upon his entry, as he admired the beauty of the garden. But the sorcerer was enraged when the Sultan plucked a flower, effectively killing it. In order to allow the Sultan to go free he demanded that in 20 years time he be given the Sultan 's most precious treasure. Desperate to escape and not fully grasping Arbutus ' meaning, the Sultan quickly agreed and hurried away. Twenty years later, Arbutus came to Agrabah for the Sultan 's most precious treasure -- Jasmine. At no point in the episode does he make any attempt to physically harm Jasmine despite holding her captive, and even befriends her briefly due to her gentle words, her appreciation of his artwork, and the fact that she is named after a flower.
Arbutus ' only weakness is the rose on his lapel. Once it is cut off, he withers and dies, as does the beautiful garden which he created. Princess Jasmine explains to Aladdin that Arbutus is not evil, only "different '', and she, Aladdin, the Sultan and the Genie replant the flower, which perks up, and a deep inhalation is heard, suggesting that he will return to life in time. Arbutus bears an uncanny resemblance to Jafar.
Aziz, voiced by Michael Bell, is one of Aladdin 's first adversaries in the series. He is a small and ugly man, later turned to a goblin - like creature who can use his breath for almost anything, including attack, create illusions of entire deserts, or even turning people into small slug - like beings. It is apparent in the episode "Destiny on Fire '' that these powers come with a price, as throughout the episode, Aziz seems to have a short breath and eventually goes on fire.
Aziz first appears in the two part episode "Seems Like Old Crimes '' as a part of a small traveling circus along with his friends Fatima (Charity James) and Minos (Keith David). They use the monkey Abu to pickpocket their audience, but eventually hire the young Aladdin to do this instead. When Aladdin objects to stripping innocent citizens of all their money, Minos brings him in on their plan to steal the fabled Destiny Stone. Aladdin, Minos, Fatima, Aziz, and Abu go to the ruins where the Destiny Stone is kept. When the trio attempt to steal the Destiny Stone, they are instead trapped inside, while Aladdin and Abu escape. Many years later, the three of them escape. Aziz has become a goblin, Minos has become a minotaur and Fatima has become a harpy. With their newfound powers, the three of them go on a crime spree in Agrabah, eventually setting their eyes on conquering the city and getting revenge on Aladdin for causing them to be trapped for many years, and in Fatima 's case, for turning her into a monster. They eventually return to the temple where the Destiny Stone was held, where after a brief conversation with Princess Jasmine, Minos and Fatima, who have mutual love for each other decide not to kill Aladdin, which causes Aziz to turn against them and attack them with his magic breath. The Destiny Stone thus turns Minos and Fatima back into humans, while Aziz prefers to keep his powers and escapes. Aziz is defeated in the episode "Destiny on Fire '', where he uses his breath to transform all of Agrabah 's people to slug - like creatures and take over the palace, as well as bind Aladdin and Razoul together with a magic handcuff after noticing their own personal dislike towards the other. Eventually, Aladdin and Razoul notice that overuse of Aziz 's magic breath causes him to go on fire. When they have him try to destroy each other, Aziz eventually explodes and turns into three stars in the sky.
Chaos, voiced by Matt Frewer, is a winged blue cat who desires that life be unpredictable, full of surprise and change. Chaos is an extremely powerful entity of whom both Mirage and the Genie are terrified. He is a fun - loving prankster and uses his power for antics and light - hearted harassment rather than intentional, malicious evil. He does get angry and sensitive when people start giving him orders, and often warns them in a threatening voice not to do so. He also has a strong dislike of Fate, since the notion of predestination rubs him up the wrong way. Like Genie, his magical tricks tend to reference other media. Chaos possesses several traits similar to the Cheshire Cat from Disney 's Alice in Wonderland, such as disappearing, leaving only his grin behind, and leaving footprints before actually appearing.
Eden is the Genie 's girlfriend, voiced by Debi Derryberry. She is first introduced in the episode "Some Enchanted Genie '' and only appears in one other episode; "The Book of Khartoum ''. The Genie falls in love with her at first sight and tries to impress her by granting her master free wishes. Initially taken aback by his sudden appearance, she eventually agrees to a date and the two fall in love. Her master is an optimistic young orphan named Dhandi. Although her first wish is simply to have enough food to prevent her being hungry for the rest of her life, Dhandi sacrifices her second wish to prevent Aladdin and the Genie from being turned into cockroaches by Abis Mal when he had the bottle. In the end, Dhandi accidentally uses her last wish to make Eden stay with her forever, postponing the Genie 's romance until Dhandi 's life ends. However, Eden tells Genie that she is all that Dhandi has and that she can not just leave her at that point in life, to which Genie understands. The two tell each other that they will wait until the time comes that they will finally be together.
In the episode "The Book of Khartoum '', Eden visits Genie to go on a date. Genie misses the date because he has been captured by Mozenrath, who wants to use him to power a furnace that will create the philosopher 's stone, which he will use to become "the most powerful wizard ever. '' Mozenrath discovers that just one genie ca n't provide enough power to the furnace to create the philosopher 's stone, so he is happy when Eden shows up to rescue him. He tricks her into agreeing to exchange herself for Genie, but Mozenrath double crosses her. He traps her with the Genie and uses their combined power to heat the furnace and create the philosopher 's stone. It is likely that Eden agreed to the deal even knowing that Mozenrath might double cross her, because she knew she would get free somehow. Otherwise, Dhandi 's last wish would n't be fulfilled. She knew the laws of the cosmos would cause her to be freed somehow so she could stay with Dhandi for the rest of her life. After Mozenrath double crosses Eden and finishes making the stone, he is double crossed himself by Khartoum, a sorcerer trapped in the Book of Khartoum. Khartoum was the one who told Mozenrath to make the stone. Khartoum uses the stone to become free and is on the verge of taking out Mozenrath when Aladdin frees the Genie and Eden while the two sorcerers are distracted. The two genies have been weakened, but they restore their power with the Genie embrace and take the philosopher 's stone away from Khartoum, who then becomes trapped in the book again. The philosopher 's stone becomes so powerful that it 's about to self - destruct, so the genies take it into the sky where it wo n't hurt anyone, then return to Agrabah for their date.
Unlike Genie, Eden has five fingers instead of four. Her name was most likely intended as a nod to Barbara Eden, who played a genie in a bottle in the 60 's sitcom I Dream of Jeannie.
Mechanicles (pronounced "Meh - KANN - ih - kleez '', sometimes misspelled "Mechanikles '') is a mad scientist who seems to be of an ancient Greek culture (always styling himself as "greatest of the great Greek geniuses ''), he is known for being able to make complex technological robots resembling insects (particularly beetles), and other arthropods such as scorpions, in a range of sizes from minuscule to gigantic, almost always with what appears to be a consistent usage of copper alloys such as bronze (especially for their outer casings), which he uses for his various plots. He is the third main antagonist in the animated series. His right eye is aided by a form of "telescopic monocle '' which could assist him in building the intricate details of his machines. His voice is provided by Charlie Adler. When he first appeared in "Getting the Bugs Out '', he was attacking a distant village with large robotic beetles, even managing to capture the Genie and the Magic Carpet -- forcing Aladdin to face the fact that he had become too dependent on them and had begun to take them for granted -- before the group found him and destroyed his largest, greatest robot.
Other than his large ego, Mechanicles seems to have an obsessive - compulsive need for cleanliness and order; Aladdin and the other heroes usually find themselves able to distract him by doing something simple, for example spilling oil on his home 's tile floor. This obsessive - compulsive disorder seems to be the plot behind his schemes, for example; he tried to turn the entire desert into glass because glass is a smooth surface, while sand is shifty and "dirty '', or when he stole cargo off a ship to boil the ocean because using steam is a better cleaning technique to clean clothes rather than normal scrubbing. He even attempted to destroy the whole of Thundra 's rainforest with mechanical termites to ensure a perfectly clean world. On another occasion when he managed to assume control of Agrabah using a robotic valet to hypnotise everyone, his primary focus after he had established himself as the new ruler was to begin ordering the city to be cleaned, but this plan was fortunately thwarted when Genie and Carpet -- who were immune to the robot 's hypnotic skills -- managed to free Aladdin from its control and subsequently wrecked the robot from its insides.
In "The Flawed Couple '', he also made a short - lived alliance with Abis Mal, out of a common desire to exact revenge on Aladdin. Using Abis Mal 's magical "mood stones '' fixed to Mechanicles ' small robotic beetles, the pair aimed to weaken the heroes and destroy them with a mechanical praying mantis. However, Aladdin was able to resist the power of stones, and like all of Abis Mal 's magical schemes, it backfired upon both himself and Mechanicles.
Mechanicles makes a cameo in the Hercules: The Animated Series episode "Hercules and the Hero of Athens '', during Icarus ' superhero theme song.
Mirage, voiced by Bebe Neuwirth, is one of Aladdin 's recurring enemies and the second main antagonist in the TV series Aladdin. A cat - like enchantress (with similarities to both Egyptian goddesses Bast and Sekhmet) holding powers over illusions, dreams and shadows, her magic powers are enough to create a mirage of Agrabah, its people and Aladdin 's friends. This, combined with her stunning keenness and ruthlessness, makes her a dangerous enemy. Her home (called Morbia) appears to be a giant hollow sphinx floating in a dark night sky along with numerous asteroid - like floating rocks drifting aimlessly about. Mirage is inscrutable in her motives. She never provides any insight herself, and other evidence is circumstantial at best. It is possible that she intends to kill Aladdin and his friends and then take over Agrabah (or the world); she certainly attempts the former several times; however, she is called "Evil Incarnate '' during the course of the series, and it is possible that all of her actions are motivated simply by malice. The only reliable evidence is from the mysterious blind magician Phasir, who appears in few episodes of the series and who seems to have some history with Mirage, though it is not expanded on.
Her first appearance is in the episode "In the Heat of the Fright '', in which she sends several cats of fire to terrorize and destroy a small farming village, a village that Aladdin happens to be passing by on his map - drawing trip downriver. Sparking her ire by defeating her feline minions, she introduces herself to him with scornful interest and an echoing proclamation of "We are not finished! '' when she departs. Genie quickly becomes terrified of her and tries to prevent everyone from sleeping on their trip back to Agrabah, but fails and Aladdin, Genie, Carpet, Abu and Iago are drawn into her realm. Vowing to make Aladdin feel fear, she lets her fire cats chase and harass Genie, growing ever larger the more afraid he became. Aladdin saves the day by bolstering everyone 's courage, which causes the fire cats to shrink and eventually disperse. Furious at their defeat, she sends Aladdin and his friends back from her realm with the parting promise of "This defeat will only fuel my victory the next time, Aladdin ''.
In the episode "Eye of the Beholder '', she tests Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's love for each other by turning Princess Jasmine into a poisonous anthropomorphic snake. The attempts initially appeared successfully, rendering Princess Jasmine poisonous to the touch, but when Aladdin turned himself into a snake to be with her, Phasir appeared to Mirage, informing her that she had failed, and lifted the spell on the two of them. In "The Lost Ones '', her keenness turned Aladdin 's old friend Amal against him, and in "While the City Snoozes '', he had to race against time before his city 's inhabitants became slaves in their sleep. In yet another episode, "When Chaos Comes Calling '', she directed an even more powerful entity, the winged feline named Chaos towards Agrabah. However, even Mirage feared Chaos; she uses quick thinking to avoid a confrontation with him. However, it turns out that at the end of the episode, it is shown that Chaos was manipulating her the whole time, putting her in a situation where she saved the day and thus making life a little more interesting.
Despite her malevolent intentions and considerable powers (such as being able to slice through solid stone with ease and quickly teleporting vast distances, as well as creating convincing disguises), she refuses to ' get her hands dirty ', instead preferring to let others do her work for her, or deceiving her enemies by leading them into dangerous (and often deadly) situations. An example is in the episode "Eye of the Beholder '', where she swiftly attacks the Genie in retaliation to his charging rush and easily shreds him to pieces (with the Genie surviving in his typical comical fashion), yet she warns Aladdin against rushing at her by saying "I could tear you apart like I did your Genie, but you 're filled with blood. '', snidely remarking "Wise decision ''. when her warning is heeded. Indeed, if her ego were not so great, and her obsession with leading others through elaborate deceptions not so ruling, Aladdin would be a simple foe to dispatch with her abilities.
Mozenrath is a young evil sorcerer and necromancer. He was voiced by Jonathan Brandis in the Disney and a fourth main antagonist of the animated television series Aladdin. Almost all of Mozenrath 's power comes from a magical gauntlet he wears over his right arm. Due to the gauntlet 's power, Mozenrath 's right arm has become skeletal and it is implied that the gauntlet will eventually kill him. In the last of his eight appearances in the series, the gauntlet has physically exhausted Mozenrath to the extent that he tries to take over Aladdin 's mind and body ("Two to Tangle ''). He is the ruler of the Land of the Black Sand, a kingdom where the sand is black, the sun is usually blocked by clouds, and the only residents are himself, his flying eel sidekick Xerxes (voiced by Frank Welker), and an army of undead Mamluks who serve him. He is quite open and accepting about his own cruelty and he prides himself on his ruthlessness. He took control of the Land of the Black Sand from its former ruler, the sorcerer Destane. According to Iago, Destane was "a real hard case '', and even Jafar steered clear of him. Mozenrath explained that Destane was like a father to him until he "stole his power and his throne then he stole his humanity, '' turning him into one of his undead soldiers.
Mozenrath 's main goal is to conquer and rule the Seven Deserts, including Agrabah. While he and his undead Mamluk soldiers have secure control over the Land of the Black Sand, they are not powerful enough to conquer the other kingdoms that Mozenrath wants to rule. Because of this, his plots and schemes usually involve obtaining more magic and becoming more powerful. Through the course of the series he tried to kill Aladdin and his friends multiple times. He also attempted to capture the Genie several times so that he could tap his magical energies and use them for his own purposes. In Mozenrath 's debut episode ("The Citadel ''), Iago referred to the sorcerer as "Jafar Jr. '', comparing the two sorcerers ' ambition and cruelty. In the episode "Black Sand '', Mozenrath was seen in Jafar 's old room and Iago asked him if he knew Jafar, but despite their similarities there is no connection between Jafar and Mozenrath.
Although Mozenrath 's ultimate goal is to rule the Seven Deserts he seems to enjoy bantering with Aladdin and his friends and seems to be in no hurry to defeat them. At his first meeting with Aladdin he is polite and even friendly until Aladdin makes it clear he does not wish to work with Mozenrath. In subsequent appearances Mozenrath often loses interest in his plans as soon as they are defeated and does not attempt to kill Aladdin after their battles have ended. His overall demeanor is one of boredom and impatience.
After being defeated by Aladdin multiple times in the course of the series, Mozenrath 's final appearance ends with him losing his gauntlet and being sent away in a giant balloon by the Genie. The original plot idea and draft for the film Aladdin and the King of Thieves, involved Mozenrath as the main antagonist, and it was to be revealed that he and Aladdin are brothers. However, according to one of the writers, it was felt that the film should steer away from the TV show; this, combined with the fact that Mozenrath 's voice actor, Jonathan Brandis, could not be reached, prompted the writers to come up with a new plot and move onto another one of Aladdin 's family members, his father. Mozenrath was the main antagonist in nine episodes of the series, his tenth appearance being a cameo as one of three guest villains in a show and tell by the Genie.
The Mukhtar (voiced by John Kassir) is a reptilian humanoid, apparently the last surviving member of the race of Mukhtars, sworn enemies of Genies. Though Mukhtars would generally hunt Genies just for the honor, the last Muktar acknowledges that times have changed, and now he hunts Genies for gold. Like Genie, he does not have a specific name. He is often seen riding on a horned reptilian ostrich named "Saurus ''.
The Mukhtar appears in two episodes, "Genie Hunt '' and "The Hunted ''. In the former of these, he works for one of Genie 's former masters, Al Gebraic, to capture Genie and put him into his service again. In the latter, he is hired by Mozenrath to capture Genie so that Mozenrath could entrap him in the crystal of Ix and steal his powers, but ends up turning on Mozenrath and helping Aladdin rescue the Genie after he saves him from a giant monstrous killer plant inside Mozenrath 's palace. At the end of the episode, the Genie and Mukhtar part as friends.
Phasir (voiced by Ed Gilbert) appears frequently through the series. His first appearance is in the episode "Do the Rat Thing '', but he is not named or given any background until the episode "The Prophet Motive '', where he is identified as Phasir, an old seer and powerful wizard who turned his evil giant brother, Fashoom, into stone many centuries ago. The end of that episode also reveals that he actually has a single eye, but he wears bands over his one eye, which makes him appear to be just blind (it is never made clear whether he actually is blind or merely pretends to be in order to hide his eye). Later episodes, such as "Eye of the Beholder '' and "While the City Snoozes '' hint that Phasir has had dealings with Mirage in the past and they may have once been lovers (he states to himself that love will one day lead Mirage back to him).
Sadira is introduced in the TV series and later becomes friends with Aladdin and the others. She is voiced by the actress Kellie Martin. Originally a street rat - much like Aladdin himself had been - Sadira developed an obsession with Aladdin after he saved her from Razoul. Dejected over his rejection of her in favor of Jasmine, she subsequently fell into a cavern where she made contact with the Witches of the Sand, who taught her various magical spells that featured sand as part of the incantations. So armed, she unleashed a sand beast in an attempt to get Princess Jasmine out of the picture, but in her haste she failed to think more about what she wanted the creature to do, how to completely control the creature and it subsequently ran rampant before the group were able to stop it.
Her second attempt featured Sadira using an unidentified "memory sand '' that caused the entire city 's memories to be altered, resulting in Sadira being the princess and engaged to Aladdin while Princess Jasmine was on the streets, with she and Aladdin never having even met; however, the spell had no effect on Abu, Iago and Rajah, who swiftly escaped the palace to search for Jasmine. Despite her initial skepticism, Jasmine began to believe Iago 's story when she saw the wedding parade, feeling drawn to Aladdin despite having no memory of him. Sadira attempted to stop them by having the wedding moved to that very night, but the animals and Jasmine managed to interrupt the wedding before Sadira and Aladdin could kiss. Realizing that he felt more right with Jasmine than he ever had with Sadira, even when he could not remember her, Aladdin kissed Jasmine, resulting in history returning to normal with only Iago, Abu, Rajah and Sadira retaining any memory of the experience.
In Sadira 's third attempt, she cast a spell to transform Aladdin into a heroic dragon - slaying prince and Abu into a horse, simultaneously opening a portal to the land of her fantasies, where she and Aladdin could live without any interference from Jasmine. Although the Genie managed to close the portal, the subsequent mixture of the Genie 's magic with Sadira 's spells meant that Aladdin still believed himself to be the prince despite the lack of any armor or even a dragon to slay, as well as Abu becoming a mule, forcing them to recreate Sadira 's fantasy in order to break the spell. In the process, however, Sadira and Jasmine actually bonded to a certain degree, developing an appreciation for each other 's skills and putting their old rivalry to rest as they worked together to vanquish the out - of - control mechanical dragon Genie had created while Aladdin was under the spell 's influence. Despite her new friendship with the group, Sadira was forced to face the remnants of her past actions when, while attempting to make a soup, she accidentally released the Witches of the Sand who had taught her in the first place. Having framed Sadira for releasing a sand viper on the city, the Witches attempted to win her over to their side and thus raise the ancient City of Sand to destroy Agrabah, but in the end, Sadira chose her new friendship with the group and helped them to defeat the Witches.
She later appears in the end of Aladdin and the King of Thieves, when Aladdin and Jasmine finally get married.
Cassim is Aladdin 's father. He is voiced by John Rhys - Davies. He left his wife and newborn son in Agrabah over twenty years ago to explore the world and pursue a better life for his family, not wanting to be looked down upon. Some time later, he fell in with the Forty Thieves, eventually becoming their leader (the "King of Thieves ''), and incorporated a new law: never hurt the innocent. His latest plan before the events of Aladdin and the King of Thieves was to try and steal the Oracle, as he had found evidence that it existed, and believed it might be among the gifts going to Agrabah. He intended to find the treasure of the Vanishing Isle.
Cassim is first seen in the film disguised as the King of Thieves, carrying out a plot to raid Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding. As soon as the ceremony starts, he gives the word for the other thirty - nine to distract the guards while he searches for the Oracle. The plan works, to an extent - Cassim is confronted by Aladdin, and the two fight, both unaware of the fact that they are father and son. He manages to escape, swearing to meet Aladdin again. Aladdin later catches up to his father after learning he is "trapped in the world of the Forty Thieves '', when Cassim utters the secret words to open the hideout of the Thieves ("Open Sesame ''). He is confronted by Sa'luk, a rival of his, about the failure of the raid in Agrabah, and Sa'luk is about to kill him when Aladdin intervenes. Aladdin reveals that he is his son, and this is proved when the dagger slips out of his cloak. Cassim tells them that this is true, but nevertheless, since he found the location of their hideout, he must die - or face the challenge in a battle for his life against Sa'luk, which Aladdin narrowly succeeds at. After the challenge, Cassim shows Aladdin a secret chamber, explaining why he was never there, and how one night he came home but believed his family lost to him forever after he could n't find them. Aladdin offers him an invitation to his wedding, which Cassim is at first hesitant about. Eventually, Iago offers to lead Cassim to where the Oracle is if he participates in Aladdin 's wedding, to which Cassim accepts.
Cassim easily bonds with the Genie, the Sultan and Princess Jasmine (after a change of clothes and dealing with some of the Genie 's antics) but is ultimately too obsessed with the pull of the treasure to enjoy the time with his son too much, as he has already learned of the Oracle 's current location from Iago. Nevertheless, as he attempts to take the Oracle, Cassim promises Iago he will go straight to attend the wedding after it, but they are caught by Razoul and the Palace Guards, who have been tipped off by Sa'luk, who has survived his battle against Aladdin is now enacting his revenge against Cassim. He is sentenced to life in prison along with 31 thieves that have been captured during Razoul 's raid of the hideout, but later on that night, Aladdin, disguised as himself in his King of Thieves clothes, helps him escape out of forgiveness. Once out of Agrabah, Cassim and Iago go back to the Thieves. Upon arriving, they find that Sa'luk manipulated the remaining seven thieves into believing that Cassim sold them out and now follow Sa'luk as their new leader, despite the fact the imprisoned 31 thieves know that it was Sa'luk who sold them out, not Cassim. Being held hostage with Iago, he is forced to use the Oracle to lead them to the Vanishing Isle, while he secretly commands Iago to escape to warn Aladdin. As the Thieves reached the Isle by ship, Cassim is saved by Aladdin, who knocks Sa'luk unconscious, and they venture into the Vanishing Isle to obtain the hand of Midas. They succeed, but Sa'luk quickly follows, taking Aladdin hostage, threatening Cassim that he will kill Aladdin unless he hand over the Hand of Midas. Cassim, deciding Aladdin is far more valuable than the hand, tosses it to Sa'luk, who foolishly catches it by the hand instead of the bronze handle. Sa'luk is instantly turned into a golden statue and falls into the chamber filled with water. Cassim and Aladdin then escape out of the Isle. He throws the Hand of Midas into the sea realizing that he has not lost his ultimate treasure: his son, and apologizes for taking so long to realize it. Cassim attends Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding later, watching from the shadows, as he is still a wanted man for his past crimes. He accepts Iago, who feels he no longer has a place with Aladdin and the others as they prepare for a new life of responsibility, as a travelling companion, and goes off to venture the world. As the film ends, Cassim is last seen with Iago waving farewell to his son and daughter - in - law before riding off into the night to tour the world.
Sa'luk is the main antagonist of the third film. He is voiced by Jerry Orbach. He is a ruthless, aggressive, violent brute, and he seems to have pleasure in killing. His primary weapon is a knuckleduster with 3 bronze claws attached. He is very strong and an exceptionally capable fighter, able to defeat the entirety of the remaining Forty Thieves without breaking a sweat and kill a shark with his bare hands. He is tall, gray skinned, wearing a black vest, a red cummerbund and baggy blue pants.
Sa'luk is the right - hand man of Cassim, the King of Thieves, but dialogue implies that Sa'luk was once the leader of the thieves until Cassim proposed to seek out the Hand of Midas, which led the thieves to appoint Cassim as their new leader, something Sa'luk despises Cassim for. When Aladdin arrives at the thieves ' lair, Sa'luk, angry at Cassim for leading them to a failed attempt to steal the oracle from Aladdin 's wedding, attempts a mutiny against Cassim, but Aladdin steps in before they can fight and subdues Sa'luk. Sa'luk then says to the other thieves that they must kill Aladdin for knowing the location of the hideout. Cassim, having little authority over the thieves but wanting to save his son, gives Aladdin the chance to fight for his life. Sa'luk instantly volunteers to be "the one to test him ''. Aladdin takes a rather severe beating, but is eventually able to subdue and defeat Sa'luk by kicking him off a cliff to his apparent death.
Sa'luk survives, and knows that he has by now been replaced by Aladdin. In a spiteful rage, Saluk reveals the location of the thieves ' hideout to Razoul, in exchange for immunity from prosecution. When Razoul arrests 31 of the thieves, Sa'luk finds out that Cassim and Aladdin are not among them. When Sa'luk hears that Aladdin is in Agrabah, he assumes Cassim is too, and reveals that Cassim, Aladdin 's recently arrived father, is the King of Thieves. Then he returns to the thieves ' lair, and convinces the remaining thieves who were n't captured that it was actually Cassim who gave up the location of the hideout, despite the fact that the 31 thieves already know that Sa'luk is the one who sold them out. After Sa'luk reminds them of life before Cassim, he rallies the thieves to join him in his own quest for the Hand of Midas. When Cassim and Iago arrive at the thieves ' lair, Sa'luk, as the new leader of the remaining thieves, has them tied up. The thieves sail away, trying to find the Vanishing Island, where the Hand of Midas is, with the Oracle 's help; however, Iago escapes and tells Aladdin. Aladdin and company follow the thieves to the Vanishing Isle, where it comes to a great battle. Sa'luk corners both Aladdin and Cassim and demands that they give him the hand, or he will kill Aladdin. Cassim throws the golden hand, and Sa'luk greedily grabs it. Despite having obtained the Hand of Midas, Sa'luk decides to kill Aladdin anyway for his pleasure. However, Sa'luk realizes too late that he has grabbed the golden hand itself instead of the bronze handle, and consequently, he is permanently turned into a golden statue and falls to the bottom of the hand chamber, shortly before the Vanishing Isle disappears beneath the water.
The Oracle is an omniscient entity bound to a staff, who answers one question per person. It is being given as a gift at Aladdin and Jasmine 's wedding. It is how Aladdin learns of his father, and it eventually leads Cassim to the location of the hand of Midas. Iago wished to use his question to find The Ultimate Treasure, but accidentally used it to find out why the 40 Thieves wanted the staff. Genie later mimicked its appearance when trying to dissuade Aladdin from breaking Cassim out of prison. Since the staff flew off to where the Vanishing Isle would appear, and did n't reappear after the Oracle vanished, it 's highly plausible that showing the location of the isle was its final task. It is voiced by CCH Pounder.
Nasira is Jafar 's fraternal twin sister who tried to resurrect him. She is the main antagonist of the game, voiced by Jodi Benson.
Nasira aims to resurrect her brother, but in order to do so she needs four magical artifacts to create a spell powerful enough to bring Jafar back. She also wants revenge on Aladdin. So she single - handedly took control of Agrabah, ' disposed ' of Princess Jasmine and the Sultan, and put a price on Aladdin 's head - all in one night. Aladdin confronted her in the throne room the next day and demanded to know the whereabouts of Princess Jasmine and the Sultan, but Nasira threw him into the dungeon. Unfortunately for her, Aladdin escaped and managed to reach the Oasis. Nasira disguised herself as a mystic and quickly befriended Aladdin by telling him where his friends were. Oblivious to the truth, Aladdin rescued his friends one by one. When he rescued the Sultan, Nasira revealed their friendship was a lie and ran off with the artifacts Aladdin collected. Two levels later, Aladdin found Nasira with Jafar 's ghost and defeated both of them. Jafar died again and Nasira ran off. Aladdin returned to the palace to celebrate.
Unlike Jafar, Nasira was most likely born with her magical powers. She can hurl mystical bolts, perform resurrections through magical artifacts, summon zombies and skeletons, bend others to her will, change her appearance, bring objects to life, create portals, and paralyze enemies.
The Arachnid, also known as the Spider, is a giant arachnid with a monsterious appetite and a boss in the game. She appears as a huge black and yellow spider monster with a yellow skull on her hindquarters. She is bigger than a camel and fiercely guards the way out of the Oasis that is outside Agrabah. Aladdin confronts this beast, but he does n't face her head on as he exposes her weakness with his agile skills in her web. He eventually defeats her, leaving victorious with a mysterious Serpent Idol before meeting a mystic with secret and sinister agendas of her own.
Anubis is a minor villain in the game. His sorcery is also the source of the restorative magic of four golden Serpent Idols, the very artifacts sought after by Nasira in her plan of resurrect her twin brother Jafar from the dead. This jackal - headed monster through his statue of his natural form, is master of the tombs, the Pyramids found within the deserts of Egypt. Legends within the walls of the Pyramids spoke of sacrifices offered to Anubis by his worshipers, humans willingly of by force, lost their souls to him, then years later, his temples became tombs as they were abandoned, and Anubis himself never return. Centuries later, Princess Jasmine, who was kidnapped by Nasira, was trapped by her henchman there in an enchanted cage, only to be a sacrifice and a bait to trap Aladdin. Aladdin braved the traps, and faced the undead monsters within the Pyramids. Aladdin soon face the possessed statue of the evil Egyptian deity, Anubis. Anubis was defeated, and disappeared. Aladdin won the fight, and freed Jasmine before they both later went on a mission to rescue her father.
The Evil Sultan as he is called, is an evil monarch threatening to become the new ruler of Agrabah and a minor villain in the game. He is a deadly adversary astride the Golden Phoenix, his flying mechanical bird. After he appears in Ancient City and kidnapped the real Sultan, Aladdin rides the Magic Carpet into battle, dodging his launched missiles and looks out when he slams on the brakes. Aladdin eventually wins this aerial battle and rescues Jasmine 's father, while he also collected the 4th and last Serpent Idol from the fallen Evil Sultan.
Sahara is Jasmine 's late mother 's horse who was the only one who could ride her. When Sahara was missing, Jasmine went looking for him and rode him back to Agrabah before her father noticed his disappearance. His name is a reference to the Sahara Desert in Africa.
Hakeem is a servant in the palace stables. He looks like Aladdin, but his personality is different. He is a little worried that he has lost a horse named Sahara, which will lead to him losing his job, so Princess Jasmine promised him that she will return Sahara to him.
Aneesa is Princess Jasmine 's loyal servant who works in the palace. She first convinces the discouraged Princess Jasmine never to give up and tries her best. When Sahara went missing, she tries to distract the Sultan from going to the royal stables.
Sharma is Jasmine 's cousin. She bears a resemblance to Jasmine, who is supposed to look like her mother. She works as a teacher at the Royal Academy.
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who cheers the days of the roving gypsy | Roving Gypsy Boy - wikipedia
"Roving Gypsy Boy '' is a song recorded by Canadian music group The Rankin Family. It was released in 1996 as the first single from their greatest hits album, Collection. It peaked in the top 10 on the RPM Country Tracks chart.
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what happened to the cast of george lopez show | George Lopez (TV series) - Wikipedia
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George Lopez is an American television sitcom created by comedian George Lopez, Bruce Helford and Robert Borden, which originally aired for six seasons, 120 episodes, on ABC from March 27, 2002, to May 8, 2007. It is currently in syndication. George Lopez stars the titular comedian George Lopez, who plays a fictionalized version of himself and revolves around his life at work and raising his family at home. The series was produced by Fortis Films and Mohawk Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television. The executive producers consisted of Lopez himself, Bruce Helford, Deborah Oppenheimer and Sandra Bullock.
The comedy revolves around a fictionalized portrayal of Lopez, working at the Powers Brothers aviation factory and raising his family consisting of his wife Angie, his daughter Carmen, and his son, Max, after having endured a dysfunctional and miserable childhood at the hands of his alcoholic, neglectful mother Benny, who is portrayed as selfish and cold - hearted. Other characters include Angie 's indulgent father Vic Palmero, a wealthy doctor, and George 's best childhood friend Ernie Cardenas, noted for his unsuccessful attempts at dating and his socially awkward behavior. After Carmen 's departure from the series, the role fulfilled by her character was replaced with Angie 's overindulged niece Veronica, with a large trust fund that has been entrusted under George 's care.
Multiple storylines in the series are established through the unveiling of a secret guarded by Benny throughout George 's whole childhood, most notably the discovery that his father Manny is still alive after George had been convinced by his mother that he died. Throughout a majority of the program, George tries to locate the whereabouts of his father, who was introduced at last in one episode and was revealed to be a nasty, yet successful businessman, having remarried with his second lover Lydia and fathered a few more children. However, Manny 's personality was commonly depicted as being abusive toward his son and former wife in the few appearances that he made, before his death in one episode of kidney disease. Nonetheless, he prohibits his son 's family from attending his funeral in protection of his reputation, much to George 's fury.
Comedian George Lopez had been performing standup throughout the early 1990s, expressing interest in having his own comedy television show like Seinfeld. Lopez was only willing to do a show if it meant that the roles were not demeaning to Latinos, vowing never to play a murderer, drug dealer or gang member. With an absence of TV deals, he continued to perform standup through the 1990s and into the 2000s. In August 2000, after being given one of Lopez 's comedy albums to listen to, actress Sandra Bullock saw Lopez perform live at the Brea Improv Comedy Club. Bullock had been interested in developing a TV show with a Latino storyline, being concerned about the lack of visibility for Latinos on American television. Bullock approached Lopez backstage after the show and made her pitch to produce and star in a situational comedy centered around the comedian.
Though Bullock had connections through Hollywood, The George Lopez Show was not an easy sell. Bullock sought the help of Bruce Helford (who created The Drew Carey Show and had been a head writer for Roseanne), and, due to his history with ABC on those shows, became a co-creator and executive producer of Lopez 's show. Bullock, Helford, and two of the show 's other executive producers met with ABC executives later that month, and the network tested the show with 4 episodes, before committing to 13 episodes the following fall and eventually adding an additional 9. Lopez was given full starring, creator, producer and writer credits for the show. The George Lopez Show was seen as an attempt from ABC to diversify their programming, while still appealing to the widest possible audience. ABC executives were hopeful that Lopez 's humor and relatability would draw a large family audience, focusing on marketing the series as much as possible. The network bought promotional time for the show on Spanish - language networks, and took out full - page ads in some magazines.
Lopez drew much of the material for the show from his own life experiences, especially his upbringing in the San Fernando Valley. Upon the series debut, Lopez became one of the few Latinos to star in a television comedy series, following in the footsteps of Desi Arnaz, Freddie Prinze, and John Leguizamo.
For the first five seasons, the show had an all - Latino cast with the exception of Albanian American actress Masiela Lusha, who played George 's daughter Carmen. During the show 's fifth season, Aimee Garcia was cast as George 's niece, Veronica.
The show 's theme song is "Low Rider '', performed by War. The theme plays in the opening credits and was present when the show aired on ABC as well as syndication, but was replaced in the DVD releases of all seasons except 1 episode due to licensing costs. At the 9th ALMA Awards in 2007, George Lopez called the song the "Chicano National Anthem ''.
The series finale aired on May 8, 2007, after the show was canceled by ABC. According to Lopez, ABC prime - time entertainment president Steve McPherson called him over the weekend and explained that the network would lose money if the show was picked up again, and that it was n't doing well financially. Lopez stated that the explanation was "painful to hear, '' noting that the show had four different time slots in only five years and had to constantly compete against shows like American Idol, yet the final season of the show was still able to outperform two comedy series that were renewed by ABC: Notes from the Underbelly and The Knights of Prosperity. Lopez said that ABC "dealt with us from the bottom of the deck '' and that it was "hard to take after what was a good run. ''
Lopez attributed the cancellation in part to the fact that the show was not produced directly by ABC Studios, but instead by Warner Bros. Television. Lopez also criticized ABC 's decision to approve the show Cavemen, being perplexed at the circumstances: "So a Chicano ca n't be on TV, but a caveman can? '' According to Lopez, 170 staff members who worked on the show lost their jobs. Lopez explained that he "took the five years of good, and I did a lot with the good. My popularity, I was involved in charities, I overcame my illness, all on TV. I shared all of that with America -- every secret I had... Every emotion. Everything was open to the show. And what happens? '' In spite of the cancellation, nightly episode re-runs continue to air on various networks both in the United States and abroad (see the "Syndication '' section below).
On September 2, 2016, George Lopez announced through his Instagram that there are talks to bringing the show back on the air, but nothing has been announced.
The show entered syndication one month after the series finale on ABC, and is distributed by Warner Bros. Television Distribution. The show aired in broadcast syndication on independent stations, and affiliates of Fox, The CW and MyNetworkTV as well as The CW Plus stations in the United States from 2007 - 2011 and on Telelatino in Canada. The show moved to ION Television on Thursday, Sept. 29, 2011.
On March 8, 2007, it was announced that George Lopez would join the Nick at Nite lineup. It first aired on Nick at Nite on September 10, 2007 -- it was the most current non-original show to air on Nick at Nite (until it was announced that Everybody Hates Chris would join the lineup, followed by The Goldbergs and Mom). To this date, it continues to be their highest rated series and one of cable 's best for an off - network sitcom.
Never a major hit in primetime, the show became an unexpected success in syndication. Many markets also moved the show from overnight timeslots to more desirable ones.
Episodes from the first four seasons of George Lopez do not use those respective seasons ' opening titles, the season five version is used instead (this is evident as Emiliano Diez is credited in the sequence, which is slightly longer than how they were originally broadcast on ABC, though there is also a short version also used in syndication that also differs from the original short opening credits that does not credit him for seasons 1 - 3, even though Diez did not make his first guest appearance until season two and did not become a cast regular until season four); the final two seasons use those seasons ' appropriate versions of the opening credits.
On MTV Tr3s, the show premiered on the network 's redebut July 12, 2010 and reruns are being shown there.
On ION Television, the show premiered on the network 's Sunday marathon starting on October 2, 2011 but then, was later pulled off their schedule.
In May 2016, the series was added to TV Land 's line - up.
On April 17, 2007, Warner Home Video released seasons 1 and 2 on DVD in Region 1. After over six years since the release of the first and second seasons, Warner Bros. released the third season on July 16, 2013. The fourth season was released on June 23, 2015. The fifth season was released on August 18, 2015. The sixth and final season was released on November 24, 2015.
The complete series was also published in high - definition on the iTunes Store and Amazon Video. The show 's theme song "Low Rider '' is intact in these releases.
George Lopez was critically acclaimed and received positive reviews from critics.
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teams that have never been relegated from top flight | List of unrelegated association football clubs - wikipedia
Several association football clubs succeed in playing at the highest level without being relegated from their domestic league. This page lists the clubs that managed to stay in top flight for an extended period of time, and those that have never been relegated from their current top - tier league.
More often than not, football clubs have played in more than one top - tier competition. It is therefore possible that teams relegated at one point in their history, but have not done so in the competition in which they currently compete. This is the case for multiple teams in countries where football was played in regional leagues prior to the creation of a unified national league. In such countries, a national champion was previously declared by means of a play - off tournament between teams that qualified through their regional tournaments. In Germany, for instance, seven teams have never been relegated from the Bundesliga (some joining more recent), but three of them found themselves expelled from the older Oberligen. Only Hamburg has played continuously in the top tier of the German football system since the end of World War I. In the Netherlands, football used to be organised in regional competitions as well. The unified Eredivisie was born in 1956, and four teams have continuously played at this highest national level since then.
Even before the establishment of regional competitions, football was played in league systems. The very first football championships in Europe were often organised on a local level. Taking these smaller competitions into account, Austria Wien and Rapid Wien can claim to have played at the highest possible level since competition began in Austria in 1911. At that time however, the only organised football was played in the league of Lower Austria, which was then located in the Austro - Hungarian Empire, and only teams from Vienna took part. Later, Austrian teams competed in the German football system for several years, which made it possible for Rapid Wien to become German champion in 1941. The current Austrian Bundesliga was only established in 1974, and to this point a total of five teams never relegated from that competition.
In Greece and Turkey, competitive football was organised in even smaller leagues. In both countries, city - leagues were the highest level for quite some time. In 1959, a unified Hellenic championship was founded, and Olympiacos, Panathinaikos and PAOK have played in every season of it. However, these teams were already high - flyers in the preceding city - leagues. The same applies to Beşiktaş, Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray in Turkey.
In Russia, football too was first played at city - level. The St. Petersburg Football League was established in 1901, and its Moscowian counterpart followed in 1909. Many years later, in 1936, the Soviet Top League was formed. This competition ceased to exist when the Soviet Union fell, and new leagues were formed in the fifteen successor states. As a result, many teams entered a top division for the first time in their history. In Estonia, for example, the new Meistriliiga was composed of clubs that never participated in the top flight before. As these are relatively new competitions, many clubs can claim to have never been relegated from the top - level. But only Dynamo Kyiv and Dinamo Tbilisi have always played at the highest possible level. On the other hand, Dynamo Moscow has played in every season of the Soviet Top League but was relegated in 2015 -- 16 Russian Premier League season.
Besides the Soviet, also the Czechoslovak and Yugoslav football leagues split into multiple competitions in the early 90 's. A total of eight teams have not been relegated from the national championships of the Czech Republic and Slovakia, but no team managed to achieve this in Czechoslovak times. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, football became divided alongside ethnic lines and competition was held in three different leagues, before the establishment of a national division in 2000. In Kosovo, a national league also exists, although not it was not recognised by UEFA or FIFA until 2016. In all, three clubs - Red Star Belgrade, Partizan Belgrade and Dinamo Zagreb - play at the highest level since the creation of socialist Yugoslavia. And Hajduk Split have never relegated since they first played in the championship of the now long gone Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. But many more teams never relegated from their current national championships.
In still many other instances, new top - tier leagues were created to replace existing national championships. In England, seven teams have been present in every season of the Premier League, which was founded in 1992. None of them however had an uninterrupted run in the preceding First Division. Thus, a great number of teams can claim to have never been relegated from these newer competitions. In Scotland, only Celtic and Aberdeen have never been relegated. Rangers were liquidated in 2012 and were subsequently placed in the fourth tier of the Scottish football league system as a new club. Similarly, Cliftonville, Glentoran and Linfield have the unique distinction of having played at the top flight in Northern Ireland for 125 years, but five more teams have been present in every season of the NIFL Premiership, which was only established in 2008.
There are however leagues that have been running for a long time. Not surprising, fewer clubs manage to stay on top the longer a competition runs. The Spanish Primera División was born in 1929, and only Athletic Bilbao, FC Barcelona and Real Madrid have been present ever since. The same year the Italian Serie A became a round - robin tournament, and only Inter Milan has continuously played at the highest level from that moment forward - even doing so since 1909. And finally, no team that plays in the Swiss Super League -- established in 1897 -- has not been relegated at one point in their history.
This table lists all clubs that have continuously played at the highest level for 75 years or more until their first relegation. Taken into account are all the leagues that formed the highest level at the time each club played in them. Competitions that were organised on sub-regional levels are excluded though. This is the reason no clubs from Greece or Turkey are listed, as in those countries football was played in city - level competitions up until 1959.
The large number of Brazilian football clubs on this list can be explained by the fact that these clubs were dominant in the relatively small state leagues, which formed the highest tier of competition in Brazil for more than half a century. The Taça Brasil, which existed between 1959 and 1968, is not considered a top - tier tournament for the purpose of this list, as it was a knockout competition between the different state champions, and no team took part in every edition.
As of 2017, the majority of the teams listed below continue to play at the top, although a few have ended their uninterrupted spell. Note also that some teams have been relegated (and promoted back) before the start of their record spell.
Source: RSSSF and RSSSF Brasil
This is a list of football clubs which have never been relegated from their current national top - level league and have played at least ten seasons at this level.
It should be noted that new clubs debut at the highest level almost every season. In 2017, teams like Girona in Spain, Benevento in Italy and Amiens in France joined the elite for the first time. Quite often, these hopefuls relocate back to a lower division after one or more seasons. The purpose of this list is to provide an overview of clubs that proved to be successful over an extended period of time. Therefore, only clubs that manage to stay around for a minimum of fifteen years are included in this list.
The year before the name of each team indicates when they began their uninterrupted run. Clubs that are in bold are founding members of their current league.
Primera División - Argentina
Premier League - Armenia
Bundesliga - Austria
Premyer Liqası - Azerbaijan
Vysheyshaya Liga - Belarus
First Division A - Belgium
Primera División - Bolivia
Premijer Liga - Bosnia and Herzegovina
Série A - Brazil
Parva Liga - Bulgaria
Campeonato Nacional - Chile
Categoría Primera A - Colombia
Prva HNL - Croatia
First Division - Cyprus
First League - Czech Republic
Superligaen - Denmark
Serie A - Ecuador
Premier League - Egypt
Premier League - England
Meistriliiga - Estonia
Veikkausliiga - Finland
Ligue 1 - France
Umaglesi Liga - Georgia
Bundesliga - Germany
Premier League - Ghana
Superleague - Greece
Liga Nacional - Honduras
League of Ireland - Ireland
Premier League - Israel
Serie A - Italy
Ligue 1 - Ivory Coast
J1 League - Japan
Premier League - Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan League - Kyrgyzstan
Virslīga - Latvia
A Lyga - Lithuania
1. MFL - Macedonia
Premier League - Malta
Liga MX - Mexico
Divizia Națională - Moldova
1. CFL - Montenegro
The Montenegrin First League was formed in 2006. As of 2015, six teams have played in every season of this competition.
Eredivisie - Netherlands
NIFL Premiership - Northern Ireland
The NIFL Premiership was formed in 2008. As of 2015, eight teams have played in every season of this competition.
Eliteserien - Norway
Primera División - Paraguay
Primera División - Peru
Primeira Liga - Portugal
Liga I - Romania
Football Championship - Russia
Jameel League - Saudi Arabia
Premiership - Scotland
The Scottish Premier League existed between 1998 and 2013, when it was replaced by the Scottish Premiership. As of 2016, four teams have played in every season of both competitions without being relegated.
SuperLiga - Serbia
The Serbian SuperLiga was formed in 2006. As of 2016, three teams have played in every season of this competition.
Super Liga - Slovakia
1. SNL - Slovenia
Primera División - Spain
Tajik League - Tajikistan
Thai League - Thailand
CLP - 1 - Tunisia
Süper Lig - Turkey
Ýokary Liga - Turkmenistan
Premier League - Ukraine
UAE Arabian Gulf League - United Arab Emirates
Primera División - Uruguay
Uzbek League - Uzbekistan
Primera División - Venezuela
Premier League - Wales
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when did the national civil rights museum open | National Civil Rights museum - Wikipedia
The National Civil Rights Museum is a complex of museums and historic buildings in Memphis, Tennessee; its exhibits trace the history of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States from the 17th century to the present. The museum is built around the former Lorraine Motel, where Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on April 4, 1968. Two other buildings and their adjacent property, also connected with the King assassination, have been acquired as part of the museum complex.
The museum reopened in 2014 after renovations that increased the number of multi-media and interactive exhibits, including numerous short movies to enhance features. The museum is owned and operated by the Lorraine Civil Rights Museum Foundation, based in Memphis. The Lorraine Motel is owned by the Tennessee State Museum and leased long term to the Foundation to operate as part of the museum complex.
On October 21, 2016, the museum was honored by becoming a Smithsonian Affiliate museum.
The site began as the 16 - room Windsorlorrine Hotel around 1925 and was later known as the Marquette Hotel. In 1945, Walter Bailey purchased it and renamed it for his wife Loree and the song "Sweet Lorraine ''.
During the segregation era, Bailey operated the motel as upscale lodging that catered to a black clientele. He added a second floor, a swimming pool, and drive - up access for more rooms on the south side of the complex. He changed the name from Lorraine Hotel to Lorraine Motel. Among its guests through the 1960s were musicians going to Stax Records, including Ray Charles, Lionel Hampton, Aretha Franklin, Ethel Waters, Otis Redding, the Staple Singers and Wilson Pickett.
Following the assassination of King, Bailey withdrew Room 306 (where King died) and the adjoining room 307 from use, maintaining them as a memorial to the activist leader. Bailey 's wife, Loree, suffered a stroke hours after the assassination and died five days later. Bailey reduced the operation by converting the other motel rooms to single room occupancy for low - income residential use.
Bailey worked with Chuck Scruggs, program director of WDIA, and attorney D'Army Bailey, to raise funds to "Save the Lorraine. '' They worked with the Martin Luther King Memorial Foundation. The Foundation bought the motel for $144,000, following foreclosure in December 1982.
In 1984, the group changed the name of their organization to the Lorraine Civil Rights Museum Foundation. The Lorraine finally closed as an SRO motel on March 2, 1988. Sheriff 's deputies were needed to evict the last holdout tenant, Jacqueline Smith, in preparation for an $8.8 million overhaul. Walter Bailey, Lorraine Motel owner, died in July 1988, before getting to see the results of his efforts to establish the museum.
The Foundation worked with Smithsonian Institution curator Benjamin Lawless to develop a design to save historical aspects of the site. The Nashville, Tennessee firm McKissack and McKissack was tapped to design a modern museum on those portions of the grounds that were not directly related to the assassination.
The museum was dedicated on July 4, 1991, and officially opened to the public on September 28, 1991. D'Army Bailey was the founding president of the museum.
In 1999, the Foundation acquired the Young and Morrow Building, and its associated vacant lot on the West side of Mulberry, as part of the museum complex. A tunnel was built under the lot to connect the building with the motel. The Foundation became the custodian of the police and evidence files associated with the assassination, including the rifle and fatal bullet. The latter are on display in a 12,800 sq. foot exhibit in the former Y & M building, which opened September 28, 2002.
Through the years, there has been controversy over composition of the board of the museum Foundation and of the mission of the museum, as people have differing opinions. These issues came to a head in December 2007, as the museum foundation was asking the state, which owned the property, to extend its lease for 50 - years rent - free. Bailey, a circuit court judge, said he was disappointed with the museum 's emphasis on history. He said that he had envisioned it as an institution to inspire activism. By 2007, members of the board included whites from the corporate world. Bailey and other community activists criticized the board as "too white '' and claimed they were shutting out the community. Beverly Robertson, then director of the museum, defended the board and the museum 's operation.
Gregory Duckett, a board member, disagreed with Bailey 's interpretation, saying the museum was never designed as an activist institution. Robertson noted that many board members were African Americans who had been activists and also entered corporate life. In 2007, the state agreed to a 20 - year lease, while taking over major maintenance of the complex. It required the museum board to hold annual public meetings and increase the number of African - American board members.
The main museum closed in November 2012 for a $27.5 million renovation, to include changes to exhibits and upgrades to building systems. The exhibits were updated for historical accuracy and to add to their evocative power; the work was guided by a group of recognized civil rights scholars. The building 's renovations included replacement and repair of the HVAC and mechanical systems, expansion of the lobby, and creation of a new educational center. Many of the museum 's most popular exhibits did not change, such as Room 306 (where Dr. King was staying when he died), the replica sanitation truck (Dr. King came to Memphis to support an AFSCME sanitation workers ' strike), and the replica of the bus Rosa Parks rode in Montgomery, Alabama, before initiating the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955 - 56. The original bus resides at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.
In the 2014 reopening, a major new exhibit featured is a replica of the U.S. Supreme Court room where oral argument was heard in 1954 in the seminal Brown v. Board of Education, in which the Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. This was a major victory for the civil rights movement. The museum has several interactive kiosks where patrons can access audio, images, text and video about the full civil rights movement. Visitors can search for text based on event, location, or theme. Many exhibits now feature "listening stations '' where patrons with headphones can hear audio about the exhibit they are seeing; one features the voice of Malcolm X in a debate. More than 40 new short films throughout the museum also enhance the effect of the exhibits. In addition, museum presentations stress that the work continues; this is history that is part of the present; for instance, with challenges continuing on voting rights and other civil rights.
The renovated museum opened to the public on April 5, 2014. The Associated Press review said, "The powerful, visceral exhibit (s set) the tone for an evocative, newly immersive museum experience that chronicles the history of the civil rights struggle in America. '' King scholar Clayborne Carson of Stanford University said that the museum 's renovations present "the best and most recent scholarship on civil rights available today. ''
The complex is located at 450 Mulberry Street, with all properties except the Lorraine Motel owned by the Lorraine Civil Rights Museum Foundation. The motel is owned by the State of Tennessee and operated by the Foundation under a 20 - year lease with the Tennessee State Museum in Nashville.
The main museum is located on the south edge of downtown Memphis in what is now called the South Main Arts District. It is about six blocks east of the Mississippi River. The main 4.14 - acre (16,800 m) site includes the museum, the Lorraine Motel, and associated buildings. The museum also owns the Young and Morrow Building at 422 Main Street.
This was where James Earl Ray initially confessed (and later recanted) to shooting King. The complex includes Canipe 's Amusement Store at 418 Main Street, next to the rooming house where the murder weapon with Ray 's fingerprints was found. Included on these grounds is the brushy lot that stood between the rooming house and the motel.
The museum exhibits a number of vehicles of historic value or which are otherwise relevant to the time period. Vehicles on display include an International Harvester garbage truck in an exhibit on the 1968 Memphis sanitation strike that brought King to Memphis, James Earl Ray 's Ford Mustang, a 1968 Cadillac and 1959 Dodge parked outside the motel, a re-creation of the burned shell of a Greyhound bus used by Freedom Riders, and a bus representative of the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
At the end, the Lorraine Motel housed temporary guests and residents as an SRO. The last resident was Jacqueline Smith, who had lived there since 1973 while working for the motel as a housekeeper. When the motel was closed in 1988, Smith was evicted. The neighborhood at the time around the Lorraine Motel was a lower - income, predominantly black area. The reconstruction of the neighbohood was related to other rejuvenation of the downtown area and the inclusion of the museum in the arts district.
Smith set up camp across the street where she maintained a protest vigil. In 2010, she said the Lorraine:
... should be put to better uses, such as housing, job training, free college, clinic, or other services for the poor... the area surrounding the Lorraine should be rejuvenated and made decent and kept affordable, not gentrified with expensive condominiums that price the people out of their community.
She thought King would have objected to having $27 million spent on a building for him and to evicting motel residents. In 2014, Smith continued her protest vigil, regardless of weather.
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where did they go in me before you | Me Before You - wikipedia
Me Before You is a romance novel written by Jojo Moyes. The book was first published on 5 January 2012 in the United Kingdom. A sequel titled After You was released 29 September 2015 through Pamela Dorman Books. A second sequel, Still Me, was published in January 2018.
Twenty - six - year - old Louisa Clark lives with her working - class family. Unambitious and with few qualifications, she feels constantly outshone by her younger sister, Treena, an outgoing single mother. Louisa, who helps support her family, loses her job at a local café when the café closes. She goes to the Job Centre and, after several failed attempts, is offered a unique employment opportunity: help care for Will Traynor, a successful, wealthy, and once - active young man who was paralysed in a motorcycle accident two years earlier. Will 's mother, Camilla, hires Louisa despite her lack of experience, believing Louisa can brighten his spirit. Louisa meets Nathan, who cares for Will 's medical needs, and Will 's father, Steven, a friendly upper - class businessman whose marriage to Camilla is strained.
Louisa and Will 's relationship starts out rocky due to his bitterness and resentment over being disabled. Things worsen after Will 's ex-girlfriend, Alicia, and best friend Rupert reveal that they are getting married. Under Louisa 's care, Will gradually becomes more communicative and open - minded as they share experiences together. Louisa notices Will 's scarred wrists and later overhears his mother and sister discussing how he attempted suicide shortly after Camilla refused his request to end his life through Dignitas, a Swiss - based assisted suicide organisation. Horrified by his attempt, Camilla promised to honour her son 's wish, but only if he agreed to live six more months. Camilla intends to prove that, in time, he will believe his life 's worth living.
Louisa conceals knowing about Will and Camilla 's agreement. However, she tells Treena, and together they devise ways that will help convince Will to abandon his death wish. Over the next few weeks, Will loosens up and lets Louisa shave his beard and cut his shaggy hair. Louisa begins taking Will on outings and the two grow closer.
Through their frequent talks, Louisa learns that Will has travelled extensively; his favourite place is a café in Paris. Noticing how limited her life is and that she has few ambitions, Will tries to motivate Louisa to change.
Louisa continues seeing her longtime boyfriend, Patrick, though they eventually break up due to her relationship with Will. Meanwhile, Louisa 's father loses his job, causing more financial difficulties. Mr. Traynor offers Mr. Clark a position. Louisa realises that Will is trying to help her secure her freedom from her family. The two attend Alicia and Rupert 's wedding where they dance and flirt. Will tells Louisa that she is the only reason he wakes in the morning.
Louisa convinces Will to go on a holiday with her, but before they can leave, Will contracts near - fatal pneumonia. Louisa cancels the plans for a whirlwind trip. Instead, she takes Will to the island of Mauritius. The night before returning home, Louisa tells Will that she loves him. Will says he wants to confide something, but she admits that she already knows about his plans with Dignitas. Will says their time together has been special, but he can not bear to live in a wheelchair. He will be following through with his plans. Angry and hurt, Louisa storms off and does not speak to him for the remainder of the trip. When they return home, Will 's parents are pleasantly surprised by his good physical condition. Louisa, however, resigns as his caretaker, and they understand that Will intends to end his life.
On the night of Will 's flight to Switzerland, Louisa visits him one last time. They agree that the past six months have been the best in their lives. He dies shortly after in the clinic, and it is revealed that he left Louisa a considerable inheritance, meant to continue her education and to fully experience life. The novel ends with Louisa at a café in Paris, reading Will 's last words to her in a letter, that tell her to ' live well '.
The book was placed on the Richard and Judy Book Club.
Disability advocates have criticised the book and film for suggesting that life may not be worth living for some with severe disabilities.
In 2014 MGM announced it would make a film adaptation of Me Before You, to be directed by Thea Sharrock and released via Warner Bros. The film was initially set to release in August 2015 but was pushed back to 3 June 2016.
Emilia Clarke and Sam Claflin portray the main characters, and filming began in the spring of 2015. The film has grossed over $200 million worldwide.
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when was the last time federer played nadal | Federer -- Nadal rivalry - wikipedia
The Federer -- Nadal rivalry is between two professional tennis players, Roger Federer of Switzerland and Rafael Nadal of Spain. They are engaged in a storied rivalry, which many consider to be the greatest in tennis history. They have played 38 times, most recently in the final of the 2017 Shanghai Masters and Nadal leads their fourteen - year - old rivalry with an overall record of 23 -- 15.
Of their 38 matches, 20 have been on hard court, 15 have been on clay, and three have been on grass. The results of their matches are somewhat polarized by playing surface, with Nadal leading Federer on clay (13 -- 2) and outdoor hard courts (8 - 6), but with Federer having edge on both indoor hard courts (5 - 1) and grass (2 -- 1). Nadal has won 6 out of their 9 head - to - head Grand Slam matches; He leads 5 -- 0 at the French Open and 3 - 1 at Australian open, while Federer leads 2 -- 1 at Wimbledon. The two have yet to meet at the U.S. Open.
Federer and Nadal are the only pair of men to have finished six consecutive calendar years as the top two ranked players on the ATP Tour, which they did from 2005 to 2010 and seven overall (also confirmed to happen in 2017). This included a record 211 consecutive weeks sharing the top two rankings from July 2005 to August 2009.
As tournament seedings are based on rankings, with the top two seeds placed on opposite sides of the draw, 24 of Nadal and Federer 's 38 matches have been in tournament finals, including an all - time record nine Grand Slam finals and 12 Masters Series finals. Another nine have been semifinals, two have been quarterfinals, with only three taking place before the last - 8 stage. In 31 out of 38 matches between Nadal and Federer, the winner of the first set won the match.
From 2006 to 2008, they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final. Their 2008 Wimbledon final was lauded as the greatest match ever by many long - time tennis analysts. Their 2017 Australian Open final was widely regarded as among the most highly anticipated Grand Slam finals of all time due to the tennis history that would be made from either player 's victory, the subsequent implications on both players ' respective legacies, and the relevance within popular and critical discussions on who between them can claim to be ' the greatest tennis player of all time '.
Federer and Nadal played their first match in March 2004 at the third round of the Miami Masters. Nadal, only 17 years old and ranked No. 34 at the time, surprised many by beating the then No. 1 in straight sets.
Their second meeting was one year later, again in Miami, but this time in a best - of - five - set final. Federer recovered from a two - set deficit to win in five sets.
They played again two months later in the semifinals of the French Open, which was their first match on clay. Nadal defeated Federer in four sets en route to his first Grand Slam title.
In 2006, Nadal and Federer faced each other in six matches.
Nadal won the first four, beginning with the Dubai final in February played on hard court. This was Federer 's first loss of the year and ended his Open era record of 56 consecutive wins on hard courts.
The clay season ensued, and Nadal continued his dominance on clay, defeating Federer in the finals of the Monte Carlo Masters, the Rome Masters, and the French Open, in what was their first Grand Slam final. Federer won the first set quickly, but Nadal fought back and took the next three sets to capture his second French Open title. In the Rome final, Federer held two championship points on Nadal 's serve at 5 -- 6 in the fifth set, but failed to convert. Federer then led 5 -- 3 in the fifth - set tiebreaker, but Nadal won the next four points to claim the title. At five hours and five minutes, this is the longest match Federer and Nadal have ever contested.
They faced off again a month later in the final of Wimbledon, which was their first meeting on grass. Federer won in four sets to capture his fourth consecutive Wimbledon title with two sets going to tiebreakers.
They did not meet again until the semifinals of the year - end Masters Cup. Federer won in straight sets, en route to his third Masters Cup title in four years. At year 's end, Nadal 's career head - to - head advantage had risen to 6 -- 3.
Nadal and Federer faced each other five times in 2007, and Federer won three of their matches.
For the second straight year, Federer and Nadal played in three finals on clay. Nadal won the first meeting in straight sets, winning his third consecutive Monte Carlo title. A few weeks later they met at the Hamburg Masters, where Federer defeated Nadal for the first time on clay and ended his 81 - match winning streak on clay.
Their next encounter was the French Open final, and Nadal won their much - anticipated rematch in four sets, capturing his third consecutive French Open title.
Their last two meetings in 2007 were also a repeat of 2006: the finals of Wimbledon and the semifinals of the Masters Cup. Once again, Federer won both matches, though their Wimbledon final lasted five sets, instead of the previous year 's four sets.
By the end of the year Federer narrowed the head - to - head record to 6 -- 8.
Federer and Nadal played four times in 2008, and Nadal won all four times, extending his career advantage to 12 -- 6. For the third straight year, Federer and Nadal played in three clay - court finals. Nadal beat Federer in the Monte Carlo Masters for the third straight year, capturing his Open - Era - record fourth consecutive title there. A few weeks later Nadal avenged his only clay - court loss to Federer by defeating him in three sets for his first Hamburg Masters title. Federer had double - break leads in the first sets of both Monte Carlo and Hamburg, but could not close out the sets.
Also for the third straight year, they played in the final of the French Open. Nadal won his fourth consecutive French Open title, by a score of 6 -- 1, 6 -- 3, 6 -- 0. The scoreline puts the match among the most one - sided in Grand Slam finals history.
Nadal and Federer also met in the final of Wimbledon for the third straight year, in the most anticipated match of their rivalry. Amidst rain delays, they played the longest final in Wimbledon history (4 hours and 48 minutes), and Nadal captured the title, winning a fifth set that finished in near darkness. This match broke Federer 's Open - Era - record 65 - match winning streak on grass, which spanned more than five years.
Federer and Nadal played each other only twice in 2009, splitting their matches.
Both players began the year strong, reaching the final of the Australian Open. This was the first hard - court Grand Slam final for Nadal, but Federer was undefeated in eight hard - court finals (five US Open, three Australian). The final was long (4 hours and 23 minutes) and competitive in the first four sets, with Nadal pulling away decisively in the fifth set to secure his first hard - court championship.
Federer rebounded against Nadal at the Madrid Masters (their first match on Spanish soil), defeating him in the final in straight sets. This was a pivotal match because it broke Nadal 's five - match winning streak against Federer. The victory by Federer also ended Nadal 's 33 - match winning streak on clay and foreshadowed the Swiss ' historic victory at Roland Garros, which completed his Career Grand Slam.
In 2010, Federer and Nadal played twice, with Nadal winning the first and Federer winning the second match.
The two met in the final of the Madrid Open, one year after their last match, and Nadal defeated Federer in straight sets.
Federer and Nadal met in the 2010 ATP World Tour Finals ' final, marking their third meeting at the year - end championships and their first ever meeting in the finals. Federer continued his indoor dominance against Nadal, winning in three sets. This victory gave Federer a record - tying fifth title at the year - end tournament.
Federer and Nadal played four singles matches, with Nadal winning the first three matches and Federer winning the last match. Their lone doubles match was at the BNP Paribas Open. Federer, partnering with Stanislas Wawrinka, defeated Nadal and Marc López in the semifinals.
In their first singles match of 2011, the two met in the semifinals of the Miami Masters, where Nadal won in straight sets.
They met in the semifinals at the Mutua Madrid Open, and Nadal won in three sets.
They then met in the final of the 2011 French Open, their first Grand Slam meeting since the 2009 Australian Open final. Although it was a competitive match, Nadal again defeated Federer in four sets to win his tenth Grand Slam title and sixth French Open crown. This denied Federer an opportunity to become the first man in the open era to have won all four grand slam tournaments twice. This would be their last meeting at a Grand Slam final until the 2017 Australian Open final.
Their final meeting of the year came in the round - robin stage of the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals. Their match, a rematch of the previous year 's final, saw Federer win a lopsided match in straight sets.
Federer and Nadal first met during 2012 in the semifinals of the 2012 Australian Open. Federer was leading by a set and a break before a 20 - minute fireworks delay due to the celebrations of Australia Day. After the delay, Nadal came back to win in four sets, improving his hard - court record over Federer.
They next met in the semifinals of the Indian Wells Masters, where Federer won the match in straight sets en route to claiming his fourth Indian Wells Masters title.
Federer and Nadal met four times in 2013 with Nadal prevailing on every occasion.
Federer and Nadal met for the first time during the quarterfinals of the Indian Wells Masters. It was the earliest the pair had met in a tournament since 2004, with Nadal winning in straight sets.
On 1 April, by winning the Miami Masters, Andy Murray passed Federer in the ATP Rankings for second place. This marked the first time since 10 November 2003 that neither Federer nor Nadal was ranked in the ATP top 2, a span of an unprecedented 490 weeks.
Nadal then defeated Federer in the 2013 Rome Masters final in two sets.
They finally played in the quarterfinals at the 2013 Western & Southern Open in Cincinnati, where Nadal unseated the five - time champion in the quarterfinals in three sets. Federer had just switched back to his old racquet after experimenting with a larger frame in his previous two tournaments.
Nadal and Federer met in semifinals of the indoor event, 2013 ATP World Tour Finals in the O2 arena. Nadal beat Federer in straight sets. This was Nadal 's first win over Federer on indoor hard courts. This would also be Federer 's last career match played with his 90 - inch racquet before upgrading to a larger frame.
Federer and Nadal had their only meeting of the 2014 season in the semifinals of the Australian Open. Nadal won in straight sets and improved his record to 3 -- 0 against Federer at the Australian Open (9 -- 2 overall in majors). This was the first Grand Slam tournament that Federer played after switching to a new larger racquet.
In November 2015, Federer defeated Nadal in three sets in the final of the Swiss Indoors. This was their first encounter on Swiss soil, as Federer captured a seventh title in his hometown of Basel. It was Federer 's first victory over Nadal in over 3 and a half years, having lost the previous five meetings.
Federer and Nadal played four times in 2017, with Federer prevailing on all four occasions. This marked the first time in their rivalry that Federer confronted and went undefeated against Nadal multiple times in a single tennis season.
The rivalry was renewed in the 2017 Australian Open final, their first meeting in a Grand Slam final since 2011. Federer, returning from a six - month layoff from knee injury that saw him miss out most of the 2016 season, came into the tournament seeded 17th, and Nadal seeded 9th. Prior to the match, Nadal had won every match between the two in a Grand Slam tournament since the Wimbledon final in 2007, three of which were in the Australian Open. Federer came back from a break down in the fifth set to take the match, becoming the first man in history to win 18 Grand Slam singles titles and the first man to win at least five titles in three different Grand Slam tournaments each, and denying Nadal 's third effort to win the Australian Open title again and also his second opportunity to become the first man in the Open Era to win each Grand Slam in men 's singles at least twice. Federer 's victory over Nadal in the Australian Open 2017 final also marked his first win over Nadal in a Grand Slam match outside the grass courts of Wimbledon.
They met again at Indian Wells in the round of 16, only their second - ever meeting before the quarterfinal stage in any tournament. Federer prevailed in straight sets; it was the first time he had won three matches in a row against Nadal.
Their 37th meeting came in the Miami final. This was their first meeting in a final on American soil since the 2005 Miami final, and Federer won in straight sets, his 4th consecutive win over Nadal.
In the 2017 Laver Cup Nadal and Federer played doubles together for the first time, against Sam Querrey / Jack Sock, and won in a final set super tiebreaker.
Federer and Nadal met at the Shanghai Masters for the first time, contesting the final. Federer won in straight sets, claiming a fifth consecutive win over Nadal.
Federer 's newfound success against Nadal has been ascribed to the improvement in the backhand, which he has been hitting harder and more easily returning Nadal 's high bouncing forehand with the larger racquet.
The rivalry between Federer and Nadal has been a huge part of both men 's careers. Their Grand Slam tournament histories are of particular interest, especially their all - time record of nine finals encounters. This includes playing French Open and Wimbledon finals for three consecutive years (2006 -- 08), culminating in what many consider the greatest match in tennis history at Wimbledon 2008. Nadal, who had to defeat Federer during each of his first six Grand Slam title runs, possesses a 6 -- 3 advantage in their finals encounters plus three victories in semifinals.
Nadal denied Federer a Career Grand Slam plus two potential Calendar Year Grand Slams (2006 -- 07) by defeating him at the French Open every year from 2005 -- 08. Federer would complete a Career Grand Slam by winning the French title in 2009 after Nadal was upset in the fourth round. Meanwhile, Federer twice denied Nadal from becoming the first man since Björn Borg in 1980 to win the "Channel Slam '' (both the French Open and Wimbledon in the same year) by defeating him in their first two Wimbledon finals, but Nadal succeeded the following year. This was the first of three combined Channel Slams with Federer accomplishing it in 2009 followed by Nadal 's second in 2010. Federer has also prevented Nadal from winning the Year - End Championships by defeating him in the 2010 finals and eliminating Nadal from the tournament in the 2006 and 2007 semifinals preventing Nadal from becoming only the second man after Andre Agassi to win a Career Grand Slam, a gold singles Olympic medal, and the Year End Championships, a distinction dubbed as a "Career Super Slam '' by Sports Illustrated. In their latest match in the 2017 Australian Open final, Federer won a record - breaking 18th singles major while denying Nadal 's second opportunity (the 2014 Australian Open final was the first) to become the first man in the Open Era to have won each of the Grand Slams twice in men 's singles.
Their record six consecutive calendar years atop the rankings from 2005 -- 10 was due to their unprecedented combined performance in the Grand Slam and Masters Series tournaments. During this span, they captured a combined record 21 of the 24 Grand Slam tournament titles (12 for Federer, 9 for Nadal), including a record 11 consecutive titles from 2005 -- 07. They also dominated the Masters Series, combining for 31 of the 54 titles (18 for Nadal, 13 for Federer), including 8 of 9 in 2005 (4 each). Additionally, Federer won 4 of 6 year - end tournaments.
Finally, both men not only possess Open - Era records for consecutive wins on a single surface -- Federer on both grass (65) and hard courts (56), Nadal on clay courts (81) -- but each of these streaks was broken by the other player. Their respective dominance on grass and clay was the impetus for the "Battle of Surfaces '', an exhibition match on a half - grass, half - clay court, which Nadal won with a 12 -- 10 in the deciding tiebreak in May 2007 when both the grass and clay streaks were still active.
Of their 38 matches, 20 have been on hard court, 15 have been on clay, and 3 have been on grass. Federer has a winning record on his best surface, grass (2 -- 1), and on hard court (11 -- 9) while Nadal leads on his best surface, clay (13 -- 2). Nadal leads in Grand Slam tournament matches (9 -- 3), with five of these wins coming on the clay courts of Roland Garros.
Analysts, commentators and pundits increasingly recognize that Nadal is a bad matchup for Federer, as the heavy topspin created by Nadal 's groundstrokes combined with his strategy of directing the majority of his serves and groundstrokes to Federer 's single - handed backhand keeps Federer on the defensive and makes it harder for Federer to use his aggressive groundstrokes to dominate baseline rallies as he typically does against other opponents. Federer says he is a "different player due to Nadal 's presence '' citing Nadal 's game as a major reason for improvements in areas of his own game.
There are several factors to consider in analyzing the head - to - head tally between Nadal and Federer. Nadal 's head - to - head advantage is built on his ability to dominate on clay whilst remaining competitive on the other two surfaces. Nadal leads by a 13 -- 2 margin on clay, which is statistically his strongest surface and Federer 's weakest, while the record on the other two surfaces combined currently stands at 13 -- 10 in Federer 's favour.
There is debate as to how much of a role sickness and injury have played in the rivalry. Federer contracted mononucleosis in late December of 2007 which lasted, according to his doctors, for at least six weeks. Some believe that the after - effects of the illness were with him throughout the year though there is some evidence that he was over the illness by March, a month before the first of their matches. Nevertheless, as Chris Bowers wrote in his biography of Federer, Federer "may well have had a very mild dose, but, looking back on Federer 's 2008, the fact that he played through it means it is medically quite plausible that it robbed him of strength for the first half of the year ''. Federer also suffered from a back injury in 2013. During these years when Federer had mononucleosis (2008) and the significant year - long back injury (2013), he went 0 -- 8 against Nadal which significantly skewed their head to head record.
Another aspect that has shaped their rivalry has been that of racquet equipment. Nadal has always used a large 100 square inch racquet, however, Federer used a significantly smaller 90 inch racquet in their matches from 2004 - 2013. This was the size Federer had always played with since a youth, but in an age of increasing power tennis this substantially smaller racquet put him at a disadvantage. During the period in which Nadal enjoyed this advantage in racquet equipment he complied a 22 - 10 record. In early 2014 Federer began experimenting with a larger frame and played Nadal in just his second tournament using this larger prototype. Nadal won this match and took his advantage to 23 - 10. However, since Federer committed to his new 97.5 inch Wilson Prostaff he has flipped their rivalry upside down going an undefeated 5 - 0 in their matches with equally modern racquet equipment. Many analysts have claimed that Federer 's switch to a modern sized racquet and his subsequent dominance, in addition to the vast improvements it has made to his single handed backhand, have proven that he was playing with a handicap for most of their rivalry.
As of 2017, Roger Federer holds the all - time record for the most Grand Slam tournament titles with 19. Federer 's Grand Slam tournament titles include 10 on hard courts, 8 on grass, and 1 on clay. Nadal is second on the all - time list for the most Grand Slam titles with 16 in total: 10 on clay, 4 on hard courts, and 2 on grass. According to The Economist, when adjusted for the difficulty of the draw, Nadal would have won the most men 's grand slam titles and marginally more than a second - placed Federer.
Both players have won the Career Grand Slam (winning all four majors at least once).
Rafael Nadal holds a record 30 Masters 1000 titles (tied with Novak Djokovic), with 22 of his titles on clay and 8 on hard courts. Roger Federer has 27, with 21 coming on hard courts and 6 on clay. Nadal is missing three Masters 1000 titles, all of which are played on hard court, (Miami, Shanghai, and Paris) and Federer is missing two, both of which are played on clay (Monte Carlo and Rome).
Nadal prevented Federer from winning Monte Carlo three times from 2006 to 2008. He also beat Federer twice in the Rome finals, in 2006 and 2013. The 2006 Rome final, which was won by Nadal in a fifth - set tiebreak, lasted for over five hours and is considered by some to be one of the greatest and most memorable matches ever contested on clay.
In 2005, Federer prevented Nadal from winning Miami in a five - set final. Nadal won the first and second sets, was up a break in the third set, and was two points away from victory before Federer came back from two - sets - down to win. Nadal made it back to the Miami final in 2008, 2011, and 2014 but lost each time. In 2017, Federer again beat Nadal in the Miami final. He also prevented Nadal from winning in Shanghai, defeating the Spaniard in the final.
As of 2016, Roger Federer holds the record for Year - End Championship titles with six. While Nadal has not won a Year - End Championship, he has made the finals twice, in 2010 and 2013. Federer defeated Nadal in the 2010 finals and leads their head - to - head for the event 4 -- 1.
The following is a breakdown of their head - to - head results:
* The Shanghai Masters 2017 final between Federer and Nadal was played with the roof closed due to rain, but the ATP officially counts it as an outdoor match.
Notes
Nadal and Federer have played 20 of their 38 matches on hard courts, with the head - to - head on this surface at 11 -- 9 in Federer 's favour. An important distinction is the relative success of the two players on indoor and outdoor hard courts. In the former, Federer leads Nadal with a 5 -- 1 record, while on outdoor hard courts, Nadal leads 8 -- 6. The quicker conditions and low bounce of the indoor hard courts fit Federer 's style, while the slower and high bouncing conditions of most outdoor ones favor Nadal. Federer has defeated Nadal in four out of five encounters they have had at the Year End Championships, including the 2010 final, which are played on indoor hardcourts. This is the only surface on which they have exchanged the lead in their head - to - head, which has happened several times.
Despite Nadal 's success on hard courts, some analysts have criticized his lack of consistency in reaching hard court tournament finals (especially US Open finals) for potentially skewing the overall head - to - head results. In reference to their match at the 2012 Australian Open, Nadal has said that Federer is typically the "favourite '' on "these kinds of surfaces ''.
Nadal and Federer have played 15 of their 38 matches on clay with Nadal holding a 13 -- 2 advantage over Federer. From 2005 to 2008, Nadal won every French Open, defeating Federer in each of those tournaments (in the 2005 semifinal and the 2006, 2007, 2008 finals), as well as in the 2011 final, and won at least 2 of the 3 clay Masters events each year from 2005 -- 2010, defeating Federer in 6 of those. Statistically, Nadal has the highest win percentage on clay of any player in ATP history, and is third best all - time. As a result, some analysts and players, such as Pat Cash and Conchita Martínez, consider Nadal the greatest clay - court player ever. Nadal has won all of their seven meetings in best of five set matches on clay.
Federer and Nadal have met three times on grass, with Federer ahead by 2 -- 1. Federer has won the Wimbledon Championships eight times, and Nadal has won the championships twice. Five of Federer 's titles were consecutive titles (from 2003 to 2007), and the sixth, seventh and eighth titles were won in 2009, 2012 and 2017. Federer and Nadal met in three consecutive Wimbledon finals from 2006 to 2008; Federer won the first two finals, while Nadal won the last one. The 2008 Wimbledon final (won by Nadal) has been lauded as the greatest match ever by many long - time tennis analysts.
Federer is considered by many to be the greatest tennis player of all time while Nadal 's performance on clay has prompted many experts to regard him as the greatest clay court player and one of the best tennis players of all time.
Federer has been more successful than Nadal on fast courts because he hits a flatter forehand and has a faster serve. Grass and indoor hard courts are faster surfaces, so Federer 's flatter shots there result in a lower bouncing, faster moving trajectory. Thus, Nadal 's topspin is less effective on such faster courts, but is most effective on slower courts such as clay. Nadal has improved his serving speed and placement over the years, but Federer still serves faster on average and earns more aces and service winners, while Nadal has an overall stronger ground stroke game.
While Nadal is statistically weaker than Federer on both hard and grass courts, Nadal has nonetheless achieved considerable success on both surfaces, including notable wins at the 2008 Summer Olympics, Wimbledon (2008 and 2010), the Australian Open (2009), the US Open (2010, 2013 and 2017), and at various hard court Masters series tournaments.
Similarly, Federer too has achieved considerable success on clay, winning the French Open (2009) and reaching finals four times (2006, 2007, 2008 and 2011) before losing to Nadal, winning the Madrid / Hamburg open six times (2002, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009 and 2012), and winning other titles.
During interviews, many fellow and former players have regarded both Federer and Nadal as among the best tennis players of all time. In November 2010, former player Björn Borg stated that he believed Federer to be the greatest player of all time, but "Rafa has the chance to be the greatest player '' if he stays healthy.
Former player and commentator John McEnroe was of a similar opinion, noting in 2010 that "there is an argument to be made that Rafael Nadal may be the greatest player eventually, even possibly now. '' He has subsequently adjusted his opinion on several occasions, in 2013 noting that he thought Nadal was "the greatest player that ever lived '' but later in 2014 bunched Federer, Nadal, Laver and Sampras together as the greatest ever. In July 2015, he reversed his opinion and again backed Roger Federer for the title. In January 2017, after Federer, then 35 years of age and returning to competitive play after a 6 - month layoff due to injury, triumphed over Nadal in 5 sets to win the record - breaking 18th major at the 2017 Australian Open, McEnroe remarked that Federer had cemented his status as being the best tennis player of all time, but also left open the possibility that Nadal can be in the running again should he win additional men 's singles majors to narrow the gap.
In October 2013, Rod Laver, the only tennis player to achieve the grand slam twice, said "When I look at Federer, with what he 's accomplished, against the competition that he 's accomplished it with, I 'd have to say I would think that Roger is the greatest player, ' '
At the press conference following his 9th record French Open win in 2014 and a total of 14 Slams, three shy of Federer 's 17, Nadal said that he really does not care much about records, "I 'll follow my own path. Then, when my career is over, then we 'll count. ''
In May 2014, eight - time Grand Slam champion Andre Agassi told Singapore 's Straits Times newspaper, via aljazeera.com: "I 'd put Nadal number one and Federer number two. Federer separated himself from the field for four years. He separated himself from Andy Roddick and Lleyton Hewitt. Nadal had to deal with Federer, Novak Djokovic, Andy Murray in the golden age of tennis. ''
In November 2014, former world number 1 player Andy Roddick, in noting his support for Federer, explained why he believes that head - to - head results are not a valid factor in determining the greatest of all time, "For me Roger Federer is still ahead in the greatest - ever debate, with Rafael Nadal second. People talk about their head - to - head being the determining factor, but I ca n't comprehend a single match - up being the deciding factor. It 's about total wins at major tournaments, not an individual match - up, in my mind. ''
In December 2014, Rafael Nadal 's uncle and coach, Toni Nadal, indicated to Spanish radio station Cadena COPE that he believed Federer to be the greatest of all time based on overall statistics and achievements, noting "I think he is (the best of all - time), the numbers say so. '' A day before the 2017 Australian Open men 's singles finals, Toni Nadal further reemphasized his regard on Federer, saying that "When (Federer) will call it a career, the greatest player in the tennis history wo n't be there anymore. Looking at titles, he is the greatest at the moment. ''
In March 2015, former player Pete Sampras made similar arguments about Federer, "You look at the numbers of what he 's been able to do, you have to say he 's the greatest we 've seen '' These comments were echoed by Boris Becker in July 2015, "Great respect for Roger Federer! He is our greatest of all time ''
Both Federer and Nadal 's personal and professional relationship is good - natured and gracious. Though they are both highly competitive, they maintain a healthy regard for each other and have had virtually no source of personal animosity. The two have made slight criticisms of one another in the past, nevertheless. For example, Federer complained of Nadal 's slow, deliberate style of play on the eve of the 2008 Wimbledon final. Nadal criticized Federer before the 2012 Australian Open for his failure to be more vocal about players ' grievances on issues such as scheduling and prize money. He subsequently apologized for making his views public, however, and both players maintained that they still enjoyed a good relationship and had high respect for each other, which can often be seen in interviews. Nadal was also once seen watching Federer play a match in his box, and their family members would congratulate each other on match wins.
Despite their cordial relationship, both men have a somewhat different attitude towards their rivalry. When Federer was securely atop the tennis world he was ambivalent towards the notion of a rivalry with an opponent five years younger than himself. But after their memorable 2008 Wimbledon final he had no choice but to acknowledge its significance, even admitting "it definitely becomes more and more special the more times we play against each other. '' A few weeks later, after Nadal had officially surpassed him in the rankings, Federer offered this compliment: "Look at what he had to achieve to get it. That 's what I like to see. '' Nadal has always cherished the rivalry because he looks up to Federer as both a role model and a measuring stick for success.
When interest in their rivalry increased, both Federer and Nadal collaborated to arrange occasional charity exhibition matches to benefit their charities ' philanthropic interests. The most recent was the Match for Africa, played on 21 December 2010 in Zurich, Switzerland, which Federer won, and a follow - up match played in Madrid on the following day, titled "Joining Forces for the Benefit of Children '', which Nadal won.
The rivalry has also increased overall interest in tennis. The highly anticipated 2008 Wimbledon final drew strong television ratings for tennis in both the U.S. and across Europe. The match was also featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated, which was the first time in years that tennis had made its cover.
ATP, Davis Cup, and Grand Slam main draw results included.
Federer -- Nadal (15 -- 23)
Federer -- Nadal (1 -- 2)
As a pair (1 -- 0)
Federer -- Nadal (2 -- 7)
On 21 November 2006 they played an exhibition match on a hard court in Seoul, South Korea. Federer won 6 -- 3, 3 -- 6, 6 -- 3.
On 2 May 2007 they played in the "Battle of Surfaces '' on a hybrid court that was half clay and half grass. This match was held at the Palma Arena in Palma, the capital city of Nadal 's native Mallorca. Nadal won 7 -- 5, 4 -- 6, 7 -- 6.
On 21 December 2010 they played in Zürich, Switzerland on a hard court a charity tennis match for the Roger Federer Foundation. Federer won 4 -- 6, 6 -- 3, 6 -- 3. They played another exhibition match on 22 December 2010 in Madrid, Spain. Nadal won 7 -- 6, 4 -- 6, 6 -- 1. This was a charity tennis match for the Fundación Rafa Nadal (Rafael Nadal Foundation).
On 1 January 2011 they played in the final of the knockout exhibition tournament; the Mubadala World Tennis Championship on a hard court. Federer had beaten Söderling in the previous round and Nadal had beaten Berdych in the previous round. Nadal won the encounter by a score of 7 -- 6, 7 -- 6.
On 8 March 2011 the two played a set at Matthew Knight Arena in Eugene, Oregon, United States. Nadal won the charity exhibition 7 -- 5.
On 31 December 2011 they played again at Mubadala 2011 Mubadala World Tennis Championship (December) on a hard court, this time for third place. Nadal won again 6 -- 1, 7 -- 5.
On 12 December 2015 they played two matches in New Delhi, India at 2015 International Premier Tennis League season on a hard court. Nadal won both a set of singles against Federer 6 -- 5 and, paired with Rohan Bopanna, a doubles set against Roger Federer and Marin Cilic 6 -- 4 to lead the Indian Aces to a 30 -- 19 victory over the UAE Royals.
Federer and Nadal were born just under four years and 10 months apart. Federer 's birthday is 8 August 1981, while Nadal 's is 3 June 1986. A different viewpoint of their career evolution is offered by taking the season they ended with an age of 18 as starting point, and comparing their accomplishments at the same age. For instance in 2007, Federer finished the season being 26 years old having accumulated a career record of twelve Major titles, and ranked No. 1. By comparison, Nadal finished the 2012 season also aged 26, having accumulated eleven Major titles in total, and being ranked No. 4.
Another way to view their respective careers and evolution is to look at the progression of titles won by the number of tournaments played to win each of their titles at each level of competition including Grand Slams, ATP World Tour Masters 1000 (formerly ATP Masters Series), ATP World Tour Finals (formerly Tennis Masters Cup), Olympic Games, ATP World Tour 500 Series (formerly ATP International Series Gold), and ATP World Tour 250 Series (formerly ATP International Series). For example, Federer won his 14th Grand Slam title at his 40th Grand Slam Tournament, while Nadal won his 14th at his 38th Grand Slam Tournament.
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what is the least populated town in the united states | Loving County, Texas - wikipedia
Loving County is a county in the U.S. state of Texas. With a population of 134 as of a 2017 estimate by the United States Census Bureau, Loving County is the second least populous county in the United States after Kalawao County, Hawaii which has a population of 88. Loving County has no incorporated communities; its county seat and only community is Mentone. The county was originally created in 1887, although after being disorganized, it was finally reorganized in 1931.
Prehistorically, the area had many springs with potable water that supported wildlife and nomadic hunters. Antonio de Espejo visited the area in 1583 and crossed the Pecos River. Having surveyed the area in 1854 for a railroad company, John Pope returned in 1855 to start a camp in northwestern Loving County and establish artesian wells in the area, but the venture was unsuccessful and was abandoned in 1861.
From 1837 to 1874, the area of modern Loving County was part of the Bexar land district. In 1874 it was separated from Bexar County, becoming a part of Tom Green County.
Loving County is named for Oliver Loving, a cattle rancher and pioneer of the cattle drive who, along with Charles Goodnight, developed the Goodnight - Loving Trail. He was mortally wounded by members of the Comanche nation while on a cattle drive in 1867 in the vicinity of the county.
Loving is the only county in Texas to be incorporated twice, first in 1893 and again in 1931. Its initial organization was effected by a canal company founded in Denver, Colorado, and appears to have been based upon fraud and willful misrepresentations made by the founders to state officials. After a local landowner hired a New York City firm to investigate alleged improprieties in county government, the company 's organizers fled, taking with them all the county records. The state legislature subsequently disincorporated Loving in 1897, attaching it to Reeves County.
Oil was discovered in 1921, leading to a population increase in Loving County. By 1930, there were 195 residents, mostly living in what would become the town of Mentone, which became the county seat when Loving was reconstituted in 1931. By 1933, the population had peaked at 600, only to begin a steady decline which had continued until recently.
Loving County was the home of the first elected female sheriff in Texas, Edna Reed Clayton Dewees. Dewees was appointed to the job in January 1945, then won an election to continue in the office through 1947. She never carried a firearm, and reported only two arrests during her entire term. Later she would return as a county district clerk, a job she held from 1965 to 1986. After retirement she lived on a ranch near Mentone until 22 January 2009 when she died in Del Rio.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 677 square miles (1,750 km), of which 669 square miles (1,730 km) is land and 7.8 square miles (20 km) (1.1 %) is water.
The Pecos River is the county 's western boundary, forming the Red Bluff Reservoir along its northwestern border with Reeves County, Texas and Eddy County, New Mexico. The terrain of Loving County is described as flat desert, with a few low hills. Desert shrubs, range grass and cacti abound, with salt cedars along the river. Elevations vary from 2,686 to 3,311 feet (1,009 m) above sea level.
Loving is the smallest county by area in the Permian Basin region.
As of the census of 2000, there were 67 people, 31 households, and 19 families living in the county. The population density was 0.2 people per square mile (0.08 / km). There were 70 housing units at an average density of 0.1 per square mile (0.04 / km). Of the 67 residents, 60 identified as White, no person identified themselves as Black, African American, Native American, Asian, or Pacific Islander. 6 identified as "some other race '', and 1 person identified as belonging to two or more races. In addition, 7 people identified as being of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin of any race. It is one of only a few counties in the U.S. -- outside of the Northeast -- where the largest self - identified ancestry group is Irish American.
There were 31 households out of which 5 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 17 were married couples living together, 2 had a female householder with no husband present, and 11 were non-families. Ten households were made up of individuals and 2 consisted of someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. Average household size was 2.16, while the average family size was 2.65.
In the county, the population was spread out with 13 people under the age of 18, one between 18 and 24, 18 from 25 to 44, 24 from 45 to 64, and 11 who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 10 females there are 11.61 males. For every 10 females age 18 and over, there are 12.50 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $40,000, and the median income for a family was $53,750. Males had a median income of $25,833 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the county was $24,084.
Owing partly to its small and dispersed population, it also has the highest median per capita and household income of any county in Texas.
Loving County was the only county in the United States with no people below the poverty line as of 2000. However, as of 2010, this is no longer true.
The county had been the least populous county in the United States, with a 2010 census population of only 82 persons (an increase of 22.4 % over the 2000 figure of 67 residents), but the 2015 estimate by the US Census Bureau places it as the second least populous county in the US. With an average of only 0.0646 inhabitants / km (0.167 / sq mi) as of 2015, the county is also the least densely populated county outside of Alaska. (Lake and Peninsula Borough and North Slope Borough in Alaska are both lower, as is the Yukon - Koyukuk Census Area, which is not a county.)
Loving County has voted for the Republican candidate in every presidential election since 1972, except in 1992 when the county backed independent candidate Ross Perot. The county also backed a third - party candidate in 1968, supporting George Wallace.
There have been allegations of voter fraud in Loving County, going back as far as the 1940s.
Loving County 's economy is based almost entirely upon oil and gas drilling, ranching, and county services.
Loving County is served by the Wink - Loving Independent School District. The county 's school system was closed and consolidated into Wink 's ISD in 1972 because the enrollment had fallen to two pupils.
"Loving County '' is the name of a song written and performed by Charlie Robison. It appears on his 1998 album Life of the Party.
Coordinates: 31 ° 50 ′ N 103 ° 34 ′ W / 31.84 ° N 103.57 ° W / 31.84; - 103.57
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who sang never had a love like this before | Edwyn Collins - wikipedia
Edwyn Stephen Collins (born 23 August 1959) is a Scottish musician, producer and record label owner from Edinburgh, Scotland. Collins was the lead singer for the 1980s post-punk band Orange Juice, which he co-founded. Following the group 's split in 1985, Collins started a solo career. His 1994 single "A Girl Like You '' was a worldwide hit.
In February 2005, Collins was hospitalized following two cerebral hemorrhages which resulted in aphasia, and he subsequently underwent a months - long rehabilitation period. Collins resumed his musical career in 2007. A documentary film on his recovery, titled The Possibilities Are Endless, was released in 2014.
Collins was the co-founder of the indie record label Postcard Records and co-founded a second label, Analogue Enhanced Digital, in 2011. Collins has also worked as an illustrator, television actor, television producer and record producer. He won an Ivor Novello Award, the Ivor Inspiration Award, in 2009.
Collins was born in Edinburgh.
Collins co-founded the band the Nu - Sonics in 1976 in the Glasgow suburb of Bearsden. The band changed its name to Orange Juice in 1979. Collins and his friend Alan Horne founded the record label Postcard Records that year to release the band 's singles. The band 's debut single, "Falling and Laughing '' was issued in February 1980. Although critically acclaimed, the single only sold 2,000 copies.
After three more singles with Postcard, Orange Juice signed to Polydor Records in October 1981 and released their debut album, You Ca n't Hide Your Love Forever, in March 1982. The band 's second album, Rip It Up followed in November 1982. Their single "Rip It Up '', released in early 1983, reached number 8 on the UK Singles Chart and was noted as the first British hit single to feature a bass - line from the Roland TB - 303 synthesizer. The song was their only Top 40 single.
The band 's two subsequent albums, Texas Fever and The Orange Juice were both released in 1984 and failed to find the same success as Rip It Up.
Orange Juice disbanded in January 1985, after Polydor grew dissatisfied with the band 's lack of success and the band 's difficulty finding a new label to sign with. During this time in his career, Collins met Grace Maxwell, who he hired as his manager and later became his wife.
Collins started his solo career in 1986, and signed to Elevation Records, a label that was co-venture between indie label Creation Records and major label Warner Music.
Collins released two singles for Elevation label in 1987, both produced by Robin Guthrie of the Cocteau Twins, but both failed to enter the UK Singles Chart. Elevation was closed in November 1987, just ten months after it released its first single. After the closure, Collins experienced a "falling out '' with Creation Records founder Alan McGee, who had financed Elevation. As a result, unlike other Elevation signees such as Primal Scream and The Weather Prophets, Collins was not migrated to the main Creation label and he was left without a record label contract.
At the request of passionate Orange Juice fans in Germany, Collins recorded his next album at a small German studio, with the aid of producer Dennis Bovell, who had worked with Collins in Orange Juice, and Roddy Frame of Aztec Camera. The album, entitled Hope and Despair, was released in 1989 by the Demon label and achieved success as an independent release. Demon also released Collins 's next record, Spartan Hellbent on Compromise (1990), which was not as successful as its predecessor. Demon and Collins then parted ways and Collins embarked on a lengthy hiatus.
Collins built his own recording studio in 1994 that was used to record his third solo album, Gorgeous George, which he also produced. The studio, located in West Hampstead, London, UK, would become the West Heath Yard Studios that Collins would use for his future record label, AED Records.
In 1995, Collins released the single "A Girl Like You '', which became a hit in both the United Kingdom and United States after it was featured in the film Empire Records.. It was subsequently used in the movie Charlie 's Angels: Full Throttle in 2003.
Collins released his followup to Gorgeous George, I 'm Not Following You, in 1997. One of its singles, "The Magic Piper (of Love) '', was featured on the soundtrack for Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery that year and was his only other Top 40 entry on the UK Singles Chart apart from "A Girl Like You ''
In a BBC 6 Music radio interview on 18 February 2005, Collins said he felt unwell, but ascribed the nausea and vertigo to food poisoning. Two days later, he was admitted to intensive care in London 's Royal Free Hospital after apparently suffering a major cerebral haemorrhage. After suffering a second haemorrhage he had an operation on 25 February 2005, which was followed by a lengthy programme of neurological rehabilitation owing to right - sided weakness and difficulty with speech. The aphasia he suffered allowed him to repeat only four phrases, over and over again: "yes '', "no '', "Grace Maxwell '' (his wife 's name) and "the possibilities are endless ''.
Collins released his sixth solo album, entitled Home Again, in September 2007 on Heavenly Records. The album was recorded before his illness but mixed after his discharge from hospital. While still recovering, Collins returned to singing live, including playing a gig at The Arts Theatre in London, UK. A tribute song celebrating his return was recorded by the indie pop band The Candy Twins.
A BBC Scotland documentary, Edwyn Collins: Home Again, narrated by Franz Ferdinand frontman Alex Kapranos, was broadcast on 19 May 2008. Filmed during 2007, it followed Collins 's progress in recovering from his illness, and his first return to live performance at the BBC Electric Proms. Collins then performed at the Glastonbury Festival, which was broadcast on 28 June 2008 on BBC Two, and at T in the Park on 10 July 2009 (Collins 's first ever T in the Park).
On 2 October 2009 Collins 's wife and manager Grace Maxwell detailed her "running battle '' with Warner Music Group and MySpace over his right to allow fans to listen to "A Girl Like You '' for free on his MySpace page.
In November 2009, at a gig in London 's Bloomsbury Ballroom, following a tour of the Scottish Highlands, Collins 's singing was contrasted with his slow speech: "(W) hen he started to sing, his baritone proved as powerful as ever. '' On 20 February 2010, he joined The Maccabees onstage at Brixton Academy for their encore, performing vocals on a rendition of "Rip It Up ''.
Losing Sleep, Collins 's first written and recorded album since his 2005 illness, was then released on 13 September 2010 in the UK. The album was recorded at his own West Heath Studios between November 2008 and May 2010, and was produced by Collins and Sebastian Lewsley. Collins and Lewsley first met in 1992, while Collins was producing former Subway Sect frontman Vic Godard 's album The End of the Surrey People and Lewsley was his assistant. For the album, he collaborated with The Cribs ' Ryan Jarman and Johnny Marr, Franz Ferdinand, The Magic Numbers singer Romeo Stodart, The Drums and Roddy Frame. Lewsley explained the recording process of Losing Sleep in 2010:
We did each song in a day... and a day consists of about four hours. So there 's a real expediency about how it 's recorded. The whole attitude of the album is just doing that. Not indulging anyone. Not having any band sitting round for days and days. "Have you got a guitar part yet? No? Just do it. You 've got a coupla hours. '' They (Collins 's collaborators) all looked quite petrified but they did it.
In 2009, during the making of Losing Sleep, Lewsley observed Collins gradually regain his musical proficiency -- Lewsley explained: "The studio is more of an instrument again for Edwyn. '' The cover art for the album features a collection of bird drawings that Collins started working on in 2005.
On 30 September 2010 Collins and his band broadcast three live songs from the Royal Beacon Hotel in Exmouth for BBC Radio 2 's "Radcliffe and Maconie Show ''. (Stuart Maconie is a former music journalist and his first NME article was a review of Collins 's 1987 gig at the Manchester International.)
On 30 July 2011 Collins performed at the Indietracks festival that was held at the Midland Railway, Butterley, UK. During the 2012 Kendal Calling event Collins sang "A Girl Like You '', with Roddy Frame on guitar and Tim Burgess on backing vocals.
Collins 's eighth solo album, Understated, was released in March 2013 on his own AED Records label and was critically well received, with God Is in the TV stating:
Understated is more than just another step to recovery, it is indeed a fine record in its own right, and utterly life - affirming. It 's also perhaps the ultimate testament to the healing power of music. He lost the ability to read, write, and lost movement in half of his body, but what he did n't lose was his gift for coming up with an ear - catching tune, as is proved here. It will make you smile, it may even make you cry, and it 's an album that reminds you how good it is to be alive.
A documentary film about Collins entitled The Possibilities Are Endless, directed by James Hall and Edward Lovelace, was released in November 2014.
Roddy Frame, the frontman for the new wave group Aztec Camera, has maintained a long - term friendship with Collins, since they were both signed to Postcard Records in the 1980s. Collins and Frame collaborated on the Aztec Camera album Stray, including a live performance of the song "Consolation Prize ''.
Frame performed with Collins in November 2007 during Collins 's first concert after his recovery from a serious illness, and the pair played again at the Glastonbury Festival in June 2008, on the Park Stage, and at the Purcell Rooms in London, UK, in September 2008.
Frame 's fourth solo album, Seven Dials, was released in 2014 on Collins 's AED record label. Frame explained, following the album 's release, that he had been inspired to make an album with a full band after his positive experience playing with Collins in 2007 and 2008.
Collins has also worked extensively as a record producer with other artists, including Terrorvision, Vic Godard, Robert Forster, The Cribs, Little Barrie, and Hooton Tennis Club.
In 1999, Collins was invited by the band Space to produce what would have been their third album Love You More than Football, which ended up being scrapped. However he is credited as a producer on a few B - sides, and he delivers a brief vocal cameo on the song "Thank You '', where he makes reference to "Falling and Laughing ''.
In 2005 Collins produced the Cribs album The New Fellas and co-produced the 2013 album Clarietta, by Charlie Boyer and the Voyeurs, with Lewsley. He also co-produced The Rails ' debut album Fair Warning, released on Island Records in 2014.
Collins also produced The Official Body, the third album by the British post-punk band Shopping, which was released on 19 January 2018.
In addition to his music career Collins also produced and starred in the Channel 4 television show West Heath Yard. Collins released his first book of illustrations, Some British Birds, with Morel Books in 2009. Liberty of London printed his bird illustrations on fabric as part of a series of fabrics created in collaboration with musicians; his print is named Ornithology.
In May 2009 Collins won the Ivors Inspiration Award in recognition of his struggles following his 2005 brain haemorrhage.
In 2010 he received an honorary master 's degree from the Buckinghamshire New University, in recognition of his "strong influences and contribution to the national and international music industry over the last three decades ''.
On 21 August 2010 Collins attended the Helmsdale Highland Games as the chieftain, an honour also previously bestowed on his grandfather.
Collins is married to Grace Maxwell, who is also his manager. The couple live in Helmsdale and have one son, William.
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when did who framed roger rabbit come out | Who Framed Roger Rabbit - wikipedia
Who Framed Roger Rabbit is a 1988 American live - action / animated fantasy film directed by Robert Zemeckis, produced by Frank Marshall and Robert Watts, and written by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman. The film is based on Gary K. Wolf 's 1981 novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit? The film stars Bob Hoskins, Christopher Lloyd, Charles Fleischer, Stubby Kaye, and Joanna Cassidy. Combining live - action and animation, the film is set in Hollywood during the late 1940s, where animated characters and people co-exist. The story follows Eddie Valiant, a private detective who must exonerate "Toon '' (i.e. cartoon character) Roger Rabbit, who is accused of murdering a wealthy businessman.
Walt Disney Pictures purchased the film rights for Who Framed Roger Rabbit 's story in 1981. Price and Seaman wrote two drafts of the script before Disney brought in executive producer Steven Spielberg, and his production company, Amblin Entertainment. Zemeckis was brought on to direct the film, and Canadian animator Richard Williams was hired to supervise the animation sequences. Production was moved from Los Angeles to Elstree Studios in England to accommodate Williams and his group of animators. While filming, the production budget began to rapidly expand and the shooting schedule ran longer than expected.
Disney released the film through its Touchstone Pictures division on June 22, 1988, to critical and commercial success, becoming a blockbuster. The film brought a renewed interest in the Golden Age of American animation, spearheading modern American animation and the Disney Renaissance.
In 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.
In 1947 Los Angeles, "toons '' act in theatrical cartoon shorts as with live - action films; they regularly interact with real people and animals and reside in Toontown. Private detective Eddie Valiant and his brother, Teddy, once worked closely with the toons on several famous cases, but after Teddy was killed by a toon, Eddie lapsed into alcoholism and vowed never to work for toons again.
R.K. Maroon, head of Maroon Cartoon Studios, is concerned about the recent poor performances of one of his biggest stars, Roger Rabbit. Maroon hires Valiant to investigate rumors about Roger 's voluptuous toon wife Jessica being romantically involved with businessman and gadget inventor, Marvin Acme, owner of both Acme Corporation and Toontown. After watching Jessica perform at the underground Ink and Paint Club, Valiant secretly photographs her and Acme playing patty - cake in her dressing room, which he shows to Roger. Maroon suggests to Roger that he should leave Jessica, but a drunken Roger refuses and flees.
The next morning, Acme is discovered dead at his factory by the Los Angeles Police Department with a safe dropped on his head, and evidence points to Roger being responsible. While investigating, Valiant meets Judge Doom, Toontown 's superior court judge, who has created a substance capable of killing a toon: a toxic "dip '' made of turpentine, acetone, and benzene. Valiant runs into Roger 's toon co-star, Baby Herman, who believes Roger is innocent and that Acme 's missing will, which will give the toons ownership of Toontown, may be the key to his murder. Valiant finds Roger, who begs him to help exonerate him, hiding in his office. Valiant reluctantly hides Roger in a local bar, where his ex-girlfriend, Dolores, works. Jessica approaches Valiant and says that Maroon forced her to pose for the photographs so he could blackmail Acme.
Doom and his toon weasel henchmen discover Roger, but he and Valiant escape with Benny, an anthropomorphic taxicab. They flee to a theater, where Valiant tells Roger that a toon killed Teddy when they were investigating a bank robbery by dropping a piano on his head. As they leave with Dolores, Valiant sees a newsreel detailing the sale of Maroon Cartoons to Cloverleaf, a mysterious corporation that bought the city 's trolley network shortly before Acme 's murder. Valiant goes to the studio to confront Maroon, leaving Roger to guard outside, but Jessica knocks Roger out and puts him in the trunk. Maroon tells Valiant that he blackmailed Acme into selling his company so he could sell the studio, but is killed before he can explain the consequences of the missing will. Valiant spots Jessica fleeing the scene, and assuming she is the culprit, follows her into Toontown. Jessica reveals that Doom killed Acme and Maroon and gave her his will for safekeeping, but she discovered that the will was blank. She and Valiant are captured by Doom and the weasels.
At the Acme factory, Doom reveals his plot to destroy Toontown with a machine loaded with dip to build a freeway, the only way past Toontown since Cloverleaf (which Doom owns) has bought out Los Angeles ' Pacific Electric Railway. Roger unsuccessfully attempts to save Jessica, and the couple is tied onto a hook in front of the machine 's hose. Valiant performs a comedic vaudeville act, causing the weasels to die of laughter; Valiant kicks their leader into the machine 's dip vat, killing him. Valiant fights Doom, who is flattened by a steamroller, but survives, revealing him as a toon. Doom reveals that he killed Teddy. Valiant uses a toon mallet with a spring - loaded boxing glove and fires it at a switch that causes the machine to empty its dip onto Doom, dissolving him.
The empty machine crashes through the wall into Toontown, where it is destroyed by a train. Toons run in to regard Doom 's remains, and Roger discovers that he inadvertently wrote his love letter for Jessica on Acme 's will, which was written in invisible ink. Roger shocks Valiant with a joy buzzer, and Valiant gives him a kiss, having regained his sense of humor. Valiant happily enters Toontown with Dolores, and Roger with Jessica, followed by the other toons.
Mel Blanc voiced Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Tweety, and Sylvester (Roger Rabbit was one of the final productions in which Blanc voiced his Looney Tunes characters before his death the following year). Joe Alaskey voiced Yosemite Sam and Foghorn Leghorn (in place of the elderly Blanc), Wayne Allwine voiced Mickey Mouse, Tony Anselmo voiced Donald Duck (with an archival recording of Clarence Nash, the original voice of Donald, used at the beginning of the scene), Tony Pope voiced Goofy (also partially voiced by Bill Farmer) and the Big Bad Wolf, Mae Questel reprised her role of Betty Boop, Russi Taylor voiced Minnie Mouse and some birds, Pat Buttram, Jim Cummings, and Jim Gallant voiced Valiant 's animated bullets, Les Perkins voiced Mr. Toad, Mary Radford voiced Hyacinth Hippo from Fantasia, Nancy Cartwright voiced the dipped shoe, Cherry Davis voiced Woody Woodpecker, Peter Westy voiced Pinocchio, and Frank Welker voiced Dumbo. Animation director Richard Williams voiced Droopy. April Winchell provides the voice of Mrs. Herman and the "baby noises ''. David Lander voices Smart Ass, the leader of the weasels, Fred Newman voices Stupid, and June Foray voices Wheezy and Lena Hyena, a toon who resembles Jessica Rabbit and provides a comical role which shows her falling for Eddie and pursuing him.
The main characters of the film are Roger Rabbit, a cartoon rabbit, his cartoon - human wife Jessica Rabbit, and human detective Eddie Valiant and Judge Doom.
Other characters in the film include:
Baby Herman is Roger 's major co-star in the animated shorts in which they appear. He is Roger 's best friend. Baby Herman 's "mother '', Mrs. Herman (voiced by April Winchell), makes an appearance at the beginning of Who Framed Roger Rabbit and its spin - off short films, but she is only shown from the waist down.
Baby Herman and Roger Rabbit comprised an Abbott and Costello - like comedy team for the fictitious Maroon Cartoons studio in the 1940s. A typical Roger / Baby Herman cartoon consists of Roger being given responsibility for Baby Herman 's well - being; Herman immediately begins crawling through a number of dangerous situations from which Roger must rescue him. In the process, Roger suffers extravagant injuries and humiliations reminiscent of those in classic Tex Avery cartoons, while Baby Herman remains unscathed. For both book adaptations, Baby Herman was murdered, leaving behind a doppelganger for Eddie Valiant to help solve the crime.
In the film, Baby Herman 's role was downplayed. In one scene, he tells Eddie that that Roger did not murder Marvin Acme and tips off that Acme had a will that promised to leave Toontown to the Toons, which is the reason why Acme was killed. Baby Herman later appears at the end of the film, expressing his annoyance that Acme did not leave his will where it could easily be found.
Despite his name and appearance, "Baby '' Herman is actually a middle - aged, cigar - smoking Toon who looks like an infant. While filming "in character '', he speaks baby talk in a typical baby boy 's voice provided by Winchell; off - camera, he has a loud, gravelly voice provided by Lou Hirsch. Animation director Richard Williams loved the character of "adult '' Baby Herman so much that he personally animated all of the scenes of the character in the film. When he loses his cigar and finds himself unable to reach it, he starts crying like a baby (albeit with his voice still sounding like a middle - aged man).
Benny the Cab is a taxicab that services the Los Angeles area in the film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. He is voiced in all appearances by Charles Fleischer. His license plate reads Looney. In the original story, Who Censored Roger Rabbit?, Benny was a thug and had a minor role as a trader in second - hand items. The character was expanded for the movie, as an anthropomorphized colorful yellow Volkswagen Beetle - style taxi cab that takes Roger where he needs to go.
The Toon Patrol is a group of five anthropomorphic animated tailless weasels who serve as henchmen to Judge Doom in Who Framed Roger Rabbit. They serve as the secondary antagonists of the film. In the film, the Toon Patrol comprises the "police officers '' of Toontown, but they behave less like law enforcers and more like gangsters and crooks. Judge Doom hires them to capture Roger Rabbit for the murder of Marvin Acme. The Toon Patrol drives around in a black Dodge Humpback paddy wagon labeled with the Los Angeles city seal like with cruisers of the Los Angeles Police Department.
The weasels enjoy laughing at the misery of others, including each other. Like all the other Toons in the movie, they are invincible to physical body harm except for the dip. However, prolonged laughter is also shown to be lethal to them. Eddie Valiant jokes around in front of them during the climax of the movie, causing all but Smartass to "die '' from laughing at him, after which their Toon souls rise to heaven in angel forms. According to Judge Doom, they once had hyena cousins that died in the same manner.
While being designed, the weasels and their fondness of weapons were modeled after the weasels in the 1949 Disney cartoon The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad. The weasels make an appearance in the Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin attraction located at Disneyland and Tokyo Disneyland.
Dolores (Joanna Cassidy) is Eddie Valiant 's girlfriend who works as a waitress in a bar. She is involved in helping Eddie solve the case against Judge Doom.
R.K. Maroon (Alan Tilvern) is the owner of Maroon Cartoons. He paid Eddie $100 to photograph Jessica and Marvin Acme, which eventually led to Acme 's murder. Maroon later admitted that he was trying to blackmail Acme into selling Toontown to Cloverleaf Industries so that he could sell his studio as well, since Cloverleaf wanted to buy both properties at once. Before he could reveal who was behind the plot, he was shot and killed by Judge Doom.
Marvin Acme (Stubby Kaye) is the owner of Acme Products and Toontown. He is known around Hollywood as "the gag king '' for the prank items he makes his living selling. Among his top sellers are Disappearing / Reappearing Ink and a hand buzzer. In a blackmail scheme by R.K. Maroon, he has an "affair '' with Toon Jessica Rabbit which Eddie Valiant (who briefly meets Acme) photographs. Acme is murdered later that night by Judge Doom, who drops a safe on his head and frames Jessica 's husband, Roger.
Lt. Santino (Richard LeParmentier) is a lieutenant with the LAPD, and friend of Eddie. He accompanies Eddie to the Acme factory, where Marvin Acme has been murdered and everyone suspects Roger. Here they are introduced to Judge Doom who explains the ingredients of the Dip. When Doom demonstrates the Dip on a defenceless Toon shoe, Santino turns away in distress, unable to watch the Toon die. Santino is present with several officers when Eddie discovers that it was Doom who killed Acme along with Maroon and Teddy.
Theodore "Teddy '' J. Valiant is the deceased brother of Eddie. Teddy was killed by a piano dropped onto him by a Toon later revealed to be Judge Doom while investigating a robbery in Toontown. Due to his brother 's death, Eddie, with whom Teddy had cracked many a case and helped Toons who were in trouble, vowed never to work for a Toon again and would n't for many years. To honor his brother, Eddie left Teddy 's desk the way it was the day he died and refuses to allow anyone to sit at it. Eddie avenged his brother 's death when he destroyed Doom with his own Dip.
Angelo (Richard Ridings) is a client of Dolores 's bar. Eddie is not particularly fond of Angelo, as he makes fun of Eddie for his detective work. Eddie regards Angelo as the kind of guy who would sell someone out at the first opportunity, but Angelo helps Roger avoid Judge Doom 's search after Roger makes him laugh. When asked by Doom if he has seen a rabbit, Angelo mocks him by gesturing to a patch of empty space and saying, "Say hello to the Judge, Harvey. '' - a reference to the 1944 play of that name by Mary Coyle Chase.
Bongo (voiced by Morgan Deare, Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin voiced by Jeff Bergman) is a cartoon gorilla bouncer of The Ink and Paint Club. The password that Eddie uses to get in was "Walt sent me '' and Bongo lets him in. He also tosses Eddie out of the club when he catches Eddie spying on Jessica Rabbit and Marvin P. Acme in Jessica 's dressing room.
Lena Hyena is a Toon Hag that resembles Jessica Rabbit. When Eddie was looking for Jessica Rabbit, he saw what appeared to be her in an apartment building. When Eddie entered the room, he encountered Lena Hyena who developed a crush on Eddie and chased him around parts of Toon Town. Eddie was able to get rid of her by tricking her into running into the wall of a building.
The Toon Bullets are a group of six bullets with personalities similar to those of characters in Western movies. They were a present from Yosemite Sam, thanking Eddie for "springing him from the hoosegow. ''
When Eddie Valiant decides to enter Toontown in pursuit of Judge Doom, he discards his pistol in favor of an oversized Toon revolver and loads the bullets into it. He fires at Doom, but the bullets become confused as to where he went and turn in the wrong direction. "Dum - dums, '' Eddie says sourly. (This is a wordplay insofar as dum - dums are a type of bullet, specifically ones which are hollow - nosed or soft - nosed.)
Walt Disney Productions purchased the film rights to Gary K. Wolf 's novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit? shortly after its publication in 1981. Ron W. Miller, then president of Disney, saw it as a perfect opportunity to produce a blockbuster. Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman were hired to write the script, penning two drafts. Robert Zemeckis offered his services as director in 1982, but Disney declined as his two previous films (I Wanna Hold Your Hand and Used Cars) had been box - office bombs. Between 1981 and 1983 Disney developed test footage with Darrell Van Citters as animation director, Paul Reubens voicing Roger Rabbit, Peter Renaday as Eddie Valiant, and Russi Taylor as Jessica Rabbit. The project was revamped in 1985 by Michael Eisner, the then - new CEO of Disney. Amblin Entertainment, which consisted of Steven Spielberg, Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy, were approached to produce Who Framed Roger Rabbit alongside Disney. The original budget was projected at $50 million, which Disney felt was too expensive.
Roger Rabbit was finally green - lit when the budget decreased to $30 million, which at the time still made it the most expensive animated film ever green - lit. Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg argued that the hybrid of live action and animation would "save '' Disney 's animation department. Spielberg 's contract included an extensive amount of creative control and a large percentage of the box - office profits. Disney kept all merchandising rights. Spielberg convinced Warner Bros., Fleischer Studios, King Features Syndicate, Felix the Cat Productions, Turner Entertainment, and Universal Pictures / Walter Lantz Productions to "lend '' their characters to appear in the film with (in some cases) stipulations on how those characters were portrayed; for example, Disney 's Donald Duck and Warner 's Daffy Duck appear as equally talented dueling pianists, and Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny also share a scene. Apart from this agreement, Warner Bros. and the various other companies were not involved in the production of Roger Rabbit. Additionally, the producers were unable to acquire the rights to use Popeye, Tom and Jerry, Little Lulu, Casper the Friendly Ghost, or the Terrytoons for appearances from their respective owners (King Features, Turner, Western Publishing, Harvey Comics, and Viacom).
Terry Gilliam was offered the chance to direct, but he found the project too technically challenging. ("Pure laziness on my part, '' he later admitted, "I completely regret that decision. '') Robert Zemeckis was hired to direct in 1985, based on the success of Romancing the Stone and Back to the Future. Disney executives were continuing to suggest Darrell Van Citters to direct the animated sequences, but Spielberg and Zemeckis decided against it. Richard Williams was eventually hired to direct the animation. Zemeckis wanted the film to imbue "Disney 's high quality of animation, Warner Bros. ' characterization, and Tex Avery humor ''.
Harrison Ford was Spielberg 's original choice to play Eddie Valiant, but Ford 's price was too high. Bill Murray was also considered for the part, but due to his idiosyncratic method of receiving offers for roles, Murray missed out on it. Eddie Murphy reportedly turned down the role of Eddie, which he later came to regret. Several other actors were also considered for the role of Eddie Valiant, including Chevy Chase, Robert Redford, Jack Nicholson, Sylvester Stallone, Wallace Shawn, Ed Harris, Charles Grodin, and Don Lane. To facilitate Hoskins ' performance, Charles Fleischer dressed in a Roger bunny suit and "stood in '' behind camera for most scenes. Animation director Williams explained Roger Rabbit was a combination of "Tex Avery 's cashew nut - shaped head, the swatch of red hair... like Droopy 's, Goofy 's overalls, Porky Pig 's bow tie, Mickey Mouse 's gloves, and Bugs Bunny - like cheeks and ears. ''
Kathleen Turner provided the uncredited voice of Jessica Rabbit, Roger Rabbit 's Toon wife.
Christopher Lloyd was cast because he previously worked with Zemeckis and Amblin Entertainment on Back to the Future. Lloyd compared his part as Doom to his previous role as the Klingon commander Kruge in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, both being overly evil characters which he considered being "fun to play ''. Lloyd avoided blinking his eyes while on camera to perfectly portray the character. Tim Curry originally auditioned for the role of Judge Doom, but after his audition, the producers found him too terrifying for the role. Christopher Lee was also considered for the role, but turned it down. Several other actors were also considered for the role of Judge Doom, including John Cleese, Roddy McDowall, Eddie Deezen, and Sting.
Fleischer also voiced Benny the Cab and two members of Doom 's weasel gang, Psycho and Greasy. Lou Hirsch, who supplied the voice for Baby Herman, was the original choice for Benny the Cab, but was replaced by Fleischer.
Price and Seaman were brought aboard to continue writing the script once Spielberg and Zemeckis were hired. For inspiration, the two writers studied the work of Walt Disney and Warner Bros. Cartoons from the Golden Age of American animation, especially Tex Avery and Bob Clampett cartoons. The Cloverleaf streetcar subplot was inspired by Chinatown. Price and Seaman said that "the Red Car plot, suburb expansion, urban and political corruption really did happen, '' Price stated. "In Los Angeles, during the 1940s, car and tire companies teamed up against the Pacific Electric Railway system and bought them out of business. Where the freeway runs in Los Angeles is where the Red Car used to be. '' In Wolf 's novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit?, the toons were comic - strip characters rather than movie stars.
During the writing process, Price and Seaman were unsure of whom to include as the villain in the plot. They wrote scripts that had either Jessica Rabbit or Baby Herman as the villain, but they made their final decision with newly created character Judge Doom. Doom was supposed to have an animated vulture sit on his shoulder, but this was deleted due to the technical challenges this posed. Doom would also have a suitcase of 12 small animated kangaroos that act as a jury, by having their joeys pop out of their pouches, each with letters, when put together would spell YOU ARE GUILTY. This was also cut for budget and technical reasons. Doom 's five - man weasel gang (Stupid, Smart Ass, Greasy, Wheezy, and Psycho) satirizes the Seven Dwarfs (Doc, Grumpy, Happy, Sleepy, Bashful, Sneezy, and Dopey), who appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Originally, seven weasels were to mimic the dwarf 's complement, but eventually, two of them, Slimey and Slezey, were written out of the script. Further references included The "Ink and Paint Club '' resembling the Harlem Cotton Club, while Zemeckis compared Judge Doom 's invention of "the dip '' to eliminate all the toons as Hitler 's Final Solution. Doom was originally the hunter who killed Bambi 's mother. Benny the Cab was first conceived to be a Volkswagen Beetle before being changed to a taxicab. Ideas originally conceived for the story also included a sequence set at Marvin Acme 's funeral, whose attendees included Eddie, Foghorn Leghorn, Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Tom and Jerry, Heckle and Jeckle, Chip n ' Dale, Mighty Mouse, Superman, Popeye, Olive Oyl, Bluto, Clarabelle Cow, and the Seven Dwarfs in cameo appearances. However, the scene was cut for pacing reasons and never made it past the storyboard stage. Before finally agreeing on Who Framed Roger Rabbit as the film 's title, working titles included Murder in Toontown, Toons, Dead Toons Do n't Pay Bills, The Toontown Trial, Trouble in Toontown, and Eddie Goes to Toontown.
Animation director Richard Williams admitted he was "openly disdainful of the Disney bureaucracy '' and refused to work in Los Angeles. To accommodate him and his animators, production was moved to Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England. Disney and Spielberg also told Williams that in return for doing Roger Rabbit, they would help distribute his uncompleted film The Thief and the Cobbler. Supervising animators included Dale Baer, James Baxter, David Bowers, Andreas Deja, Chris Jenkins, Phil Nibbelink, Nik Ranieri, and Simon Wells. The animation production, headed by associate producer Don Hahn, was split between Richard Williams ' London studio and a specialized unit in Los Angeles, set up by Walt Disney Feature Animation and supervised by Dale Baer. The production budget continued to escalate, while the shooting schedule lapsed longer than expected. When the budget reached $40 million, Disney president Michael Eisner seriously considered shutting down production, but Jeffrey Katzenberg talked him out of it. Despite the budget escalating to over $50 million, Disney moved forward on production because they were enthusiastic to work with Spielberg.
VistaVision cameras installed with motion - control technology were used for the photography of the live - action scenes which would be composited with animation. Rubber mannequins of Roger Rabbit, Baby Herman, and the weasels would portray the animated characters during rehearsals to teach the actors where to look when acting with "open air and imaginative cartoon characters ''. Many of the live - action props held by cartoon characters were shot on set with either robotic arms holding the props or the props were manipulated by strings, similar to a marionette. The actor who played the voice of Roger, Charles Fleischer, insisted on wearing a Roger Rabbit costume while on the set, to get into character. Filming began on December 2, 1986, and lasted for seven months at Elstree Studios, with an additional month in Los Angeles and at Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) for blue screen effects of Toontown. The entrance of Desilu Studios served as the fictional Maroon Cartoon Studio lot.
Post-production lasted for 14 months. Because the film was made before computer animation and digital compositing were widely used, all the animation was done using cels and optical compositing. First, the animators and lay - out artists were given black - and - white printouts of the live - action scenes (known as "photo stats ''), and they placed their animation paper on top of them. The artists then drew the animated characters in relationship to the live - action footage. Due to Zemeckis ' dynamic camera moves, the animators had to confront the challenge of ensuring the characters were not "slipping and slipping all over the place. '' After rough animation was complete, it was run through the normal process of traditional animation until the cels were shot on the rostrum camera with no background. The animated footage was then sent to ILM for compositing, where technicians animated three lighting layers (shadows, highlights, and tone mattes) separately, to make the cartoon characters look three - dimensional and give the illusion of the characters being affected by the lighting on set. Finally, the lighting effects were optically composited on to the cartoon characters, who were, in turn, composited into the live - action footage. One of the most difficult effects in the film was Jessica 's dress in the nightclub scene, because it had flashing sequins, an effect accomplished by filtering light through a plastic bag scratched with steel wool.
Regular Zemeckis collaborator Alan Silvestri composed the film score, performed by the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) under the direction of Silvestri. Zemeckis joked that "the British (musicians) could not keep up with Silvestri 's jazz tempo ''. The performances of the music themes written for Jessica Rabbit were entirely improvised by the LSO. The work of American composer Carl Stalling heavily influenced Silvestri 's work on Who Framed Roger Rabbit. The film 's soundtrack was originally released by Buena Vista Records on June 22, 1988, and reissued by Walt Disney Records on CD on April 16, 2002.
On January 23, 2018 Intrada Records released a 3 - CD set with complete score, alternates, remastered version of original 1988 album plus music from 3 Roger Rabbit short films, composed & conducted by Bruce Broughton and James Horner.
Michael Eisner, then CEO, and Roy E. Disney, Vice Chairman of the Walt Disney Company, felt Who Framed Roger Rabbit was too risqué with sexual references. Eisner and Zemeckis disagreed over various elements of the film, but since Zemeckis had final cut privilege, he refused to make alterations. Roy E. Disney, head of Feature Animation along with studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg, felt it was appropriate to release the film under their Touchstone Pictures banner instead of the traditional Walt Disney Pictures banner.
Who Framed Roger Rabbit opened in the United States on June 22, 1988, grossing $11,226,239 in 1,045 theaters during its opening weekend, ranking first place in the domestic box office. The film went on to gross $156,452,370 in North America and $173,351,588 internationally, coming to a worldwide total of $329,803,958. At the time of release, Roger Rabbit was the 20th - highest grossing film of all time. The film was also the second - highest grossing film of 1988, behind only Rain Man.
Zemeckis has revealed a three - dimensional reissue could be possible.
Who Framed Roger Rabbit was first released on VHS on October 12, 1989. A Laserdisc edition was also released. A DVD version was first available on September 28, 1999.
On March 25, 2003, Buena Vista Home Entertainment released it as a part of the "Vista Series '' line in a two - disc collection with many extra features including a documentary, Behind the Ears: The True Story of Roger Rabbit; a deleted scene in which a pig 's head is "tooned '' onto Eddie 's own; the three Roger Rabbit shorts, "Tummy Trouble '', "Roller Coaster Rabbit '', and "Trail Mix - Up ''; as well as a booklet and interactive games. The only short on the 2003 VHS release was "Tummy Trouble ''.
On March 12, 2013, Who Framed Roger Rabbit was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu - ray Disc and DVD combo pack special edition for the film 's 25th anniversary. The film was also digitally restored by Disney for its 25th Anniversary. Frame - by - frame digital restoration was done by Prasad Studios removing dirt, tears, scratches, and other defects.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 97 % based on 62 reviews and an average score of 8.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Who Framed Roger Rabbit is an innovative and entertaining film that features a groundbreaking mix of live action and animation, with a touching and original story to boot. '' Aggregator Metacritic calculated a score of 83 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four stars out of four, predicting it would carry "the type of word of mouth that money ca n't buy. This movie is not only great entertainment, but (also) a breakthrough in craftsmanship. '' Ebert and his colleague Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune spent a considerable amount of time in the Siskel & Ebert episode in which they reviewed the film analyzing the film 's painstaking filmmaking. Siskel also praised the film, and ranked it number two on his top - ten films list for 1988, while Ebert ranked it as number eight on a similar list. Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented, "although this is n't the first time that cartoon characters have shared the screen with live actors, it 's the first time they 've done it on their own terms and make it look real ''. Desson Thomson of The Washington Post considered Roger Rabbit to be "a definitive collaboration of pure talent. Zemeckis had Walt Disney Pictures ' enthusiastic backing, producer Steven Spielberg 's pull, Warner Bros. 's blessing, Canadian animator Richard Williams ' ink and paint, Mel Blanc 's voice, Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman 's witty, frenetic screenplay, George Lucas ' Industrial Light and Magic, and Bob Hoskins ' comical performance as the burliest, shaggiest private eye. '' Gene Shalit on the Today Show also praised the film, calling it "one of the most extraordinary movies ever made ''. Filmsite.org called it "a technically - marvelous film '' and a "landmark '' that resulted from "unprecedented cooperation '' between Warner Bros. and Disney.
Conversely, Richard Corliss, writing for Time, gave a mixed review. "The opening cartoon works just fine but too fine. The opening scene upstages the movie that emerges from it, '' he said. Corliss was mainly annoyed by the homages to the Golden Age of American animation. Animation legend Chuck Jones made a rather scathing attack on the film in his book Chuck Jones Conversations. Among his complaints, Jones accused Robert Zemeckis of robbing Richard Williams of any creative input and ruining the piano duel that both Williams and he storyboarded.
Who Framed Roger Rabbit won three competitive Academy Awards and a Special Achievement Award. It became the first live - action / animation hybrid film to win multiple Academy Awards since Mary Poppins in 1964. It won Academy Awards for Best Sound Effects Editing (Charles L. Campbell and Louis Edemann), Best Visual Effects and Best Film Editing. Other nominations included Best Art Direction (Art Direction: Elliot Scott; Set Decoration: Peter Howitt), Best Cinematography and Best Sound (Robert Knudson, John Boyd, Don Digirolamo and Tony Dawe). Richard Williams received a Special Achievement Academy Award "for animation direction and creation of the cartoon characters ''. Roger Rabbit won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, as well as Best Direction for Zemeckis and Special Visual Effects. Hoskins, Lloyd, and Cassidy were nominated for their performances, while Alan Silvestri and the screenwriters received nominations. The film was nominated for four categories at the 42nd British Academy Film Awards and won for Best Visual Effects. Roger Rabbit was nominated the Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy), while Hoskins was also nominated for his performance. The film also won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and the Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Movie.
The success of Who Framed Roger Rabbit rekindled an interest in the Golden Age of American animation, and sparked the modern animation scene. In 1991, Walt Disney Imagineering began to develop Mickey 's Toontown for Disneyland, based on the Toontown that appeared in the film. The attraction also features a ride called Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin. Three theatrical animated shorts were also produced: Tummy Trouble, played in front of Honey, I Shrunk the Kids; Roller Coaster Rabbit was shown with Dick Tracy; and Trail Mix - Up was included with A Far Off Place. The film also inspired a short - lived comic - book and video - game spin - offs, including two PC games, the Japanese version of The Bugs Bunny Crazy Castle (which features Roger instead of Bugs), a 1989 game released on the Nintendo Entertainment System, and a 1991 game released on the Game Boy.
In December 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
With the film 's laserdisc release, Variety first reported in March 1994 that observers uncovered several scenes of antics from the animators that supposedly featured brief nudity of the Jessica Rabbit character. While undetectable when played at the usual rate of 24 film frames per second, the Laserdisc player allowed the viewer to advance frame - by - frame to uncover these visuals. Whether or not they were actually intended to depict the nudity of the character remains unknown. Many retailers said that within minutes of the Laserdisc debut, their entire inventory was sold out. The run was fueled by media reports about the controversy, including stories on CNN and various newspapers.
Another frequently debated scene includes one in which Baby Herman extends his middle finger as he passes under a woman 's dress and re-emerges with drool on his lip. Also, controversy exists over the scene where Daffy Duck and Donald Duck are playing a piano duel, and during his trademark ranting gibberish, it is claimed that Donald calls Daffy a "goddamn stupid nigger ''; however, this is a misinterpretation, with the line from the script being "doggone stubborn little --. ''
Gary K. Wolf, author of the novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit?, filed a lawsuit in 2001 against the Walt Disney Company. Wolf claimed he was owed royalties based on the value of "gross receipts '' and merchandising sales. In 2002, the trial court in the case ruled that these only referred to actual cash receipts Disney collected and denied Wolf 's claim. In its January 2004 ruling, the California Court of Appeal disagreed, finding that expert testimony introduced by Wolf regarding the customary use of "gross receipts '' in the entertainment business could support a broader reading of the term. The ruling vacated the trial court 's order in favor of Disney and remanded the case for further proceedings. In a March 2005 hearing, Wolf estimated he was owed $7 million. Disney 's attorneys not only disputed the claim, but also said Wolf actually owed Disney $500,000 -- $1 million because of an accounting error discovered in preparing for the lawsuit. Wolf won the decision in 2005, receiving between $180,000 and $400,000 in damages.
With the film 's critical and financial success, Disney and Spielberg felt it was obviously time to plan a second installment. J.J. Abrams says that he met Spielberg in 1989 to discuss working on a sequel, to the extent of preparing an outline and storyboards. More substantial work was done by Nat Mauldin, who wrote a prequel titled Roger Rabbit: The Toon Platoon, set in 1941. Similar to the previous film, Toon Platoon featured many cameo appearances by characters from the Golden Age of American animation. It began with Roger Rabbit 's early years, living on a farm in the Midwestern United States. With human Ritchie Davenport, Roger travels west to seek his mother, in the process meeting Jessica Krupnick (his future wife), a struggling Hollywood actress. While Roger and Ritchie are enlisting in the Army, Jessica is kidnapped and forced to make pro-Nazi Germany broadcasts. Roger and Ritchie must save her by going into Nazi - occupied Europe accompanied by several other Toons in their Army platoon. After their triumph, Roger and Ritchie are given a Hollywood Boulevard parade, and Roger is finally reunited with his mother, and father: Bugs Bunny.
Mauldin later retitled his script Who Discovered Roger Rabbit. Spielberg left the project when deciding he could not satirize Nazis after directing Schindler 's List. Eisner commissioned a rewrite in 1997 with Sherri Stoner and Deanna Oliver. Although they kept Roger 's search for his mother, Stoner and Oliver replaced the WWII subplot with Roger 's inadvertent rise to stardom on Broadway and Hollywood. Disney was impressed and Alan Menken was hired to write five songs for the film and offered his services as executive producer. One of the songs, "This Only Happens in the Movies '', was recorded in 2008 on the debut album of Broadway actress Kerry Butler. Eric Goldberg was set to be the new animation director, and began to redesign Roger 's new character appearance.
Spielberg had no interest in the project because he was establishing DreamWorks, although Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy decided to stay on as producers. Test footage for Who Discovered Roger Rabbit was shot sometime in 1998 at the Disney animation unit in Lake Buena Vista, Florida; the results were a mix of CGI, traditional animation, and live action that did not please Disney. A second test had the Toons completely converted to CGI; but this was dropped as the film 's projected budget escalated well past $100 million. Eisner felt it was best to cancel the film. In March 2003, producer Don Hahn was doubtful about a sequel being made, arguing that public tastes had changed since the 1990s with the rise of computer animation. "There was something very special about that time when animation was not as much in the forefront as it is now. ''
In December 2007, Marshall stated that he was still "open '' to the idea, and in April 2009, Zemeckis revealed he was still interested. According to a 2009 MTV News story, Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman were writing a new script for the project, and the animated characters would be in traditional two - dimensional, while the rest would be in motion capture. However, in 2010, Zemeckis said that the sequel would remain hand - drawn animated and live - action sequences will be filmed, just like in the original film, but the lighting effects on the cartoon characters and some of the props that the Toons handle will be done digitally. Also in 2010, Don Hahn, who was the film 's original associate producer, confirmed the sequel 's development in an interview with Empire. He stated, "Yeah, I could n't possibly comment. I deny completely, but yeah... if you 're a fan, pretty soon you 're going to be very, very, very happy. '' In 2010, Bob Hoskins stated he was interested in the project, reprising his role as Eddie Valiant. However, he retired from acting in 2012 after being diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease a year earlier, and died from complications in 2014. Marshall has confirmed that the film is a prequel, similar to earlier drafts, and that the writing was almost complete. During an interview at the premiere of Flight, Zemeckis stated that the sequel was still possible, despite Hoskins ' absence, and the script for the sequel was sent to Disney for approval from studio executives.
In February 2013, Gary K. Wolf, writer of the original novel, said Erik Von Wodtke and he were working on a development proposal for an animated Disney buddy comedy starring Mickey Mouse and Roger Rabbit called The Stooge, based on the 1952 film of the same name. The proposed film is set to a prequel, taking place five years before Who Framed Roger Rabbit and part of the story is about how Roger met Jessica, his future wife. Wolf has stated the film is currently wending its way through Disney.
In November 2016, while promoting his latest film, Allied, in England, Zemeckis took some time to have an interview with Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph. As the conversation shifted focus to the Roger Rabbit sequel, Zemeckis stated that the sequel "moves the story of Roger and Jessica Rabbit into the next few years of period film, moving on from film noir to the world of the 1950s ''. He also stated that the sequel would feature a "digital Bob Hoskins '', as Eddie Valiant would return in "ghost form ''. While the director went on to state that the script is "terrific '' and the film would still use hand - drawn animation, Zemeckis thinks that the chances of Disney green - lighting the sequel are "slim ''. As he explained more in detail, "The current corporate Disney culture (the current studio management of The Walt Disney Company) has no interest in Roger, and they certainly do n't like Jessica at all. ''
Roger Rabbit was the inspiration for a popular dance move in America in the early 1990s, called "the Roger Rabbit '' due to the floppy movements of the character in the film.
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who is the current leader of the department of commerce | United States Secretary of Commerce - wikipedia
The United States Secretary of Commerce (SecCom) is the head of the United States Department of Commerce. The Secretary is appointed by the President of the United States with the advice and consent of the United States Senate and serves in the President 's Cabinet. The Secretary is concerned with promoting American businesses and industries; the Department states its mission to be "to foster, promote, and develop the foreign and domestic commerce ''.
Until 1913 there was one Secretary of Commerce and Labor, uniting this department with the Department of Labor, which is now headed by a separate Secretary of Labor.
The current Commerce Secretary is Wilbur Ross, who was nominated by President Donald Trump and approved by the Senate on February 28, 2017.
No party (1) Democratic (20) Republican (18)
Source: Department of Commerce: Secretaries
As of February 2018, there are eleven living former Secretaries of Commerce, the oldest being Frederick B. Dent (served 1973 - 1975, born 1922). The most recent Secretary of Commerce to die was Juanita M. Kreps (served 1977 - 1979, born 1921), on July 5, 2010. The most recently serving Secretary to die was Ron Brown (1993 - 1996, born 1941), who died in office on April 3, 1996.
The line of succession for the Secretary of Commerce is as follows:
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