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why would an author include an image and caption in an informational text | Wikipedia: Manual of style / captions - Wikipedia
A caption, also known as a cutline, is text that appears below an image. Most captions draw attention to something in the image that is not obvious, such as its relevance to the text. Captions can consist of a few words of description, or several sentences. Writing good captions can be difficult, and the examples below may be helpful. Along with the title, the lead, and section headings, captions are the most commonly read words in an article, so they should be succinct and informative.
Not every Wikipedia image needs a caption; some images are simply decorative. Relatively few may be genuinely self - explanatory. In addition to a caption, alt text -- for visually impaired readers -- should be added to informative (but not purely decorative) images; see Wikipedia: Alternative text for images.
There are several criteria for a good caption. A good caption
Different people read articles in different ways. Some people start at the top and read each word until the end. Others read the first paragraph and scan through for other interesting information, looking especially at pictures and captions. Those readers, even if the information is adjacent in the text, will not find it unless it is in the caption. However, it is best not to tell the whole story in the caption, but use the caption to make the reader curious about the subject.
Another way of approaching the job: imagine you 're giving a lecture based on the encyclopedia article, and you are using the image to illustrate the lecture. What would you say while attention is on the image? What do you want your audience to notice in the image, and why? Corollary: if you have nothing to say about it, then the image probably does not belong in the article.
One of a caption 's primary purposes is to identify the subject of the picture. Make sure your caption does that, without leaving readers to wonder what the subject of the picture might be. Be as unambiguous as practical in identifying the subject. What the picture is is important, too. If the illustration is a painting, the painter 's Wikilinked name, the title, and a date give context. The present location may be added in parentheses: (Louvre). Sometimes the date of the image is important: there is a difference between "King Arthur '' and "King Arthur in a 19th - century watercolor ''.
Photographs and other graphics need not have captions if they are "self - captioning '' images (such as reproductions of album or book covers) or when they are unambiguous depictions of the subject of the article. In a biography article no caption is necessary for a portrait of the subject pictured alone; but one might be used to give the year, the subject 's age, or other circumstances of the portrait along with the name of the subject.
"Succinctness '' means using no superfluous or needless words. It is not the same as "brevity '', which means using a relatively small number of words. Succinct captions have more power than verbose ones. More than three lines of text in a caption may be distracting; instead, further information can be provided in the article body. And remember that readers wanting full detail can click through to the image description page.
Because non-visual media imparts no visual information regarding the content of its file, it is often desirable to include a longer description than is typically acceptable with image captions. As with image captions, care should be taken to include enough relevant information in - line so the media file 's relevance to the article is made explicit irrespective of the caption. As a general rule, retain broader points in the article body, including specific points in the media file 's description field. For example, the statement: "' Yesterday ' is one of the Beatles ' best - known songs '' might be more appropriate for the article body than the statement: "The string arrangement on ' Yesterday ' utilises counterpoint, which complements McCartney 's vocals by reinforcing the tonic '', which might be more appropriate as an ogg file description, especially if the text pertains to the contents of the media file or supports its fair - use rationale.
Technical images like charts and diagrams may have captions that are much longer than other images. Prose should still be succinct, but the significance of the image should be fully explained. Any elements not included in a legend or clearly labelled should be defined in the caption. A substantial, full discussion of a technical image may be confined to the caption if it improves the structure of the prose in the main article.
For maps and other images with a legend, the ((legend)) template can be used in the caption instead of (or in addition to) including the legend explaining the color used in the image. This makes the legend more readable, and allows for easy translation into other languages.
A good caption explains why a picture belongs in an article. "The 1965 Ford Mustang introduced the whiz - bang super-speeder '' tells us why it is worth the trouble to show a photo of a 1965 Ford Mustang rather than just any year of that model car. Links to relevant sections within the article may help draw the reader in (see here for how to do this).
A picture captures only one moment in time. What happened before and after? What happened outside the frame? For The Last Supper, "Jesus dines with his disciples '' tells something, but add "on the eve of his crucifixion '' and it tells much more about the significance. Add "With this meal, Jesus established the tradition of Holy Communion '' to get more context if you do not cover that in the article. In such a caption the name of the painter and date provide information on the cultural point of view of the particular representation.
The caption should lead the reader into the article. For example, in History of the Peerage, a caption for Image: William I of England. jpg might say "William of Normandy overthrew the Anglo - Saxon monarchs, bringing a new style of government. '' Then the reader gets curious about that new form of government and reads text to learn what it is.
Captions of images in infoboxes and other special situations call for special consideration.
An infobox image and, in the absence of an infobox, a photograph or other image in the article 's lead section, serves to illustrate the topic of the article, as such, the caption should work singularly towards that purpose. Depending on the nature of the subject and the image used, the ideal caption can range from none at all to a regular full - sentence caption. The following examples serve to describe the range of situations for particular infobox images:
Additional descriptive information about the image should be contained in the image description on the image 's page.
Several types of images warrant special treatment:
Here are some details people might want to know about the picture (all are linkable):
Keep in mind that not all of this information needs to be included in the caption, since the image description page should offer more complete information about the picture. If it does not, it may be possible to add it there from reliable sources such as the website of the museum that owns the image.
A caption should never simply link to the article in which it appears, though it may link to a specific section of the article.
Unless relevant to the subject, do not credit the image author or copyright holder in the article. It is assumed that this is not necessary to fulfill attribution requirements of the GFDL or Creative Commons licenses as long as the appropriate credit is on the image description page. If the artist or photographer is independently notable, though, then a wikilink to the artist 's biography may be appropriate, but image credits in the infobox image are discouraged, even if the artist is notable, since the infobox should only contain key facts of the article 's subject, per MOS: INFOBOX.
For the explication of larger blocks of special - layout content presentation, introductory text is usually a better approach; captions are not very effective unless visible on - screen with the content to which they pertain. Many templates have a parameter for generating a descriptive header. Tables have not only headers but also a caption feature that puts a descriptive caption above the table; this is more useful for most presentations of tabular data.
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in which year first census was conducted in india | Census of India - wikipedia
The decennial Census of India has been conducted 15 times, As of 2011. While it has been conducted every 10 years, beginning in 1872, the first complete census was taken in the year 1881. Post 1949, it has been conducted by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. All the census since 1951 are conducted under 1948 Census of India Act. The last census was held in 2011 and next census will be held in 2021.
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what is the song mack the knife about | Mack the Knife - wikipedia
"Mack the Knife '' or "The Ballad of Mack the Knife '', originally "Die Moritat von Mackie Messer '', is a song composed by Kurt Weill with lyrics by Bertolt Brecht for their music drama Die Dreigroschenoper, or, as it is known in English, The Threepenny Opera. It premiered in Berlin in 1928 at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm. The song has become a popular standard recorded by many artists, including a US and UK number one hit for Bobby Darin in 1959.
A moritat is a medieval version of the murder ballad performed by strolling minstrels. In The Threepenny Opera, the moritat singer with his street organ introduces and closes the drama with the tale of the deadly Mackie Messer, or Mack the Knife, a character based on the dashing highwayman Macheath in John Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera (who was in turn based on the historical thief Jack Sheppard). The Brecht - Weill version of the character was far more cruel and sinister, and has been transformed into a modern anti-hero.
The play opens with the moritat singer comparing Macheath (unfavorably) with a shark, and then telling tales of his robberies, murders, rapes, and arson.
The song was a last - minute addition, inserted just before its premiere in 1928, because Harald Paulsen, the actor who played Macheath, demanded that Brecht and Weill add another number that would more effectively introduce his character. However, Weill and Brecht decided the song should not be sung by Macheath himself, opting instead to write the song for a street singer in keeping with the moritat tradition. At the premiere, the song was sung by Kurt Gerron, who played Police Chief Brown. Weill also intended the Moritat to be accompanied by a barrel organ, which was to be played by the singer. At the premiere, though, the barrel organ failed, and the pit orchestra (a jazz band) had to quickly provide the accompaniment for the street singer.
Und der Haifisch, der hat Zähne, Und die trägt er im Gesicht. Und Macheath, der hat ein Messer, Doch das Messer sieht man nicht.
And the shark, it has teeth, And it wears them in the face. And Macheath, he has a knife, But the knife ca n't be seen.
The song was translated into French as "La complainte de Mackie '' by André Mauprey and Ninon Steinhoff and popularized by Catherine Sauvage.
The song was first introduced to American audiences in 1933 in the first English - language production of The Threepenny Opera. The English lyrics were by Gifford Cochran and Jerrold Krimsky. That production, however, was not successful, closing after a run of only ten days. In the best known English translation, from the Marc Blitzstein 1954 version of The Threepenny Opera, which played Off - Broadway for over six years, the words are:
Oh, the shark has pretty teeth, dear, And he shows them pearly white Just a jack - knife has Macheath, dear And he keeps it out of sight.
Blitzstein 's translation provides the basis for most of the popular versions we know today, including those by Louis Armstrong (1956) and Bobby Darin (1959; Darin 's lyrics differ slightly), and most subsequent swing versions. Weill 's widow, Lotte Lenya, the star of both the original 1928 German production and the 1954 Blitzstein Broadway version, was present in the studio during Armstrong 's recording. He spontaneously added her name to the lyrics ("Look out, Miss Lotte Lenya ''), which already named several of Macheath 's female victims. The Armstrong version was later used by Bobby Darin.
The rarely heard final verse -- not included in the original play, but added by Brecht for the 1931 movie -- expresses the theme and compares the glittering world of the rich and powerful with the dark world of the poor:
Denn die einen sind im Dunkeln Und die andern sind im Licht Und man siehet die im Lichte Die im Dunkeln sieht man nicht.
There are some who are in darkness And the others are in light And you see the ones in brightness Those in darkness drop from sight.
In 1976, a brand new interpretation of "Mack The Knife '' by Ralph Manheim and John Willett opened on Broadway, later made into a movie version starring Raúl Juliá as "Mackie ''. This version, simply known as "Moritat '', is an extension of the story with completely new lyrics that expound upon the tales of Macheath 's trail of activity. Here is an excerpt:
See the shark with teeth like razors All can read his open face And Macheath has got a knife, but Not in such an obvious place.
This version was performed by Lyle Lovett on the soundtrack of the 1994 film Quiz Show. Darin 's and Lovett 's versions play over the opening and closing credits, respectively. This interpretation was later also recorded by Sting and Nick Cave in the later part of the 1990s.
A much darker translation by Robert David MacDonald and Jeremy Sams into English was used for the 1994 Donmar Warehouse theatrical production in London. The new translation attempted to recapture the original tone of the song:
Though the shark 's teeth may be lethal Still you see them white and red But you wo n't see Mackie 's flick knife Cause he slashed you and you 're dead.
"Mack the Knife '' was introduced to the United States hit parade by Louis Armstrong in 1956, but the song is most closely associated with Bobby Darin, who recorded his version at Fulton Studios on West 40th Street, New York City, on December 19, 1958 (with Tom Dowd engineering the recording). Even though Darin was reluctant to release the song as a single, in 1959 it reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and number six on the Black Singles chart, and earned him a Grammy Award for Record of the Year. Dick Clark had advised Darin not to record the song because of the perception that, having come from an opera, it would not appeal to the rock & roll audience. In subsequent years, Clark recounted the story with good humor. Frank Sinatra, who recorded the song with Quincy Jones on his L.A. Is My Lady album, called Darin 's the "definitive '' version. Billboard ranked this version as the No. 2 song for 1959. Darin 's version was No. 3 on Billboard 's All Time Top 100. In 2003, the Darin version was ranked # 251 on Rolling Stone 's "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' list. On BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs, pop mogul Simon Cowell named "Mack the Knife '' the best song ever written. Darin 's version of the song was featured in the movie What Women Want. Both Armstrong and Darin 's versions were inducted by the Library of Congress in the National Recording Registry in 2016.
Brecht 's original German language version was appropriated for a series of humorous and surreal blackout skits by television pioneer Ernie Kovacs, showing, between skits, the soundtrack displayed on an oscilloscope.
Ella Fitzgerald made a famous live recording in 1960 (released on Ella in Berlin: Mack the Knife) in which, after forgetting the lyrics after the first verse, she improvised new lyrics in a performance that earned her a Grammy Award. Robbie Williams also recorded the song on his 2001 album Swing When You 're Winning, and performed it as the first song after the arrival of the Queen during the Diamond Jubilee Concert in 2012, referencing Princesses Beatrice and Eugenie.
Other notable versions include performances by Dave Van Ronk, Jimmie Dale Gilmore, Tony Bennett, Marianne Faithfull, Nick Cave, Brian Setzer, Kevin Spacey, Westlife, and Michael Bublé. Swiss band The Young Gods radically reworked the song in industrial style, while jazz legend Sonny Rollins recorded an instrumental version entitled simply "Moritat '' in 1956. A 1959 instrumental performance by Bill Haley & His Comets was the final song the group recorded for Decca Records. Deana Martin recorded "Mack The Knife '' on her second studio album, Volare, released in 2009 by Big Fish Records.
Tito Puente also recorded an instrumental version. Salsa musician Rubén Blades recorded an homage entitled "Pedro Navaja ''. Brazilian composer Chico Buarque, in his loose adaptation of Threepenny Opera (Ópera do Malandro), made two versions called "O Malandro '' and "O Malandro No. 2 '', with lyrics in Portuguese. Liberace regularly performed a variant in which he played the song successively in five styles: as originally written, in the style of a Johann Strauss waltz, as a music box, in a bossa nova rhythm, and in what Liberace considered a popular American style.
The chorus to the song "Haifisch '' ("Shark '') by Rammstein is inspired by "Mack the Knife ''.
The song has been parodied numerous times. Steve Martin parodied "Mack the Knife '' in his opening monologue to the premiere of Saturday Night Live 's third season in 1977. In the mid-1980s, McDonald 's introduced Mac Tonight, a character whose signature song was based on "Mack the Knife ''. There was a skit on The Muppet Show, where the characters play upon the sinister nature of the lyrics. American political parodists the Capitol Steps used the tune for their song "Pack the Knife '' on their 2002 album When Bush Comes to Shove.
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what are the names of all the meerkats | Compare the meerkat - wikipedia
Compare the Meerkat is an advertising campaign on British and Australian commercial television for comparethemarket.com, a price comparison website, part of BGL Group. The adverts feature Aleksandr Orlov, a CGI fictional anthropomorphic Russian meerkat and his family and friends. Orlov is portrayed as being of aristocratic stock and the founder of comparethemeerkat.com: the campaign centres on his frustration over the confusion between his website and comparethemarket.com, playing on the similarity between the words market and meerkat. Orlov 's catchphrase is "Simples ''. Aleksandr Orlov was an alias of Lev Lazarevich Nikolsky, the acting NKVD (Soviet security & intelligence organisation) chief in Madrid in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War.
The campaign, launched on 5 January 2009, was created by advertising agency, VCCP and production company Passion Pictures. The adverts proved popular and became a commercial success for comparethemarket.com, which became the fourth most visited insurance website in the UK as a result. A book featuring Orlov was published in 2010, and other merchandise has been created in tandem with the ongoing campaign.
The campaign, designed by ad - agency VCCP, was launched on 5 January 2009, involving a TV spot, companion website and social media links. The advert featured Aleksandr Orlov, a CGI animated fictional anthropomorphic Russian meerkat, who complains at the confusion between his site, comparethemeerkat.com, and comparethemarket.com. The character explains that he has launched a TV advertising campaign to make visitors aware of the difference. The companion website, comparethemeerkat.com, was created alongside the TV advert and in 2010 was receiving more than 2 million hits per month.
The TV spots, and the characters, were directed by Darren Walsh at Passion Pictures. Walsh has directed all of the meerkat television and cinema commercials to date, and has won several awards for the work. In the adverts, Orlov is voiced by Simon Greenall.
On 12 November 2012, Compare the Market began sponsoring the ITV1 's long - running soap opera Coronation Street as part of a three - year deal with producers of the series.
The campaign was launched in Australia on 1 February 2013.
On 3 April 2015, comparethemarket.com launched Meerkat Movies, offering customers two - for - one cinema tickets. They partnered with films such as Terminator Genisys and Ant - Man. The advertisements featured the movie trailer, sometimes an interview between Orlov and the cast, and a comment that the movie tickets are two - for - one with Meerkat Movies.
On 3 July 2018 the newly renamed comparethemarket (formerly comparethemarket.com) revealed Meerkat Meals which offers customers two - for - one meals at restaurants around the UK. Restaurants can sign up via Tastecard. The service launched on 16 July 2018 and is granted for free to customers which have purchased a qualifying product less than one year ago and new customers.
The adverts are fronted by Aleksandr Orlov, a meerkat. According to an interview with the character 's designer and director, Darren Walsh at Passion Pictures, Orlov became a billionaire in the 1970s. He is described as living in Moscow, while owning a large mansion in South London, and spends his time on vanity projects such as his website, numerous self - portraits, petitions and film production.
The campaign has also featured secondary characters from amongst Orlov 's friends, family and employees. Most notably Sergei, Orlov 's IT technician, tea - maker and sidekick, who has also featured in his own adverts. Before working for Aleksandr, he used to be head of the principal design group for the Soviet space programme during the 1980s. He designed the Meer (kat) Space Station, and now works with Orlov and ' Compare the Meerkat '. Sergei is first seen in the ad "Sergei '', and later guests in "Jacuzzi '', "Art Class '' and all three of the ' Orlov Family Trilogy ' advertisements. Sergei had been frequently mentioned on Orlov 's Twitter and Facebook accounts, one time was prior to being included in an advert, and Aleksandr even started a petition to add the word ' Simples ' to the dictionary because Sergei did n't approve of the word in a game of Scrabble. Sergei has also starred in his own adverts without Orlov.
The 2011 campaign focused on a fictional Russian village named Meerkovo. The adverts featured new characters complaining about the danger caused to the town by confusion over Comparethemeerkat.com and Comparethemarket.com. The new characters were Maiya, Yakov, Vassily and Bogdan. A companion website was set up for the campaign containing a map of the town.
Oleg is a baby meerkat who first appeared in an advert broadcast on 25 December 2013, where Sergei and Aleksandr find him on their doorstep and take him in. On 25 December 2014, whilst on a trip to Africa with Aleksandr and Sergei, Oleg decides to stay there after befriending the meerkats there.
Ayana is another young meerkat, appearing on a Frozen themed advert in late 2016, whom Oleg appears to have made friends with in Africa. The advert also sees Oleg himself reappear after almost two years. Ayana speaks in an English accent.
The April 2015 campaign sees the launch of Meerkat Movies. After suffering from empty nest syndrome, Aleksandr and Sergei travel to Hollywood for a holiday, and whilst on a set tour Aleksandr realises that the best way to reward customers is with cinema tickets. In October 2015, an advert was shown were Sergei goes on a date to a cinema with Nicole Kidman.
Since the launch of Meerkat Movies, only Aleksandr and Sergei regularly appear in the main television advertisements, though the Meerkovo characters continue to feature in the Coronation Street sponsorship bumpers.
Following the campaign, comparethemarket.com was ranked as the 4th most visited insurance website in the UK, up from 16th in January 2008 and the site 's overall sales doubled. By 2010 the site had increased its market share by 76 %, where competitors ' share had fallen by up to 30 % over the same period. As of August 2009, Aleksandr had more than 700,000 Facebook fans and 22,000 followers on Twitter, while on photo - sharing site Flickr there is a popular gallery of Aleksandr 's family. According to entrepreneur David Soskin, the wordplay of "meerkat '' vs. "market '' overcomes the high cost of the latter keyword in sponsored search engine listings.
The character remains extremely popular and a record company has expressed an interest in releasing a single featuring Aleksandr.
In 2014 Aleksandr and Sergei featured on the Neighbourhood Watch logo to mark the charity 's 50th anniversary.
On 11 August 2009, an opinion piece in The Guardian newspaper accused the advert series of racism for mocking Eastern European accents. However, the Advertising Standards Authority, following a complaint by the author of the article, stated that it had not received any similar complaints, and ultimately decided to take no action.
Orlov 's "autobiography '' was released on 28 October 2010, entitled A Simples Life: The Life and Times of Aleksandr Orlov. The book generated more pre-orders than that of other books released at the same time including Tony Blair 's memoirs and more than double the pre-orders of Cheryl Cole 's, David Jason 's, Russell Brand 's, Jon Snow 's, Melanie Chisholm 's and Dannii Minogue 's autobiographies. The book was published by Ebury Publishing and the autobiography reached No. 2 on the Amazon UK website on its first week of sale in October 2010.
The Australian website hosts downloads such as wallpapers, ringtones, text alerts, voicemail messages and some commercial videos. There is also an iPhone application containing background information, a database of English phrases in "meerkat '' pronunciation (created from audio clips from the TV adverts), a mongoose "detector '', and some videos. The British site previously had these features, however it no longer has them and the app is no longer available, however there is a ' Meerkat Movies ' app to redeem your voucher code.
From 1 July 2011, a cuddly toy representing one of the characters has been given away with each policy sold via the website.
So popular are these toys, that the marketing campaign involving them has doubled the company owner 's personal fortune.
In December 2013 a baby meerkat called Oleg was introduced and subsequently released a toy. In December 2014 Oleg was removed from adverts, but despite this the toy is currently still available.
In addition to the seven main characters, there have been limited releases of the school teacher Maiya in a spy outfit, and baby Oleg in a safari outfit.
To mark the launch of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice two new meerkat toys were released featuring Sergei in a Superman outfit and Aleksandr in a Batman outfit.
In December 2016 two more toys were released as limited editions featuring Oleg as Olaf and a new character Ayana as Elsa from Disney 's Frozen.
To celebrate the 40th anniversary of Star Wars in April 2017, another two new meerkat toys were released featuring Aleksandr in a Luke Skywalker outfit and Sergei in an Obi - Wan Kenobi outfit.
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when was something told the wild geese written | Rachel Field - wikipedia
Rachel Lyman Field (1894 -- 1942) was an American novelist, poet, and children 's fiction writer. She is best known for the Newbery Award - winning Hitty, Her First Hundred Years. Field also won a National Book Award, Newbery Honor award and two of her books are on the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award list.
Field was a descendant of David Dudley Field, the early New England clergyman and writer. She grew up in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Her first published work was an essay entitled "A Winter Walk '' printed in St. Nicholas Magazine when she was 16. She was educated at Radcliffe College where she studied writing under George Pierce Baker.
According to Ruth Hill Viguers, Field was "fifteen when she first visited Maine and fell under the spell of its ' island - scattered coast '. Calico Bush (1931) still stands out as a near - perfect re-creation of people and place in a story of courage, understated and beautiful. ''
Field married Arthur S. Pederson in 1935, with whom she collaborated in 1937 on To See Ourselves. In 1938 one of her plays was adapted for the British film The Londonderry Air. She was also successful as an author of adult fiction, writing the bestsellers Time Out of Mind (1935), All This and Heaven Too (1938), and And Now Tomorrow (1942). They were adapted as films produced under their own titles in 1947, 1940, and 1944 respectively. Field also wrote the English lyrics for that version of Franz Schubert 's "Ave Maria '' used in the Disney film Fantasia.
Field is famous, too, for her poem - turned - song "Something Told the Wild Geese ''. She also wrote a story about the nativity of Jesus, "All Through the Night ''.
She moved to Hollywood, where she lived with her husband and daughter.
Rachel Field died at the Good Samaritan Hospital on March 15, 1942, of pneumonia following an operation.
Hitty, Her First Hundred Years received the Newbery Award in 1930, for the year 's "most distinguished contribution to American literature for children. ''
The 1944 (posthumous) Prayer for a Child, with a story by Field and illustrations by Elizabeth Orton Jones, won the Caldecott Medal recognizing the year 's "most distinguished picture book for children '' published in the U.S.
Hitty and Prayer for a Child were both named to the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award list of books deemed to belong "on the same bookshelf '' with Carroll 's Alice. Prayer for a Child was one of the seventeen inaugural selections in 1958, which were originally published 1893 to 1957. Hitty was added in 1961.
Time Out of Mind won one of the inaugural National Book Awards as the Most Distinguished Novel of 1935, voted by the American Booksellers Association.
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do you have to pay for the dartford bridge | Dartford crossing - wikipedia
The Dartford - Thurrock River Crossing, commonly known as the Dartford Crossing and until 1991 the Dartford Tunnel, is a major road crossing of the River Thames in England, carrying the A282 road between Dartford in Kent to the south with Thurrock in Essex to the north. It consists of two bored tunnels and the cable - stayed Queen Elizabeth II Bridge. The only fixed road crossing of the Thames east of Greater London, it is the busiest estuarial crossing in the United Kingdom, with an average daily use of over 130,000 vehicles. It opened in stages: the west tunnel in 1963, the east tunnel in 1980 and the bridge in 1991. The crossing, although not officially designated a motorway, is considered part of the M25 motorway 's route, using the tunnels northbound and bridge southbound. Described as one of the most important road crossings in Britain, it suffers from heavy traffic and congestion.
The crossing 's development started in the late 1930s, but was interrupted due to the Second World War and resumed in the 1950s. The original tunnel catered for a single lane of traffic in each direction, but rising traffic levels required the second tunnel to be built. The M25 connected to the tunnels at both ends when completed in 1986, and this increased traffic put pressure on the tunnels ' capacity. A Private Finance Initiative scheme was started in 1988 to build the bridge. The combined crossing now handles four lanes of traffic in each direction.
The crossing had always been tolled, and from 1 April 2003 this became a charge, though since 2008 it has been free from 10 pm to 6 am. An automatic number plate recognition charging scheme (Dart Charge) began in November 2014. As a result, the charge can no longer be paid in cash and the old toll booths have been removed. A residents ' scheme is available, offering further discounts for people living near the crossing.
The crossing spans the River Thames between Dartford, Kent, to the south and Thurrock, Essex, to the north. It is about 20 miles (32 km) east of the centre of London, outside the Greater London boundary. The two tunnels are 1,430 metres (4,690 ft) long, while the cable - stayed bridge is 137 metres (449 ft) high with a main span of 450 metres (1,480 ft). A 50 miles per hour (80 km / h) speed limit is in place in both directions. The high - speed rail line High Speed 1 from St Pancras International Station to Ebbsfleet International Station passes under the crossing approach roads on the north side of the river, at a near right angle.
The design capacity is 135,000 vehicles per day, but in practice the crossing carries around 160,000. It has been described by the Highways Agency as "a vital transport link for the national and South East economies '', by the former Secretary of State for Transport, Patrick McLoughlin, as "a crucial part of the country 's strategic road network '', and by the local Thurrock Council as "one of Europe 's most heavily used crossings and complex traffic management systems ''. It is signed as a major destination on London 's orbital route, the M25, though the crossing and its approach road are an all - purpose road (the A282), allowing traffic prohibited from motorways to use it. Southbound traffic crosses the four - lane bridge, while northbound traffic uses both of the two - lane road tunnels. The bridge can be closed due to high winds or maintenance. On these occasions, traffic uses the tunnels in both directions.
The next nearest vehicle crossings to the west of Dartford are the Woolwich Ferry and the Blackwall Tunnel, both well within East London. There is no official diversion route through London for high vehicles. When the bridge is closed, vehicles over 5.03 metres (16.5 ft) are diverted around the M25 in the opposite direction.
A number of new crossings have been proposed as relief for the Dartford Crossing. The proposed Thames Gateway Bridge to the west was given planning permission by Transport for London (TfL) in December 2004, but was cancelled in November 2008 when Boris Johnson became Mayor of London. Johnson subsequently proposed the Gallions Reach Ferry, a ferry crossing in the same location, as an alternative. The Lower Thames Crossing is a proposed tunnel to the east between Shorne, Kent and South Ockendon, Essex. Thurrock Council suggest that this crossing will be essential for managing congestion. A public consultation on the scheme ended in March 2016, with the route announced in April 2017, though Highways England do not expect to start construction before 2026.
A free - flow electronic charging system called Dart Charge began in November 2014 based on automatic number plate recognition. The charge can be paid online or phone in advance or by midnight the day after crossing, but can no longer be paid in cash at the site since the old toll booths have been removed. However, cash payments are accepted at some Payzone shops. Reminder signs on approaches to the crossing say "Dart charge; find us online. Pay by midnight tomorrow. '' Charges run between 6 am and 10 pm and this is indicated on overhead - gantry signs. The charges for the crossing as of November 2014 are as follows:
Various categories of vehicles are exempt from the charge, including emergency services vehicles, military vehicles and those exempt from Vehicle Excise Duty on the grounds of disability.
The charges vary according to the type of vehicle. Motorcycles are free but there are standard charges for cars, two - axle goods vehicles and larger vehicles with more than two axles. Drivers who fail to pay the charge are issued with a penalty charge notice. There are no signs warning of penalty charges.
Since 2008, a local residents ' scheme gives 50 free crossings to car drivers resident in the Dartford and Thurrock council areas for an annual registration fee of £ 10, with additional crossings at 20p each. On 1 March 2014, this scheme was extended to include privately owned two - axle goods vehicles. A further option was introduced giving unlimited free crossings for £ 20 annually. Around 44,000 drivers take advantage of this scheme each year.
The idea of a tunnel crossing was first proposed by the Ministry of Transport in 1924. Initial reports at the start of the year suggested a crossing between Tilbury and Gravesend, replacing a ferry service, but this had been rejected by July in favour of a route further upstream, near Dartford. By 1929, the total cost of building the tunnel had been estimated at £ 3 million (£ 884 million as of 2016). The tunnel was planned to be part of a general orbital route around London and was provisionally known as part of the "South Orbital Road ''.
The first engineering work to take place was a compressed air driven pilot tunnel, which was drilled between 1936 and 1938. Work on the tunnel was delayed due to World War II, and resumed in 1959, using a Greathead Shield, similar to the work on the Blackwall Tunnel some 60 years earlier. The delay in work due to the war allowed the tunnel 's design to be improved, which included a better ventilation system. After negotiations with the Ministry of Transport, Kent and Essex County Councils obtained government approval to charge tolls in 1960, before opening. The two - lane bore tunnel opened to traffic on 18 November 1963; the total project cost was £ 13 million (£ 660 million as of 2016) and it initially served approximately 12,000 vehicles per day.
The toll was originally two shillings and sixpence, equivalent to 12.5 p post-decimalisation, and approximately equivalent in purchasing power to £ 2.00 in 2015. The Dartford Tunnel Act 1967 gave Kent and Essex County Councils authority to change the tolls, and in December 1977, the toll was raised from 25p to 35p for cars, 40p to 55p for 2 axle goods vehicles, and 60p to 85p for HGVs. By 1984, the toll for cars had risen to 60p.
The first tunnel was expected to carry two million vehicles a year but by 1970 was carrying over eight million. That year, Michael Heseltine, then a junior transport minister, announced that a second tunnel would be built in conjunction with the North Orbital Road, later to become the M25.
Construction was approved in April 1971, with an initial expected opening date in 1976. Work was delayed due to a lack of funds, which was resolved by EEC funding granted in 1974. The second tunnel opened in May 1980, allowing each tunnel to handle one direction of traffic, by which time the joint capacity of the two tunnels had increased to 65,000 vehicles per day. Connection of the crossing to the M25 was completed on the northerly Essex side in September 1982 (Junction 31), and to the southerly Kent side in September 1986 (Junction 1a). Following the completion of the M25 in 1986, the daily demand had grown to 79,000 vehicles.
During the early 1980s, it was anticipated that traffic through the tunnel would rise on the completion of the M25 in 1986. At the time, the expectation was that other routes in London would be improved instead, diverting 15 % of traffic away from the tunnel. In 1985, the Transport Minister, Lynda Chalker, announced that the number of toll booths would be increased to 12 each way, but concern grew that two tunnels would not be able to cope with the full demands of a completed M25.
Between September 1985 and December 1986, proposals for improvements to the Dartford Crossing underwent several changes, and in 1986, a Trafalgar House consortium won a bid to build a new bridge at Dartford crossing, valued at £ 86 million (£ 325 million as of 2016). At the time there were several other privately financed projects planned or under construction in the UK, including the Second Severn Crossing. From 1981 until the establishment of the Private Finance Initiatives (PFIs) in the late 1980s, private investment projects were governed by the Ryrie Rules which dictated that "any privately - financed solution must be shown to be more cost - effective than a publicly - financed alternative, and that privately - financed expenditure by nationalised industries could not be additional to public expenditure provision, which would be reduced by the amount of private financed borrowed. ''
On 31 July 1988, a Private Finance Initiative concession was enabled under the Dartford - Thurrock Crossing Act 1988, which transferred control of the crossing from Kent and Essex county councils to Dartford River Crossing Limited, a private company managed by Rodney Jones. The company would also bear the debt of the bridge, then under construction, "financed 100 % by debt, with no equity contribution ''. The private company was at risk of not recuperating their costs, but ultimately the Dartford scheme demonstrated that the Ryrie Rules were no longer a barrier to the private financing of public infrastructure projects. The concession was scheduled for 20 years from the transfer date, with a stipulation that it could end when debts had been paid off, which was agreed to have been achieved on 31 March 2002. According to the International Handbook on Public - Private Partnership, the chief financing for the project came from a "20 - year subordinated loan stock, 16 - year loan stock and £ 85 million (£ 259 million as of 2016) as a term loan from banks ''.
Construction of bridge started immediately after the creation of the PFI in 1988. It was designed by German civil engineer Hellmut Homberg (de), and the two main caissons supporting the bridge piers were constructed in the Netherlands. Each caisson was designed to withstand a bridge strike of a ship weighing up to 65,000 tonnes and travelling up to 18.5 kilometres per hour (11.5 mph) The bridge deck is about 61 metres (200 ft) high, and it took a team of around 56 to assemble its structure. During construction of the approach road, a World War II bomb was found in its path, which required closure of the entire crossing.
The bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 30 October 1991. The total cost of construction was £ 120 million (£ 307 million as of 2016), including £ 30 million (£ 73 million as of 2016) for the approach roads. The proposed name had been simply the Dartford Bridge, but Thurrock residents objected and suggested the Tilbury Bridge, leading to a compromise. At the time of opening, it had the longest cable - stayed span of any bridge in Europe. It is the only bridge across the Thames downstream of Central London to be opened since Tower Bridge in 1894.
In 2000, the European Union issued a directive that value - added tax should be charged on all road tolls, including the Dartford Crossing. The Government opposed the directive and said it would bear the additional cost. It was anticipated that the tolls would be removed on 1 April 2003 under the original PFI scheme contract. However, the Highways Agency decided that the tolls would become a "charge '', under legislation introduced by the Transport Act 2000 to introduce charging schemes on any trunk road bridge or tunnel at least 600 metres (2,000 ft) in length.
Under the 2000 Transport Act, the A282 Trunk Road (Dartford - Thurrock Crossing charging scheme) Order 2002 allowed the continuation of the crossing fee, which officially became a charge and not a toll on 1 April 2003. Management of the crossing was contracted to Le Crossing Company Limited on behalf of the Highways Agency. In September 2009 the Highways Agency made a new contract with Connect Plus (M25) Limited. As well as maintaining the crossing, the contract required the company to widen around 40 miles of the M25 and to refurbish a tunnel on the A1 (M) at Hatfield. In October 2009, the Government announced its intention to sell the crossing as part of a public sector deficit reduction strategy. The announcement was unpopular with local residents, who encouraged drivers to sound their horns in protest when using the crossing. After the change of government following the 2010 Election, the new prime minister David Cameron announced that the crossing might still be sold, despite local opposition, particularly from Gareth Johnson, member of parliament for Dartford. Subsequently, the chancellor George Osborne announced that charges would be increased instead to cover the budget deficit. Pre-pay accounts for the crossing were introduced around this time; drivers held an electronic device called a DART - Tag in the vehicle that automatically deducted the charge at payment booths. This was abolished when the Dart Charge was introduced in 2014.
Under the 2008 Charging Order introduced on 15 November 2008, charges between 10 pm and 6 am were discontinued, but standard daytime rates increased, starting at £ 1.50 for cars. On 7 October 2012 the charges increased to £ 2 for cars, £ 2.50 for 2 axle goods vehicles and £ 5 for multi-axle goods vehicles. By 2012, local businesses were complaining that the crossing 's charge booths were impeding local growth. The government announced that a new electronic charging system would be introduced in 2014. Drivers would be able to pay by phone, text, online or in shops. The charge was proposed to increase to £ 2.50 for cars, £ 3 for two - axle goods vehicles and £ 6 for multi-axle vehicles. A later report stated that drivers evading the charge could be fined as much as £ 105.
Preparation work on the free - flow scheme started in April 2014. Concerns were raised about reliability, with a Highways Agency report predicting that it could lose up to £ 6m of unpaid charges per year. In September, the Highways Agency announced that the new scheme would start to operate at the end of November, though related works to remove barriers would continue until April 2015. Subsequently, the date for removal of the booths was confirmed as 30 November.
The Dart Charge scheme was considered a success by the project management, who claimed it has reduced peak - time round trips over the crossing by 15 minutes. The Automobile Association said the scheme had faults, while a BBC report showed 1.8 million drivers had been fined for failure to pay in the year since the charge was set up.
A total of 1,486,929,267 vehicles have used the crossing as of 31 March 2014. The highest recorded daily usage was 181,990 vehicles on 23 July 2004; since then traffic levels have decreased. From April 2013 to March 2014, 49,645,356 vehicles used the crossing: a daily average of 136,015 vehicles. The total income for the financial year ended 31 March 2012 was £ 72,147,091, while the corresponding figure for the following financial year was £ 80,331,662. A 2016 report by Highways England suggested the crossing is used around 50 million times a year.
Bicycles are not permitted on the crossing, but cyclists can be carried across the crossing by the transport authority at no charge. Cyclists report to the crossing control offices on either side, using a free telephone service. The transfer takes around 15 to 30 minutes.
In October 1963, London Transport ordered five double decker buses based on the Ford Thames Trader chassis for special duties, taking cyclists through the Dartford Tunnel. These had a lower deck purpose - built for carrying bicycles, with upper deck seats for cyclists. Access was via a stairwell to the upper deck starting several feet above the level of the road, accessible from special platforms built at either end of the tunnel; there was also a ladder built into the side of the bodywork for access elsewhere. The design was criticised for failing to protect any passenger from falling off the vehicle, and running costs were estimated at £ 2,550 per month, with only £ 45 revenue. The service was reduced to one bus in April 1964 and then cancelled in 1965, to be replaced by the current transfer service. One of these buses has been preserved.
The transport of hazardous goods through the crossing is governed by the European ADR Agreement. The Dartford Crossing is class C, which restricts transporting goods such as nitrates and flammable liquids. The introduction of the ADR scheme initially caused confusion, and for a short time, transporting aerosols through the tunnel was banned. Certain hazardous goods vehicles, together with some oversize and abnormal loads (if permitted) may require escorting by Highways Agency Traffic Officers. The crossing authority must hold exercises in conjunction with the emergency services. In 2006 Exercise Orpheus was held, involving the closure of both road tunnels for five hours.
The tunnel is patrolled by Highways Agency Traffic Officers. Officers may stop and direct traffic on the crossing and its approach roads, and must be in uniform to exercise their powers. The crossing 's speed limit is enforced by speed cameras; between October 2012 and June 2014, 24,229 drivers were caught speeding, with some travelling as fast as 94 miles per hour (151 km / h) A spokesman from the Highways Agency said the cameras were "helping us improve safety and make journeys more reliable ''. The bridge also has a reduced speed limit of 30 miles per hour (48 km / h) when crosswind is faster than 50 miles per hour (80 km / h) or headwind faster than 60 miles per hour (97 km / h), and is closed entirely if Britain 's national weather service, the Met Office, predicts crosswind above 60 miles per hour (97 km / h) or headwind above 70 miles per hour (110 km / h).
The crossing is the busiest in the United Kingdom. Because the design capacity has been exceeded, the crossing is subject to major traffic congestion and disruption, particularly when parts are closed because of accidents or bad weather. Though the Government was adamant that the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge should be designed to avoid closure due to high winds, the bridge has nevertheless had to close on occasions. On 12 February 2014, during the winter storms, it was closed owing to 60 miles per hour (97 km / h) winds, and again on the evening of 13 -- 14 February.
At busy times there was significant delay at the payment booths when these existed. There are numerous junctions on either side of the crossing, and because it is not under motorway restrictions, a high proportion of local traffic mixes with long distance traffic, for example travelling from the North and Midlands onwards to Continental Europe. In 2004, a BBC survey reported that the crossing was "the most stressful section of the M25 '' while in 2009, the crossing was listed in a Royal Automobile Club report as the fourth most congested road in Britain. Though Highways England have reported greatly improved journey times since automatic charging was introduced, Gareth Johnson MP claims otherwise and has insisted that the Lower Thames Crossing, along with improved signing around Dartford, are better options to reduce congestion. In 2015, he said the crossing was Britain 's worst stretch of motorway.
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when was the last time ohio state beat usc in college football | Ohio State Buckeyes football - wikipedia
The Ohio State Buckeyes football team is a college football team that competes as part of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision, representing Ohio State University in the East Division of the Big Ten Conference. Ohio State has played their home games at Ohio Stadium in Columbus, Ohio since 1922.
The Buckeyes are recognized by the university and NCAA as having won eight national championships along with 38 conference championships (including 36 Big Ten titles), six division championships, 10 undefeated seasons, and six perfect seasons of having no losses or ties.
The first Ohio State game was a 20 - 14 victory over Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware, Ohio, on May 3, 1890. The team was a football independent from 1890 to 1901 before joining the Ohio Athletic Conference (OAC) as a charter member in 1902. The Buckeyes won two conference championships while members of the OAC and in 1912 became members of the Big Ten Conference.
Ohio State won their first national championship in 1942 under head coach Paul Brown.
Following World War II, Ohio State saw sparse success on the football field with three separate coaches and in 1951 hired Woody Hayes to coach the team. Under Hayes, Ohio State won over 200 total games, 13 Big Ten championships and five national championships (1954, 1957, 1961, 1968 and 1970), and had four Rose Bowl wins in eight appearances. Following Hayes ' dismissal in 1978, Earle Bruce and later John Cooper coached the team to a combined seven conference championships between them.
Jim Tressel was hired as head coach in 2001 and led Ohio State to its seventh national championship in 2002 with a win in the Fiesta Bowl. Ohio State won seven Big Ten championships under Tressel and appeared in eight Bowl Championship Series (BCS) games, winning five of them.
On November 28, 2011, two - time National Championship winning coach and Ohio native Urban Meyer became head coach. Meyer led his team to five division championships in his first five seasons as well as a school record 24 straight victories, beginning with a perfect 12 -- 0 in 2012. He led OSU to both the Big Ten and the first College Football Playoff National Championship of its kind in the 2014 season, giving Meyer his third national title overall and first at OSU. OSU won the second Big Ten title in the Meyer era in 2017.
As of 2017, the football program is valued at $1.5 billion, the highest valuation of any such program in the country.
After early attempts at forming a team in 1886 (led by future Nebraska governor Chester Hardy Aldrich) and 1887, football was ultimately established at the university in 1890. On the site of the first OSU game, on the campus of Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware, Ohio, on May 3, 1890, the Delaware County Historical Society has set an historical marker.
Some histories of Ohio State football credit George Cole, an undergraduate, and Alexander S. Lilley with introducing the sport to the campus. More recent research has challenged that claim, stating that George Cole persuaded Lilley to coach the football team during its first full season that fall.
OSU 's first home game took place at 2: 30 p.m. on November 1, 1890. The Ohio State University played the University of Wooster on this site, which was then called Recreation Park. Just east of historic German Village, the park occupied the north side of Schiller (now Whittier) between Ebner and Jaeger in what is now Schumacher Place. The weather was perfect, and the crowd cheered loudly. Nonetheless, OSU lost to Wooster, 64 -- 0. Wooster, physically fit for the game, showed OSU that training is critical to winning. Thus, the tradition of training continues.
Over the next eight years, under a number of coaches, the team played to a cumulative record of 31 wins, 39 losses, and 2 ties. The first game against the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor, was a 34 -- 0 loss in 1897, a year that saw the low point in Buckeye football history with a 1 -- 7 -- 1 record. Jack Ryder was Ohio State 's first paid coach, earning $150 per season, and lost his first game, against Oberlin College and John Heisman, on October 15, 1892.
In 1899 the university hired John Eckstorm to bring professional coaching skills to the program and immediately went undefeated. In 1901, however, center John Segrist was fatally injured in a game against Western Reserve University and the continuation of football at Ohio State was in serious question. Although the school 's athletic board let the team decide its future, Eckstorm resigned. In 1912 football underwent a number of developments that included joining the Western Conference, making football as part of a new Department of Athletics, and hiring Lynn W. St. John to be athletic director.
Chic Harley attended East High in Columbus and was one of the greatest players to attend an Ohio high school. He passed, ran, received, punted, kicked and played defense. Harley came to Ohio State in 1916 and Columbus fans instantly fell in love with the Chic. Harley and the Buckeyes won the very first Big Ten championship in school history in 1916 when the Buckeyes finished 7 -- 0. He would repeat in 1917 finishing 8 -- 0 -- 1, giving the Buckeyes a second outright title. In 1918, he left to be a pilot in the air force for World War I. With Harley 's return in 1919, the Buckeyes would only lose one game -- to Illinois. Chic Harley left OSU with a career record of 22 -- 1 -- 1. At the time, OSU played at the small Ohio Field and Harley brought such record crowds it became necessary to open Ohio Stadium in 1922. The stadium was built entirely on fan donations and several stadium drives around the city where Harley would often appear. In 1951, when the College Football Hall of Fame opened, Harley was inducted as an inaugural member.
Ohio State 's very first rival was Kenyon College, a small liberal arts college in Gambier, roughly 50 miles to the northeast. The Buckeyes first played them in their first season in 1890 on Nov 27, Kenyon won the first two meetings; however, Ohio State won 15 in a row and the rivalry diminished. Kenyon made it their season goal to defeat OSU. After the Bucks joined the Big Ten they stopped playing Kenyon. The all - time record stands at 18 -- 6, OSU.
In hiring Francis Schmidt in March 1934 to coach its football team, Ohio State moved its program to a "big - time '' level of competition. Schmidt was a well - established coach and an acknowledged offensive innovator. His offensive schemes were a "wide - open '' style called "razzle - dazzle '' and led him to be the first Buckeye football coach granted a multi-year contract. Schmidt 's first four seasons saw victories over archrival Michigan, all by shut - out. The 1935 squad went 7 -- 1, its sole loss was to Notre Dame, 18 -- 13, in the first contest between the programs. However Schmidt 's remaining seasons were less successful, except in 1939 when the Buckeyes won the Big Ten championship, and his popularity faded for a number of reasons. On December 17, 1940, he resigned.
Ohio State hired the coach of Massillon Washington High School football team, Paul Brown, to succeed Schmidt. Brown 's Tigers had just won their sixth straight state championship. Brown immediately changed Ohio State 's style of offense, planned and organized his program in great detail, and delegated to his assistant coaches using highly structured practices. In 1942, Ohio State lost 22 veteran players to military service as the United States joined World War II, and with a team of mostly sophomores went on to lose only once in winning its first national championship.
Brown accepted a commission in the United States Navy in 1944 and directed his assistant Carroll Widdoes to head the team in his absence. The 1944 team fielded 31 freshmen but went undefeated and untied, including a victory over Paul Brown 's Great Lakes Navy team. Ohio State finished second in the national rankings behind Army and Les Horvath became the first Buckeye to be awarded the Heisman Trophy. Also prominent on the 1942 -- 44 teams was the first Buckeye African American star, Bill Willis.
Brown chose not to return to Ohio State after the war, going into professional football instead. Widdoes, despite having the highest two - year winning percentage of any Buckeye coach, asked to return to an assistant 's position. Offensive coordinator Paul Bixler and Widdoes switched positions, and Bixler endured a mediocre 4 -- 3 -- 2 season. Bixler resigned and talk of Ohio State being a "graveyard of coaches '' became commonplace, a reputation that lingered for decades.
Wes Fesler became head coach in 1947 but finished last in the Big Ten for the only time in team history. Ohio State improved greatly in 1948, winning 6 and losing 3, then in 1949 enjoyed a successful season due to the play of sophomore Vic Janowicz. Ohio State received the Rose Bowl invitation, where they came from behind to defeat California. In 1950 Fesler, rumored to be resigning because of pressures associated with the position and abuse of his family by anonymous critics, returned to coach the Buckeyes, who won six games in a row to move into the top ranking in the AP poll. However, the season fell apart as the Buckeyes lost to Michigan during a blizzard, a game that came to be known as the "Snow Bowl ''. Two weeks later, citing concerns about his health and family, Fesler resigned.
Wayne Woodrow "Woody '' Hayes beat out Paul Brown, among others, to be named head coach on February 18, 1951. He instituted a demanding practice regimen and was both aggressive and vocal in enforcing it, alienating many players accustomed to Fesler 's laid - back style. The 1951 Buckeyes won 4, lost 3, and tied 2, leaving many to question the ability of the new coach. In 1952 the team improved to 6 -- 3, and recorded their first victory over Michigan in eight years, but after a 1953 loss to Michigan, critics called for the replacement of Hayes.
In 1954 the Buckeyes were picked to finish no higher than 10th in the Big Ten. Hayes, however, had the talents of Howard "Hopalong '' Cassady, and a historic goal - line stand against Michigan propelled Ohio State to a perfect season. Hayes led the powerhouse Buckeyes to a shared national championship (his first and the team 's second). In 1955 the team again won the Big Ten, set an attendance record, and won in Ann Arbor for the first time in 18 years, while Hopalong Cassady was securing the Heisman Trophy. Ohio State passed only three times against Michigan (the sole reception was the only completion in the final three games of the year), leading to characterization of Hayes ' style of offensive play as "three yards and a cloud of dust ''.
In a 1955 article in Sports Illustrated, Hayes admitted making small personal loans to financially needy players. The article resulted in a furor over possible violations of NCAA rules, and the faculty council, followed by the Big Ten and NCAA, conducted lengthy investigations. Big Ten Commissioner Kenneth "Tug '' Wilson found Hayes and the program guilty of violations and placed it on a year 's probation in 1956. In 1957 Ohio State won all of its remaining games after an opening loss to claim the Big Ten championship, win the Rose Bowl over Oregon, and share a national title with Auburn, for which Hayes was named Coach of the Year.
In 1961 the team went undefeated to be named national champions by the FWAA but a growing conflict between academics and athletics over Ohio State 's reputation as a "football school '' resulted in a faculty council vote to decline an invitation to the Rose Bowl, resulting in much public protest and debate. Over the next 6 seasons Ohio State finished no higher than 2nd, and had a losing season in 1966, and public speculation that Hayes would be replaced as coach grew to its highest point since 1953.
In 1968 Ohio State defeated the number one - ranked Purdue Boilermakers and continued to an undefeated season including a 50 -- 14 rout of Michigan and a Rose Bowl victory over the USC Trojans that resulted in the national championship. The Class of 1970 became known as the "super sophomores '' in 1968, and might have gone on to three consecutive national championships except for what may have been the most bitter loss in Buckeye history. The winning streak reached 22 games as Ohio State traveled to Michigan. The Buckeyes were 17 - point favorites but directed by first - year coach Bo Schembechler, Michigan shocked the Buckeyes in a 24 -- 12 upset.
The 1969 loss to Michigan initiated what came to be known as "The Ten Year War '', in which the rivalry, which pitted some of OSU 's and UM 's strongest teams ever, rose to the uppermost level of all sports and the competition between Schembechler and Hayes became legendary. Four times between 1970 and 1975, Ohio State and Michigan were both ranked in the top five of the AP Poll before their matchup. The Wolverines entered every game during those years undefeated and won only once, a 10 -- 7 victory in Ann Arbor on November 20, 1971.
Both teams used the annual game as motivation for entire seasons and after the initial win by Michigan, played dead even at four wins and a tie apiece. Hayes had the upper hand during the first part of the war, in which Ohio State won the conference championship and went to the Rose Bowl four straight years, while Michigan won the final three. It was also an era in which through television Ohio State football again came to the forefront of national attention.
Hayes set the tone in spring practice in 1970, placing a rug at the entrance to the Buckeye dressing room emblazoned with the words: "1969 MICH 24 OSU 12 -- 1970 MICH: __ OSU: __ '' as a constant reminder of their objective. The "super sophomores '', now seniors, used a strong fullback - oriented offense to smash their way through the season undefeated, struggling only with Purdue the week before the Michigan game. The return match in Columbus found both teams undefeated and untied, a "first '' in the history of the rivalry, with Michigan ranked fourth and Ohio State fifth. Ohio State combined a powerful defense that held Michigan to only 37 yards rushing, a rushing offense employing two tight ends as blockers, and a 26 - yard touchdown pass from Kern to Bruce Jankowski to win 20 -- 9. The Buckeyes returned to the Rose Bowl to be upset by Stanford 27 -- 17. The "super sophomores '' had garnered a record of 27 -- 2, the best winning percentage of any three - year period in team history, and won or shared the Big Ten title all three years. The National Football Foundation named Ohio State its national champion for 1970.
1971 was less successful than the preceding seasons, but the middle four years of the 10 - year war saw the greatest success for Hayes against Michigan, although the teams fell short of repeating their 1968 national championship. Archie Griffin began his college football career in 1972, taking advantage of new NCAA eligibility rules that allowed freshmen to compete at the varsity level. In his second game, sent in against North Carolina late in the first quarter, Griffin set a new Buckeye rushing record with 239 yards and led the team in rushing for the season with 867.
The following season Hayes installed an I - formation attack with Griffin at tailback and fellow sophomore Cornelius Greene at quarterback. The Buckeyes went undefeated with a powerful offense and equally impenetrable defense, achieving an average margin of victory of 31 points a game. The only blemish on their record was a 10 -- 10 tie with Michigan after both teams had entered the game unbeaten. (The tie was more galling for the Wolverines, however, as the Big Ten selected Ohio State to represent the conference in the Rose Bowl.) Despite soundly defeating defending national champion USC, however, the tie with Michigan resulted in the Buckeyes finishing second to Notre Dame in the final AP rankings. Griffin, Randy Gradishar, Van DeCree, and John Hicks were named All - Americans; Hicks, an offensive tackle, not only won both the Outland and Lombardi Trophies, but placed second in the Heisman Trophy competition.
1974 and 1975 were seasons of both elation and frustration. The Buckeyes twice more defeated Michigan and went to two Rose Bowls, but lost both. The 1974 team seemed bound for another national championship when it was derailed by a loss to unranked Michigan State (Ohio State lost only twice in the regular season during Griffin 's 4 - year career, both to the Spartans), and the next year the # 1 - ranked Bucks lost 23 -- 10 to 11th - ranked UCLA in the 1976 Rose Bowl. In all the Buckeyes were 40 -- 5 -- 1 from 1972 -- 75, winning the Big Ten all four years and never losing to Michigan, but each loss and the tie were crucial in failing to win another championship. Archie Griffin, however, received the Heisman Trophy for both years, off - setting much of the frustration, and amassed 5,589 yards in his career.
The falloff in success of Hayes ' last three years was not great. His teams forged records of 9 -- 2 -- 1, 9 -- 3, and 7 -- 4 -- 1, and made bowl appearances in all three years (the rules had changed to allow appearances in other than the Rose Bowl). However frustrations in losing three straight years to Michigan, and other factors, resulted in growing criticism of Hayes and his methods, particularly his on - the - field fits of temper. Even so, his downfall was sudden and shocking when near the end of the nationally televised Gator Bowl, Hayes punched Clemson middle guard Charlie Bauman after Bauman intercepted a pass to kill Ohio State 's last chance to win. Hayes was fired after the game by Ohio State president Harold Enarson and athletic director Hugh Hindman.
Hayes was replaced by a former protégé, Earle Bruce. Bruce inherited a strong team led by sophomore quarterback Art Schlichter but that had also lost eleven starters, and the 1979 squad exceeded pre-season expectations, ending the 3 - year loss drought against Michigan and going to the Rose Bowl with an opportunity once again to be national champions. The Buckeyes lost both by a single point, 17 -- 16, but Bruce was named Coach of the Year. His success was hailed by those in the media who saw it as a rebuke of Hayes and the start of a "new era ''.
1980, however, saw the start of a trend that eventually brought criticism to Bruce, when Ohio State finished with a 9 -- 3 record, the first of six consecutive years at 9 -- 3. Though each of these seasons, and the 10 -- 3 season that followed them, culminated in a bowl game, Ohio State did not appear to be any closer to a national championship than during the end of the Hayes era. Bruce 's teams were not without impact players, however. All - Americans and future National Football League stars included Keith Byars, Cris Carter, Chris Spielman, John Frank, Jim Lachey, Tom Tupa, Marcus Marek, and Pepper Johnson. His program was also known for the number of notable assistant coaches on staff, including Jim Tressel, Glen Mason, Pete Carroll, Nick Saban, Urban Meyer and Dom Capers.
The 1980 team was selected as the top - ranked team of the pre-season AP poll and opened the season with four games at home, but were shocked in the fourth game by UCLA, shut out 17 -- 0. The team rebounded to win its next six easily, but then were shut down by a ball - control Michigan team that allowed the Buckeyes only 23 minutes with the ball, then lost again to Penn State in the Fiesta Bowl.
In 1981, Ohio State opened strong, including a victory at Stanford in which senior Art Schlichter out - dueled John Elway, but then lost back - to - back games to Florida State and Wisconsin (their first victory over the Buckeyes in 22 games). The Buckeyes continued to struggle on defense, losing a third time, at Minnesota. Victories over Michigan to gain a share of the Big Ten championship and over Navy in the Liberty Bowl salvaged the season.
For the first time since 1922 the Buckeyes lost three in a row in Ohio Stadium in 1982, including rematches with Stanford and Florida State, and for the second year in a row to Wisconsin, but then won seven straight, the last over BYU in the Holiday Bowl. Sophomore running back Keith Byars had a stand - out season in 1983, rushing for 1,199 yards, and Ohio State defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in Norman, but three losses in conference meant a 4th - place finish. 1984 witnessed what Bruce called "the greatest comeback after the worst start '' when Ohio State fell behind Illinois 24 -- 0 at home but roared back on 274 yards rushing and five touchdowns by Byars to win 45 -- 38. Ohio State also defeated Michigan to win an outright Big Ten championship. Byars led the nation in rushing and scoring but finished second in Heisman balloting.
Byars broke his toe just prior to the start of the 1985 season, ending his Heisman hopes and seriously handicapping the Buckeye attack. He returned against Purdue with Ohio State at 4 -- 1 and scored twice, but then re-injured his foot the next week against Minnesota. Iowa was top - ranked nationally when they came into Ohio Stadium favored to end the longest home winning streak in the country, and were the first # 1 team the Buckeyes faced since Purdue in 1968. Ohio State 's defense dominated with four interceptions to win 22 -- 13.
In 1986 Bruce received a 3 - year contract, the first for the modern program but the team opened with two losses, which had not occurred in over 90 years. The Buckeyes then won 9 in a row before Michigan took a close game when kicker Matt Frantz missed a field goal with a minute to play. After the season Bruce was offered the position of head coach at the University of Arizona with a 5 - year contract but was persuaded to stay at his alma mater by Athletic Director Rick Bay. Hopes for a standout season in 1987 suffered a serious setback when All - American wide receiver Cris Carter was dropped from the team for signing with an agent. Indiana defeated Ohio State for the first time since 1951, 31 -- 10, in a game that came to be known as the "darkest day '', and Ohio State lost three conference games in a row going into the Michigan game.
On the Monday of Michigan week, after a weekend of rumors and speculation, Ohio State President Edward Jennings fired Bruce but tried to keep the dismissal secret until after the end of the season. Bay, who had been instrumental in keeping Bruce at Ohio State, disregarded Jennings ' orders and announced the firing and his own resignation in protest. Jennings made his own situation worse by refusing to give a reason for the firing and the circumstances have been the subject of controversy since. The Buckeyes enjoyed an emotional come - from - behind victory over Michigan in Ann Arbor after the entire team wore headbands bearing the word "EARLE '', then declined an invitation to play in the Sun Bowl.
John Cooper was hired as the 21st football head coach at Ohio State before the end of 1987 and before he had coached his last game at Arizona State University. Cooper 's coaching record at ASU and at Tulsa prior to that stood out among his credentials, as did a victory over Michigan in the 1987 Rose Bowl.
Cooper 's thirteen years as Buckeye head coach are largely remembered in the litany of negative statistics associated with him: a notorious 2 -- 10 -- 1 record against Michigan, a 3 -- 8 record in bowl games, a 5 - year losing streak to Illinois to start his term and a 6 -- 7 record overall, and blowing a 15 - point 3rd quarter lead in a 28 -- 24 loss to unranked Michigan State when the Buckeyes were the top - ranked team in the nation and en route to a national championship. However his record also has many positives: back - to - back victories over Notre Dame, two finishes second - ranked in the polls, and three Big Ten championships (albeit shared). Cooper also recruited 15 players who were first - round draft picks in the National Football League.
Both 1988 and 1989 began identically: an impressive season - opening win followed by an embarrassing loss to a highly regarded team (Pitt and USC); a rebound win against two other highly regarded programs (LSU and Boston College) followed by a loss to Illinois in the conference opener. However 1988 saw Ohio State lose its first three conference games and a close game at home against Michigan for a 4 -- 6 -- 1 record, its first losing season in 22 years. In 1989 the Buckeyes won 6 consecutive Big Ten games before losing its last two to go 8 -- 4. The most noteworthy victory occurred in Minneapolis when Ohio State overcame a 31 -- 0 deficit to Minnesota to win 41 -- 37.
1990 continued the pattern with a 2 - win 2 - loss start and an overall 7 -- 4 -- 1 record that included an embarrassing loss to Air Force in the Liberty Bowl. 1991 was 8 -- 4, notable primarily as the season that sophomore running back Robert Smith quit the team. 1992, with senior Kirk Herbstreit at quarterback, and Smith back on the team was 8 -- 3 -- 1, but the losing string to Michigan was broken with a 13 -- 13 tie. Persistent rumors that Cooper would resign or be fired were laid to rest when University President Gordon Gee announced he would be back in 1993.
The next 6 seasons were very successful, winning ten or more games in 5 of the 6 and sharing the conference championship in three. Eddie George won the Heisman Trophy in 1995 after a tremendous senior season, Ohio State defeated Notre Dame in 1995 and 1996, and won half its bowl games. But in three seasons (1993, 1995, and 1996) the Buckeyes entered the Michigan game undefeated, with the possibility of a national championship in at least one, and lost all three to underdog Wolverine teams. Ohio State had won 62 games and lost only 12, but a third of those were to Michigan.
After renewing his contract and becoming a member of the "million dollar coaching club '', Cooper started sophomore Austin Moherman against the Miami Hurricanes in the nationally televised Kickoff Classic and was soundly beaten. That presaged a mediocre season in which the Buckeyes finished 6 -- 6, ending their successful 90 's run. The 2000 team was more successful, going 8 -- 4, but criticism of Cooper among fans had risen to a clamor again and touched on many areas of the program beyond specific game records. The negative publicity rose to a peak in the days leading up to Ohio State 's matchup with South Carolina in the Outback Bowl, when wide receiver Reggie Germany was suspended for having a 0.0 GPA, team captain Matt Wilhelm publicly criticized fellow player Ken - Yon Rambo, and one Buckeye lineman sued another.
In January 2001, the Ohio State University dismissed Cooper. His loss in the Outback Bowl to a team that had not even won a single game the year before was a factor in his subsequent firing, as was negative publicity regarding player behavior before and during the game. Other contributing factors included the record against Michigan (which was actually considered by most people to be the biggest reason for his firing), a reputation of inability to win "big games '', the lack of a national championship, the perception of him as an outsider by many alumni, the poor bowl game record, and finally a perceived lack of discipline on the team.
Ohio State quickly sought a replacement for Cooper and after a nationwide search hired Jim Tressel. With four NCAA Division I - AA National Championships at Youngstown State University, Tressel, formerly an assistant coach for Earle Bruce, was an Ohioan who was considered to be appreciative of Buckeye football traditions. Although there were some doubts as to whether or not Tressel could repeat his earlier success at the Division 1A level, most fans and alumni met the coaching change with enthusiasm. On the day of his hiring, Jim Tressel, speaking to fans and students at a Buckeye basketball game, made a prophetic implication that he would lead the Buckeyes to beat Michigan in Ann Arbor the following November.
Tressel 's first season was difficult as the Buckeyes finished 7 -- 5 (all but one loss was by a touchdown or less), but he made good on his promise, beating Michigan in Ann Arbor. While its fans were optimistic about the chance for success of the 2002 team, most observers were surprised by Ohio State 's National Championship. Ohio State used strong defense, ball - control play - calling, and field position tactics to win numerous close games, a style of play characterized as "Tresselball '', and disparaged by detractors as "the Luckeyes ''. The 2006 and 2007 regular seasons ended with just one combined loss and consecutive appearances in the national championship game. The Buckeyes lost both by wide margins. On January 1, 2010, the Buckeyes defeated the Oregon Ducks in The Rose Bowl Game by a score of 26 -- 17. This ended a 3 - game BCS losing streak for Ohio State, having lost 2 national championships and one Tostitos Fiesta Bowl. Terrelle Pryor was named MVP of the contest with 2 touchdown passes for a career - high 266 passing yards. In addition, he had more total yards than the entire Oregon Ducks team.
In December 2010 it was announced that five student - athletes on the Ohio State University football team would be suspended for the first five games of the 2011 season for NCAA violations. The punishments stemmed from an incident when some of the Buckeye players received tattoos for their autographs, according to news reports. Other violations committed by the players included the selling of several items given to them by the University, such as Big Ten championship rings.
On January 4, 2011, Ohio State completed its season with a 31 -- 26 win over Arkansas in the Sugar Bowl. The Sugar Bowl win would have marked Ohio State 's first bowl victory over a Southeastern Conference opponent in ten attempts, but the win was later vacated due to NCAA violations. Ohio State ended up with an 0 -- 1 record (the lone loss from the Wisconsin Badgers) for the 2010 season after vacating its wins for NCAA violations.
On December 22, 2010, the NCAA announced that five players would be suspended for the first five games of the 2011 season due to receiving improper benefits. Mike Adams, Dan Herron, DeVier Posey, Solomon Thomas, and quarterback Terrelle Pryor were found to have signed autographs in return for tattoos, as well as selling memorabilia given to them by the university. In addition, Jordan Whiting was suspended for the season opener for his involvement. The scandal originated at Fine Line Tattoos and Piercings in Columbus whose owner, Edward Rife, was being investigated for felony drug trafficking. On January 4, 2011, with all the players allowed to participate by the NCAA, the Buckeyes defeated the Arkansas Razorbacks in the Sugar Bowl by a margin of 31 -- 26. The win along with every other one from the 2010 season would later be vacated due to the scandal. The Buckeyes finished the season 0 -- 1, with their only official game being a loss to Wisconsin.
On March 8, 2011, OSU suspended head coach Jim Tressel for the first 2 games of the 2011 season and fined him $250,000 for not informing the university and the NCAA that he had knowledge of his players receiving improper benefits. Coach Tressel 's suspension would later be increased to 5 games by the university. On May 30, 2011 Jim Tressel resigned as head coach of the Buckeyes.
On June 6, 2011, a story in Sports Illustrated reported that at least 28 players, including Rob Rose, T.J. Downing, Louis Irizarry, Chris Vance, C.J. Barnett, Dorien Bell, Jamaal Berry, Bo DeLande, Zach Domicone, Storm Klein, Etienne Sabino, John Simon, Nathan Williams, Jermale Hines, Devon Torrence, Donald Washington, Thaddeus Gibson, Jermil Martin, Lamaar Thomas, and Doug Worthington traded team memorabilia or used equipment for tattoos or other merchandise or services between 2002 and 2010. The report alleged that Tressel had violated NCAA bylaw 10.1 -- unethical conduct, three times by not acting when told of the tattoo improprieties, by signing a statement saying he knew of no violations, and for withholding information on what was going on from university officials.
On July 8, 2011, Ohio State University decided to vacate all victories from the 2010 football season as self - imposed punishment for major NCAA violations. Former coach Jim Tressel received more than $52,000 from the university and wo n't have to pay a $250,000 fine for his involvement in the scandal. His status is also changed from ' Resigned ' to "Retired '' in keeping with his wishes to "remain a Buckeye for life. '' Ohio State named Luke Fickell interim head coach for the 2011 season following Tressel 's resignation, and Fickell coached the 2011 Buckeyes to a 6 -- 7 record; going 6 -- 6 in the regular season and losing in the Gator Bowl to Florida.
On November 28, 2011, former University of Florida head coach and ESPN college football analyst Urban Meyer accepted the position of Buckeyes head coach. Meyer assumed head coaching responsibilities following the Buckeyes ' January 2012 Gator Bowl appearance. Meyer 's first season at Ohio State did not include a postseason contest, as the Buckeyes were sanctioned with a one - year bowl ban on December 20, 2011. The NCAA sanctions also included the loss of three scholarships each year for the following three years and three years ' probation to end on December 19, 2014. Ohio State was required to vacate all wins from the 2010 season, the 2010 Big Ten Conference championship and their win in the 2011 Sugar Bowl. The school 's share of the Sugar Bowl proceeds were forfeited as well.
In Meyer 's first year, the Buckeyes went a perfect 12 -- 0, winning the 2012 Big Ten Leaders Division, though the previously mentioned sanctions kept them from playing in the 2012 Big Ten Football Championship Game and a postseason bowl game.
The Buckeyes played their 2013 Spring game at Paul Brown Stadium in Cincinnati, home of the Bengals on April 13, 2013. The Scarlet won 31 -- 14.
On November 23, 2013, the Buckeyes clinched their second straight Leaders Division Championship, after defeating Indiana 42 -- 14. With the victory over Indiana, Ohio State set a team record for all - time consecutive wins, with 23. The following week, Ohio State defeated Michigan 42 -- 41 in Ann Arbor, to increase the streak to 24. The streak ended with Ohio State 's 34 -- 24 loss to Michigan State in the 2013 Big 10 Conference Championship game on December 7, marking Meyer 's first loss as the Buckeyes ' head coach. On January 3, 2014, the Buckeyes were defeated by Clemson in the Orange Bowl 40 -- 35.
On November 22, 2014, the Buckeyes clinched the first ever Big Ten East Division Championship when they defeated Indiana 42 - 27, earning a berth in the 2014 Big Ten Championship Game, where they defeated West Division champion Wisconsin 59 - 0 to win the Big Ten Conference Championship and qualified for the four - team playoff to decide the National Champion. OSU defeated Alabama in the Sugar Bowl 42 - 35, on January 1, 2015, to qualify for the National Championship Game against Rose Bowl winner Oregon on January 12 (the Rose and Sugar Bowls were the designated semifinal games in 2014). OSU claimed the first ever College Football Playoff National Championship by defeating Oregon 42 - 20.
The 2015 season for the Buckeyes began with a 10 - 0 start before losing on a last second field goal to Michigan State on November 21, ending the Buckeyes quest to repeat as National Champions. However, the Buckeyes recovered their 2 next games with dominating wins over Michigan and then over Notre Dame in the Fiesta Bowl to finish the season at 12 - 1.
The following is a list of Ohio State 's national championships as recognized by both the university and the NCAA:
Ohio State joined the Big Ten in 1912; before that they were a member of the Ohio Athletic Conference and won two OAC titles. Ohio State has won a championship in the Big Ten 36 times, second most in the conference and third most conference titles of any school in any conference.
§ -- Conference co-champions
Since 2011, Big Ten has moved to divisions to ultimately decide who would play for the conference championship. The divisions were known as Legends and Leaders from 2011 to 2013. In 2014, the divisions were realigned geographically into East and West.
Ohio State has appeared in 48 bowl games, with the Buckeyes having a record of 23 -- 25.
Win vacated
2011 win vacated
Ohio State football is rich in traditions. The following are football traditions in chronological order of longevity:
Begun in 1913 by head coach John Wilce, seniors on the team are recognized at the last practice of the season, either before the Michigan game or before departing Columbus to play in a bowl game, and hit the blocking sled a final time.
The winner of the Ohio State - Illinois game has been awarded the Illibuck Trophy since 1925. Until 1927 the teams played for a live turtle, however, since the 1928 season the trophy is a carved wooden likeness of a turtle.
A gold miniature charm depicting a pair of football pants is given to all players and coaches following a victory over the Michigan Wolverines. The tradition began as the result of a comment to reporters by newly hired head coach Francis Schmidt on March 2, 1934: "How about Michigan? They put their pants on one leg at a time, the same as we do! '' The first gold pants, which were a creation of Simon Lazarus (president of the Lazarus chain of department stores) and Herbert Levy, were awarded that year for a 34 -- 0 defeat of the Wolverines.
1934 also saw the first gathering of former team captains for breakfast on the Sunday following the Homecoming game. The event began when local businessman Walter Jeffrey invited twenty former captains to the Scioto Country Club to honor them, and continues to welcome new captains and award them mugs bearing their names and season.
Begun in 1934, each player who wins "first - team All - America '' honors is recognized by the planting of a buckeye tree and installation of a plaque in Buckeye Grove, now located near the southwestern corner of Ohio Stadium next to Morrill Tower. Trees are planted in ceremonies held prior to the Spring Game. All 126 Buckeye All - Americans dating back to 1914 have been so honored.
Since 1935 the annual game against Michigan (known as "that team up north '' for Ohio State fans) has been the final meeting of the regular season for both teams. The week prior to "The Game '', known as Michigan Week, is characterized by scheduled school spirit and public service events, such as rallies, touch football games, and blood drives; and by massive displays of school colors and banners in much of Ohio. In an unofficial culmination to Michigan Week, since 1990 on the Thursday night before "The Game '' students have participated in the "Mirror Lake jump '', an unofficial gathering at Mirror Lake, a pond between Pomerene Hall and The Oval, in which masses of students jump into the water.
Since 1938 the registered student organization Block O has been the "Official Cheering Section '' of the Buckeyes. "Known for spreading spirit, starting cheers and performing card stunts, Block ' O ' was founded... by Clancy Isaac. '' They occupy Section 39A in the South grandstand of Ohio Stadium, next to the band.
The Victory Bell is rung after every Ohio State victory by members of Alpha Phi Omega, a tradition that began after the Bucks beat California October 2, 1954. Reputedly the ringing can be heard five miles away "on a calm day. '' Located 150 feet high in the southeast tower of Ohio Stadium, the bell was a gift of the classes of 1943, 1944 and 1945, and weighs 2,420 pounds. The bell is rung for 15 minutes following a victory and for 30 minutes following a victory over Michigan.
Beginning in 1965, Brutus Buckeye has appeared at all Ohio State football games as the live mascot of the Buckeyes. In 2007 he was inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame and is now one of the most recognized mascots in the United States.
First played at the Illinois game of October 9, 1965, the rock song Hang on Sloopy is now played by the marching band before the start of the fourth quarter, with fans performing an O-H-I-O chant in the intervals between the refrains. The song is also played to encourage the team 's defensive players when opponents are moving the ball on offense late in a game. The 116th Ohio General Assembly designated "Hang On Sloopy '' as the State rock song by House Concurrent Resolution 16 on November 20, 1985. It is also played before the fourth quarter at Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals games, as well as during Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Cavaliers, and Columbus Blue Jackets games.
Since 1967, the helmets of Ohio State players have been adorned with white decals approximately the size of a quarter depicting a buckeye leaf, awarded for making significant plays and for consistency of performance. In the 1970s, the decals were approximately the size of a Silver Dollar until the 1979 Season. Most believe that this practice began in 1968 when the Buckeyes switched to their present Silver Helmet design since the decals have become identified with that helmet.
Since 1990 as part of Michigan Week, OSU students typically jump into Mirror Lake -- located on campus -- the Thursday night before the game. The tradition is thought to bring good luck to the football team for the game. Since the 2010 season, the Thursday before "The Game '' has been Thanksgiving. With most of the student body leaving campus for the holiday, the jump has since occurred on the Tuesday of Michigan Week.
The Tunnel of Pride began with the 1994 Michigan game when all former players who were in attendance formed a tunnel through which the team ran to take the field, and Ohio State beat its rival that day, 22 -- 6. Rex Kern, quarterback of the 1968 National Championship team, and then Director of Athletics Andy Geiger together used the concept as a means of connecting current Buckeyes with those who played before them. The Tunnel of Pride was next formed for the 1995 Notre Dame game, which the Buckeyes also won. In each home game against Michigan since, the tradition has been repeated.
Instituted by Coach Tressel in 2001, at the conclusion of all home games the coaches, players and cheerleaders gather in the south end zone next to the marching band to sing the university 's alma mater, Carmen Ohio, to the student section.
Tressel brought to the Buckeye football program two pre-game traditions he developed at Youngstown State. Prior to its warmup routine before every football game, the team exits the locker room as a unit in a controlled manner, linked arm - in - arm in a group known as "The Hive ''. After warmups the team returns to the locker room, and when it next appears, runs onto the field and forms a circle of players around the strength coach, then they go through their warmup routine.
The Marching Band, often referred to as "The Best Damn Band In The Land '' or by the acronym TBDBITL is the most visible and possibly best - known tradition of Ohio State football. Home games are preceded by three much - anticipated traditions, and a fourth, "dotting the ' i ' '' of Script Ohio, enjoys a reputation all its own:
While its rivalry with the University of Michigan is its most renowned and intense, Ohio State has two other series marked by their longevity, both Big Ten Conference rivals, those of Indiana and Illinois. The series versus Indiana began as a non-conference matchup, with Indiana going undefeated at 4 -- 0 -- 1. In conference, however, the Buckeyes (despite losing the opening conference game) are 70 -- 8 -- 4 through the 2014 season, the most wins against any opponent. Illinois also began with non-conference games (0 -- 1 -- 1) but became the longest continuous series in 2002 when the schools played in their 89th consecutive year (that record was tied by Michigan in 2007). Through 2014 Ohio State 's record against the Illini is 66 -- 30 -- 4. In 2007, Ohio State was given their only defeat of the regular season by the Illini.
When Penn State was added to the conference football play in 1993, every member was given two designated rivals, teams to be played every year, with the other conference teams rotated out of the schedule at regular intervals. For geographic convenience, the Big Ten named Penn State as Ohio State 's new designated rival in addition to Michigan, and Illinois was set to be paired with in - state rival Northwestern and neighboring Indiana, and in doing so undermined Ohio State 's historical rivalry with Illinois.
With Nebraska 's entry to the Big Ten and the establishment of division play in football, Ohio State and Illinois played every season in the Leaders Division from 2011 to 2013. Michigan was the Buckeyes ' permanent cross-division rival from the Legends Division.
With the addition of Maryland and Rutgers to the Big Ten, Ohio State and Illinois will be in separate divisions and will no longer meet every year. Ohio State and Michigan also became East Division rivals.
The Buckeyes have had 24 head coaches in their 121 - year history. Of the team 's eight national championships to date, Woody Hayes won five. Paul Brown, Jim Tressel, and Urban Meyer also each have one.
This table reflects the results of Big Ten match - ups when both OSU and its opponent were members of the conference. Ohio State began Big Ten play in 1913. Examples of excluded results are Chicago after 1939, Michigan between 1907 -- 1916, Michigan State before 1953, Penn State before 1993, and Nebraska before 2011 (see Big Ten History for further information). Ohio State 's vacated wins from 2010 are NOT included (see 2010 Ohio State Buckeyes football team for further information).
Updated through Nov. 20, 2017 of the 2017 NCAA Division I FBS football season.
All Data from College Football Data Warehouse
Through the 2006 season Ohio State players have by a significant margin won more trophies than any other NCAA Division 1A program. Ohio State players have won 34 of the listed major awards, with the next closest being 26 (Oklahoma). Ohio State is the only university to have received each of the awards at least once. Of the five awards created prior to 1980 (Heisman, Lombardi, Maxwell, Outland, and Walter Camp), Ohio State has received the most with 25 (Notre Dame follows with 23).
Ohio State players have won the Heisman Trophy seven times, which ties Notre Dame (7) for the most awards for any school. Archie Griffin is the only two - time recipient in the history of the award.
Ohio State players have won the Lombardi Award six times:
Four Ohio State players have won the Maxwell Award:
Four Ohio State players have won the Outland Trophy:
Ohio State players have won the Walter Camp Award four times:
Ohio State players have won the Dick Butkus Award twice:
Ohio State players have won the Jim Thorpe Award twice:
Dave Rimington Trophy
Ohio State players have won the Dave Rimington Trophy three times:
Through 2017, 199 Buckeyes have been named first team All - Americans since 1914. Of those 85 have been consensus picks. 388 have been named to the All - Big Ten team, and 16 have won the Chicago Tribune Silver Football, the Big Ten 's Most Valuable Player award, including Troy Smith for 2006. The Athletic Directors of the Big Ten Conference voted Eddie George Big Ten - Jesse Owens Athlete of the Year for 1996.
On November 22, 2006, ten Buckeyes were named to either the Coaches or Conference media All - Big Ten First Team selections for the 2006 season, and seven were named to both. Troy Smith was named Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year. Four other Buckeyes received Second Team honors.
All records per OSU Athletics.
1930: Wes Fesler -- (E) -- Big Ten MVP 1931: Robert Haubrich -- (OT) 1932: Lew Hinchman -- (HB) 1933: Mickey Vuchinich -- (FB) 1934: Gomer Jones -- (C) 1935: Gomer Jones -- (C) 1936: Ralph Wolf -- (C) 1937: Ralph Wolf -- (C) 1938: Jim Langhurst -- (FB) 1939: Steve Andrako -- (C) 1940: Don Scott -- (C) 1941: Jack Graf -- (FB) -- Big Ten MVP 1942: Chuck Csuri -- (OT) 1943: Gordon Appleby -- (C) 1944: Les Horvath -- (QB) -- Big Ten MVP 1945: Ollie Cline -- (FB) -- Big Ten MVP 1946: Cecil Souders -- (E) 1947: Dave Templeton -- (G) 1948: Joe Whisler -- (FB) 1949: Jack Lininger -- (C) 1950: Vic Janowicz -- (HB) -- Big Ten MVP 1951: Vic Janowicz -- (HB) 1952: Fred Bruney -- (HB) 1953: George Jacoby -- (T) 1954: Howard Cassady -- (HB) 1955: Howard Cassady -- (HB) -- Big Ten MVP 1956: Jim Parker -- (G) 1957: Bill Jobko -- (G) 1958: Jim Houston -- (E) 1959: Jim Houston -- (E) 1960: Tom Matte -- (QB) 1961: Bob Ferguson -- (FB) 1962: Billy Armstrong -- (C) 1963: Matt Snell -- (FB) 1964: Ed Orazen -- (DL) 1965: Doug Van Horn -- (OG) 1966: Ray Pryor -- (C) 1967: Dirk Worden -- (LB) 1968: Mark Stier -- (LB) 1969: Jim Otis -- (FB) 1970: Jim Stillwagon -- (DL) 1971: Tom DeLeone -- (C) 1972: George Hasenohrl -- (DL) 1973: Archie Griffin -- (RB) -- Big Ten MVP 1974: Archie Griffin -- (RB) -- Big Ten MVP 1975: Cornelius Greene -- (QB) -- Big Ten MVP 1976: Bob Brudzinski -- (DE) 1977: Dave Adkins -- (LB) 1978: Tom Cousineau -- (LB) 1979: Jim Laughlin -- (LB) 1980: Calvin Murray -- (TB) 1981: Art Schlichter -- (QB) -- Big Ten MVP 1982: Tim Spencer -- (RB) 1983: John Frank -- (TE) 1984: Keith Byars -- (RB) -- Big Ten MVP 1985: Jim Karsatos -- (QB) 1986: Cris Carter -- (WR) 1987: Chris Spielman -- (LB) 1988: Jeff Uhlenhake -- (C) 1989: Derek Isaman -- (LB) 1990: Jeff Graham -- (WR) 1991: Carlos Snow -- (TB) 1992: Kirk Herbstreit -- (QB) 1993: Raymont Harris -- (TB) 1994: Korey Stringer -- (OT) 1995: Eddie George -- (TB) -- Big Ten MVP 1996: Orlando Pace -- (OT) -- Big Ten MVP 1997: Antoine Winfield -- (DB) 1998: Joe Germaine -- (QB) -- Big Ten MVP 1999: Ahmed Plummer -- (DB) 2000: Derek Combs -- (TB) 2001: Jonathan Wells -- (TB) 2002: Craig Krenzel -- (QB) / Chris Gamble -- (WR / DB) 2003: Michael Jenkins -- (WR) 2004: Mike Nugent -- (PK) 2005: A.J. Hawk -- (LB) 2006: Troy Smith -- (QB) -- Big Ten MVP 2007: Chris Wells -- (TB) 2008: Chris Wells -- (TB) 2009: Kurt Coleman -- (SS) 2010: Dane Sanzenbacher -- (WR) 2011: Daniel Herron -- (TB) 2012: Braxton Miller -- (QB) -- Big Ten MVP 2013: Braxton Miller -- (QB) -- Big Ten MVP 2014: Evan Spencer -- (WR) 2015: Ezekiel Elliott -- (RB) -- Big Ten MVP 2016: Malik Hooker -- (SAF) / Pat Elflein -- (C)
1952: John Borton (Quarterback) 1954: Dick Hilnski (Tackle) 1958: Bob White (Fullback) 1961: Tom Perdue (End) 1965: Bill Ridder (Middle guard) 1966: Dave Foley (Offensive tackle) 1967: Dave Foley (Offensive tackle) 1968: Dave Foley (Offensive tackle) 1969: Bill Urbanik (Defensive tackle) 1971: Rick Simon (Offensive tackle) 1973: Randy Gradishar (Linebacker) 1974: Brian Baschnagel (Running back) 1975: Brian Baschnagel (Running back) 1976: Pete Johnson (Fullback) 1977: Jeff Logan (Running back) 1980: Marcus Marek (Linebacker) 1982: Joe Smith (Offensive tackle) 1982: John Frank (Tight end) 1983: John Frank (Tight end) 1983: Dave Crecelius (Defensive tackle) 1984: Dave Crecelius (Defensive tackle) 1984: Mike Lanese (Wide receiver)
1984: Anthony Tiuliani (Defensive tackle) 1985: Mike Lanese (Wide receiver) 1987: Joe Staysniak (Offensive tackle) 1989: Joe Staysniak (Offensive tackle) 1990: Greg Smith (Defensive Line) 1992: Len Hartman (Offensive guard) 1992: Greg Smith (Defensive line) 1995: Greg Bellisari (Linebacker) 1996: Greg Bellisari (Linebacker) 1998: Jerry Rudzinski (Linebacker) 1999: Ahmed Plummer (Cornerback) 2002: Craig Krenzel (Quarterback) 2003: Craig Krenzel (Quarterback) 2006: Anthony Gonzalez (Wide receiver) 2006: Stan White, Jr. (Fullback) 2007: Brian Robiskie (Wide receiver) 2008: Brian Robiskie (Wide receiver) 2014: Jacoby Boren (Center) 2015: Jacoby Boren (Center) 2015: Jack Willoughby (Kicker) 2016: Sam Hubbard (Defensive line)
Ohio State 's eighteen NFF Scholar - Athlete Awards rank second only to Nebraska 's twenty among all college football programs.
Beginning with Chic Harley and Howard Jones in the 1951 inaugural class, Ohio State has had 32 former players and coaches inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame
The following are Ohio State football statistical leaders.
Former notable NFL players who played at Ohio State include: Lou Groza, Dante Lavelli, Jim Parker, Bill Willis, Paul Warfield, Jim Marshall, Jim Houston, Na'il Diggs, Jack Tatum, Randy Gradishar, Dick Schafrath, Jim Lachey, Tom Tupa, Chris Spielman, Robert Smith, Korey Stringer, Raymont Harris, A.J. Hawk, Cris Carter, Eddie George, James Laurinaitis, Mike Nugent, and DeVier Posey.
Beginning with Paul Brown in 1967, Ohio State has had 11 former players, coaches and graduates enshrined into the Pro Football Hall of Fame third most behind Notre Dame (12) and USC (12).
Ohio State has 2 former players enshrined into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame.
The Buckeyes are covered on the radio by the Ohio State IMG Sports Network. WBNS / Columbus (1460 AM) and sister station WBNS - FM / Columbus (97.1 FM) serve as flagship stations, with more than 60 affiliates in Ohio, and two additional affiliates in West Virginia. Paul Keels is the current play - by - play announcer, while former Buckeye left guard Jim Lachey serves as color analyst. They are joined by sideline reporter Matt Andrews and Skip Mosic, host of the network pregame and halftime shows.
WBNS - TV (channel 10) in Columbus is the long - standing "official TV home '' of the Buckeyes, airing the official coach 's show Game Time with Urban Meyer (simulcast statewide on Fox Sports Ohio).
In addition, Ohio State football games are broadcast by their student radio organization, Scarlet and Gray Sports Radio on OhioStateSports.net
Announced schedules as of April 28, 2017.
* 2018 game versus TCU will be played at AT&T Stadium.
In 2011, New York Times reporter Nate Silver conducted a study of college football fans, and through his research determined that Ohio State has the most fans of any college football team in the country.
Coordinates: 40 ° 00 ′ 05 '' N 83 ° 01 ′ 11 '' W / 40.001389 ° N 83.019722 ° W / 40.001389; - 83.019722
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in which era did the supercontinent pangea break up | Pangaea - wikipedia
Pangaea or Pangea (/ pænˈdʒiːə /) was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras. It assembled from earlier continental units approximately 335 million years ago, and it began to break apart about 175 million years ago. In contrast to the present Earth and its distribution of continental mass, much of Pangaea was in the southern hemisphere and surrounded by a superocean, Panthalassa. Pangaea was the most recent supercontinent to have existed and the first to be reconstructed by geologists.
The name "Pangaea / Pangea '' is derived from Ancient Greek pan (πᾶν, "all, entire, whole '') and Gaia (Γαῖα, "Mother Earth, land ''). The concept that the continents once formed a continuous land mass was first proposed by Alfred Wegener, the originator of the scientific theory of continental drift, in his 1912 publication The Origin of Continents (Die Entstehung der Kontinente). He expanded upon his hypothesis in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), in which he postulated that, before breaking up and drifting to their present locations, all the continents had formed a single supercontinent that he called the "Urkontinent ''.
The name "Pangea '' occurs in the 1920 edition of Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, but only once, when Wegener refers to the ancient supercontinent as "the Pangaea of the Carboniferous ''. Wegener used the Germanized form "Pangäa '', but the name entered German and English scientific literature (in 1922 and 1926, respectively) in the Latinized form "Pangaea '' (of the Greek "Pangaia ''), especially due to a symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in November 1926.
The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have been cyclical through Earth 's history. There may have been many others before Pangaea. The fourth - last supercontinent, called Columbia or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.0 -- 1.8 Ga. Columbia / Nuna broke up and the next supercontinent, Rodinia, formed from the accretion and assembly of its fragments. Rodinia lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750 million years ago, but its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not nearly as well understood as those of the later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.
When Rodinia broke up, it split into three pieces: the supercontinent of Proto - Laurasia, the supercontinent of Proto - Gondwana, and the smaller Congo craton. Proto - Laurasia and Proto - Gondwana were separated by the Proto - Tethys Ocean. Next Proto - Laurasia itself split apart to form the continents of Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica. Baltica moved to the east of Laurentia, and Siberia moved northeast of Laurentia. The splitting also created two new oceans, the Iapetus Ocean and Paleoasian Ocean. Most of the above masses coalesced again to form the relatively short - lived supercontinent of Pannotia. This supercontinent included large amounts of land near the poles and, near the equator, only a relatively small strip connecting the polar masses. Pannotia lasted until 540 Ma, near the beginning of the Cambrian period and then broke up, giving rise to the continents of Laurentia, Baltica, and the southern supercontinent of Gondwana.
In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America, sat on the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus Ocean to the south and the Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of Avalonia -- a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become eastern Newfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of Belgium, northern France, Nova Scotia, New England, South Iberia and northwest Africa -- broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to Laurentia. Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea.
The second step in the formation of Pangaea was the collision of Gondwana with Euramerica. By Silurian time, 440 Ma, Baltica had already collided with Laurentia, forming Euramerica. Avalonia had not yet collided with Laurentia, but as Avalonia inched towards Laurentia, the seaway between them, a remnant of the Iapetus Ocean, was slowly shrinking. Meanwhile, southern Europe broke off from Gondwana and began to move towards Euramerica across the newly formed Rheic Ocean. It collided with southern Baltica in the Devonian, though this microcontinent was an underwater plate. The Iapetus Ocean 's sister ocean, the Khanty Ocean, shrank as an island arc from Siberia collided with eastern Baltica (now part of Euramerica). Behind this island arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.
By late Silurian time, North and South China split from Gondwana and started to head northward, shrinking the Proto - Tethys Ocean in their path and opening the new Paleo - Tethys Ocean to their south. In the Devonian Period, Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, causing the Rheic Ocean to shrink. In the Early Carboniferous, northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, the Meseta Mountains and the Mauritanide Mountains. South America moved northward to southern Euramerica, while the eastern portion of Gondwana (India, Antarctica and Australia) headed toward the South Pole from the equator. North and South China were on independent continents. The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided with Siberia. (Siberia had been a separate continent for millions of years since the deformation of the supercontinent Pannotia in the Middle Carboniferous.)
Western Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the Late Carboniferous, closing the Ural Ocean between them and the western Proto - Tethys in them (Uralian orogeny), causing the formation of not only the Ural Mountains but also the supercontinent of Laurasia. This was the last step of the formation of Pangaea. Meanwhile, South America had collided with southern Laurentia, closing the Rheic Ocean and forming the southernmost part of the Appalachians and Ouachita Mountains. By this time, Gondwana was positioned near the South Pole and glaciers were forming in Antarctica, India, Australia, southern Africa and South America. The North China block collided with Siberia by Late Carboniferous time, completely closing the Proto - Tethys Ocean.
By early Permian time, the Cimmerian plate split from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia, thus closing the Paleo - Tethys Ocean, but forming a new ocean, the Tethys Ocean, in its southern end. Most of the landmasses were all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little and the Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the shrinking Paleo - Tethys, until the Middle Jurassic time. The Paleo - Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the Cimmerian Orogeny. Pangaea, which looked like a C, with the new Tethys Ocean inside the C, had rifted by the Middle Jurassic, and its deformation is explained below.
Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents that are now great distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been found in South Africa, India and Antarctica, alongside members of the Glossopteris flora, whose distribution would have ranged from the polar circle to the equator if the continents had been in their present position; similarly, the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus has been found in only localized regions of the coasts of Brazil and West Africa.
Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including matching geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of Africa. The polar ice cap of the Carboniferous Period covered the southern end of Pangaea. Glacial deposits, specifically till, of the same age and structure are found on many separate continents which would have been together in the continent of Pangaea.
Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a supercontinent. Geologists can determine the movement of continental plates by examining the orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks; when rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic properties of the Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie relative to the rock. Since the magnetic poles drift about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand years, measurements from numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an apparent mean polar position. Samples of sedimentary rock and intrusive igneous rock have magnetic orientations that are typically an average of the "secular variation '' in the orientation of magnetic north because their remanent magnetizations are not acquired instantaneously. Magnetic differences between sample groups whose age varies by millions of years is due to a combination of true polar wander and the drifting of continents. The true polar wander component is identical for all samples, and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion of this motion that shows continental drift and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental positions.
The continuity of mountain chains provides further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is the Appalachian Mountains chain which extends from the southeastern United States to the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia.
There were three major phases in the break - up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the Early - Middle Jurassic (about 175 Ma), when Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to the Pacific in the west. The rifting that took place between North America and Africa produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.
The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north - central Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of Laurasia led much later to the closing of the Tethys Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa and along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were forming that would lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean that would open up in the Cretaceous.
The second major phase in the break - up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150 -- 140 Ma), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at Tethyan Trench probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward, causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean ''. In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today 's South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.
Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved northward, opening up the Indian Ocean. Madagascar and India separated from each other 100 -- 90 Ma in the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15 centimeters (6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the eastern Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and the rest of Zealandia began to separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and opening the Coral Sea and Tasman Sea.
The third major and final phase of the break - up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America / Greenland (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60 -- 55 Ma. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.
Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved quickly northward, just as India had done more than 40 million years before. Australia is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India are currently moving northeast at 5 -- 6 centimeters (2 -- 3 in) a year. Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys Seaway; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers - thick ice sheets seen today. Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break - up of Pangaea continues today in the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift.
Pangaea 's formation is now commonly explained in terms of plate tectonics. The involvement of plate tectonics in Pangaea 's separation helps to show how it did not separate all at once, but at different times, in sequences. Additionally, after these separations, it has also been discovered that the separated land masses may have also continued to break apart multiple times. The formation of each environment and climate on Pangaea is due to plate tectonics, and thus, it is as a result of these shifts and changes different climatic pressures were placed on the life on Pangaea. Although plate tectonics was paramount in the formation of later land masses, it was also essential in the placement, climate, environments, habitats, and overall structure of Pangaea.
What can also be observed in relation to tectonic plates and Pangaea, is the formations to such plates. Mountains and valleys form due to tectonic collisions as well as earthquakes and chasms. Consequentially, this shaped Pangaea and animal adaptations. Furthermore, plate tectonics can contribute to volcanic activity, which is responsible for extinctions and adaptations which have evidently affected life over time, and without doubt on Pangaea.
For the approximately 160 million years Pangaea existed, many species had fruitful times whereas others struggled. The Traversodontidae is an example of such prospering animals, eating a diet of only plants. Plants dependent on spore reproduction had been taken out of the ecosystems, and replaced by the gymnosperm plant, which reproduces through the use of seeds instead. Later on, insects (beetles, dragonflies, mosquitos) also thrived during the Permian period 299 to 252 million years ago. However, the Permian extinction at 252 Mya greatly impacted these insects in mass extinction, being the only mass extinction to affect insects. When the Triassic Period came, many reptiles were able to also thrive, including Archosaurs, which were an ancestor to modern - day crocodiles and birds.
Little is known about marine life during the existence of Pangaea. Scientists are unable to find substantial evidence or fossilized remains in order to assist them in answering such questions. However, a couple of marine animals have been determined to have existed at the time - the Ammonites and Brachiopods. Additionally, evidence pointing towards massive reefs with varied ecosystems, especially in the species of sponges and coral, have also been discovered.
Pangaea has tremendously affected the setup of the world now. In the post Pangaea time period, the reconfiguration of continents and oceans has changed the climate of many areas. There is scientific evidence that proves that climate was drastically altered. When the continents separated and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific reasoning behind all of the changes is Continental Drift. The theory of Continental Drift, created by Alfred Wegener, explained how the continents shifted Earth 's surface and how that affected many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and animal fossils. Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of Svalbard, Norway. He determined that such plants were not meant to adapt to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from tropical plants that were meant to adapt and thrive in warmer and tropical climate. Because we would not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place we suspect that Svalbard possibly had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.
When Pangaea separated, the reorganization of the continents changed the function of the oceans and seaways. The restructuring of the continents, changed and altered the distribution of warmth and coolness of the oceans. When North America and South America connected, it stopped equatorial currents from passing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Researchers have found evidence by using computer hydrological models to show that this strengthened the Gulf Stream by diverting more warm currents towards Europe. Warm waters at high latitudes led to an increased evaporation and eventually atmospheric moisture. Increased evaporation and atmospheric moisture resulted in increased precipitation. Evidence of increased precipitation is the development of snow and ice that covers Greenland, which led to an accumulation of the icecap. Greenland 's growing ice cap led to further global cooling. Scientists also found evidence of global cooling through the separation of Australia and Antarctica and the formation of the Antarctic Ocean. Ocean currents in the newly formed Antarctic or Southern Ocean created a circumpolar current. The creation of the new ocean that caused a circumpolar current eventually led to atmospheric currents that rotated from west to east. Atmospheric and oceanic currents stopped the transfer of warm, tropical air and water to the higher latitudes. As a result of the warm air and currents moving northward, Antarctica cooled down so much that it became frigid.
Although many of Alfred Wegener 's theories and conclusions were valid, scientists are constantly coming up with new innovative ideas or reasoning behind why certain things happen. Wegener 's theory of Continental Drift was later replaced by the theory of tectonic plates.
There is evidence to suggest that the deterioration of northern Pangaea contributed to the Permian Extinction, one of Earth 's five major mass extinction events, which resulted in the loss of over 90 % of marine and 70 % of terrestrial species. There were three main sources of environmental deterioration which are believed to have had a hand in the extinction event.
The first of these sources is a loss of oxygen concentration in the ocean which caused deep water regions called the lysocline to grow shallower. With the lysocline shrinking, there were fewer places for calcite to dissolve in the ocean, considering calcite only dissolves at deep ocean depths. This led to the extinction of carbonate producers such as brachiopods and corals that relied on dissolved calcite to survive. The second source is the eruption of the Siberian Traps, a large volcanic event which is argued to be the result of Pangaean tectonic movement. This had several negative repercussions on the environment, including metal loading and excess atmospheric carbon. Metal loading, the release of toxic metals from volcanic eruptions into the environment, led to acid rain and general stress on the environment. These toxic metals are known to infringe on vascular plants ' ability to photosynthesize, which may have resulted in the loss of Permian - era flora. Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is believed to be the main cause of the shrinking of lysocline areas.
The third cause of this extinction event that can be attributed to northern Pangaea is the beginnings of anoxic ocean environments, or oceans with very low oxygen concentrations. The mix of anoxic oceans and ocean acidification due to metal loading led to increasingly acidic oceans, which ultimately led to the extinction of benthic species.
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Afro - Eurasia
Americas
Eurasia
Oceania
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when was the last time china was in a war | List of wars involving the People 's Republic of China - wikipedia
This is a list of wars involving the People 's Republic of China.
ETPRP (1969 -- 89) URFET (1969 -- 89)
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where did they film where we first met | When We First Met - wikipedia
When We First Met is a 2018 American romantic comedy film directed by Ari Sandel, written by John Whittington and starring Adam DeVine, Alexandra Daddario, Andrew Bachelor and Robbie Amell. It was released worldwide on Netflix on February 9, 2018.
During Avery Martin 's (Alexandra Daddario) engagement party, Noah Ashby (Adam DeVine) recalls his and Avery 's first meeting during a Halloween party three years earlier and is sad to see her engaged to perfect Ethan (Robbie Amell) instead of him. Drunk and being driven home by Avery 's photographer roommate Carrie Grey (Shelley Hennig), Noah admits he is secretly in love with Avery but, on the night they met, Avery only saw him as a good friend and met Ethan the next day.
Carrie deposits him with Max (Andrew Bachelor), his successful vice president best friend, at the piano bar where Noah works. Noah drunkenly uses the photo booth where he and Avery shared a moment and falls asleep. He awakens in his bed and soon discovers he has traveled back in time to the day he met Avery. Noah tries to re-do their meeting, using his knowledge of her to his advantage, but Carrie, whom he met earlier and claimed he knew her and Avery well, comes home early and the two deduce he is a stalker and attack him. He wakes up back in the present thinking it was only a dream, but when he goes to Avery 's house he realizes he is repeating the day of Avery 's engagement party, but this time she recognizes him as the stalker from three years ago. Noah realizes he can use the photo booth to go back in time to re-do their meeting and will wake up to the consequences three years later.
Noah goes back a second time and seeks Max 's help impressing Avery. Max convinces him to be a rude and cynical alpha male, and while Avery is initially disgusted by his attitude, she is aroused during their argument and they end up having sex. Noah wakes up in the present and learns that he and Avery 's relationship is unrequited and, for Avery, is purely sexual while she and Carrie are part of an exercise group with Ethan. Noah learns from Carrie that Avery is attracted to stable and dependable men, and Noah goes back a third time. He asks Max, still a low - ranking employee at the company, to ask his boss for a job for him and then acts kinder and more maturely during his first meeting with Avery. He wakes up to find himself engaged to Avery, living a wealthy lifestyle, and is the successful vice president of the company. However, he learns that he and Max have become work enemies, is a workaholic that neglects Avery and has abandoned his piano hobbies, and, despite Ethan switching roles with him during his engagement party, Avery still loves Ethan more than him. While confiding in Carrie, Noah realizes Ethan and Avery are meant to be together and how he and Carrie end up learning more about each other in every alternate present.
Noah goes back in time, this time bringing Ethan with him to the party to meet Avery while he spends time with Carrie. Noah learns that the things he likes about Avery is because of Carrie 's influence on her. He also learns that "Doctor Jello - Shot, '' the man Carrie is seen kissing in all alternate pasts, is her ex-boyfriend with whom she is having an unstable breakup with. He shares a photo booth round with Avery, Carrie, and Ethan and wakes up in the present. He learns that Avery and Ethan are engaged, but Carrie ended up leaving him to return to her ex-boyfriend, only for them to break up. Noah goes to Avery and Carrie 's house and finds out that, since Avery and Ethan met a day earlier, their engagement party was the day before, and Carrie is off to a date. She rejects Noah 's pleas to try again and leaves. Noah tries to return to the photo booth, but finds a modern replacement in its place. Ethan and Avery arrive in the piano bar and inform him that they bought the old photo booth for him years ago, and Noah realizes he initially met Carrie through Avery, and he goes back and replays his meeting with Avery the original way.
He wakes up to the original present, this time happy for Ethan and Avery during their engagement party. He and Carrie spend time together and decide to leave the party. A photo montage follows of Noah and Carrie 's relationship.
In May 2016 Ari Sandel was reported to direct the film from a script by John Whittington and Adam DeVine, while producers on the film would be Adam Saunders of Footprint Features, Mason Novick of MXN Entertainment, with Mary Viola and McG of Wonderland Sound and Vision.
Principal photography on the film began in mid-July 2016 in New Orleans.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 33 % based on 15 reviews, with an average rating of 4.7 / 10. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Filmink praised the characters for being "not only well cast but change organically through the story; there are no big corny dialogue rom - com turning points, and the characters develop gradually, you know, like normal humans do. ''
The Daily Caller 's David Hookstead gave the film a positive review and wrote in part, "Daddario was excellent, it was a fun idea, and Devine crushed it. Plus it 's interesting to think about what we would do if we found ourselves in the same situation. '' He further went on to praise Devine, calling him a "rare talent. ''
Decider 's Lea Palmieri wrote: "Devine 's ability to be charming and endearing should n't be underestimated here, and you 'll be rooting for him before you know it '', whilst Age of the Nerd exclaimed that he "carries the whole movie on his shoulders with perfection. ''
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what type of cancer is associated with the brac1 gene | BRCA1 - wikipedia
1JM7, 1JNX, 1N5O, 1OQA, 1T15, 1T29, 1T2U, 1T2V, 1Y98, 2ING, 3COJ, 3K0H, 3K0K, 3K15, 3PXA, 3PXB, 3PXC, 3PXD, 3PXE, 4IFI, 4IGK, 4JLU, 4OFB, 4U4A, 4Y18, 4Y2G
672
12189
ENSG00000012048
ENSMUSG00000017146
P38398
P48754
NM_007299 NM_007300 NM_007301 NM_007302 NM_007303 NM_007305 NM_007306
NM_009764
NP_009225 NP_009228 NP_009229 NP_009230 NP_009231
NP_033894
BRCA1 and BRCA1 (/ ˌbrækəˈwʌn /) are a human gene and its protein product, respectively. The official symbol (BRCA1, italic for the gene, nonitalic for the protein) and the official name (breast cancer 1) are maintained by the HGNC. Orthologs, styled Brca1 and Brca1, are common in other mammal species. BRCA1 is a human tumor suppressor gene (to be specific, a caretaker gene), found in all humans; its protein, also called by the synonym breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein, is responsible for repairing DNA.
BRCA1 and BRCA2 are normally expressed in the cells of breast and other tissue, where they help repair damaged DNA, or destroy cells if DNA can not be repaired. They are involved in the repair of chromosomal damage with an important role in the error - free repair of DNA double - strand breaks. If BRCA1 or BRCA2 itself is damaged by a BRCA mutation, damaged DNA is not repaired properly, and this increases the risk for breast cancer. BRCA1 and BRCA2 have been described as "breast cancer susceptibility genes '' and "breast cancer susceptibility proteins ''. The predominate allele has a normal, tumor suppressive function whereas high penetrance mutations in these genes cause a loss of tumor suppressive function which correlates with an increased risk of breast cancer.
BRCA1 combines with other tumor suppressors, DNA damage sensors and signal transducers to form a large multi-subunit protein complex known as the BRCA1 - associated genome surveillance complex (BASC). The BRCA1 protein associates with RNA polymerase II, and through the C - terminal domain, also interacts with histone deacetylase complexes. Thus, this protein plays a role in transcription, DNA repair of double - strand breaks ubiquitination, transcriptional regulation as well as other functions.
Methods to test for the likelihood of a patient with mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 developing cancer were covered by patents owned or controlled by Myriad Genetics. Myriad 's business model of offering the diagnostic test exclusively led from Myriad being a startup in 1994 to being a publicly traded company with 1200 employees and about $500 M in annual revenue in 2012; it also led to controversy over high prices and the inability to obtain second opinions from other diagnostic labs, which in turn led to the landmark Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics lawsuit.
The first evidence for the existence of a gene encoding for a DNA repair enzyme involved in breast cancer susceptibility was provided by Mary - Claire King 's laboratory at UC Berkeley in 1990. Four years later, after an international race to find it, the gene was cloned in 1994 by scientists at University of Utah, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and Myriad Genetics.
The human BRCA1 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 17 at region 2 band 1, from base pair 41,196,312 to base pair 41,277,500 (Build GRCh37 / hg19) (map). BRCA1 orthologs have been identified in most mammals for which complete genome data are available.
The BRCA1 protein contains the following domains:
This protein also contains nuclear localization signal and nuclear export signal motifs.
The human BRCA1 protein consists of four major protein domains; the Znf C3HC4 - RING domain, the BRCA1 serine domain and two BRCT domains. These domains encode approximately 27 % of BRCA1 protein. There are six known isoforms of BRCA1, with isoforms 1 and 2 comprising 1863 amino acids each.
The RING motif, a Zn finger found in eukaryotic peptides, is 40 -- 60 amino acids long and consists of eight conserved metal - binding residues, two quartets of cysteine or histidine residues that coordinate two zinc atoms. This motif contains a short anti-parallel beta - sheet, two zinc - binding loops and a central alpha helix in a small domain. This RING domain interacts with associated proteins, including BARD1, which also contains a RING motif, to form a heterodimer. The BRCA1 RING motif is flanked by alpha helices formed by residues 8 -- 22 and 81 -- 96 of the BRCA1 protein. It interacts with a homologous region in BARD1 also consisting of a RING finger flanked by two alpha - helices formed from residues 36 -- 48 and 101 -- 116. These four helices combine to form a heterodimerization interface and stabilise the BRCA1 - BARD1 heterodimer complex. Additional stabilisation is achieved by interactions between adjacent residues in the flanking region and hydrophobic interactions. The BARD1 / BRCA1 interaction is disrupted by tumorigenic amino acid substitutions in BRCA1, implying that the formation of a stable complex between these proteins may be an essential aspect of BRCA1 tumor suppression.
The ring domain is an important element of ubiquitin E3 ligases, which catalyse protein ubiquitination. Ubiquitin is a small regulatory protein found in all tissues that directs proteins to compartments within the cell. BRCA1 polypeptides, in particular Lys - 48 - linked polyubiquitin chains are dispersed throughout the resting cell nucleus, but at the start of DNA replication they gather in restrained groups that also contain BRCA2 and BARD1. BARD1 is thought to be involved in the recognition and binding of protein targets for ubiquitination. It attaches to proteins and labels them for destruction. Ubiquitination occurs via the BRCA1 fusion protein and is abolished by zinc chelation. The enzyme activity of the fusion protein is dependent on the proper folding of the ring domain.
BRCA1 serine cluster domain (SCD) spans amino acids 1280 -- 1524. A portion of the domain is located in exons 11 -- 13. High rates of mutation occur in exons 11 -- 13. Reported phosphorylation sites of BRCA1 are concentrated in the SCD, where they are phosphorylated by ATM / ATR kinases both in vitro and in vivo. ATM / ATR are kinases activated by DNA damage. Mutation of serine residues may affect localization of BRCA1 to sites of DNA damage and DNA damage response function.
The dual repeat BRCT domain of the BRCA1 protein is an elongated structure approximately 70 Å long and 30 -- 35 Å wide. The 85 -- 95 amino acid domains in BRCT can be found as single modules or as multiple tandem repeats containing two domains. Both of these possibilities can occur in a single protein in a variety of different conformations. The C - terminal BRCT region of the BRCA1 protein is essential for repair of DNA, transcription regulation and tumor suppressor function. In BRCA1 the dual tandem repeat BRCT domains are arranged in a head - to - tail - fashion in the three - dimensional structure, burying 1600 Å of hydrophobic, solvent - accessible surface area in the interface. These all contribute to the tightly packed knob - in - hole structure that comprises the interface. These homologous domains interact to control cellular responses to DNA damage. It is, therefore, no surprise that a missense mutation at the interface of these two proteins can have devastating consequences on the cell cycle, resulting in protein dysfunction and a greater risk of developing cancer. The link that joins these two homologs also needs to be considered, since its poorly defined electron density alludes to a possible complex function; the ability to flex.
BRCA1 is part of a complex that repairs double - strand breaks in DNA. The strands of the DNA double helix are continuously breaking as they become damaged. Sometimes only one strand is broken, sometimes both strands are broken simultaneously. DNA cross-linking agents are an important source of chromosome / DNA damage. Double - strand breaks occur as intermediates after the crosslinks are removed, and indeed, biallelic mutations in BRCA1 have been identified to be responsible for Fanconi Anemia, Complementation Group S, a genetic disease associated with hypersensitivity to DNA crosslinking agents. BRCA1 is part of a protein complex that repairs DNA when both strands are broken. When this happens, it is difficult for the repair mechanism to "know '' how to replace the correct DNA sequence, and there are multiple ways to attempt the repair. The double - strand repair mechanism in which BRCA1 participates is homologous recombination, where the repair proteins utilize a template of the identical homologous intact sequence from a sister chromatid, from a homologous chromosome, or from the same chromosome (depending on cell cycle phase). This DNA repair takes place with the DNA in the cell nucleus, wrapped around the histone. Several proteins, including BRCA1, arrive at the histone - DNA complex for this repair. Regulatory aspect to BRCA1 nuclear ⁄ non-nuclear distribution was first shown by the laboratory of Dr Rao in 1997
In the nucleus of many types of normal cells, the BRCA1 protein interacts with RAD51 during repair of DNA double - strand breaks. These breaks can be caused by natural radiation or other exposures, but also occur when chromosomes exchange genetic material (homologous recombination, e.g., "crossing over '' during meiosis). The BRCA2 protein, which has a function similar to that of BRCA1, also interacts with the RAD51 protein. By influencing DNA damage repair, these three proteins play a role in maintaining the stability of the human genome.
BRCA1 is also involved in another type of DNA repair, termed mismatch repair. BRCA1 interacts with the DNA mismatch repair protein MSH2. MSH2, MSH6, PARP and some other proteins involved in single - strand repair are reported to be elevated in BRCA1 - deficient mammary tumors.
A protein called valosin - containing protein (VCP, also known as p97) plays a role to recruit BRCA1 to the damaged DNA sites. After ionizing radiation, VCP is recruited to DNA lesions and cooperates with the ubiquitin ligase RNF8 to orchestrate assembly of signaling complexes for efficient DSB repair. BRCA1 interacts with VCP. BRCA1 also interacts with c - Myc, and other proteins that are critical to maintain genome stability.
BRCA1 directly binds to DNA, with higher affinity for branched DNA structures. This ability to bind to DNA contributes to its ability to inhibit the nuclease activity of the MRN complex as well as the nuclease activity of Mre11 alone. This may explain a role for BRCA1 to promote lower fidelity DNA repair by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). BRCA1 also colocalizes with γ - H2AX (histone H2AX phosphorylated on serine - 139) in DNA double - strand break repair foci, indicating it may play a role in recruiting repair factors.
Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are common environmental sources of DNA cross links that often require repairs mediated by BRCA1 containing pathways.
This DNA repair function is essential; mice with loss - of - function mutations in both BRCA1 alleles are not viable, and as of 2015 only two adults were known to have loss - of - function mutations in both alleles; both had congenital or developmental issues, and both had cancer. One was presumed to have survived to adulthood because one of the BRCA1 mutations was hypomorphic.
BRCA1 was shown to co-purify with the human RNA Polymerase II holoenzyme in HeLa extracts, implying it is a component of the holoenzyme. Later research, however, contradicted this assumption, instead showing that the predominant complex including BRCA1 in HeLa cells is a 2 megadalton complex containing SWI / SNF. SWI / SNF is a chromatin remodeling complex. Artificial tethering of BRCA1 to chromatin was shown to decondense heterochromatin, though the SWI / SNF interacting domain was not necessary for this role. BRCA1 interacts with the NELF - B (COBRA1) subunit of the NELF complex.
Certain variations of the BRCA1 gene lead to an increased risk for breast cancer as part of a hereditary breast - ovarian cancer syndrome. Researchers have identified hundreds of mutations in the BRCA1 gene, many of which are associated with an increased risk of cancer. Females with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene have up to an 80 % risk of developing breast cancer by age 90; increased risk of developing ovarian cancer is about 55 % for females with BRCA1 mutations and about 25 % for females with BRCA2 mutations.
These mutations can be changes in one or a small number of DNA base pairs (the building - blocks of DNA), and can be identified with PCR and DNA sequencing.
In some cases, large segments of DNA are rearranged. Those large segments, also called large rearrangements, can be a deletion or a duplication of one or several exons in the gene. Classical methods for mutation detection (sequencing) are unable to reveal these types of mutation. Other methods have been proposed: traditional quantitative PCR, Multiplex Ligation - dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA), and Quantitative Multiplex PCR of Short Fluorescent Fragments (QMPSF). Newer methods have also been recently proposed: heteroduplex analysis (HDA) by multi-capillary electrophoresis or also dedicated oligonucleotides array based on comparative genomic hybridization (array - CGH).
Some results suggest that hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter, which has been reported in some cancers, could be considered as an inactivating mechanism for BRCA1 expression.
A mutated BRCA1 gene usually makes a protein that does not function properly. Researchers believe that the defective BRCA1 protein is unable to help fix DNA damage leading to mutations in other genes. These mutations can accumulate and may allow cells to grow and divide uncontrollably to form a tumor. Thus, BRCA1 inactivating mutations lead to a predisposition for cancer.
BRCA1 mRNA 3 ' UTR can be bound by an miRNA, Mir - 17 microRNA. It has been suggested that variations in this miRNA along with Mir - 30 microRNA could confer susceptibility to breast cancer.
In addition to breast cancer, mutations in the BRCA1 gene also increase the risk of ovarian and prostate cancers. Moreover, precancerous lesions (dysplasia) within the Fallopian tube have been linked to BRCA1 gene mutations. Pathogenic mutations anywhere in a model pathway containing BRCA1 and BRCA2 greatly increase risks for a subset of leukemias and lymphomas.
Females having inherited a defective BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene have risks for breast and ovarian cancer that are so high and seem so selective that many mutation carriers choose to have prophylactic surgery. There has been much conjecture to explain such apparently striking tissue specificity. Major determinants of where BRCA1 / 2 hereditary cancers occur are related to tissue specificity of the cancer pathogen, the agent that causes chronic inflammation or the carcinogen. The target tissue may have receptors for the pathogen, may become selectively exposed to an inflammatory process or to a carcinogen. An innate genomic deficit in a tumor suppressor gene impairs normal responses and exacerbates the susceptibility to disease in organ targets. This theory also fits data for several tumor suppressors beyond BRCA1 or BRCA2. A major advantage of this model is that it suggests there may be some options in addition to prophylactic surgery.
BRCA1 expression is reduced or undetectable in the majority of high grade, ductal breast cancers. It has long been noted that loss of BRCA1 activity, either by germ - line mutations or by down - regulation of gene expression, leads to tumor formation in specific target tissues. In particular, decreased BRCA1 expression contributes to both sporadic and inherited breast tumor progression. Reduced expression of BRCA1 is tumorigenic because it plays an important role in the repair of DNA damages, especially double - strand breaks, by the potentially error - free pathway of homologous recombination. Since cells that lack the BRCA1 protein tend to repair DNA damages by alternative more error - prone mechanisms, the reduction or silencing of this protein generates mutations and gross chromosomal rearrangements that can lead to progression to breast cancer.
Similarly, BRCA1 expression is low in the majority (55 %) of sporadic epithelial ovarian cancers (EOCs) where EOCs are the most common type of ovarian cancer, representing approximately 90 % of ovarian cancers. In serous ovarian carcinomas, a sub-category constituting about 2 / 3 of EOCs, low BRCA1 expression occurs in more than 50 % of cases. Bowtell reviewed the literature indicating that deficient homologous recombination repair caused by BRCA1 deficiency is tumorigenic. In particular this deficiency initiates a cascade of molecular events that sculpt the evolution of high - grade serous ovarian cancer and dictate its response to therapy. Especially noted was that BRCA1 deficiency could be the cause of tumorigenesis whether due to BRCA1 mutation or any other event that causes a deficiency of BRCA1 expression.
Only about 3 % -- 8 % of all women with breast cancer carry a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2. Similarly, BRCA1 mutations are only seen in about 18 % of ovarian cancers (13 % germline mutations and 5 % somatic mutations).
Thus, while BRCA1 expression is low in the majority of these cancers, BRCA1 mutation is not a major cause of reduced expression.
BRCA1 promoter hypermethylation was present in only 13 % of unselected primary breast carcinomas. Similarly, BRCA1 promoter hypermethylation was present in only 5 % to 15 % of EOC cases.
Thus, while BRCA1 expression is low in these cancers, BRCA1 promoter methylation is only a minor cause of reduced expression.
There are a number of specific microRNAs, when overexpressed, that directly reduce expression of specific DNA repair proteins (see MicroRNA section DNA repair and cancer) In the case of breast cancer, microRNA - 182 (miR - 182) specifically targets BRCA1. Breast cancers can be classified based on receptor status or histology, with triple - negative breast cancer (15 % -- 25 % of breast cancers), HER2+ (15 % -- 30 % of breast cancers), ER+ / PR+ (about 70 % of breast cancers), and Invasive lobular carcinoma (about 5 % -- 10 % of invasive breast cancer). All four types of breast cancer were found to have an average of about 100-fold increase in miR - 182, compared to normal breast tissue. In breast cancer cell lines, there is an inverse correlation of BRCA1 protein levels with miR - 182 expression. Thus it appears that much of the reduction or absence of BRCA1 in high grade ductal breast cancers may be due to over-expressed miR - 182.
In addition to miR - 182, a pair of almost identical microRNAs, miR - 146a and miR - 146b - 5p, also repress BRCA1 expression. These two microRNAs are over-expressed in triple - negative tumors and their over-expression results in BRCA1 inactivation. Thus, miR - 146a and / or miR - 146b - 5p may also contribute to reduced expression of BRCA1 in these triple - negative breast cancers.
In both serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma (the precursor lesion to high grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HG - SOC)), and in HG - SOC itself, miR - 182 is overexpressed in about 70 % of cases. In cells with over-expressed miR - 182, BRCA1 remained low, even after exposure to ionizing radiation (which normally raises BRCA1 expression). Thus much of the reduced or absent BRCA1 in HG - SOC may be due to over-expressed miR - 182.
Another microRNA known to reduce expression of BRCA1 in ovarian cancer cells is miR - 9. Among 58 tumors from patients with stage IIIC or stage IV serous ovarian cancers (HG - SOG), an inverse correlation was found between expressions of miR - 9 and BRCA1, so that increased miR - 9 may also contribute to reduced expression of BRCA1 in these ovarian cancers.
DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer, and deficiencies in DNA repair appears to underlie many forms of cancer. If DNA repair is deficient, DNA damage tends to accumulate. Such excess DNA damage may increase mutational errors during DNA replication due to error - prone translesion synthesis. Excess DNA damage may also increase epigenetic alterations due to errors during DNA repair. Such mutations and epigenetic alterations may give rise to cancer. The frequent microRNA - induced deficiency of BRCA1 in breast and ovarian cancers likely contribute to the progression of those cancers.
All germ - line BRCA1 mutations identified to date have been inherited, suggesting the possibility of a large "founder '' effect in which a certain mutation is common to a well - defined population group and can, in theory, be traced back to a common ancestor. Given the complexity of mutation screening for BRCA1, these common mutations may simplify the methods required for mutation screening in certain populations. Analysis of mutations that occur with high frequency also permits the study of their clinical expression. Examples of manifestations of a founder effect are seen among Ashkenazi Jews. Three mutations in BRCA1 have been reported to account for the majority of Ashkenazi Jewish patients with inherited BRCA1 - related breast and / or ovarian cancer: 185delAG, 188del11 and 5382insC in the BRCA1 gene. In fact, it has been shown that if a Jewish woman does not carry a BRCA1 185delAG, BRCA1 5382insC founder mutation, it is highly unlikely that a different BRCA1 mutation will be found. Additional examples of founder mutations in BRCA1 are given in Table 1 (mainly derived from).
As women age, their reproductive performance declines, leading to menopause. This decline is tied to a reduction in the number of ovarian follicles. Although about 1 million oocytes are present at birth in the human ovary, only about 500 (about 0.05 %) of these ovulate, and the rest are wasted. The decline in ovarian reserve appears to occur at a constantly increasing rate with age, and leads to nearly complete exhaustion of the reserve by about age 52. As ovarian reserve and fertility decline with age, there is also a parallel increase in pregnancy failure and meiotic errors, resulting in chromosomally abnormal conceptions.
Women with a germ - line BRCA1 mutation appear to have a diminished oocyte reserve and decreased fertility compared to normally aging women. Furthermore, women with an inherited BRCA1 mutation undergo menopause prematurely. Since BRCA1 is a key DNA repair protein, these findings suggest that naturally occurring DNA damages in oocytes are repaired less efficiently in women with a BRCA1 defect, and that this repair inefficiency leads to early reproductive failure.
As noted above, the BRCA1 protein plays a key role in homologous recombinational repair. This is the only known cellular process that can accurately repair DNA double - strand breaks. DNA double - strand breaks accumulate with age in humans and mice in primordial follicles. Primordial follicles contain oocytes that are at an intermediate (prophase I) stage of meiosis. Meiosis is the general process in eukaryotic organisms by which germ cells are formed, and it is likely an adaptation for removing DNA damages, especially double - strand breaks, from germ line DNA. (Also see article Meiosis). Homologous recombinational repair employing BRCA1 is especially promoted during meiosis. It was found that expression of 4 key genes necessary for homologous recombinational repair of DNA double - strand breaks (BRCA1, MRE11, RAD51 and ATM) decline with age in the oocytes of humans and mice, leading to the hypothesis that DNA double - strand break repair is necessary for the maintenance of oocyte reserve and that a decline in efficiency of repair with age plays a role in ovarian aging.
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. At diagnosis, almost 70 % of persons with NSCLC have locally advanced or metastatic disease. Persons with NSCLC are often treated with therapeutic platinum compounds (e.g. cisplatin, carboplatin or oxaliplatin) that cause inter-strand cross-links in DNA. Among individuals with NSCLC, low expression of BRCA1 in the primary tumor correlated with improved survival after platinum - containing chemotherapy. This correlation implies that low BRCA1 in the cancer, and the consequent low level of DNA repair, causes vulnerability of the cancer to treatment by the DNA cross-linking agents. High BRCA1 may protect cancer cells by acting in a pathway that removes the damages in DNA introduced by the platinum drugs. Thus the level of BRCA1 expression is a potentially important tool for tailoring chemotherapy in lung cancer management.
Level of BRCA1 expression is also relevant to ovarian cancer treatment. Patients having sporadic ovarian cancer who were treated with platinum drugs had longer median survival times if their BRCA1 expression was low compared to patients with higher BRCA1 expression (46 compared to 33 months).
A patent application for the isolated BRCA1 gene and cancer promoting mutations discussed above, as well as methods to diagnose the likelihood of getting breast cancer, was filed by the University of Utah, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and Myriad Genetics in 1994; over the next year, Myriad, (in collaboration with investigators at Endo Recherche, Inc., HSC Research & Development Limited Partnership, and University of Pennsylvania), isolated and sequenced the BRCA2 gene and identified key mutations, and the first BRCA2 patent was filed in the U.S. by Myriad and other institutions in 1995. Myriad is the exclusive licensee of these patents and has enforced them in the US against clinical diagnostic labs. This business model led from Myriad being a startup in 1994 to being a publicly traded company with 1200 employees and about $500 M in annual revenue in 2012; it also led to controversy over high prices and the inability to get second opinions from other diagnostic labs, which in turn led to the landmark Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics lawsuit. The patents began to expire in 2014.
According to an article published in the journal, Genetic Medicine, in 2010, "The patent story outside the United States is more complicated... For example, patents have been obtained but the patents are being ignored by provincial health systems in Canada. In Australia and the UK, Myriad 's licensee permitted use by health systems, but announced a change of plans in August 2008. Only a single mutation has been patented in Myriad 's lone European - wide patent, although some patents remain under review of an opposition proceeding. In effect, the United States is the only jurisdiction where Myriad 's strong patent position has conferred sole - provider status. '' Peter Meldrum, CEO of Myriad Genetics, has acknowledged that Myriad has "other competitive advantages that may make such (patent) enforcement unnecessary '' in Europe.
Legal decisions surrounding the BRCA1 and BRCA2 patents will affect the field of genetic testing in general. A June 2013 article, in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics (No. 12 - 398), quoted the US Supreme Court 's unanimous ruling that, "A naturally occurring DNA segment is a product of nature and not patent eligible merely because it has been isolated, '' invalidating Myriad 's patents on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. However, the Court also held that manipulation of a gene to create something not found in nature could still be eligible for patent protection. The Federal Court of Australia came to the opposite conclusion, upholding the validity of an Australian Myriad Genetics patent over the BRCA1 gene in February 2013. The Federal Court also rejected an appeal in September 2014. Yvonne D'Arcy won her case against US - based biotech company Myriad Genetics in the High Court of Australia. In their unanimous decision on October 7, 2015 the "high court found that an isolated nucleic acid, coding for a BRCA1 protein, with specific variations from the norm that are indicative of susceptibility to breast cancer and ovarian cancer was not a ' patentable invention. ' ''
BRCA1 has been shown to interact with the following proteins:
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can i refuse to give id to police | Stop and identify statutes - wikipedia
"Stop and identify '' statutes are statutory laws in the United States that authorize police to legally obtain the identification of someone whom they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime. If there is no reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, is being committed, or is about to be committed, an individual is not required to provide identification, even in "Stop and ID '' states.
The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968) established that it is constitutionally permissible for police to temporarily detain a person based on an articulable reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, and to conduct a patdown for weapons based on a reasonable belief that the person is armed. The question whether it is constitutionally permissible for the police to demand that a detainee provide his or her name was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177 (2004), which held that the name disclosure did not violate the Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. The Hiibel case also held that, because Hiibel had no reasonable belief that his name would be used to incriminate him, the name disclosure did not violate the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination; however, the Court left open the possibility that Fifth Amendment right might apply in situations where there was a reasonable belief that giving a name could be incriminating. The Court accepted the Nevada supreme court interpretation of the Nevada statute that a detained person could satisfy the Nevada law by simply stating his name. The Court did not rule on whether particular identification cards could be required, though it did mention one state law requiring "credible and reliable '' identification had been struck down for vagueness.
In the United States, interactions between police and citizens fall into three general categories: consensual ("contact '' or "conversation ''), detention (often called a Terry stop, after Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)), or arrest. "Stop and identify '' laws pertain to detentions.
Different obligations apply to drivers of motor vehicles, who generally are required by state vehicle codes to present a driver 's license to police upon request.
At any time, police may approach a person and ask questions. The objective may simply be a friendly conversation; however, the police also may suspect involvement in a crime, but lack "specific and articulable facts '' that would justify a detention or arrest, and hope to obtain these facts from the questioning. The person approached is not required to identify himself or answer any other questions, and may leave at any time. Police are not usually required to tell a person that he is free to decline to answer questions and go about his business; however, a person can usually determine whether the interaction is consensual by asking, "Am I free to go? ''
A person is detained when circumstances are such that a reasonable person would believe he is not free to leave.
Police may briefly detain a person if they have reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. Many state laws explicitly grant this authority. In Terry v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court established that police may conduct a limited search for weapons (known as a "frisk '') if they reasonably suspect that the person to be detained may be armed and dangerous.
Police may question a person detained in a Terry stop, but in general, the detainee is not required to answer. However, many states have "stop and identify '' laws that explicitly require a person detained under the conditions of Terry to identify himself to police, and in some cases, provide additional information.
Before Hiibel, it was unresolved whether a detainee could be arrested and prosecuted for refusing to disclose his name. Authority on this issue was split among the federal circuit courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court twice expressly refused to address the question. In Hiibel, the Court held, in a 5 -- 4 decision, that a Nevada "stop and identify '' law did not violate the United States Constitution. The Court opinion implied that a detainee was not required to produce written identification, but could satisfy the requirement merely by stating his name. Some "stop and identify '' laws do not require that a detainee identify himself, but allow refusal to do so to be considered along with other factors in determining whether there is probable cause to arrest. In some states, providing a false name is an offense.
As of February 2011, the Supreme Court has not addressed the validity of requirements that a detainee provide information other than his name, however some states such as Arizona have specifically codified that a detained person is not required to provide any information aside from their full name.
A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest. But it is not always obvious when a detention becomes an arrest. After making an arrest, police may search a person, his or her belongings, and his or her immediate surroundings.
Whether an arrested person must identify himself may depend on the jurisdiction in which the arrest occurs. If a person is under arrest and police wish to question him, they are required to inform the person of his Fifth - Amendment right to remain silent by giving a Miranda warning. However, Miranda does not apply to biographical data necessary to complete booking. It is not clear whether a "stop and identify '' law could compel giving one 's name after being arrested, although some states have laws that specifically require an arrested person to give his name and other biographical information, and some state courts have held that refusal to give one 's name constitutes obstructing a public officer. As a practical matter, an arrested person who refused to give his name would have little chance of obtaining a prompt release.
States not listed do not have a requirement to show Identification to law enforcement officers. Some states listed have "Stop and ID '' laws which may or may not require someone to identify themselves during an investigative detention.
While Wisconsin statutes allow law enforcement officers to "demand '' ID, there is no statutory requirement to provide them ID nor is there a penalty for refusing to, hence Wisconsin is not a must ID state. Henes v. Morrissey, 194 Wis. 2d 338, 353 - 54 (1995). Annotations for Wisconsin § 968.24, however, state "The principles of Terry permit a state to require a suspect to disclose his or her name in the course of a Terry stop and allow imposing criminal penalties for failing to do so '', citing Hiibel as authority. Hiibel held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during police investigations did not violate the Fourth Amendment if the statute first required reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement. The Wisconsin Supreme Court held in Henes v. Morrissey that "A crime is made up of two parts: proscribed conduct and a prescribed penalty. "The former without the latter is no crime... In this case no statute penalizes a refusal to identify oneself to a law enforcement officer, and no penalty is set forth in the statute for refusing to identify oneself. This statute is part of Chapter 968 entitled "Commencement of Criminal Proceedings. By its very terms sec. 968.24 empowers a law enforcement officer to stop and question "in the vicinity where the person was stopped. '' The statute does not authorize a law enforcement officer to make an arrest. '' Additionally Henes v. Morrissey held that a detained person not providing their name is n't on its own a violation of 946.41 Resisting or obstructing officer as the act of not identifying ones self is n't a false statement with intent to mislead the officer in the performance of his or her duty.
Neither is Illinois, since the Illinois Second District Appellate Court Decision in People v. Fernandez, 2011 IL App (2d) 100473, which specifically states that section 107 - 14 is found in the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1963, not the Criminal Code of 1961, and governs the conduct of police officers. The fact remains that there is no corresponding duty in the Criminal Code of 1961 for a suspect to identify himself or herself.
By contrast, in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177, 181 (2004), a Nevada statute (Nev. Rev. Stat. § 171.123 (2003)) specifically required that a person subjected to a Terry stop "shall identify himself. '' The Supreme Court held that the statute was constitutional.
As of February 2011, there is no U.S. federal law requiring that an individual identify himself during a Terry stop, but Hiibel held that states may enact such laws, provided the law requires the officer to have reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and 24 states have done so. The opinion in Hiibel implied that persons detained by police in jurisdictions with constitutional "stop and identify '' laws listed are obligated to identify themselves, and that persons detained in other jurisdictions are not. The issue may not be that simple, however, for several reasons:
As of February 2011, the validity of a law requiring that a person detained provide anything more than stating his or her name has not come before the U.S. Supreme Court.
In states whose "stop and identify laws '' do not directly impose penalties, a lawful arrest must be for violation of some other law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer ''. For example, the Nevada "stop and identify '' law challenged in Hiibel did not impose a penalty on a person who refused to comply, but the Justice Court of Union Township, Nevada, determined that Hiibels refusal to identify himself constituted a violation of Nevada "obstructing '' law. A similar conclusion regarding the interaction between Utah "stop and identify '' and "obstructing '' laws was reached in Oliver v. Woods (10th Cir. 2000).
"Stop and identify '' laws in different states that appear to be nearly identical may be different in effect because of interpretations by state courts. For example, California "stop and identify '' law, Penal Code § 647 (e) had wording similar to the Nevada law upheld in Hiibel, but a California appellate court, in People v. Solomon (1973), 33 Cal. App. 3d 429 construed the law to require "credible and reliable '' identification that carries a "reasonable assurance '' of its authenticity. Using this construction, the U.S. Supreme Court held the law to be void for vagueness in Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983).
Some courts have recognized a distinction authorizing police to demand identifying information and specifically imposing an obligation of a suspect to respond. Other courts have apparently interpreted demand to impose an obligation on the detainee to comply.
Wording and interpretation by state courts of "obstructing '' laws also varies; for example, New York "obstructing '' law apparently requires physical rather than simply verbal obstruction; likewise, a violation of the Colorado "obstructing '' law appears to require use or threat of use of physical force. However, the Colorado Supreme Court held in Dempsey v. People, No. 04SC362 (2005) (PDF) that refusing to provide identification was an element in the "totality of the circumstances '' that could constitute obstructing an officer, even when actual physical interference was not employed. Utah "obstructing '' law does not require a physical act, but merely a failure to follow a "lawful order... necessary to effect the... detention ''; a divided court in Oliver v. Woods concluded that failure to present identification constituted a violation of that law.
It is not universally agreed that, absent a "stop and identify law '', there is no obligation for a detainee to identify himself. For example, as the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Hiibel, California "stop and identify '' statute was voided in Kolender v. Lawson. But in People v. Long, decided four years after Kolender, a California appellate court found no constitutional impropriety in a police officer 's demand for written identification from a detainee. The issue before the Long court was a request for suppression of evidence uncovered in a search of the defendant 's wallet, so the issue of refusal to present identification was not directly addressed; however, the author of the Long opinion had apparently concluded in a 1980 case that failure to identify oneself did not provide a basis for arrest. Nonetheless, some cite Long in maintaining that refusal to present written identification constitutes obstructing an officer. Others disagree, and maintain that persons detained by police in California can not be compelled to identify themselves.
Some courts, e.g., State v. Flynn (Wis. 1979) and People v. Loudermilk (Calif. 1987) have held that police may perform a search for written identification if a suspect refuses to provide it; a later California decision, People v. Garcia (2006) strongly disagreed.
In the case of Utah v. Strieff (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an officer 's stop of Edward Strieff and his demand for identification from Strieff was unlawful under Utah state law, but that the evidence collected pursuant to the stop was admissible due to the determination that Strieff was subject to a pre-existing arrest warrant. Therefore, the pre-existing warrant "attenuated '' the unlawful stop - and - identify.
Some legal organizations, such as the National Lawyers Guild and the ACLU of Northern California, recommend to either remain silent or to identify oneself whether or not a jurisdiction has a "stop and identify '' law:
In a more recent pamphlet, the ACLU of Northern California elaborated on this further, recommending that a person detained by police should:
Many countries allow police to demand identification and arrest people who do not carry any. Normally these countries provide all residents with national identity cards, which have the identity information the police would want to know, including citizenship. Foreign visitors need to have their passport available to show at all times. In some cases national identity cards from certain other countries are accepted.
For example, in Portugal it is compulsory to carry the state ID card at all times. This card named Cartão de Cidadão - Citizen Card is an electronic card which includes biometric information, id number, social security number, fiscal information, place of birth, etc. Police can only ask for the ID card in public or a place open to public and only if there is a reasonable suspicion the person committed a crime. A certified copy of the ID card can be presented in such situations. If a citizen does not carry the ID card or its certified copy, the police will escort the person to the police department to remain detained until clear identification can be obtained.
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what is the maximum length of cat 6 cable | Category 6 cable - wikipedia
Category 6 cable, commonly referred to as Cat 6, is a standardized twisted pair cable for Ethernet and other network physical layers that is backward compatible with the Category 5 / 5e and Category 3 cable standards.
Compared with Cat 5 and Cat 5e, Cat 6 features more stringent specifications for crosstalk and system noise. The cable standard also specifies performance of up to 250 MHz compared to 100 MHz for Cat 5 and Cat 5e.
Whereas Category 6 cable has a reduced maximum length of 55 meters when used for 10GBASE - T, Category 6A cable (or Augmented Category 6) is characterized to 500 MHz and has improved alien crosstalk characteristics, allowing 10GBASE - T to be run for the same 100 meter maximum distance as previous Ethernet variants.
Category 6 cable can be identified by the printing on the side of the cable sheath.
Cat 6 patch cables are normally terminated in 8P8C modular connectors. If Cat 6 rated patch cables, jacks and connectors are not used with Cat 6 wiring, overall performance is degraded and may not meet Cat 6 performance specifications.
Connectors use either T568A or T568B pin assignments; performance is comparable provided both ends of a cable are terminated identically.
The standard for Category 6A is ANSI / TIA - 568 - C. 1, defined by the TIA for enhanced performance standards for twisted pair cable systems. It was defined in 2009. Category 6A is defined at frequencies up to 500 MHz -- twice that of Cat 6.
Category 6A performs at improved specifications, in particular in the area of alien crosstalk as compared to Cat 6 UTP (unshielded twisted pair), which exhibited high alien noise in high frequencies.
The global cabling standard ISO / IEC 11801 has been extended by the addition of amendment 2. This amendment defines new specifications for Cat 6A components and Class E permanent links. These new global Cat 6A / Class E specifications require a new generation of connecting hardware offering far superior performance compared to the existing products that are based on the American TIA standard.
The most important point is a performance difference between ISO / IEC and EIA / TIA component specifications for the NEXT transmission parameter. At a frequency of 500 MHz, an ISO / IEC Cat 6A connector performs 3 dB better than a Cat 6A connector that conforms with the EIA / TIA specification. 3 dB equals 50 % reduction of near - end crosstalk noise signal power; see Half - power point.
Confusion therefore arises because of the different naming conventions and performance benchmarks laid down by the International ISO / IEC and American TIA / EIA standards, which in turn are different from the regional European standard, EN 50173 - 1. In broad terms, the ISO standard for Cat 6A is the highest, followed by the European standard, and then the American (1 on 1 matching capability).
When used for 10 / 100 / 1000 BASE - T, the maximum allowed length of a Cat 6 cable is up to 100 meters (328 ft). This consists of 90 meters (295 ft) of solid "horizontal '' cabling between the patch panel and the wall jack, plus 5 meters (16 ft) of stranded patch cable between each jack and the attached device. For 10GBASE - T, an unshielded Cat 6 cable should not exceed 55 meters.
Category 6 and 6A cable must be properly installed and terminated to meet specifications. The cable must not be kinked or bent too tightly (the bend radius should be at least four times the outer diameter of the cable). The wire pairs must not be untwisted and the outer jacket must not be stripped back more than 0.5 in (12.7 mm).
Cable shielding may be required in order to improve a Cat 6 cable 's performance in high electromagnetic interference (EMI) environments. This shielding reduces the corrupting effect of EMI on the cable 's data. Shielding is typically maintained from one cable end to the other using a drain wire that runs through the cable alongside the twisted pairs. The shield 's electrical connection to the chassis on each end is made through the jacks. The requirement for ground connections at both cable ends creates the possibility that a ground loop may result if one of the networked chassis is at different instantaneous electrical potential with respect to its mate. This undesirable situation may compel currents to flow between chassis through the network cable shield, and these currents may in turn induce detrimental noise in the signal being carried by the cable.
Category 6e is not a standard, and is frequently misused because category 5 followed with 5e as an enhancement on category 5. Soon after the ratification of Cat 6, a number of manufacturers began offering cable labeled as "Category 6e ''. Their intent was to suggest their offering was an upgrade to the Category 6 standard -- presumably naming it after Category 5e. However, no legitimate Category 6e standard exists, and Cat 6e is not a recognized standard by the Telecommunications Industry Association. Category 7 is an ISO standard, but not a TIA standard. Cat 7 is already in place as a shielded cable solution with non-traditional connectors that are not backward - compatible with category 3 through 6A. Category 8 is the next UTP cabling offering to be backward compatible.
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the european centre of excellence for countering hybrid threats | European Centre of Excellence for Countering hybrid threats - wikipedia
The European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE; Finnish: Euroopan hybridiuhkien torjunnan osaamiskeskus) is an intergovernmental think tank based in Helsinki, Finland, focusing on responses to hybrid threats under the auspices of the European Union (EU) and NATO.
Hybrid CoE is described as an in - house think tank that conducts training courses, hosts workshops to policymakers and practitioners, and produces white papers on hybrid threats, such as weaknesses in an electrical grid or possible exploitation of vaguely written legislation. The Centre was formally established on 11 April 2017 under Finnish law with a memorandum of understanding between eight European states and the United States and in alignment with EU and NATO decisions. Three more European states signed the memorandum later. The Centre was inaugurated on 3 October 2017 and allotted a budget of 1.5 million euros. It is located in the Sörnäinen neighbourhood of Helsinki and was manned by fifteen persons in 2018 with international expert networks to support them.
Coordinates: 60 ° 11 ′ 02 '' N 24 ° 57 ′ 43 '' E / 60.183854 ° N 24.961891 ° E / 60.183854; 24.961891
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when did credit and debit cards come out | Debit card - Wikipedia
A debit card (also known as a bank card, plastic card or check card) is a plastic payment card that can be used instead of cash when making purchases. It is similar to a credit card, but unlike a credit card, the money comes directly from the user 's bank account when performing a transaction.
Some cards may carry a stored value with which a payment is made, while most relay a message to the cardholder 's bank to withdraw funds from a payer 's designated bank account. In some cases, the primary account number is assigned exclusively for use on the Internet and there is no physical card.
In many countries, the use of debit cards has become so widespread that their volume has overtaken or entirely replaced cheques and, in some instances, cash transactions. The development of debit cards, unlike credit cards and charge cards, has generally been country specific resulting in a number of different systems around the world, which were often incompatible. Since the mid-2000s, a number of initiatives have allowed debit cards issued in one country to be used in other countries and allowed their use for internet and phone purchases.
Unlike credit and charge cards, payments using a debit card are immediately transferred from the cardholder 's designated bank account, instead of them paying the money back at a later date.
Debit cards usually also allow for instant withdrawal of cash, acting as an ATM card for withdrawing cash. Merchants may also offer cashback facilities to customers, where a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchase.
There are currently three ways that debit card transactions are processed: EFTPOS (also known as online debit or PIN debit), offline debit (also known as signature debit), and the Electronic Purse Card System. One physical card can include the functions of all three types, so that it can be used in a number of different circumstances.
Although the four largest bank card issuers (American Express, Discover Card, MasterCard, and Visa) all offer debit cards, there are many other types of debit card, each accepted only within a particular country or region, for example Switch (now: Maestro) and Solo in the United Kingdom, Interac in Canada, Carte Bleue in France, EC electronic cash (formerly Eurocheque) in Germany, UnionPay in China, RuPay in India and EFTPOS cards in Australia and New Zealand. The need for cross-border compatibility and the advent of the euro recently led to many of these card networks (such as Switzerland 's "EC direkt, '' Austria 's "Bankomatkasse, '' and Switch in the United Kingdom) being re-branded with the internationally recognized Maestro logo, which is part of the MasterCard brand. Some debit cards are dual branded with the logo of the (former) national card as well as Maestro (for example, EC cards in Germany, Switch and Solo in the UK, Pinpas cards in the Netherlands, Bancontact cards in Belgium, etc.). The use of a debit card system allows operators to package their product more effectively while monitoring customer spending.
Online debit cards require electronic authorization of every transaction and the debits are reflected in the user 's account immediately. The transaction may be additionally secured with the personal identification number (PIN) authentication system; some online cards require such authentication for every transaction, essentially becoming enhanced automatic teller machine (ATM) cards.
One difficulty with using online debit cards is the necessity of an electronic authorization device at the point of sale (POS) and sometimes also a separate PINpad to enter the PIN, although this is becoming commonplace for all card transactions in many countries.
Overall, the online debit card is generally viewed as superior to the offline debit card because of its more secure authentication system and live status, which alleviates problems with processing lag on transactions that may only issue online debit cards. Some on - line debit systems are using the normal authentication processes of Internet banking to provide real - time online debit transactions.
Offline debit cards have the logos of major credit cards (for example, Visa or MasterCard) or major debit cards (for example, Maestro in the United Kingdom and other countries, but not the United States) and are used at the point of sale like a credit card (with payer 's signature). This type of debit card may be subject to a daily limit, and / or a maximum limit equal to the current / checking account balance from which it draws funds. Transactions conducted with offline debit cards require 2 -- 3 days to be reflected on users ' account balances.
In some countries and with some banks and merchant service organizations, a "credit '' or offline debit transaction is without cost to the purchaser beyond the face value of the transaction, while a fee may be charged for a "debit '' or online debit transaction (although it is often absorbed by the retailer). Other differences are that online debit purchasers may opt to withdraw cash in addition to the amount of the debit purchase (if the merchant supports that functionality); also, from the merchant 's standpoint, the merchant pays lower fees on online debit transaction as compared to "credit '' (offline).
Smart - card - based electronic purse systems (in which value is stored on the card chip, not in an externally recorded account, so that machines accepting the card need no network connectivity) are in use throughout Europe since the mid-1990s, most notably in Germany (Geldkarte), Austria (Quick Wertkarte), the Netherlands (Chipknip), Belgium (Proton), Switzerland (CASH) and France (Moneo, which is usually carried by a debit card). In Austria and Germany, almost all current bank cards now include electronic purses, whereas the electronic purse has been recently phased out in the Netherlands.
Prepaid debit cards that can be reloaded are also called reloadable debit cards.
The primary market for prepaid debit cards has traditionally been unbanked people; that is, people who do not use banks or credit unions for their financial transactions. But prepaid cards also appeal to other users attracted by their advantages.
Advantages of prepaid debit cards include being safer than carrying cash, worldwide functionality due to Visa and MasterCard merchant acceptance, not having to worry about paying a credit card bill or going into debt, the opportunity for anyone over the age of 18 to apply and be accepted without regard to credit quality, and the option to directly deposit paychecks and government benefits onto the card for free.
If the card provider offers an insecure website for letting you check the card 's balance, this could give an attacker access to the card information. If you lose the card, and have not somehow registered it, you likely lose the money. If a provider has technical issues, the money might not be accessible when you need it. Some companies ' payment systems do not appear to accept prepaid debit cards. And there is a risk that prolific use of prepaid debit cards could lead data provider companies to miscategorize you in unfortunate ways.
Some of the first companies to enter this market were: MiCash, RushCard, Netspend, and Green Dot who gained market share as a result of being first to market. However, since 1999, there have been several new providers, such as TransCash, 247card, iKobo. These prepaid card companies offer a number of benefits, such as money remittance services, card - to - card transfers, and the ability to apply without a social security number.
In 2009 a company called PEX Card launched a corporate expense card service aimed at business users.
As of 2017, many other companies also offer the cards.
As of 2013, several city governments (including Oakland, California and Chicago, Illinois) are now offering prepaid debit cards, either as part of a municipal ID card (for people such as illegal immigrants who are unable to obtain a state driver 's license or DMV ID card) in the case of Oakland, or in conjunction with a prepaid transit pass (Chicago). These cards have been heavily criticized for their higher - than - average fees, including some (such as a flat fee added onto every purchase made with the card) that similar products offered by Green Dot and American Express do not have.
The U.S. federal government uses prepaid debit cards to make benefits payments to people who do not have bank accounts. In 2008, the U.S. Treasury Department paired with Comerica Bank to offer the Direct Express Debit MasterCard prepaid debit card.
In July 2013, the Association of Government Accountants released a report on government use of prepaid cards, concluding that such programs offer a number of advantages to governments and those who receive payments on a prepaid card rather than by check. The prepaid card programs benefit payments largely for cost savings they offer and provide easier access to cash for recipients, as well as increased security. The report also advises that governments should consider replacing any remaining cheque - based payments with prepaid card programs in order to realize substantial savings for taxpayers, as well as benefits for payees.
In January 2016, the UK government introduced fee - free basic bank accounts for all, having a significant impact on the prepaid industry, including the departure of a number of firms.
Consumer protections vary, depending on the network used. Visa and MasterCard, for instance, prohibit minimum and maximum purchase sizes, surcharges, and arbitrary security procedures on the part of merchants. Merchants are usually charged higher transaction fees for credit transactions, since debit network transactions are less likely to be fraudulent. This may lead them to "steer '' customers to debit transactions. Consumers disputing charges may find it easier to do so with a credit card, since the money will not immediately leave their control. Fraudulent charges on a debit card can also cause problems with a checking account because the money is withdrawn immediately and may thus result in an overdraft or bounced checks. In some cases debit card - issuing banks will promptly refund any disputed charges until the matter can be settled, and in some jurisdictions the consumer liability for unauthorized charges is the same for both debit and credit cards.
In some countries, like India and Sweden, the consumer protection is the same regardless of the network used. Some banks set minimum and maximum purchase sizes, mostly for online - only cards. However, this has nothing to do with the card networks, but rather with the bank 's judgement of the person 's age and credit records. Any fees that the customers have to pay to the bank are the same regardless of whether the transaction is conducted as a credit or as a debit transaction, so there is no advantage for the customers to choose one transaction mode over another. Shops may add surcharges to the price of the goods or services in accordance with laws allowing them to do so. Banks consider the purchases as having been made at the moment when the card was swiped, regardless of when the purchase settlement was made. Regardless of which transaction type was used, the purchase may result in an overdraft because the money is considered to have left the account at the moment of the card swiping.
Debit cards and secured credit cards are popular among college students who have not yet established a credit history. Debit cards may also be used by expatriated workers to send money home to their families holding an affiliated debit card.
To the consumer, a debit transaction is perceived as occurring in real - time; i.e. the money is withdrawn from their account immediately following the authorization request from the merchant, which in many countries, is the case when making an online debit purchase. However, when a purchase is made using the "credit '' (offline debit) option, the transaction merely places an authorization hold on the customer 's account; funds are not actually withdrawn until the transaction is reconciled and hard - posted to the customer 's account, usually a few days later. However, the previous sentence applies to all kinds of transaction types, at least when using a card issued by a European bank. This is in contrast to a typical credit card transaction; though it can also have a lag time of a few days before the transaction is posted to the account, it can be many days to a month or more before the consumer makes repayment with actual money.
Because of this, in the case of a benign or malicious error by the merchant or bank, a debit transaction may cause more serious problems (for example, money not accessible; overdrawn account) than in the case of a credit card transaction (for example, credit not accessible; over credit limit). This is especially true in the United States, where check fraud is a crime in every state, but exceeding your credit limit is not.
Debit cards may also be used on the Internet either with or without using a PIN. Internet transactions may be conducted in either online or offline mode, although shops accepting online - only cards are rare in some countries (such as Sweden), while they are common in other countries (such as the Netherlands). For a comparison, PayPal offers the customer to use an online - only Maestro card if the customer enters a Dutch address of residence, but not if the same customer enters a Swedish address of residence.
Internet purchases can be authenticated by the consumer entering their PIN if the merchant has enabled a secure online PIN pad, in which case the transaction is conducted in debit mode. Otherwise, transactions may be conducted in either credit or debit mode (which is sometimes, but not always, indicated on the receipt), and this has nothing to do with whether the transaction was conducted in online or offline mode, since both credit and debit transactions may be conducted in both modes.
In some countries, banks tend to levy a small fee for each debit card transaction. In some countries (for example, the UK) the merchants bear all the costs and customers are not charged. There are many people who routinely use debit cards for all transactions, no matter how small. Some (small) retailers refuse to accept debit cards for small transactions, where paying the transaction fee would absorb the profit margin on the sale, making the transaction uneconomic for the retailer.
The banks in Angola issue by official regulation only one brand of debit cards: Multicaixa, which is also the brand name of the one and only network of ATMs and POS terminals.
ArCa (Armenian Card) - a national system of debit (ArCa Debit and ArCa Classic) and credit (ArCa Gold, ArCa Business, ArCA Platinum, ArCa Affinity and ArCa Co-branded) cards popular in the Republic of Armenia. Established in 2000 by 17 largest Armenian banks.
Debit cards in Australia are called different names depending on the issuing bank: Commonwealth Bank of Australia: Keycard; Westpac Banking Corporation: Handycard; National Australia Bank: FlexiCard; ANZ Bank: Access card; Bendigo Bank: Cashcard.
EFTPOS is very popular in Australia and has been operating there since the 1980s. EFTPOS - enabled cards are accepted at almost all swipe terminals able to accept credit cards, regardless of the bank that issued the card, including Maestro cards issued by foreign banks, with most businesses accepting them, with 450,000 point of sale terminals.
EFTPOS cards can also be used to deposit and withdraw cash over the counter at Australia Post outlets participating in GiroPost, just as if the transaction was conducted at a bank branch, even if the bank branch is closed. Electronic transactions in Australia are generally processed via the Telstra Argent and Optus Transact Plus network - which has recently superseded the old Transcend network in the last few years. Most early keycards were only usable for EFTPOS and at ATM or bank branches, whilst the new debit card system works in the same way as a credit card, except it will only use funds in the specified bank account. This means that, among other advantages, the new system is suitable for electronic purchases without a delay of two to four days for bank - to - bank money transfers.
Australia operates both electronic credit card transaction authorization and traditional EFTPOS debit card authorization systems, the difference between the two being that EFTPOS transactions are authorized by a personal identification number (PIN) while credit card transactions can additionally be authorized using a contactless payment mechanism. If the user fails to enter the correct pin three times, the consequences range from the card being locked out for a minimum 24 - hour period, a phone call or trip to the branch to reactivate with a new PIN, the card being cut up by the merchant, or in the case of an ATM, being kept inside the machine, both of which require a new card to be ordered.
Generally credit card transaction costs are borne by the merchant with no fee applied to the end user (although a direct consumer surcharge of 0.5 - 3 % is not uncommon) while EFTPOS transactions cost the consumer an applicable withdrawal fee charged by their bank.
The introduction of Visa and MasterCard debit cards along with regulation in the settlement fees charged by the operators of both EFTPOS and credit cards by the Reserve Bank has seen a continuation in the increasing ubiquity of credit card use among Australians and a general decline in the profile of EFTPOS. However, the regulation of settlement fees also removed the ability of banks, who typically provide merchant services to retailers on behalf of Visa or MasterCard, from stopping those retailers charging extra fees to take payment by credit card instead of cash or EFTPOS.
In Bahrain debit cards are under Benefit, the interbanking network for Bahrain. Benefit is also accepted in other countries though, mainly GCC, similar to the Saudi Payments Network and the Kuwaiti KNET.
In Brazil debit cards are called cartão de débito (singular) and got popular from 2008 and on. In 2013, Brazil achieved the mark of 100 million debit cards issued. The initial usage of it was to replace the Check usage, that was common until the first decade of the 2000s.
Today, the majority of the financial transactions (like shopping, etc.) are made using debit cards (and this system is quickly replacing cash payments). Nowadays, the majority of debit payments are processed using a card + pin combination, and almost every card comes with a chip to make transactions.
The major debit card vendors in Brazil are Visa (with Visa Electron cards) and MasterCard (with Maestro cards).
Benin
In Bulgaria debit cards are allowed in almost all stores and shops, as well as in most of the hotels and restaurants in the bigger cities. Smaller restaurants or small shops will probably accept cash only. All Bulgarian banks can provide debit cards when you open a bank account, for maintenance costs. Usually debit cards used on ATMs owned by the same bank do not cost a thing, and used on ATMs of other banks costs low (3 - 10 times cheaper than using credit card). The most common cards in Bulgaria are Maestro and Visa Electron, accepted everywhere together with VISA and MasterCard.
Burkina Faso
Canada has a nationwide EFTPOS system, called Interac Direct Payment. Since being introduced in 1994, IDP has become the most popular payment method in the country. Previously, debit cards have been in use for ABM usage since the late 1970s, with Credit Unions in Saskatchewan and Alberta, Canada introducing the first card - based, networked ATMs beginning in June, 1977. Debit Cards, which could be used anywhere a credit card was accepted, were first introduced in Canada by Saskatchewan Credit Unions in 1982. In the early 1990s, pilot projects were conducted among Canada 's six largest banks to gauge security, accuracy and feasibility of the Interac system. Slowly in the later half of the 1990s, it was estimated that approximately 50 % of retailers offered Interac as a source of payment. Retailers, many small transaction retailers like coffee shops, resisted offering IDP to promote faster service. In 2009, 99 % of retailers offer IDP as an alternative payment form.
In Canada, the debit card is sometimes referred to as a "bank card ''. It is a client card issued by a bank that provides access to funds and other bank account transactions, such as transferring funds, checking balances, paying bills, etc., as well as point of purchase transactions connected on the Interac network. Since its national launch in 1994, Interac Direct Payment has become so widespread that, as of 2001, more transactions in Canada were completed using debit cards than cash. This popularity may be partially attributable to two main factors: the convenience of not having to carry cash, and the availability of automated bank machines (ABMs) and Direct Payment merchants on the network.
Debit cards may be considered similar to stored - value cards in that they represent a finite amount of money owed by the card issuer to the holder. They are different in that stored - value cards are generally anonymous and are only usable at the issuer, while debit cards are generally associated with an individual 's bank account and can be used anywhere on the Interac network.
In Canada, the bank cards can be used at POS and ABMs. Interac Online has also been introduced in recent years allowing clients of most major Canadian banks to use their debit cards for online payment with certain merchants as well. Certain financial institutions also allow their clients to use their debit cards in the United States on the NYCE network.
Consumers in Canada are protected under a voluntary code entered into by all providers of debit card services, The Canadian Code of Practice for Consumer Debit Card Services (sometimes called the "Debit Card Code ''). Adherence to the Code is overseen by the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC), which investigates consumer complaints.
According to the FCAC website, revisions to the Code that came into effect in 2005 put the onus on the financial institution to prove that a consumer was responsible for a disputed transaction, and also place a limit on the number of days that an account can be frozen during the financial institution 's investigation of a transaction.
Chile has an EFTPOS system called Redcompra (Purchase Network) which is currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers. Chilean banks issue Maestro, Visa Electron and Visa Debit cards.
Colombia has a system called Redeban - Multicolor and Credibanco Visa which are currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers. Colombian debit cards are Maestro (pin), Visa Electron (pin), Visa Debit (as Credit) and MasterCard - Debit (as Credit).
Côte d'Ivoire
The Danish debit card Dankort is ubiquitous in Denmark. It was introduced on 1 September 1983, and despite the initial transactions being paper - based, the Dankort quickly won widespread acceptance. By 1985 the first EFTPOS terminals were introduced, and 1985 was also the year when the number of Dankort transactions first exceeded 1 million. Today the Dankort is primarily issued as a multicard combining the national Dankort with the more internationally recognized VISA (denoted simply as a "VISA / Dankort '' card). In September 2008, 4 million cards have been issued, of which 3 million cards were VISA / Dankort cards. It is also possible to get a Visa Electron debit card and MasterCard.
Most daily customer transactions are carried out with debit cards or online giro / electronic bill payment, although credit cards and cash are accepted. Checks are no longer used. Prior to European standardization, Finland had a national standard (pankkikortti). Physically, a pankkikortti was the same as an international credit card, and the same card imprinters and slips were used for pankkikortti and credit cards, but the cards were not accepted abroad. This has now been replaced by the Visa and MasterCard debit card systems, and Finnish cards can be used elsewhere in the European Union and the world.
An electronic purse system, with a chipped card, was introduced, but did not gain much traction.
Signing a payment offline entails incurring debt, thus offline payment is not available to minors. However, online transactions are permitted, and since almost all stores have electronic terminals, today also minors can use debit cards. Previously, only cash withdrawal from ATMs was available to minors (automaattikortti or Visa).
Carte Bancaire (CB), the national payment scheme, in 2008, had 57.5 million cards carrying its logo and 7.76 billion transactions (POS and ATM) were processed through the e-rsb network (135 transactions per card mostly debit or deferred debit). Most CB cards are debit cards, either debit or deferred debit. Less than 10 % of CB cards were credit cards.
Banks in France usually charge annual fees for debit cards (despite card payments being very cost efficient for the banks), yet they do not charge personal customers for checkbooks or processing checks (despite checks being very costly for the banks). This imbalance dates from the unilateral introduction in France of Chip and PIN debit cards in the early 1990s, when the cost of this technology was much higher than it is now. Credit cards of the type found in the United Kingdom and United States are unusual in France and the closest equivalent is the deferred debit card, which operates like a normal debit card, except that all purchase transactions are postponed until the end of the month, thereby giving the customer between 1 and 31 days of "interest - free '' credit.
The annual fee for a deferred debit card is around € 10 more than for one with immediate debit. Most France debit cards are branded with the Carte Bleue logo, which assures acceptance throughout France. Most card holders choose to pay around € 5 more in their annual fee to additionally have a Visa or a MasterCard logo on their Carte Bleue, so that the card is accepted internationally. A Carte Bleue without a Visa or a MasterCard logo is often known as a "Carte Bleue Nationale '' and a Carte Bleue with a Visa or a MasterCard logo is known as a "Carte Bleue Internationale '', or more frequently, simply called a "Visa '' or "MasterCard ''.
Many smaller merchants in France refuse to accept debit cards for transactions under a certain amount because of the minimum fee charged by merchants ' banks per transaction (this minimum amount varies from € 5 to € 15.25, or in some rare cases even more). But more and more merchants accept debit cards for small amounts, due to the massive daily use of debit card nowadays. Merchants in France do not differentiate between debit and credit cards, and so both have equal acceptance. It is legal in France to set a minimum amount to transactions, but the merchants must display it clearly.
In January 2016, 57.2 % of all the debits cards in France also had a contactless payment chip. The maximum amount per transaction is set to € 20 and the maximum amount of all contactless payments per day is between 50 and € 100 depending on the bank.
According to French law, banks are liable for any transaction made with a copy of the original card and for any transaction made without a card (on the phone or on the Internet), so banks have to pay back any fraudulent transaction to the card holder if the previous criteria are met. Fighting card fraud is therefore more interesting for banks. As a consequence, French banks websites usually propose an "e-card '' service ("electronic (bank) card ''), where a new virtual card is created and linked to a physical card. Such virtual card can be used only once and for the maximum amount given by the card holder. If the virtual card number is intercepted or used to try to get a higher amount than expected, the transaction is blocked.
Debit cards have enjoyed wide acceptance in Germany for years. Facilities already existed before EFTPOS became popular with the Eurocheque card, an authorization system initially developed for paper checks where, in addition to signing the actual check, customers also needed to show the card alongside the check as a security measure. Those cards could also be used at ATMs and for card - based electronic funds transfer (called Girocard) with PIN entry. These are now the only functions of such cards: the Eurocheque system (along with the brand) was abandoned in 2002 during the transition from the Deutsche Mark to the euro. As of 2005, most stores and petrol outlets have EFTPOS facilities. Processing fees are paid by the businesses, which leads to some business owners refusing debit card payments for sales totalling less than a certain amount, usually 5 or 10 euro.
To avoid the processing fees, many businesses resorted to using direct debit, which is then called electronic direct debit (German: Elektronisches Lastschriftverfahren, abbr. ELV). The point - of - sale terminal reads the bank sort code and account number from the card but instead of handling the transaction through the Girocard network it simply prints a form, which the customer signs to authorise the debit note. However, this method also avoids any verification or payment guarantee provided by the network. Further, customers can return debit notes by notifying their bank without giving a reason. This means that the beneficiary bears the risk of fraud and illiquidity. Some business mitigate the risk by consulting a proprietary blacklist or by switching to Girocard for higher transaction amounts.
Around 2000, an Electronic Purse Card was introduced, dubbed Geldkarte ("money card ''). It makes use of the smart card chip on the front of the standard issue debit card. This chip can be charged with up to 200 euro, and is advertised as a means of making medium to very small payments, even down to several euros or cent payments. The key factor here is that no processing fees are deducted by banks. It did not gain the popularity its inventors had hoped for. However, this could change as this chip is now used as means of age verification at cigarette vending machines, which has been mandatory since January 2007. Furthermore, some payment discounts are being offered (e.g. a 10 % reduction for public transport fares) when paying with "Geldkarte ''. The "Geldkarte '' payment lacks all security measures, since it does not require the user to enter a PIN or sign a sales slip: the loss of a "Geldkarte '' is similar to the loss of a wallet or purse - anyone who finds it can then use their find to pay for their own purchases.
Guinée Bissau
Please, see below on "UEMOA ''
Debit card usage surged in Greece after the introduction of Capital Controls in 2015.
Most bank cards in Hong Kong for saving / current accounts are equipped with EPS and UnionPay, which function as a debit card and can be used at merchants for purchases, where funds are withdrawn from the associated account immediately.
EPS is a Hong Kong only system and is widely accepted in merchants and government departments. However, as UnionPay cards are accepted more widely overseas, consumers can use the UnionPay functionality of the bank card to make purchases directly from the bank account.
Visa debit cards are uncommon in Hong Kong. The British banking firm HSBC 's subsidiary Hang Seng Bank 's Enjoy card and American firm Citibank 's ATM Visa are two of the Visa debit cards available in Hong Kong.
Debit cards usage in Hong Kong is relatively low, as the credit card penetration rate is high in Hong Kong. In Q1 2017, there are near 20 million credit cards in circulation, about 3 times the adult population. There are 145800 thousand transaction made by credit cards but only 34001 thousand transactions made by debit cards.
In Hungary debit cards are far more common and popular than credit cards. Many Hungarians even refer to their debit card ("betéti kártya '') mistakenly using the word for credit card ("hitelkártya '').
The debit card had limited popularity in India as the merchant is charged for each transaction. The debit card was mostly used for ATM transactions. RBI has announced that such fees are not justified so the transaction has no processing fee. Most Indian banks issue Visa debit cards, though some banks (like SBI and Citibank India) also issue Maestro cards. The debit card transactions are routed through Visa or MasterCard networks in India and overseas rather than directly via the issuing bank.
The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) has launched a new card called RuPay. It is similar to Singapore 's NETS and Mainland China 's UnionPay
Foreign - owned brands issuing Indonesian debit cards include Visa, Maestro, MasterCard, and MEPS. Domestically - owned debit card networks operating in Indonesia include Debit BCA (and its Prima network 's counterpart, Prima Debit) and Mandiri Debit.
Iraq 's two biggest state - owned banks, Rafidain Bank and Rasheed Bank, together with the Iraqi Electronic Payment System (IEPS) have established a company called International Smart Card, which has developed a national credit card called ' Qi Card ', which they have issued since 2008. According to the company 's website: ' after less than two years of the initial launch of the Qi card solution, we have hit 1.6 million cardholder with the potential to issue 2 million cards by the end of 2010, issuing about 100,000 card monthly is a testament to the huge success of the Qi card solution. Parallel to this will be the expansion into retail stores through a network of points of sales of about 30,000 units by 2015 '
Today, Irish debit cards are exclusively Chip and PIN and almost entirely Visa Debit. These can be used anywhere the Visa logo is seen and in much the same way as a credit card. MasterCard debit is also used by a small minority of institutions and operates in a very similar manner.
Irish debit cards are normally multi-functional and combine ATM card facilities. The cards are also sometimes used for authenticating transactions together with a card reader for 2 - factor authentication on online banking.
The majority of Irish Visa Debit cards are also enabled for contactless payment for small, frequent transactions (with a maximum value of € 15 or € 30). Three consecutive contactless transactions are allowed, after which, the card software will refuse contactless transactions until a standard Chip and PIN transaction has been completed and the counter resets. This measure was put in place to minimise issuers ' exposure to fraudulent charges.
The cards are usually processed online, but some cards can also be processed offline depending on the rules applied by the card issuer.
A number of card issuers also provide prepaid debit card accounts primarily for use as gift cards / vouchers or for added security and anonymity online. These may be disposable or reloadable and are usually either Visa or MasterCard branded.
Previous system (defunct since 28 February 2014):
Laser was launched by the Irish banks in 1996 as an extension of the existing ATM and Cheque guarantee card systems that had existed for many years. When the service was added, it became possible to make payments with a multifunctional card that combined ATM, cheque and debit card and international ATM facilities through MasterCard Cirrus or Visa Plus and sometimes the British Link ATM system. Their functionality was similar to the British Switch card.
The system first launched as a swipe & sign card and could be used in Ireland in much the same way as a credit card and were compatible standard card terminals (online or offline, although they were usually processed online). They could also be used in cardholder - not - present transactions over the phone, by mail or on the internet or for processing recurring payments. Laser also offered ' cash back ' facilities where customers could ask retailers (where offered) for an amount of cash along with their transaction. This service allowed retailers to reduce volumes of cash in tills and allowed consumers to avoid having to use ATMs. Laser adopted EMV ' Chip and PIN ' security in 2002 in common with other credit and debit cards right across Europe. In 2005, some banks issued customers with Lasers cards that were cobranded with Maestro. This allowed them to be used in POS terminals overseas, internet transactions were usually restricted to sites that specifically accepted Laser.
Since 2006, Irish banks have progressively replaced Laser with international schemes, primarily Visa Debit and by 28 February 2014 the Laser Card system had been withdrawn entirely and is no longer accepted by retailers.
The Israel bank card system is somewhat confusing to newcomers, comprising a blend of features taken from different types of cards. What may be referred to as a credit card, is most likely to be a deferred debit card on an associated bank current account, the most common type of card in Israel, somewhat like the situation in France, though the term "debit card '' is not in common usage. Cards are nearly universally called cartis eshrei (כרטיס אשראי), literally, "credit card '', a term which may bely the card 's characteristics. Its main feature may be a direct link to a connected bank account (through which they are mostly issued), with the total value of the transactions made on the card being debited from the bank account in full on a regular date once a month, without the option to carry the balance over; indeed certain types of transactions (such as online and / or foreign currency) may be debited directly from the connected bank account at the time of the transaction. Any such limited credit enjoyed is a result of the customer 's assets and credibility with the bank, and not granted by the credit card company. The card usually enables immediate ATM cash withdrawals & balance inquiries (as debit cards do), instalment & deferred charge interest free transactions offered by merchants (also applicable in Brazil), interest bearing instalment plans / deferred charge / revolving credit which is transaction specific at the point of sale (though granted by the issuer, hence the interest), and a variety of automated / upon request types of credit schemes including loans, some of which revolve or resemble the extended payment options sometimes offered by charge cards.
Thus the "true '' debit card is not so common in Israel, though it has existed since 1994. It is offered by two credit companies in Israel: One is ICC, short for "Israeli Credit Cards '' (referred to as "CAL '', an acronym formed from its abbreviation in Hebrew), which issues it in the form of a Visa Electron card valid only in Israel. It is offered mainly through the Israel Post (post office) bank (which is not allowed, by regulation, to offer any type of credit) or through Israel Discount Bank, its main owner (where it is branded as "Discount Money Key '' card). This branded Israel Discount Bank branded debit card also offered as valid worldwide card, either as Visa Electron or MasterCard Debit cards. The second debit card is offered by the Isracard consortium to its affiliate banks and is branded "Direct ''. It is valid only in Israel, under its local & unique - though immensely popular - private label brand, as "Isracard Direct '' (which was known as "Electro Cheque '' until 2002 and while the local brand Isracard is often viewed as a MasterCard for local use only). Since 2006, Isracard has also offered an international version, branded "MasterCard Direct '', which is less common. These two debit card brands operate offline in Israel (meaning the transaction operates under the credit cards systems & debited officially from the cardholder account only few days later, after being processed - though reflected on the current account immediately). In 2014 the Isracard Direct card (a.k.a. the valid only in Israel version) was relaunched as Isracash, though the former subbrand still being marketed - & replaced ICC Visa Electron as Israel Post bank debit card.
Overall, banks routinely offer deferred debit cards to their new customers, with "true '' debit cards usually offered only to those who can not obtain credit. These latter cards are not attractive to the average customer since they attract both a monthly fee from the credit company and a bank account fee for each day 's debits. Isracard Direct is by far more common than the ICC Visa Electron debit card. Banks who issue mainly Visa cards will rather offer electronic use, mandate authorized transaction only, unembossed version of Visa Electron deferred debit cards (branded as "Visa Basic '' or "Visa Classic '') to its customers - sometimes even in the form of revolving credit card.
Credit / debit card transactions in Israel are not PIN based (other than at ATMs) and it is only in recent years that EMV chip smart cards have begun to be issued, with the Bank of Israel ordering the banks and credit card companies - in 2013 - to switch customers to credit cards with the EMV security standard within 3.5 years.
Debit cards are quite popular in Italy. There are both classic and prepaid cards. The main classic debit card in Italy is Bancomat / PagoBancomat: this kind of card is issued by Italian banks. Bancomat is the commercial brand for the cash withdrawal circuit, while PagoBancomat is used for POS transactions. Unlike other European countries such as UK, only a few Italian banks are issuing Visa / MasterCard debit cards (such as Intesa Sanpaolo NextCard). The main international debit circuit used by Italian banks is Maestro: for this reason almost every debit card issued in Italy has both PagoBancomat and Maestro logos, with Bancomat / PagoBancomat being used in Italy and the Maestro circuit when abroad. Sometimes, instead of using the Maestro circuit, the Bancomat / PagoBancomat debit card is issued along with V - Pay or Visa Electron logos, or sometimes with credit card functions (so you get a dual - mode card). In this last case, only the credit - card mode is allowed for abroad / Internet transactions, while the debit card mode is used only in Italy. The most popular prepaid debit card is "Postepay ''. It is issued by Poste italiane S.p.A., and runs on the Visa Electron circuit. It can be used on Poste Italiane 's ATMs (Postamat) and on Visa 's Electron - compatible bank ATMs all over the world. It has no fees when used on the Internet and in POS - based transactions. Other cards are issued by other companies, such as Vodafone CashCard, Banca Popolare di Milano 's Carta Jeans and Carta Moneta Online.
In Japan people usually use their cash cards (キャッシュ カード, kyasshu kādo), originally intended only for use with cash machines, as debit cards. The debit functionality of these cards is usually referred to as J - Debit (ジェイ デビット, Jeidebitto), and only cash cards from certain banks can be used. A cash card has the same size as a Visa / MasterCard. As identification, the user will have to enter his or her four - digit PIN when paying. J - Debit was started in Japan on March 6, 2000. However, J - Debit has not been that popular since then.
Suruga Bank began service of Japan 's first Visa Debit in 2006. Rakuten Bank, formally known as Ebank, offers a Visa debit card.
Resona Bank and The Bank of Tokyo - Mitsubishi UFJ bank also offer a Visa branded debit card.
In Kuwait, all banks provide a debit card to their account holders. This card is branded as KNET, which is the central switch in Kuwait. KNET card transactions are free for both customer and the merchant and therefore KNET debit cards are used for low valued transactions as well. KNET cards are mostly co-branded as Maestro or Visa Electron which makes it possible to use the same card outside Kuwait on any terminal supporting these payment schemes.
In Malaysia, the local debit card network is operated by the Malaysian Electronic Clearing Corporation (MyClear), which had taken over the scheme from MEPS in 2008. The new name for the local debit card in Malaysia is MyDebit, which was previously known as either bankcard or e-debit. Debit cards in Malaysia are now issued on a combo basis where the card has both the local debit card payment application as well as having that of an International scheme (Visa or MasterCard). All newly issued MyDebit combo cards with Visa or MasterCard have the contactless payment feature. The same card also acts as the ATM card for cash withdrawals.
Mali
Please, see below on "UEMOA ''
In Mexico, many companies use a type of debit card called a payroll card (tarjeta de nómina), in which they deposit their employee 's payrolls, instead of paying them in cash or through checks. This method is preferred in many places because it is a much safer and secure alternative compared to the more traditional forms of payment.
In the Netherlands using EFTPOS is known as pinnen (pinning), a term derived from the use of a personal identification number (PIN). PINs are also used for ATM transactions, and the term is used interchangeably by many people, although it was introduced as a marketing brand for EFTPOS. The system was launched in 1987, and in 2010 there were 258,585 terminals throughout the country, including mobile terminals used by delivery services and on markets. All banks offer a debit card suitable for EFTPOS with current accounts.
PIN transactions are usually free to the customer, but the retailer is charged per - transaction and monthly fees. Equens, an association with all major banks as its members, runs the system, and until August 2005 also charged for it. Responding to allegations of monopoly abuse, it has handed over contractual responsibilities to its member banks through who now offer competing contracts. The system is organised through a special banking association Currence set up specifically to coordinate access to payment systems in the Netherlands. Interpay, a legal predecessor of Equens, was fined € 47 million in 2004, but the fine was later dropped, and a related fine for banks was lowered from € 17 million to € 14 million. Per - transaction fees are between 5 - 10 eurocents, depending on volume.
Credit card use in the Netherlands is very low, and most credit cards can not be used with EFTPOS, or charge very high fees to the customer. Debit cards can often, though not always, be used in the entire EU for EFTPOS. Most debit cards are Mastercard Maestro cards. Visa 's V Pay cards are also accepted at most locations. In 2011 spending money using debit cards rose to 83 billion euro whilst cash spending dropped to 51 billion euro and creditcard spending grew to 5 billion.
Electronic Purse Cards (called Chipknip) were introduced in 1996, but have never become very popular. The system was abolished at the end of 2014.
EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer at point of sale) in New Zealand is highly popular. In 2006, 70 percent of all retail transactions were made by Eftpos, with an average of 306 Eftpos transaction being made per person. At the same time, there were 125,000 Eftpos terminals in operation (one for every 30 people), and 5.1 million Eftpos cards in circulation (1.27 per capita).
The system involves the merchant swiping (or inserting) the customer 's card and entering the purchase amount. Point of sale systems with integrated EFTPOS often sent the purchase total to the terminal and the customer swipes their own card. The customer then selects the account they wish to use: Current / Cheque (CHQ), Savings (SAV), or Credit Card (CRD), before entering in their PIN. After a short processing time in which the terminal contacts the EFTPOS network and the bank, the transaction is approved (or declined) and a receipt is printed. The EFTPOS system is used for credit cards as well, with a customer selecting Credit Card and entering their PIN, or for older credit cards without loaded PIN, pressing OK and signing their receipt with identification through matching signatures. Fixed EFTPOS terminals in most businesses utilise the public switched telephone network to contact the EFTPOS network, either utilising dedicated phone lines or sharing the merchant 's voice line (especially in smaller businesses). The uptake of broadband internet in the 21st century has seen some terminals move to internet protocol connections.
Virtually all retail outlets have EFTPOS facilities, so much that retailers without EFTPOS have to advertise so. In addition, an increasing number of mobile operator, such as taxis, stall holders and pizza deliverers have mobile EFTPOS systems. The system is made up of two primary networks: EFTPOS NZ, which is owned by VeriFone and Paymark Limited (formerly Electronic Transaction Services Limited), which is owned by ANZ Bank New Zealand, ASB Bank, Westpac and the Bank of New Zealand. The two networks are intertwined and highly sophisticated and secure, able to handle huge volumes of transactions during busy periods such as the lead - up to Christmas: on 24 December 2012, the Paymark network alone recorded an average of 132 transactions per second between 12: 00 and 13: 00. Network failures are rare, but when they occur they cause massive disruption, resulting in major delays and loss of income for businesses. Most businesses have to resort to manual "zip - zap '' swipe machines in such case. Newer POS - based terminals have the ability to "capture '' transactions in the event of a communications break - down - instead of entering a PIN, the customer signs their receipt and the transaction is approved on a matching signature, The transaction details are stored and sent for processing once the connection to the network is restored. A notable example of this occurs on the Cook Strait ferries, where in the middle of Cook Strait there is no mobile phone reception to connect to the EFTPOS network.
Depending on the user 's bank, a fee may be charged for use of EFTPOS. Most youth accounts (the minimum age to obtain an Eftpos card from most banks in New Zealand is 13 years) and an increasing number of ' electronic transaction accounts ' do not attract fees for electronic transactions, meaning the use of Eftpos by younger generations has become ubiquitous and subsequently cash use has become rare. Typically merchants do n't pay fees for transactions, most only having to pay for the equipment rental.
One of the disadvantages of New Zealand 's well - established EFTPOS system is that it is incompatible with overseas systems and non-face - to - face purchases. In response to this, many banks since 2005 have introduced international debit cards such as Maestro and Visa Debit which work online and overseas as well as on the New Zealand EFTPOS system.
Niger
Please, see below on "UEMOA ''
In the Philippines, all three national ATM network consortia offer proprietary PIN debit. This was first offered by Express Payment System in 1987, followed by Megalink with Paylink in 1993 then BancNet with the Point - of - Sale in 1994.
Express Payment System or EPS was the pioneer provider, having launched the service in 1987 on behalf of the Bank of the Philippine Islands. The EPS service has subsequently been extended in late 2005 to include the other Expressnet members: Banco de Oro and Land Bank of the Philippines. They currently operate 10,000 terminals for their cardholders.
Megalink launched Paylink EFTPOS system in 1993. Terminal services are provided by Equitable Card Network on behalf of the consortium. Service is available in 2,000 terminals, mostly in Metro Manila.
BancNet introduced their point of sale system in 1994 as the first consortium - operated EFTPOS service in the country. The service is available in over 1,400 locations throughout the Philippines, including second and third - class municipalities. In 2005, BancNet signed a Memorandum of Agreement to serve as the local gateway for China UnionPay, the sole ATM switch in the People 's Republic of China. This will allow the estimated 1.0 billion Chinese ATM cardholders to use the BancNet ATMs and the EFTPOS in all participating merchants.
Visa debit cards are issued by Union Bank of the Philippines (e-Wallet & eon), Chinatrust, Equicom Savings Bank (Key Card & Cash Card), Banco De Oro, HSBC, HSBC Savings Bank, Sterling Bank of Asia (Visa ShopNPay prepaid and debit cards) & EastWest Bank. Union Bank of the Philippines cards, EastWest Visa Debit Card, Equicom Savings Bank & Sterling Bank of Asia EMV cards which can also be used for internet purchases. Sterling Bank of Asia has released its first line of prepaid and debit Visa cards with EMV chip.
MasterCard debit cards are issued by Banco de Oro, Security Bank (Cashlink & Cash Card) & Smart Communications (Smart Money) tied up with Banco De Oro. MasterCard Electronic cards are issued by BPI (Express Cash) and Security Bank (CashLink Plus).
Originally, all Visa and MasterCard based debit cards in the Philippines are non-embossed and are marked either for "Electronic Use Only '' (Visa / MasterCard) or "Valid only where MasterCard Electronic is Accepted '' (MasterCard Electronic). However, EastWest Bank started to offer embossed Visa Debit Cards without the for "Electronic Use Only '' mark. Paypass Debit MasterCard from other banks also have embossed labels without the for "Electronic Use Only '' mark. Unlike credit cards issued by some banks, these Visa and MasterCard - branded debit cards do not feature EMV chips, hence they can only be read by the machines through swiping.
By March 21, 2016, BDO has started issuing sets of Debit MasterCards having the EMV chip and is the first Philippine bank to have it. This is a response to the BSP 's monitor of the EMV shift progress in the country. By 2017, all Debit Cards in the country should have an EMV chip on it.
In Poland, the first system of electronic payments was operated by Orbis, which later was changed to PolCard in 1991 (which also issued its own cards) and then that system was bought by First Data Poland Holding SA. In the mid-1990s international brands such as Visa, MasterCard, and the unembossed Visa Electron or Maestro were introduced.
Visa Electron and Maestro work as a standard debit cards: the transactions are debited instantly, although it may happen on some occasions that a transaction is processed with some delay (hours, up to one day). These cards do not possess the options that credit cards have.
In the late 2000s contactless cards started to be introduced. The first technology to be used was MasterCard PayPass, later joined by Visa 's payWave. This payment method is now universal and accepted almost everywhere. In an everyday use this payment method is always called Paypass. Almost all business and stores in Poland accept debit and credit cards.
In the mid-2010s Polish banks started to replace unembossed cards with embossed electronic cards such as Debit MasterCard and Visa Debit, allowing the customers to own a card that has all qualities of a credit card (given that credit cards are not popular in Poland).
There are also some banks that do not possess an identification system to allow customers to order debit cards online.
In Portugal, debit cards are accepted almost everywhere: ATMs, stores, and so on. The most commonly accepted are Visa and MasterCard, or the unembossed Visa Electron or Maestro. Regarding Internet payments debit cards can not be used for transfers, due to its unsafeness, so banks recommend the use of ' MBnet ', a pre-registered safe system that creates a virtual card with a pre-selected credit limit. All the card system is regulated by SIBS, the institution created by Portuguese banks to manage all the regulations and communication processes proply. SIBS ' shareholders are all the 27 banks operating in Portugal.
In addition to Visa, MasterCard and American Express, there are some local payment systems based in general on Smart Card technology.
Nearly every transaction, regardless of brand or system, is processed as an immediate debit transaction. Non-debit transactions within these systems have spending limits that are strictly limited when compared with typical Visa or MasterCard accounts.
In Saudi Arabia, all debit card transactions are routed through Saudi Payments Network (SPAN), the only electronic payment system in the Kingdom and all banks are required by the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (SAMA) to issue cards fully compatible with the network. It connects all point of sale (POS) terminals throughout the country to a central payment switch which in turn re-routes the financial transactions to the card issuer, local bank, Visa, Amex or MasterCard.
As well as its use for debit cards, the network is also used for ATM and credit card transactions.
Senegal
Singapore 's debit service is managed by the Network for Electronic Transfers (NETS), founded by Singapore 's leading banks and shareholders namely DBS, Keppel Bank, OCBC and its associates, OUB, IBS, POSB, Tat Lee Bank and UOB in 1985 as a result of a need for a centralised e-Payment operator.
However, due to the banking restructuring and mergers, the local banks remaining were UOB, OCBC, DBS - POSB as the shareholders of NETS with Standard Chartered Bank to offer NETS to their customers. However, DBS and POSB customers can use their network atms on their own and not be shared with UOB, OCBC or SCB (StanChart). The mega failure of 5 July 2010 of POSB - DBS ATM Networks (about 97,000 machines) made the government to rethink the shared ATM system again as it affected the NETS system too.
In 2010, in line with the mandatory EMV system, Local Singapore Banks started to reissue their Debit Visa / MasterCard branded debit cards with EMV Chip compliant ones to replace the magnetic stripe system. Banks involved included NETS Members of POSB - DBS, UOB - OCBC - SCB along with the SharedATM alliance (NON-NETS) of HSBC, Citibank, State Bank of India, and Maybank. Standard Chartered Bank (SCB) is also a SharedATM alliance member. Non branded cards of POSB and Maybank local ATM Cards are kept without a chip but have a Plus or Maestro sign which can be used to withdraw cash locally or overseas.
Maybank Debit MasterCards can be used in Malaysia just like a normal ATM or Debit MEPS card.
Singapore also uses the e-purse systems of NETS CASHCARD and the CEPAS wave system by EZ - Link and NETS.
Debit cards are accepted in a relatively larger amount of stores, both large and small in Spain. Banks often offer debit cards for small fees in connection with a chequing account. These cards are used more often than credit cards at ATMs because it is a cheaper alternative.
Most banks issue major - brand debit cards that can be used internationally such as Visa, MasterCard and JCB, often with contactless functionality. Payments at brick - and - mortar stores generally require a signature except for contactless payments.
A separate, local debit system, known as Smart Pay, can be used by the majority of debit and ATM cards, even major - brand cards. This system is available only in Taiwan and a few locations in Japan as of 2016. Non-contactless payments require a PIN instead of a signature. Cards from a few banks support contactless payment with Smart Pay.
Togo
In the UK debit cards (an integrated EFTPOS system) are an established part of the retail market and are widely accepted both by bricks and mortar stores and by internet stores. The term EFTPOS is not widely used by the public; debit card is the generic term used. Debit cards commonly issued are Debit MasterCard and Visa Debit, with Maestro, Visa Electron and UnionPay also in circulation. Banks do not charge customers for EFTPOS transactions in the UK, but some retailers make small charges, particularly where the transaction amount in question is small. The UK has converted all debit cards in circulation to Chip and PIN (except for Chip and Signature cards issued to people with certain disabilities and non-reloadable prepaid cards), based on the EMV standard, to increase transaction security; however, PINs are not required for internet transactions (though some banks employ additional security measures for online transactions such as Verified by Visa and MasterCard Secure Code), nor for most contactless transactions.
In the United Kingdom, banks started to issue debit cards in the mid-1980s in a bid to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process; the first bank to do so was Barclays with the Barclays Connect card. As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the United Kingdom to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount, which funds card holders ' interest - free credit periods as well as incentive schemes such as points or cashback. For consumer credit cards issued within the EEA, the interchange fee is capped at 0.3 %, with a cap of 0.2 % for debit cards, although the merchant acquirers may charge the merchant a higher fee. Although merchants won the right through The Credit Cards (Price Discrimination) Order 1990 to charge customers different prices according to the payment method, few merchants in the UK charge less for payment by debit card than by credit card, the most notable exceptions being budget airlines and travel agents. Most debit cards in the UK lack the advantages offered to holders of UK - issued credit cards, such as free incentives (points, cashback etc. (the Tesco Bank debit card being one exception)), interest - free credit and protection against defaulting merchants under Section 75 of the Consumer Credit Act 1974. Almost all establishments in the United Kingdom that accept credit cards also accept debit cards, but a minority of merchants, for cost reasons, accept debit cards and not credit cards.
It is the West Africa Economic et Monetary Union federating eight countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinée Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo.
GIM - UEMOA is the Regional Switch féderating more than 120 membres (banks, microfinances, electronic money issuers, etc.). All interbank cards transactions between banks in the same country or between banks in two different countries UEMOA zone are routed and cleared by GIM - UEMOA. The settlement in done on Central Bank RTGS.
GIM - UEMOA also provides somes processing products and services to more than 50 banks in UEMOA zone and out of UEMOA zone.
In the U.S., EFTPOS is universally referred to simply as debit. The same interbank networks that operate the ATM network also operate the POS network. Most interbank networks, such as Pulse, NYCE, MAC, Tyme, SHAZAM, STAR, and so on, are regional and do not overlap, however, most ATM / POS networks have agreements to accept each other 's cards. This means that cards issued by one network will typically work anywhere they accept ATM / POS cards for payment. For example, a NYCE card will work at a Pulse POS terminal or ATM, and vice versa. Debit cards in the United States are usually issued with a Visa, MasterCard, Discover or American Express logo allowing use of their signature - based networks.
U.S. Federal law caps the liability of a U.S. debit card user in case of loss or theft at $50 USD if the loss or theft is reported to the issuing bank in two business days after the customer notices the loss. Most banks will, however, set this limit to $0 for debit cards issued to their customers which are linked to their checking or savings account.
The fees charged to merchants for offline debit purchases vs. the lack of fees charged to merchants for processing online debit purchases and paper checks have prompted some major merchants in the U.S. to file lawsuits against debit - card transaction processors, such as Visa and MasterCard. In 2003, Visa and MasterCard agreed to settle the largest of these lawsuits for $2 billion and $1 billion respectively.
Some consumers prefer "credit '' transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer / purchaser. A few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using "credit ''. However, since "credit '' transactions cost more for merchants, many terminals at PIN - accepting merchant locations now make the "credit '' function more difficult to access. For example, if you swipe a debit card at Wal - Mart or Ross in the U.S., you are immediately presented with the PIN screen for online debit. To use offline debit you must press "cancel '' to exit the PIN screen, and then press "credit '' on the next screen.
As a result of the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, U.S. merchants can now set a minimum purchase amount for credit card transactions, as long as it does not to exceed $10.
In the United States, an FSA debit card only allow medical expenses. It is used by some banks for withdrawals from their FSAs, medical savings accounts (MSA), and health savings accounts (HSA) as well. They have Visa or MasterCard logos, but can not be used as "debit cards '', only as "credit cards ''. Furthermore, they are not accepted by all merchants that accept debit and credit cards, but only by those that specifically accept FSA debit cards. Merchant codes and product codes are used at the point of sale (required by law by certain merchants by certain states in the US) to restrict sales if they do not qualify. Because of the extra checking and documenting that goes on, later, the statement can be used to substantiate these purchases for tax deductions. In the occasional instance that a qualifying purchase is rejected, another form of payment must be used (a check or payment from another account and a claim for reimbursement later). In the more likely case that non-qualifying items are accepted, the consumer is technically still responsible, and the discrepancy could be revealed during an audit. A small but growing segment of the debit card business in the U.S. involves access to tax - favored spending accounts such as FSAs, HRAs, and HSAs. Most of these debit cards are for medical expenses, though a few are also issued for dependent care and transportation expenses.
Traditionally, FSAs (the oldest of these accounts) were accessed only through claims for reimbursement after incurring, and often paying, an out - of - pocket expense; this often happens after the funds have already been deducted from the employee 's paycheck. (FSAs are usually funded by payroll deduction.) The only method permitted by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to avoid this "double - dipping '' for medical FSAs and HRAs is through accurate and auditable reporting on the tax return. Statements on the debit card that say "for medical uses only '' are invalid for several reasons: (1) The merchant and issuing banks have no way of quickly determining whether the entire purchase qualifies for the customer 's type of tax benefit; (2) the customer also has no quick way of knowing; often has mixed purchases by necessity or convenience; and can easily make mistakes; (3) extra contractual clauses between the customer and issuing bank would cross-over into the payment processing standards, creating additional confusion (for example if a customer was penalized for accidentally purchasing a non-qualifying item, it would undercut the potential savings advantages of the account). Therefore, using the card exclusively for qualifying purchases may be convenient for the customer, but it has nothing to do with how the card can actually be used. If the bank rejects a transaction, for instance, because it is not at a recognized drug store, then it would be causing harm and confusion to the cardholder. In the United States, not all medical service or supply stores are capable of providing the correct information so an FSA debit card issuer can honor every transaction - if rejected or documentation is not deemed enough to satisfy regulations, cardholders may have to send in forms manually.
Debit cards are accepted in a relatively large number of stores, both large and small in Uruguay; but their use has so far remained low as compared to credit cards at ATMs. Since August 2014, with the Financial Inclusion Law coming into force, end consumers obtain a 4 % VAT deduction for using debit cards in their purchases.
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the powers granted to congress are enumerated in which article of the constitution | Powers of the United States Congress - wikipedia
Powers of the United States Congress are implemented by the United States Constitution, defined by rulings of the Supreme Court, and by its own efforts and by other factors such as history and custom. It is the chief legislative body of the United States. Some powers are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers; others have been assumed to exist and are called implied powers.
Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes. The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress ' primary checks on the executive branch. Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills.
The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's Constitutionally - defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent. Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action '' and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war. In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times '' before 1970. In 1993, one writer noted "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II. '' President George H.W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post -- Cold War decision to start a war '' without Congressional approval. Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization. Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history.
Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of the foremost non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress ' subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters.
Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers.
Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following:
1.To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes;
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;
7. To establish post offices and post roads;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;
13. To provide and maintain a navy;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings.
Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress ' legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
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when did islam begin its spread overland into south asia quizlet | Islam in South Asia - wikipedia
Islam in South Asia has existed since the beginning of Islamic history. There are approximately 600 million South Asian Muslims, informally known as Desi Muslims, forming 31.4 % of South Asia 's population. In addition, about 30.6 % of all Muslims live in South Asia, which is the largest regional population of Muslims in the world.
Islam first came to the western coast of India when Arab traders as early as the 7th century AD came to coastal Malabar and Konkan - Gujarat. Cheraman Juma Masjid in Kerala is thought to be the first mosque in India, built in 629 AD by Malik ibn Dinar. Following an expedition by the governor of Bahrain to Bharuch in the 7th century AD, immigrant Arab and Persian trading communities from South Arabia and the Persian Gulf began settling in coastal Gujarat. After the Islamic conquest of Persia was completed, the Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of Persia and in 652 captured Herat.
In 712 CE, a young Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire, to be made the "As - Sindh '' province with its capital at Al - Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate. But due to the instability of the empire and the defeat in various wars with north Indian and south Indian rulers including the Caliphate campaigns in India, where the Hindu rulers like the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty and Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty defeated the Umayyad Arabs, they were contained to Sindh and southern Punjab. There was gradual conversion to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Hindus and Buddhists remained numerous. By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids.
Dawoodi Bohra Ismailli Shia was established in Gujarat in the second half of the 11th century, when Fatimid Imam Mustansir sent missionaries to Gujarat in 467 AH / 1073 AD. Islam arrived in North India in the 12th century via the Turkic invasions and has since become a part of India 's religious and cultural heritage. Muslims have played a prominent role in India 's economic rise and cultural influence.
Trade relations have existed between Arabia and the Indian subcontinent since ancient times. Even in the pre-Islamic era, Arab traders used to visit the Konkan - Gujarat coast and Malabar region, which linked them with the ports of South East Asia. Newly Islamised Arabs were Islam 's first contact with India. Historians Elliot and Dowson say in their book, The History of India as told by its own Historians, that the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD. H.G. Rawlinson in his book Ancient and Medieval History of India claims that the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century AD. (Shaykh Zainuddin Makhdum 's "Tuhfat al - Mujahidin '' is also a reliable work.) This fact is corroborated by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals and by Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV. It was with the advent of Islam that the Arabs became a prominent cultural force in the world. Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.
The first Indian mosque, Cheraman Juma Masjid, is thought to have been built in 629 AD by Malik Bin Deenar.
In Malabar, the Mappilas may have been the first community to convert to Islam. Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and many other natives embraced Islam. These new converts were now added to the Mappila community. Thus, among the Mappilas we find both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and converts from among the local people.
During the 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate Arabs entered modern - day Afghanistan after decisively defeating the Sassanian Persians in Nihawand. Following this colossal defeat, the last Sassanid Emperor, Yazdegerd III, who became a hunted fugitive, fled eastward deep into Central Asia. In pursuing Yazdegerd, the route the Arabs selected to enter the area was from north - eastern Iran and thereafter into Herat, where they stationed a large portion of their army before advancing toward northern Afghanistan.
A large number of the inhabitants of northern Afghanistan accepted Islam through Umayyad missionary efforts, particularly under the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al - Malik and Umar ibn AbdulAziz. In south, Abdur Rahman bin Samara introduced Islam to the natives of Zabulistan which was ruled by the Zunbils.
During the reign of Al - Mu'tasim Islam was generally practiced amongst most inhabitants of the region and finally under Ya'qub - i Laith Saffari, Islam was by far, the predominant religion of Kabul along with other major cities of Afghanistan. The father of Abu Hanifa, Thabit bin Zuta, was a native from modern - day Afghanistan. He immigrated to Kufa (in Iraq), where Hanifa was born. Later, the Samanids propagated Sunni Islam deep into the heart of Central Asia, as the first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian occurred in the 9th century. Since then, Islam has dominated the country 's religious landscape. Islamic leaders have entered the political sphere at various times of crisis, but rarely exercised secular authority for long.
Although soon after conquering the Middle East from the Byzantine empire and the Sassanid Empire, Arab forces had reached the present western regions of Pakistan, during the period of Rashidun caliphacy, it was in 712 CE that a young Arab general called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire, to be made the "As - Sindh '' province with its capital at Al - Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate. But the instability of the empire and the defeat in various wars with north Indian and south Indian rulers including the Caliphate campaigns in India, where the Hindu rulers like the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty and Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty defeated the Umayyad Arabs, they were contained till only Sindh and southern Punjab. There was gradual conversion to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Hindus and Buddhists remained numerous. By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids.
Muslim incursions resumed under later Turkic and Central Asian Mongol dynasties with more local capitals, who supplanted the Caliphate and expanded their domains both northwards and eastwards and led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Under Sabuktigin, Ghazni found itself in conflict with the Shahi Raja Jayapala. When Sabuktigin died and his son Mahmud ascended the throne in 998, Ghazni was engaged in the North with the Qarakhanids when the Shahi Raja renewed hostilities. In the first half of the 10th century, Mahmud of Ghazni added the Punjab to the Ghaznavid Empire and conducted 17 raids on modern - day India. In the 11th century, Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud played a significant role in the conversion of locals (Hindus) to Islam. Tughril was the grandson of Seljuq and brother of Chaghri, under whom the Seljuks wrested an empire from the Ghaznavids. Initially the Seljuqs were repulsed by Mahmud and retired to Khwarezm, but Tughril and Chaghri led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1037). Later they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successors across Khorasan and Balkh and even sacked Ghazni in 1037. In 1040 at the Battle of Dandanaqan, they decisively defeated Mas'ud I of the Ghaznavids, forcing him to abandon most of his western territories to the Seljuqs. A more successful invasion came at the end of the 12th century from Muhammad of Ghor. This eventually led to the formation of the Delhi Sultanate. Tīmūr bin Taraghay Barlas, known in the West as Tamerlane or "Timur the lame '', was a 14th - century warlord of Turco - Mongol descent, conqueror of much of western and central Asia, and founder of the Timurid Empire (1370 -- 1507) in Central Asia; the Timurid dynasty survived until 1857 as the Mughal dynasty of India.
Ahmed Shah Abdali -- a Pashtun -- embarked on a conquest in South Asia starting in 1747. In the short space of just over a quarter of a century, he forged one of the largest Muslim empires of the 18th century. The high point of his conquests was his victory over the powerful Marathas in the third Battle of Panipat 1761. In South Asia his empire stretched from the Indus at Attock all the way to the outskirts of Delhi. Uninterested in long term of conquest or in replacing the Mughal Empire, he became increasingly pre occupied with revolts by the Sikhs. His empire started to unravel not long after his death.
South Asian Muslims are the majority in Afghanistan (99 %), Bangladesh (90 %), Pakistan (96 %) and Maldives (100 %), but are concentrated in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
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seat leon cupra r 1.8 20v turbo specs | SEAT León - wikipedia
The SEAT León (Spanish pronunciation: (ˈse. at leˈon), also spelled Leon outside of Spain) is a hatchback small family car built by the Spanish car manufacturer SEAT since October 1998.
The first two León generations used two differing variants of the Volkswagen Group A platform, and shared many components with other Volkswagen Group cars. The third generation uses the Volkswagen Group MQB platform, also used by the Audi A3 Mk3, Volkswagen Golf Mk7 and Škoda Octavia Mk3.
The initial SEAT León (Volkswagen Group Typ 1M), launched in 1999, available only as hatchback, and the related saloon version was known as the SEAT Toledo. It was based on the Volkswagen Group A4 (PQ34) platform and, as such, shared many components in common with other VW Group models such as the Volkswagen Golf Mk4, Bora and Audi A3. As SEAT 's first C - segment model as part of the VW Group, the León Mk1 was marketed as a sportier and cheaper variant of the Golf. To reinforce the sporty image, the vehicle had slightly more aggressive looks. The more expensive versions were equipped with relatively more powerful internal combustion engines, along with firmer suspension to improve handling. In the interior, the dashboard was derived from that of the first - generation Audi A3.
Available engines were the 1.4 - litre 16 valve petrol engine which produced a 55 kilowatts (75 PS; 74 bhp), a 1.6 - litre 8 valve petrol engine 74 kilowatts (101 PS; 99 bhp) (replaced later with a 16 valve 77 kilowatts (105 PS; 103 bhp) unit), and included two variants of the Volkswagen Group 's 20 valve turbocharged 1.8 - litre powerplant, (with some countries also getting the 2.8 - litre VR6 engine delivering 150 kilowatts (204 PS; 201 bhp).
The original "León 20VT '' (which later became known as the "Cupra '' and then the "FR '') had a 1.8 - litre Turbo with 132 kilowatts (179 PS; 177 bhp), and the "León Cupra R '' 154 kilowatts (209 PS; 207 bhp), later becoming 165 kilowatts (224 PS; 221 bhp). It became first available in only three body paints (red, yellow, black), picked as an homage to the colors of both Spain 's and Germany 's national flags referring back to the roots of the joint project the model originally was.
In some countries, there was also a "Cupra 4 ''; equipped with a 2.8 - litre VR6 delivering 150 kilowatts (204 PS; 201 bhp) and equipped with four - wheel drive (4WD), based on the same Haldex Traction multi-plate clutch as the Volkswagen Golf 4motion.
A range of turbocharged direct injection (TDI) diesel engines was available, including a 110 kilowatts (150 PS; 148 bhp) version of Volkswagen Group 's 1.9 TDI engine, originally sold as a "Cupra 4 TDI '', with 4WD, that was sold for one year only, and only in certain countries, then passed to "Evolution '' series, then "Top Sport '', and later rebranded as the "FR '' (' Formula Racing '). In other countries the model was badged "Cupra '' and then "FR '' before a limited number of cars were fitted with the bodykit from the petrol powered "Cupra R '' and named the "FR + ''. Lesser diesel versions were available with 66 kilowatts (90 PS; 89 bhp), 81 kilowatts (110 PS; 109 bhp) and 96 kilowatts (131 PS; 129 bhp) outputs.
All engines over 96 kilowatts (131 PS; 129 bhp) have a standard six - speed manual transmission. Rear suspension was by semi-independent torsion beam for most variants, whilst high - end and 4WD models were fitted with a multi-link independent rear suspension. All versions came with disc brakes on all four wheels (the front ventilated, and in some cars the rear too).
In Mexico, the León became a very popular car with upper class young people. The only problem the León has suffered in Mexico is the fact that the sport tuned suspension of the León is not designed to withstand the constant road imperfections such as potholes and speed bumps that abound in Mexican roads.
In Switzerland, there was another official version tuned by Abt Sportsline of the León called "SEAT León Cupra 4 Kompressor ''. This version had the same 4WD and 2.8 - litre VR6 but with 206 kilowatts (280 PS; 276 bhp) and 323 newton metres (238 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque.
Factory production of the Typ 1M ended in May 2006. However, the appreciation for the SEAT León Cupra R Mk1 's appeal remained clear, still up to the ' best hot hatchback of all time ' poll, conducted in 2010 by Autocar, in which its readers honoured the Cupra R # 7, in the top ten list of hatchbacks of all time in their preferences.
The Typ 1M SEAT León was available with the following internal combustion engines, with most being shared from other marques of the Volkswagen Group:
The second generation León, Typ 1P, was released in 2005, with factory production commencing May 2005. It is based on the Volkswagen Group A5 (PQ35) platform, most notably used by the Volkswagen Golf Mk5. It is built in Spain, and has a sharper exterior look with vertically parked windscreen wipers, and the external rear door handles more integrated, in a similar style to that seen on recent Alfa Romeo models. Design was handled by Walter de'Silva, and the car uses the same design style that started with the SEAT Altea.
The base model on offer is the new 16 valve 1.2 - litre TSI petrol engine with 77 kilowatts (105 PS; 103 bhp). In some markets (e.g. Greece, Romania and Italy), the León is available with a 1.4 - litre MPI engine producing 63 kilowatts (86 PS; 84 bhp). The sportier variants begin with the 110 kilowatts (150 PS; 148 bhp) 2.0 - litre Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) and the popular 103 kilowatts (140 PS; 138 bhp) 2.0 - litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine. Both are fitted with a standard six - speed manual transmission, with the six - speed or seven - speed Direct - Shift Gearbox (DSG) available as an option. A 136 kilowatts (185 PS; 182 bhp) variant of the 2.0 TFSI unique to the León was later introduced, but despite a low list price and rapid performance -- attracted only minimal attention and average reviews, so this was later discontinued to make way for the sportier FR variants.
The first real sporty León within the new range is the León FR with twin - exhaust pipes to left rear, sport seats and gear stick with FR logo to distinguish it from lesser models, was introduced in June 2006, when it finally received the 147 kilowatts (200 PS; 197 bhp) 2.0 TFSI engine from the Volkswagen Golf Mk5 GTI, as well as a 125 kilowatts (170 PS; 168 bhp) variant of the 2.0 TDI unit featured in the Golf and Audi A3. Further standard equipment includes climate control air conditioning.
Next in the range is the 2.0 TFSI Cupra model. It features a 177 kilowatts (241 PS; 237 bhp) engine, and a 0 - 100 kilometres per hour (62.1 mph) time of 6.4 seconds. The Cupra comes with standard 18 '' 5 twin - spoke alloys, red brake calipers, and the standard Cupra oval exhaust, as well as new, unique paint finishes and bolstered sport seats complete with the Cupra logo. Also standard are drilled - aluminium sports pedals.
At the top of the range is the 2.0 TFSI Cupra R. This uses the same 195 kilowatts (265 PS; 261 bhp) engine found in the Audi S3, Golf R and Scirocco R. Capable of 0 -- 100 kilometres per hour (62.1 mph) in 6.2 seconds and a top speed limited to 250 kilometres per hour (155 mph).
From 2008, the K1 variant of the León Cupra was introduced in the UK, featuring extensively re-worked front and rear bumpers, side skirts, a more pronounced tailgate spoiler. It also gained a unique chrome - tipped, centrally - mounted, oval exhaust. The K1 is considered to be a limited edition model, as production was only for the year 2008 -- 2009 and it only being available in the UK.
In 2009, the SEAT León Cupra was turned into a race car in the SEAT Cupra race mobile game for Apple iPhone / iPod touch available through the iTunes ' App store.
In 2008, SEAT Deutschland announced the production of 55 units of the SEAT León Copa Edition. This limited edition is powered with 2.0 TFSI engine improved to 210 kilowatts (286 PS; 282 bhp) of maximum power, and 360 newton metres (266 lbf ⋅ ft). Maximum speed is 255 kilometres per hour (158.4 mph) and 0 - 100 km / h (62.1 mph) time is 5.9 seconds. The suspension is an Eibach derived from the León Supercopa, and the brakes have been improved to cope with the enhanced performance from the uprated engine. In addition, the car includes xenon HID headlights, 18 inch wheels and a spoiler with larger air intakes. The car colour is white with black stripes.
SEAT México announced the production of 100 units of the Copa Edition in orange colour with black stripes in September 2008. The Mexican version has a sunroof, whilst the European León Copa does not.
At the 2008 Geneva Auto Show, the León Streetcopa limited edition was released. It was a similar edition of León Copa Edition with some changes, designed for the Swiss market and limited to 200 units. Lately, after SEAT won World Touring Car Championship, SEAT Schweiz released a facelifted version called León World Champion Edition, also limited to 200 units.
SEAT Nederland announces the production of León Cupra 310 Limited Edition, with 2.0 TFSI engine upgraded to 228 kilowatts (310 PS; 306 bhp) of maximum power and 425 newton metres (313 lbf ⋅ ft). The production has limited to 100 units.
It comes only in Candy white or Infiri black. The Cupra 310 Limited Edition features beside the OEM Cupra equipment an engine management remapping by Abt Sportsline, black Orion - alloy wheels, an alarm system, bluetooth connectivity and special 310 Limited Edition badges on the sides and the rear hatch. There are also stainless decals inside the front door frames displaying the 310 Ltd logo. A badge on the dashboard displays the serial number, and the car is delivered with a key ring to match. Full factory warranty is retained with the power increase that increases the top speed to 259 kilometres per hour (160.9 mph).
In 2007, SEAT prepared a sole car customized by Shakira. This car was auctioned, and the benefits went to the charity through Pies Descalzos Foundation. Mechanically, it is the same car as the León Cupra.
SEAT has produced two versions of the Twin Drive prototype. Initially announced in May 2009 as a diesel / battery hybrid, the León Twin Drive Ecomotive is a series plug - in hybrid, powered by an electric motor, through lithium - ion batteries chargeable at a regular electrical socket, in combination with a diesel - powered internal combustion engine. The Twin Drive Ecomotive project is a first step towards a 100 % electric car and is planned to go for production in 2014.
The Twin Drive Ecomotive as a plug - in hybrid vehicle powered through the combination of both a diesel engine and an electric motor. The vehicle 's electric motor has an output of 35 KW and a self - imposed top speed of 100 km / h, and resumes power from Li - ion batteries placed at the rear of the vehicle, giving it a range of about 50 km for short urban circuits, while for longer trips the environmentally friendly tuned combustion engine is used. Quick battery recharging process from the mains through regular power sockets features.
In 2011, a revised version of the Twin Drive was shown to the press, with a 1.4 TSI petrol engine producing 113 bhp (84 kW; 115 PS) in addition to a 40 bhp (30 kW; 41 PS) generator and an electric motor of 113 bhp (84 kW; 115 PS), producing a combined limited output of 161 bhp (120 kW; 163 PS) and emitting a low 39g / km of CO2, with production now estimated in 2015.
The Typ 1P SEAT León is available with the following internal combustion engines, and like the previous generation, many are shared from other marques of the Volkswagen Group:
A flexible - fuel vehicle model is also on offer under the label "MultiFuel '', featuring the 1.6 MPI E85 102 bhp engine.
The third generation of the León is based on the Volkswagen Group 's latest MQB platform.
Compared to the previous generation, the León Mk3 is shorter by 5 cm (2 in) and lighter by up to 90 kilograms; however, because its wheelbase has been extended by 5.8 cm (2.3 in), it has a roomier cabin with greater shoulder room for the front and rear passengers, more rear legroom and 380 litres (13 cu ft) of boot space. The first official information and pictures of the car were released in July 16, 2012, while it got its public debut only a few months later, at the 2012 Paris Motor Show, in September. That makes Leon the second car to be based on the MQB platform.
It features new safety equipment, such as driver knee airbag, and a number of new safety systems, including (often as standard) a multi-collision braking system to automatically brake the car after an accident in order to avoid a second collision, a lane - keeping assistant, and driver fatigue detection. The braking system includes a hill - start assistant.
In the interior, there is a driver - oriented centre console hosting a 5.8 - inch touch - screen infotainment display with some models featuring a proximity sensor, also used in the Volkswagen Golf, as well as ambient lighting.
A new feature available for the first time in its class are the optional full - LED headlamps combined with a full beam assistant. The full - LED headlamps offer numerous advantages over standard halogen bulbs such as improved illumination, a close to daylight colour temperature, lower energy consumption and an extended service life. The front fog lights can include a cornering feature.
The higher specification also have a new "SEAT Drive Profile '' system which allows the driver to choose between four different driving settings: eco, normal, sport, and an individual setting. This system controls the behaviour of the engine, steering, and DSG gearbox. Additionally, the 1.8 TSI 180PS and 2.0 TDI 184PS engine - equipped models will vary their engine sound via a sound actuator, as well as their interior ambient lighting between white (normal, eco and individual) and red (sport).
SEAT announced in early 2012 that the range will include for the first time three - door and estate models in addition to a five - door.
In September 2013, SEAT officially unveiled the Leon ST (estate model) at the Frankfurt Motor Show. The Leon ST extends the Leon 's maximum load capacity to 1470 litres and is available in Europe in three different versions and eleven different engine options. On 23 June 2014, SEAT revealed an off - road version of the Léon ST called the X-PERIENCE.
In 2012, the SEAT León Mk3 was tested for its safety performance under the Euro NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved a 5 - star overall rating:
The SEAT Leon CONNECT is a special edition model that was released in 2015. It is equipped with SEAT 's Full Link Technology and a Samsung Galaxy A3 smartphone. This technology allows the user 's phone to be connected to the car 's infotainment system and gives the user access to all the features of the SEAT ConnectApp. The SEAT Leon CONNECT has a range of exterior body colours that allow the mirrors and wheels to be customised. Interior details, including stitching are in Blue.
The Typ 5F SEAT León is available with the following internal combustion engines all featuring direct injection and turbocharging, and like the previous generations they are shared with other marques of the Volkswagen Group:
The first generation SEAT León Cupra R was the basis of a one - make trophy, the SEAT León Supercopa. It operated in Spain, UK, Germany and Turkey from 2003. The car was developed by SEAT Sport and power was raised to 184 kilowatts (250 PS; 247 bhp). An "International Masters '' final, featuring the best four drivers from each national series, was introduced in October 2005, as a support race for the Spanish GT Championship 's final round at Montmeló. A TDI - powered version has raced in the ECTS, an Italian - based endurance series for touring cars.
In 2006, the Supercopa León was replaced by the new shape León. The car is potentially faster than the WTCC version, as it features a turbocharged 2.0 - litre engine, with over 221 kW (300 PS; 296 bhp), increased torque, the DSG gearbox, better aerodynamics (it includes the WTCC car 's front and rear spoilers, plus a venturi tunnel under the car, instead of a flat bottom), and 18 inch wheels, instead of the mandatory 17 inch wheels from the WTCC.
For 2007, the SEAT Cupra Championship in the UK (part of the TOCA Package) will run both ' New León ' Cupra Race cars with 221 kilowatts (300 PS; 296 bhp), as well as the Mk1 León Cupra R race car with 184 kilowatts (250 PS; 247 bhp).
The SEAT León Eurocup began in 2008 as a support series for the World Touring Car Championship.
The car came top in Class D in the 2014 Liqui Moly Bathurst 12 Hour.
During 2005, SEAT introduced the second generation León into the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) to replace the Toledo Cupra which it had raced in the early rounds of the title. The car features several modifications, including a racing engine that develops over 191 kW (260 PS; 256 bhp), a Hewland sequential - shift gearbox (unrelated to the DSG), and an aerodynamic package for increased downforce (with its hatchback shape, the León is disadvantaged against conventional three - box saloons). Minimum weight is 1,140 kilograms (2,513.3 lb) with driver. SEAT Sport, in partnership with Oreca, runs six cars in the WTCC. Two other cars are run by SEAT Sport UK (Northern South) based in Northampton, UK in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC). A further two cars are run by SEAT Sport Italia in the Italia Superturismo Championship.
In mid-2007 SEAT introduced the Leon TDI to combat BMW 's dominance. The car did show promise with Yvan Muller behind the wheel and the team was set to score championship win in Macau, but reliability issues caused Muller an retirement in Race 1 and the engine problems were n't solved in time thus not starting in Race 2 and handing the title to Andy Priaulx with BMW 320si.
In 2008, Muller won the FIA World Touring Car Championship for Drivers at the wheel of a León TDI, and SEAT won the Manufacturers ' title. León TDI was also fielded by SEAT UK in the British Touring Car Championship with Jason Plato being the lead driver. Plato finished second behind Fabrizio Giovanardi with Vauxhall in the drivers ' championship. At the end of the season SEAT UK withdrew from the series and subsequently this was the only season where León TDI competed in the BTCC.
In 2009, Gabriele Tarquini became the Drivers ' Champion with the León TDI, and SEAT won the Manufacturers ' title for a second consecutive year. At the end of the season SEAT Sport officially ended their manufacturer support. León TDI cars were entered by Sunred Engineering for the following season and despite not having official manufacturer support from SEAT, in the manufacturers ' championship the entity was named SEAT Customers Technology. Tarquini finished second in the drivers ' standings behind Yvan Muller with Chevrolet.
For 2011, new rules were introduced in WTCC, now incorporating a new engine formula - 1.6 turbocharged engines, similar to those used in the World Rally Championship. In line with the changes Sunred created the SUNRED SR León 1.6 T, using the then León TDI as base. The cars, however, were not ready for the start of the season, and Sunred drivers used the older León TDI, which was still eligible to enter thanks to the Jay Ten Trophy, introduced by the series promoter Eurosport for 2010 - spec cars.
In 2012, SEAT Sport unofficially returned to the series introducing the SEAT León WTCC, effectively replacing the SR León from Sunred, to privateer entries. Some drivers like Tom Boardman and Tiago Monteiro started the season using the old León TDI. The TDI version was still eligible in the European Touring Car Cup where Fernando Monje won the 2012 championship. For the following season León TDI was banned from ETC Cup and with everyone now upgraded to the León WTCC 2012 marked the last time diesel car was entered in WTCC and ETCC. The Léon WTCC continued to be eligible until the introduction of TC1 in 2014 (although León WTCC was able to be entered in the TC2 class in the same year as TC1 's introduction).
In 2013 SEAT Sport introduced a concept car, based on the third generation of León. Initially it was thought that this would be the car in which SEAT Sport would return to the series with full manufacturer team under the new TC1 regulations. However SEAT Sport announced that the car would be part of the revived León Eurocup for 2014.
The León Cup Racer then formed the base for the newly formed TCR International Series. The TCR regulations use this car as a template for the aerodynamic portions of the cars. In 2016 SEAT Sport introduced a TCR - spec version of the León with the original Cup Racer still being eligible in the International Series as well as national and regional championship utilising the TCR regulations.
Since its launch in 1999, more than 1.9 million SEAT León cars have been produced and sold in its three generations up to the present, made in SEAT 's Martorell plant and other Volkswagen Group 's factories.
In the year 2011, the total annual retail sales number of SEAT León cars was 77,075 vehicles, while the annual production of vehicles came up to 80,736 units.
The total production per year of SEAT León cars, manufactured in SEAT and other Volkswagen Group 's plants, is shown in the following table:
SEAT Also have Plans For next 2020 with 6 new models will reveals include Seat Leon Models
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we gotta get out of this place song meaning | We Gotta Get out of This Place - wikipedia
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '', occasionally written "We 've Gotta Get out of This Place '', is a rock song written by Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil and recorded as a 1965 hit single by The Animals. It has become an iconic song of its type and was immensely popular with United States Armed Forces GIs during the Vietnam War.
In 2004 it was ranked number 233 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list; it is also in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll list.
Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil were husband and wife (and future Hall of Fame) songwriters associated with the 1960s Brill Building scene in New York City.
Mann and Weil wrote and recorded "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' as a demo, with Mann singing and playing piano. It was intended for The Righteous Brothers, for whom they had written the number one hit "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' but then Mann gained a recording contract for himself, and his label Red Bird Records wanted him to release it instead. Meanwhile, record executive Allen Klein had heard it and gave the demo to Mickie Most, The Animals ' producer. Most already had a call out to Brill Building songwriters for material for the group 's next recording session (The Animals hits "It 's My Life '' and "Do n't Bring Me Down '' came from the same call), and The Animals recorded it before Mann could.
In The Animals ' rendition, the lyrics were slightly reordered and reworded from the demo and opened with a locational allusion -- although different from that in the songwriters ' minds -- that was often taken as fitting the group 's industrial, working class Newcastle - upon - Tyne origins:
In this dirty old part of the city Where the sun refused to shine People tell me, there ai n't no use in tryin '
Next came a verse about the singer 's father in his deathbed after a lifetime of working his life away, followed by a call - and - response buildup, leading to the start of the chorus:
We got ta get out of this place! If it 's the last thing we ever do...
The arrangement featured a distinctive bass lead by group member Chas Chandler. This was the first single not to be recorded by the original line - up, following as it did the departure of keyboard player Alan Price and his replacement by Dave Rowberry. It featured one of singer Eric Burdon 's typically raw, fierce vocals. Rolling Stone described the overall effect as a "harsh white - blues treatment from The Animals. As (Burdon) put it, ' Whatever suited our attitude, we just bent to our own shape. ' ''
The song reached number 2 on the UK pop singles chart on August 14, 1965 (held out of the top slot by The Beatles ' "Help! ''). The following month, it reached number 13 on the U.S. pop singles chart, its highest placement there. In Canada, the song also reached number 2, on September 20, 1965.
The UK and US single releases were different versions from the same recording sessions. The take that EMI, The Animals ' parent record company, sent to MGM Records, the group 's American label, was mistakenly one that had not been selected for release elsewhere. The two versions are most easily differentiated by the lyric at the beginning of the second verse: in the US version the lyric is, "See my daddy in bed a-dyin ' '', while the UK version uses, "Watch my daddy in bed a-dyin ' '' (as a result of an error by the music labels, certain online retailers sell the UK version but incorrectly identify it as the US version).
In the US the song (in its "mistaken '' take) was included on the album Animal Tracks, released in the fall 1965, and again on the popular compilation The Best of The Animals released in 1966 and re-released with an expanded track list on the ABKCO label in 1973. The song was not on any British Animals album during the group 's lifetime.
Once Animals reissues began occurring during the compact disc era, Allen Klein, by now owner of ABKCO and the rights to this material, dictated that the "correct '' British version be used on all reissues and compilations everywhere. Thus, as US radio stations converted from vinyl records to CDs, gradually only the British version became heard. Some collectors and fans in the US wrote letters of complaint to Goldmine magazine, saying they believed the US version featured an angrier and more powerful vocal from Burdon, and in any case wanted to hear the song in the form they had grown up with. The 2004 remastered SACD Retrospective compilation from ABKCO included the US version.
At the time, the title and simple emotional appeal of "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' lent itself to some obvious self - identifications -- for instance, it was a very popular number to be played at high school senior proms and graduation parties. In music writer Dave Marsh 's view, it was one of a wave of songs in 1965, by artists such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan, that ushered in a new role for rock music as a vehicle for common perception and as a force for social consciousness. Writer Craig Werner sees the song as reflecting the desire of people to take a hard look at their own lives and the community they come from. Burdon later said, "The song became an anthem for different people -- everybody at some time wants to get out of the situation they 're in. ''
The song was very popular with United States Armed Forces members stationed in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. It was frequently requested of, and played by, American Forces Vietnam Network disc jockeys. During 2006 two University of Wisconsin -- Madison employees, one a Vietnam veteran, began an in - depth survey of hundreds of Vietnam veterans, and found that "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' had resonated the strongest among all the music popular then: "We had absolute unanimity is this song being the touchstone. This was the Vietnam anthem. Every bad band that ever played in an armed forces club had to play this song. '' Just such a band played the song in an episode ("USO Down '', by Vietnam veteran Jim Beaver) of the American television series about the war, Tour of Duty, and the song is reprised in the episode 's final scene.
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '' was also used in Dennis Potter 's 1965 television play Stand Up, Nigel Barton and the BBC 's 1996 Newcastle - set Our Friends in the North, which partially took place in the 1960s. In America it was used as the title credits song in some episodes of the Vietnam War - set television series China Beach. It was then applied to the Bin Laden family, having to leave the United States in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks, in Michael Moore 's 2004 Fahrenheit 9 / 11. It also was featured in the soundtrack to the 1987 movie Hamburger Hill. It was used in a third - season episode of the 2000s television series Heroes. It was used as the theme song for 2002 BBC comedy TLC and the 2013 BBC series Privates. The song was also featured humorously in the Kong: Skull Island trailer
In a 2012 keynote speech to an audience at the South by Southwest music festival, Bruce Springsteen performed an abbreviated version of The Animals ' version on acoustic guitar and then said, "That 's every song I 've ever written. That 's all of them. I 'm not kidding, either. That 's ' Born to Run ', ' Born in the U.S.A. ' ''
The song 's title and theme have become a common cultural phrase over the years.
It formed the basis for the title of academician Lawrence Grossberg 's We Gotta Get out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (1992), detailing the conflict between American conservatism and rock culture. Similarly, it formed the title basis for Gerri Hirshey 's 2002 account, We Gotta Get out of This Place: The True, Tough Story of Women in Rock.
It has also been used as the title of editorials by American Journalism Review and other publications. The title was even used to name an art exhibit, curated by Stefan Kalmar at the Cubitt Gallery in London in 1997.
We Gotta Get Out of This Place is the twenty eighth single by Australian Hard rock band The Angels, released in 1986. It is the third single to be released from The Angels eighth studio album Howling. The song peaked at number 7 on the ARIA Charts and number 13 on the Recorded Music NZ,
Production
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '' has been recorded or performed in concert by numerous artists, including The Cryan ' Shames (1966), The American Breed (1967), The Frost (1970), The Partridge Family (1972), Bruce Springsteen (performed only a handful of times in his career, but acknowledged by him as one of his primary influences in the 1970s), Udo Lindenberg (in a German language adaption in the 1970s for which commercial success was small), Blue Öyster Cult (1978), Steve Bender (1978), Gilla (1979), Angelic Upstarts (1980), Gardens & Villa, Grand Funk Railroad (1981), David Johansen (1982, and a hit on album oriented rock radio and MTV as part of an Animals medley), Fear (1982), The Angels (1986), Richard Thompson (1988), Jello Biafra and D.O.A. (1989), Randy Stonehill (1990), Bon Jovi (1992, again as part of an Animals medley for an MTV special), Midnight Oil (1993, for MTV Unplugged), Space (1998), Southside Johnny (concerts in the 2000s), Overkill (2000), Widespread Panic (2005), Ann Wilson with Wynonna Judd (2007), Alice Cooper (2011), and many others.
In 1990 Eric Burdon joined Katrina and the Waves for a recording of it for use on China Beach. In 2000 Barry Mann revisited the song, performing it with Bryan Adams on Mann 's retrospective solo album Soul & Inspiration. When Suzi Quatro was on a German tour in 2008 she came on stage and played bass on the song during an Eric Burdon concert at the Porsche Arena in Stuttgart. Burdon also performed it in 2010 at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, when songwriters Mann and Weil were inducted. Later in 2010, Mann and Weil were at The Grammy Museum in Los Angeles -- to open a gallery for the Songwriter 's Hall of Fame -- and performed their original version of the song, including previously - unheard lyrics like "What are we waiting for? '' (which was supposed to occur before the familiar lyrics in the chorus).
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using proper models illustrate a good communication process | Models of communication - wikipedia
Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication was developed in 1948 by Claude Elwood Shannon and published with an introduction by Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
The Shannon -- Weaver model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technology. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, message, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person speaks into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone through which one can hear the person on the other end of the line. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that there may often be static or background sounds that interfere with the process of the other partner in a telephone conversation; they referred to this as noise. Certain types of background sounds can also indicate the absence of a signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emissor / sender / encoder to a destination / receiver / decoder. According to this common communication - related conception, communication is viewed as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are its simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. The mathematicians Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model on the basis of the following elements:
Shannon and Weaver argued that this concept entails three levels of problems for communication:
Daniel Chandler criticizes the transmission model in the following terms:
In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver 's 1949 linear model of communication and created the Sender - Message - Channel - Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication. The SMCR Model of Communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emissor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self - talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form, a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender 's personal filters and the receiver 's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "noise '' on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode - transmit - receive - decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a (code - book), and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society. His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding '. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding ', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society.
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell 's attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote: "If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style '' (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote: "What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ' fill in ' and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given '' (Goffman 73), highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore, any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably can not yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11 - 15):
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things. - "Language is the source of meaning ''. - Meaning arises out of the social interaction people have with each other.
- Meaning is not inherent in objects but it is negotiated through the use of language, hence the term symbolic interactionism. As human beings, we have the ability to name things. Symbols, including names, are arbitrary signs. By talking with others, we ascribe meaning to words and develop a universe of discourse A symbol is a stimulus that has a learned / shared meaning and a value for people Significant symbols can be nonverbal as well as linguistic.
- Negative responses can consequently reduce a person to nothing. - Our expectations evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated, resulting in a self - fulfilling prophecy.
It is a one to and way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. In this model there is no feedback which may allow for a continuous exchange of information. This form of communication is a one - way form of communication that does not involve any feedback or response, and noise. (F.N.S. Palma, 1993)
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicating that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has "field of experience '' which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs -- there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
It is helpful to examine communication theory through one of the following viewpoints
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one 's cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
Epistemology is an examination of the approaches and beliefs which inform particular modes of study of phenomena and domains of expertise. In positivist approaches to epistemology, objective knowledge is seen as the result of the empirical observation and perceptual experience. In the history of science, empirical evidence collected by way of pragmatic - calculation and the scientific method is believed to be the most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Such approaches are meant to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world.
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches. The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists ' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers ' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called "contexts '' or "levels '', but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism. While many of these have become "departments of communication '', they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social - scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels '' of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis, McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication -- and in some cases are used by them -- remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions '' and "levels '' of communication theory.
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where is the first buc ee's located | Buc - ee 's - wikipedia
Buc - ee 's is a chain of convenience stores located in the Central, North, South, and Southeast regions of Texas, with two southern Alabama and a Florida location under construction. The company is owned by Arch "Beaver '' Aplin III and Don Wasek and has its headquarters in Lake Jackson, Texas. The chain is known for its very large - format stores (relative to other convenience stores) and a logo depicting a beaver.
Co-Founders "Beaver '' Aplin and Don Wasek opened the first store, which is still open as of 2017, in Lake Jackson, Texas in 1982. Aplin formed the name Buc - ee 's by combining his childhood nickname and the name of his Labrador Retriever, Buck.
Buc - ee 's expanded and opened their first travel center in Luling, Texas in 2001. Buc - ee 's are large stores (no 18 wheelers allowed) with fuel pumps that range from 80 - 120 fueling positions for gas and diesel (some stores include Ethanol Free and DEF) and a huge selection of beef jerky, pastries, fresh sandwiches, tacos, Dippin ' Dots and homemade fudge.
In 2012, Buc - ee 's opened its largest travel center in New Braunfels, Texas on Interstate 35. The New Braunfels store is the largest convenience store in the world at 68,000 square feet. Template: Https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444914904577623862863808508?mod=ITP AHED The store features 120 fueling positions, 83 toilets, 31 cash registers, 4 Icee machines, and 80 fountain dispensers. It also offers tubing and water gear for enjoying the nearby Guadalupe River.
The New Braunfels, Texas store was named the 2012 "Best Restroom in America '' by Cintas.
The first Buc - ee 's in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex opened in Terrell, Texas on June 22, 2015. The travel center is located three miles west of Tanger Outlets on Interstate 20 (no 18 wheelers allowed).
The second Buc - ee 's in the Metroplex opened on May 23, 2016. The location is located in far northern Fort Worth, across the street from Texas Motor Speedway. The third DFW location is scheduled to open in Denton, Texas in 2018.
On March 8, 2016, Buc - ee 's announced a possible first location outside of the state of Texas would be located in Baton Rouge, LA. The location was expected to open in early 2017, however, on October 4, 2016, Buc - ee 's announced that the plans for the Baton Rouge location had been terminated.
On April 12, 2017, Buc - ee 's announced that it will open their first convenience store / gas station outside of Texas in Daytona Beach, Florida. The travel center is scheduled to open in 2018 and will be located on the north side of LPGA Boulevard across from Tanger Outlets, just east of Interstate 95 and immediately west of Stonewood Grill & Tavern (formerly Vince Carter 's). At 50,000 square feet with 120 fueling positions the Daytona Beach travel center will be the largest in Florida and the largest outside of Texas.
In January 2018, Buc - ee 's broke ground on second out of Texas location in Baldwin County Alabama, At 50,000 square feet with 120 gas pumps, it will be the second Buc - ee 's to be built outside of Texas and the first in Alabama. A few weeks after the Baldwin County location began construction, Buc - ee 's announced that a second Southern Alabama location will be built in Mobile.
Buc - ee 's broke ground on another North - Texas location in Melissa, Texas on Monday, February 5, 2018. The store is located off New Davis Road and U.S. Highway 75. The store is expected to open in February 2019.
Buc - ee 's offers products found at most convenience stores such as fuel, cigarettes, tobacco, chips, drinks, and soft drinks at their smaller neighborhood stores. Travel centers include a deli, coffee shop, exterior tunnel car washes, Texas - themed specialty gifts and food, and products catering to hunters and river rafters. All Buc - ee 's are open 24 hours per day, 365 days per year.
Buc - ee 's offers private labeled beef jerky, novelty candy, trail mixes, granola, pralines, jarred vegetables, preserves, and salsa. Their # 1 branded product is caramel and butter - glazed corn puffs known as ' Beaver Nuggets. '
In recent years, during the company 's rapidly growing success, Buc - ee 's has filed numerous lawsuits against other convenience store chains, most of them based out of Texas, for alleged trademark and trade dress infringement.
In 2014, Buc - ee 's filed a lawsuit against Texas based convenience store chain "Frio Beaver. Frio Beaver, a company with a logo also depicting a beaver in a yellow circle with a black outline, was accused of copying the iconic Buc - ee 's beaver head logo, which the company is widely known for in Texas.
In 2016, Buc - cee 's sued "Choke Canyon BBQ '', another Texas convenience store, for copyright infringement and trade dressing. Choke Canyon uses a logo of a grinning alligator in the middle of a yellow circle, which Buc - ee 's claims is an attempt by the chain to resemble the Buc - ee 's logo. Choke Canyon is also calling their new stores "Bucky 's '', and practically duplicating the look of the inside of a Buc - ee 's store.
In 2017, Buc - cee 's again filed a lawsuit for breaking an agreement, this time against a Nebraska - based convenience store chain known as "Bucky 's ''. The two companies had agreed to remain in their respective states and expand only to states where the other did not operate.
There was also a non-logo related lawsuit filed in 2013 against "Chicks '', a convenience store located in Bryan Texas, for trade dressing by allegedly copying Buc - ee 's mega convenience store designs and layout. The case was settled out of court.
Buc - ee 's also lost a Texas Employee Rentention Agreement Case on an appeal in 2017. A year after a trial court ordered a former employee pay Buc - ee 's close to $100,000 in damages and attorney 's fees for breaching an "Retention Agreement, '' a Texas court of appeals reversed the decision and ordered that Buc - ee 's take nothing on its claims against the former employee. The court reasoned that the contract violated Texas ' employment - at - will doctrine. It could only be valid if it met the requirements of an actual non-compete agreement, but as this did not meet Texas requirement for non-compete, the contract was not enforceable.
Buc - ee 's is known for posting billboards by Texas (and beginning in 2018, Florida and Alabama) interstate highways with simple and humorous slogans.
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where is your sternum located on your body | Sternum - wikipedia
The sternum or breastbone is a long flat bone shaped like a necktie located in the center of the chest. It connects to the ribs via cartilage, forming the front of the rib cage, and thus helps to protect the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels from injury. The sternum consists of three regions: the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process. It is one of the largest and longest flat bones of the body. The word sternum originates from the Greek στέρνον, meaning chest.
The sternum is a long, flat bone, forming the middle portion of the front of the chest. The top of the sternum supports the clavicles (collarbones) and its edges join with the costal cartilages of the first seven pairs of ribs. The inner surface of the sternum is also the attachment of the sternopericardial ligaments. Its top is also connected to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The sternum consists of three main parts, listed from the top:
In its natural position, the sternum is angled obliquely, downward and forward. It is slightly convex in front and concave behind; broad above, shaped like a "T '', becoming narrowed at the point where the manubrium joins the body, after which it again widens a little to below the middle of the body, and then narrows to its lower extremity. In adults the sternum is on average about 17 cm, longer in the male than in the female.
The manubrium (Latin: handle) is the broad upper part of the sternum. It has a quadrangular shape, narrowing from the top, which gives it four borders. The suprasternal notch (jugular notch) is located in the middle at the upper broadest part of the manubrium. This notch can be felt between the two clavicles. On either side of this notch are the right and left clavicular notches.
The manubrium joins with the body of the sternum, the clavicles and the cartilages of the first pair of ribs. The inferior border, oval and rough, is covered with a thin layer of cartilage for articulation with the body. The lateral borders are each marked above by a depression for the first costal cartilage, and below by a small facet, which, with a similar facet on the upper angle of the body, forms a notch for the reception of the costal cartilage of the second rib. Between the depression for the first costal cartilage and the demi - facet for the second is a narrow, curved edge, which slopes from above downward towards the middle. Also, the superior sternopericardial ligament attaches the pericardium to the posterior side of the manubrium.
The body, or gladiolus, is the longest part. It is flat and considered to have only a front and back surface. It is flat on the front, directed upward and forward, and marked by three transverse ridges which cross the bone opposite the third, fourth, and fifth articular depressions. The pectoralis major attaches to it on either side. At the junction of the third and fourth parts of the body is occasionally seen an orifice, the sternal foramen, of varying size and form. The posterior surface, slightly concave, is also marked by three transverse lines, less distinct, however, than those in front; from its lower part, on either side, the transversus thoracis takes origin.
The sternal angle is located at the point where the body joins the manubrium. The sternal angle can be felt at the point where the sternum projects farthest forward. However, in some people the sternal angle is concave or rounded. During physical examinations, the sternal angle is a useful landmark because the second rib attaches here.
Each outer border, at its superior angle, has a small facet, which with a similar facet on the manubrium, forms a cavity for the cartilage of the second rib; below this are four angular depressions which receive the cartilages of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs. The inferior angle has a small facet, which, with a corresponding one on the xiphoid process, forms a notch for the cartilage of the seventh rib. These articular depressions are separated by a series of curved interarticular intervals, which diminish in length from above downward, and correspond to the intercostal spaces. Most of the cartilages belonging to the true ribs, articulate with the sternum at the lines of junction of its primitive component segments. This is well seen in some other vertebrates, where the parts of the bone remain separated for longer.
The upper border is oval and articulates with the manubrium, at the sternal angle. The lower border is narrow, and articulates with the xiphoid process.
Located at the inferior end of the sternum is the pointed xiphoid process. Improperly performed chest compressions during cardiopulmonary resuscitation can cause the xiphoid process to snap off, driving it into the liver which can cause a fatal hemorrhage.
The sternum is composed of highly vascular tissue, covered by a thin layer of compact bone which is thickest in the manubrium between the articular facets for the clavicles. The inferior sternopericardial ligament attaches the pericardium to the posterior xiphoid process.
The cartilages of the top seven ribs join with the sternum at the sternocostal joints. The right and left clavicular notches articulate with the right and left clavicles, respectively. The costal cartilage of the second rib articulates with the sternum at the sternal angle making it easy to locate.
The transversus thoracis muscle is innervated by one of the intercostal nerves and superiorly attaches at the posterior surface of the lower sternum. Its inferior attachment is the internal surface of costal cartilages two through six and works to depress the ribs.
The sternum develops from two cartilaginous bars one on the left and one on the right, connected with the cartilages of the ribs on each side. These two bars fuse together along the middle to form the cartilaginous sternum which is ossified from six centers: one for the manubrium, four for the body, and one for the xiphoid process.
The ossification centers appear in the intervals between the articular depressions for the costal cartilages, in the following order: in the manubrium and first piece of the body, during the sixth month of fetal life; in the second and third pieces of the body, during the seventh month of fetal life; in its fourth piece, during the first year after birth; and in the xiphoid process, between the fifth and eighteenth years.
The centers make their appearance at the upper parts of the segments, and proceed gradually downward. To these may be added the occasional existence of two small episternal centers, which make their appearance one on either side of the jugular notch; they are probably vestiges of the episternal bone of the monotremata and lizards.
Occasionally some of the segments are formed from more than one center, the number and position of which vary (Fig. 6). Thus, the first piece may have two, three, or even six centers.
When two are present, they are generally situated one above the other, the upper being the larger; the second piece has seldom more than one; the third, fourth, and fifth pieces are often formed from two centers placed laterally, the irregular union of which explains the rare occurrence of the sternal foramen (Fig. 7), or of the vertical fissure which occasionally intersects this part of the bone constituting the malformation known as fissura sterni; these conditions are further explained by the manner in which the cartilaginous sternum is formed.
More rarely still the upper end of the sternum may be divided by a fissure. Union of the various centers of the body begins about puberty, and proceeds from below upward (Fig. 5); by the age of twenty - five they are all united.
The xiphoid process may become joined to the body before the age of thirty, but this occurs more frequently after forty; on the other hand, it sometimes remains ununited in old age. In advanced life the manubrium is occasionally joined to the body by bone. When this takes place, however, the bony tissue is generally only superficial, the central portion of the intervening cartilage remaining unossified.
In early life, the sternum 's body is divided into four segments, not three, called sternebrae (singular: sternebra).
Because the sternum contains bone marrow, it is sometimes used as a site for bone marrow biopsy. In particular, patients with a high BMI (obese or grossly overweight) may present with excess tissue that makes access to traditional marrow biopsy sites such as the pelvis difficult.
A somewhat rare congenital disorder of the sternum sometimes referred to as an anatomical variation is a sternal foramen, a single round hole in the sternum that is present from birth and usually is off - centered to the right or left, commonly forming in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments of the breastbone body. Congenital sternal foramina can often be mistaken for bullet holes. They are usually without symptoms but can be problematic if acupuncture in the area is intended.
Fractures of the sternum are rather uncommon. They may result from trauma, such as when a driver 's chest is forced into the steering column of a car in a car accident. A fracture of the sternum is usually a comminuted fracture. The most common site of sternal fractures is at the sternal angle. Some studies reveal that repeated punches or continual beatings, sometimes called "breastbone punches '', to the sternum area have also caused fractured sternums. Those are known to have occurred in contact sports such as rugby and football. Sternal fractures are frequently associated with underlying injuries such as pulmonary contusions, or bruised lung tissue.
A manubriosternal dislocation is rare and usually caused by severe trauma. It may also result from minor trauma where there is a precondition of arthritis.
The breastbone is sometimes cut open (a median sternotomy) to gain access to the thoracic contents when performing cardiothoracic surgery.
The sternum can be totally removed (resected) as part of a radical surgery, usually to surgically treat a malignancy, either with or without a mediastinal lymphadenectomy (Current Procedural Terminology codes # 21632 and # 21630, respectively).
A bifid sternum is an extremely rare congenital abnormality caused by the fusion failure of the sternum. This condition results in sternal cleft which can be observed at birth without any symptom.
The sternum, in vertebrate anatomy, is a flat bone that lies in the middle front part of the rib cage. It is endochondral in origin. It probably first evolved in early tetrapods as an extension of the pectoral girdle; it is not found in fish. In amphibians and reptiles it is typically a shield - shaped structure, often composed entirely of cartilage. It is absent in both turtles and snakes. In birds it is a relatively large bone and typically bears an enormous projecting keel to which the flight muscles are attached. Only in mammals does the sternum take on the elongated, segmented form seen in humans.
In arachnids, the sternum is the ventral (lower) portion of the cephalothorax. It consists of a single sclerite situated between the coxa, opposite the carapace.
English sternum is a translation of Ancient Greek στέρνον, sternon. The Greek writer Homer used the term στέρνον to refer to the male chest. The term στῆθος, stithos was used by Homer to refer to the chest of both sexes. The Greek physician Hippocrates used στέρνον to refer to the chest, and στῆθος to the breastbone. The Greek physician Galen was the first to use στέρνον in the present meaning of breastbone.
The sternum as the solid bony part of the chest can be related to Ancient Greek στερεός / στερρός, (stereόs / sterrόs), meaning firm or solid. The English term breastbone is actually more like the Latin os pectoris, derived from classical Latin os, bone and pectus, chest or breast. Confusingly, pectus is also used in classical Latin as breastbone.
Position of sternum (shown in red). Animation.
Sternum seen posteriorly.
Sternum cut along the frontal plane showing interior of the bone.
Sternum, lateral aspect.
Position of the sternum the thoracic cage.
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who has the most dogs ever in history | List of oldest dogs - wikipedia
This is a list of the oldest verified dogs in the world, listed by age, all of whom have attained the minimum age of 20. Aging in dogs depends on breed, size and diet.
The following dogs ' ages were authenticated via Guinness World Records. A document is required by Guinness, such as a birth certificate, to prove his or her age.
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what language do they soeak in hong kong | Languages of Hong Kong - wikipedia
The Basic Law of Hong Kong stipulates that Chinese and English are the two official languages of Hong Kong. During the British colonial era, English was the sole official language until 1974. As the majority of the population in Hong Kong are descendants of migrants from China 's Canton Province, the vast majority speak standard Cantonese or other Yue Chinese varieties as a first language, with smaller numbers of speakers of Hakka Language or the Teochew dialect of Southern Min. In addition, immigrants and expatriates from the West and other Asian countries have contributed much to Hong Kong 's linguistic and demographic diversity.
Chinese and English are both official languages of Hong Kong under the Hong Kong Basic Law (article 9) and the Official Languages Ordinance (chapter 5 of the Laws of Hong Kong). No law stipulates choice of spoken Chinese dialect.
Historically, English was the sole official language of Hong Kong from 1883 to 1974. Only after demonstrations and petitions from Hong Kong people demanding equal status for Chinese did the language become official in Hong Kong from 1974 onward. In March 1987, the Official Languages Ordinance was amended to require all new legislation to be enacted bilingually in both English and Chinese. In 1990, the Hong Kong Basic Law declared English 's co-official language status with Chinese after the 1997 handover.
As a result of immigration into Hong Kong from Canton Province, Cantonese is the dominant Chinese variant spoken in the territory with smaller numbers of speakers from other dialects. There are also numerous sinitic languages spoken by the native peoples of the New Territories, many of which are mutually unintelligible. Cantonese is a vernacular and when reduced to writing is normally converted to a standard written Chinese quite dissimilar to the spoken word.
There is also a written language based on the vocabulary and grammar of spoken Cantonese known as written Cantonese (粵 文). Although the "biliterate and trilingual '' policy implies an absence of support for written Cantonese, it has gained popularity in news media where entertainment and local news are related. Written Cantonese is unintelligible to non-Cantonese speakers and is considered nonstandard by educators despite its widespread usage in Hong Kong. Some have also credited written Cantonese for solving the challenges that standard written Chinese had faced in popular culture.
Traditional Chinese characters are widely used, and are the de facto writing standard in Hong Kong. Simplified Chinese is seen in some posters, leaflets, flyers and signs in the tourist areas.
The principal language of Hong Kong is standard Cantonese, spoken by 87.5 % of the population at home daily. (粵語 / 廣州 話 / 廣東 話 / 廣 府 話 / 白話 / 本地 話), As an official language, it is used in education, broadcasting, government administration, legislation and judiciary, as well as for daily communication. As a result of its predominance throughout the community, Cantonese is virtually the exclusive language of official discourse at all levels of the executive, legislature and courts of Hong Kong.
A few closely related dialects to standard Cantonese continue to be spoken in Hong Kong. Most notable is the Weitou dialect (圍 頭 話), which is mostly spoken by the older generation living in walled villages in New Territories. Additionally, the Tanka people (蜑 家人 / 疍 家人 / 水上 人) from the fishing villages on outlying islands speak their own variant of Cantonese. However, this dialect is now largely limited to those middle aged and above.
Hakka is indigenous to many villages in the New Territories and within Hakka communities in Hong Kong. Nowadays, outside these rural villages and older populations, younger Hakka Chinese populations communicate primarily in Cantonese.
Teochew, Hokkien, and Taiwanese are the Minnan (Southern Min) Chinese dialects commonly found in Hong Kong. However, their usage is largely limited to recent migrants from Taiwan or Fujian and middle aged descendants of immigrants from native Chinese regions of these variants.
Taishanese originates from migrants from Taishan County in Mainland China. The variant can still be found in some areas in Hong Kong where migrants concentrated, such as Sai Wan.
Shanghainese is commonly spoken by migrants who escaped Shanghai after the communist takeover of China in 1949. Their descendants seldom speak the language nowadays.
When Hong Kong was a colony of the United Kingdom, Mandarin Chinese (普通話 / 現代 標準 漢語 / 國語 / 北方 話) was not widely used in Hong Kong. Since the 1997 Handover, the huge increase in inbound tourism from the mainland has led to much more widespread use of Mandarin, particularly in tourism - related commerce, though little impact has been seen in locally based commerce or public services. In addition, the large number of shuangfei (Traditional: 雙 非, Simplified: 双 非) children (children born in Hong Kong whose parents are both from the Mainland) has increased the number of Mandarin speaking people, particularly in districts close to the border, such that Mandarin speaking children make up large proportions or even the majority of primary school students in those districts, causing the beginnings of a language shift in those areas.
English is a major working language in Hong Kong, and is widely used in commercial activities and legal matters. Although the sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC by the United Kingdom in 1997, English remains one of the official languages of Hong Kong as enshrined in the Basic Law.
Many Hong Kong people use both Cantonese and English, or "code - switch '', in the same sentence when speaking. For example, "唓, 都 唔 make sense! '' ("Wow, it does not make sense! ''). The code - switching can freely mix English words and Chinese grammar, for instance "你 un 唔 understand? '' ("Do you understand? '') which follows the Chinese grammar syntax ' verb - 唔 - verb ' to ask "Do you (verb)? ''.
Some code - switched words are used so often that they have become loanwords in Cantonese, for example,
In Hong Kong, French is the second most studied foreign language after Japanese. Many institutions in Hong Kong, like Alliance française, provide French courses. Local universities, such as the University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and Hong Kong Baptist University, offer programmes which aim at developing proficiency in French language and culture. The language is included as a subject in the HKCEE, but not in HKALE with accordance to British International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) standards. The IGCSE French syllabus used by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) is adopted in the examination. The only French book store, Librairie Parentheses, in Hong Kong is located on Wellington Street, Central.
Real estate developers in Hong Kong often give their buildings French names, such as Bel - Air, Les Saisons and Belle Mer. This kind of foreign branding is also used in boutiques and restaurants. An example is Yucca de Lac in Ma Liu Shui. Sometimes only French elements such as articles and prepositions are added to the name, as in the case of the restaurant chain Café de Coral. Similar mixing of English and French can be seen on the menu of Délifrance, a French - style restaurant chain in Hong Kong.
The number of German speakers in Hong Kong is about 5000, significant enough for the establishment of the German Swiss International School (Deutsch - Schweizerische Internationale Schule), which claims to number more than 1,000 students, at The Peak of Hong Kong Island. Many institutions in Hong Kong provide German courses. The most well - known one is the Goethe - Institut, which is located in Wan Chai. After spending a certain period in learning German, students can take the German Test as a Foreign Language (Test Deutsch als Fremdsprache; TestDaF for short) and Start German A1 - C2. There are currently two test centres for TestDaF in Hong Kong: the Goethe - Institut and the Hong Kong Baptist University. The latter one also offers a European Studies degree course of German Stream, Bachelor of Social Science in European Studies (German Stream), in parallel with the French stream. A minor program of German is offered at the Language Centre of HKBU. The Hong Kong University offers a Major in German after 4 years of study. The Chinese University offers a Minor in German and popular summer courses. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology offers German for science and technology.
There are over 25,000 Japanese people in Hong Kong, so it is not uncommon to hear Japanese conversations. More than 10,000 people in Hong Kong had taken the JLPT in 2005. Hong Kong - based R by R Production produces a television travel show set in Japan, which, as of April 2016, is broadcast on ViuTV. However, the language is often misused.
Japanese culture, especially the popular culture, has been popular in Hong Kong for decades. Hong Kong people occasionally replace Chinese characters with Japanese. In addition, the Companies Registry also permits the hiragana の (no) in Chinese business names that are registered in Hong Kong. The hiragana の is usually used in place of the Chinese character 之 (zi1) and read as such in Hong Kong. In fact, Aji Ichiban has adopted の in their company name (優 の 良品). There are also borrowings from Japanese shinjitai kanji 駅 (eki) to substitute 站 (Sidney Lau: jaam) (both 站 and 駅 mean "station '' in their respective languages), as in Nu Front (東 角 駅), a shopping mall for Hong Kong youngsters in Causeway Bay. There are also some private estates named with the kanji 駅. These loanwords are pronounced by Hong Kong people as if they were their Chinese counterparts (i.e. の as 之, and 駅 as 站). The Japanese 駅 is the shinjitai of the hanzi 驛 (Sidney Lau: yik). However, 驛 has fallen out of usage to 站 in modern Chinese and became obsolete. Therefore, it is not uncommon to mispronounce 駅 as its phonetic compound 尺 (Sidney Lau: chek)).
Koreans in Hong Kong only make up a small minority while Korean culture has gained popularity since the early 2000s. Korean pop music was the first Korean media to enter Hong Kong 's market. Since then, several Korean TV series such as Dae Jang Geum have been broadcast to numerous audiences. There are roughly 1,000 students that took Korean courses at the Chinese University of Hong Kong each year, including undergraduates as well as professionals who enrolled in continuing education programs. Roughly 3,000 people have taken the Test of Proficiency in Korean since its introduction to Hong Kong in 2003. Surveys and statistics from course enrollments have shown that nine - tenths of the students studying Korean in Hong Kong are female.
Filipino and other Philippine languages are used by Filipinos in Hong Kong, most of whom are employed as foreign domestic workers.
Newspapers and magazines in Filipino can also be easily bought in Central, Hong Kong. There are also a small number of churches in Hong Kong that have masses or services in Filipino, for example the afternoon masses provided by the St. John 's Cathedral in Central.
Indonesian is the common language for the significant number of Indonesians working in Hong Kong, though Javanese is also widely spoken. Most are domestic workers; on their days off, they often gather at Victoria Park in Causeway Bay to socialise and the language can be heard.
Thai prevails among the Thai population in Hong Kong, who mostly work as domestic workers. The Thai language is found in many shops and restaurants opened by Thais in Kowloon City. A number of Thai movies have been imported since the early 2000s, such as The Wheel in the medley Three, Jan Dara, the Iron Ladies, My Little Girl, and Ong - Bak: Muay Thai Warrior and Tom - Yum - Goong starring Tony Jaa.
Vietnamese is used in Hong Kong among the ethnic Chinese from Vietnam who had initially settled in Vietnam and returned to Hong Kong. Vietnamese refugees who left their home during the Vietnam War are another group.
In 2006, there were at least 44,744 persons of South Asian descent in Hong Kong. Signboards written in Hindi or Urdu can be seen, and conversation in South Asian languages including Nepali, Sindhi and Punjabi, as well as Urdu, Hindi and Tamil can be heard.
Hong Kong has two Nepalese newspapers, The Everest and the Sunrise Weekly Hong Kong. In 2004, the Home Affairs Bureau and Metro Plus AM 1044 jointly launched radio shows Hong Kong - Pak Tonight in Urdu and Harmo Sagarmatha in Nepalese.
The history of Indians in Hong Kong can be traced back to the early days of British Hong Kong. When the Union flag of the United Kingdom was hoisted on 26 January 1841, there were around 2,700 Indian troops that participated, and they played an important role in the development of Hong Kong in the early days. The most prominent contributions were the founding of the University of Hong Kong (HKU), the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) and the Star Ferry.
Although nearly all of the Indian people who live in Hong Kong speak and write Indian English, some have maintained the usage of Hindi as a second language.
Arabic is used frequently among members of Muslim communities in Hong Kong. Some Islamic organisations do teach the language as well, but the current status can best be described as up - and - coming.
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what are the various types of committees (not the list of committees) how are they different | United States Congressional committee - wikipedia
A congressional committee is a legislative sub-organization in the United States Congress that handles a specific duty (rather than the general duties of Congress). Committee membership enables members to develop specialized knowledge of the matters under their jurisdiction. As "little legislatures '', the committees monitor ongoing governmental operations, identify issues suitable for legislative review, gather and evaluate information, and recommend courses of action to their parent body. Woodrow Wilson once wrote, "it is not far from the truth to say that Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition, whilst Congress in its committee rooms is Congress at work. '' It is neither expected nor possible that a member of Congress be an expert on all matters and subject areas that come before Congress. Congressional committees provide valuable informational services to Congress by investigating and reporting about specialized subjects.
Congress divides its legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks among approximately 200 committees and subcommittees. Within assigned areas, these functional subunits gather information; compare and evaluate legislative alternatives; identify policy problems and propose solutions; select, determine, and report measures for full chamber consideration; monitor executive branch performance (oversight); and investigate allegations of wrongdoing. While this investigatory function is important, procedures such as the House discharge petition process (the process of bringing a bill onto the floor without a committee report or mandatory consent from its leadership) are so difficult to implement that committee jurisdiction over particular subject matter of bills has expanded into semi-autonomous power. Of the 73 discharge petitions submitted to the full House from 1995 through 2007, only one was successful in securing a definitive yea - or - nay vote for a bill.
The growing autonomy of committees has fragmented the power of each congressional chamber as a unit. This dispersion of power has possibly weakened the legislative branch relative to the other two branches of the federal government, the executive branch and the judiciary branch. In his often cited article History of the House of Representatives, written in 1961, American scholar George B. Galloway (1898 -- 1967) wrote: "In practice, Congress functions not as a unified institution, but as a collection of semi-autonomous committees that seldom act in unison. '' Galloway went on to cite committee autonomy as a factor interfering with the adoption of a coherent legislative program. Such autonomy remains a characteristic feature of the committee system in Congress today.
In 1932, a reform movement temporarily reduced the number of signatures required on discharge petitions in the U.S. House of Representatives from a constitutional majority of 218 down to 145, i.e., from one - half to one - third of the House membership. This reform was abolished in a 1935 counterattack led by the intra-House oligarchy. Thus the era of the Great Depression marks the last across - the - board change, albeit a short - lived one, in the autonomy of House standing committees.
The modern committee structure stems from the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946, the first and most ambitious restructuring of the standing committee system since the committee system was first developed. The 1946 act reduced the number of House committees from 48 to 19 and the number of Senate committees from 33 to 15. Jurisdictions of all committees were codified by rule in their respective chambers, which helped consolidate or eliminate many existing committees and minimize jurisdictional conflicts.
The Joint Committee on the Organization of Congress, a temporary committee established in 1993 to conduct a policy and historical analysis of the committee system, determined that while the 1946 Act was instrumental in streamlining the committee system, it did fail to limit the number of subcommittees allowed on any one committee. Today, Rules in the U.S. House of Representatives generally limit each full committee to five subcommittees, with the exception of Appropriations (12 subcommittees), Armed Services (7), Foreign Affairs (7), and Transportation and Infrastructure (6). There are no limits on the number of subcommittees in the U.S. Senate.
Congress has convened several other temporary review committees to analyze and make recommendations on ways to reform and improve the committee system. For example, the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970 led to further reforms to open Congress to further public visibility, strengthen its decision - making capacities, and augment minority rights. The 1970 Act provided for recorded teller votes in the House 's Committee of the Whole; allowed minority party committee members to call their own witnesses during a day of hearings; established the Senate Committee on Veterans ' Affairs; and enhanced the research capabilities of two legislative support agencies: the Congressional Research Service and the General Accounting Office.
The first Senate committee was established April 7, 1789, to draw up Senate rules of procedure. In those early days, the Senate operated with temporary select committees, which were responsive to the entire Senate, with the full Senate selecting their jurisdiction and membership. This system provided a great deal of flexibility, as if one committee proved unresponsive, another could be established in its place. The Senate could also forgo committee referral for actions on legislation or presidential nominations. These early committees generally consisted of three members for routine business and five members for more important issues. The largest committee established during the 1st Congress had eleven members, and was created to determine salaries of the president and vice president. Also in the first session, the entire membership of the Senate was divided into two large committees, with half the senators on the committee to prepare legislation establishing the federal judiciary and the other half on the committee to define the punishment of crimes against the United States.
This system proved ineffective, so in 1816 the Senate adopted a formal system of 11 standing committees with five members each. Three of those committees, the Finance, Foreign Relations and the Judiciary Committees exist largely unchanged today, while the duties of the others have evolved into successor committees. With the advent of this new system, committees are able to handle long - term studies and investigations, in addition to regular legislative duties. According to the Senate Historical Office, "the significance of the change from temporary to permanent committees was perhaps little realized at the time. '' With the growing responsibilities of the Senate, the committees gradually grew to be the key policy - making bodies of the Senate, instead of merely technical aids to the chamber.
By 1906, the Senate maintained 66 standing and select committees -- eight more committees than members of the majority party. The large number of committees and the manner of assigning their chairmanships suggests that many of them existed solely to provide office space in those days before the Senate acquired its first permanent office building, the Russell Senate Office Building. There were so many committees that freshman Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin was assigned chairmanship of the Committee to Investigate the Condition of the Potomac River Front at Washington. According to La Follette, he "had immediate visions of cleaning up the whole Potomac River front. Then (he) found that in all its history, the committee had never had a bill referred to it for consideration, and had never held a meeting. '' In 1920, the Congressional Directory listed nearly 80 committees, including the Committee on the Disposition of Useless Papers in the Executive Departments. By May 27, 1920, the Russell Senate Office Building had opened, and with all Senate members assigned private office space, the Senate quietly abolished 42 committees.
Today the Senate operates with 20 standing and select committees. These select committees, however, are permanent in nature and are treated as standing committees under Senate rules.
The first House committee was appointed on April 2, 1789, to "prepare and report such standing rules and orders of proceeding '' as well as the duties of a Sergeant - at - Arms to enforce those rules. Other committees were created as needed, on a temporary basis, to review specific issues for the full House. The House relied primarily on the Committee of the Whole to handle the bulk of legislative issues. In response to the House 's need for more detailed advice on certain issues, more specific committees with broader authority were established. One of the first -- a three - member committee "to prepare and report an estimate of supplies... and of nett (sic) produce of the impost '' -- was established on April 29, 1789. The Committee on Ways and Means followed on July 24, 1789, during a debate on the creation of the Treasury Department over concerns of giving the new department too much authority over revenue proposals. The House felt it would be better equipped if it established a committee to handle the matter. This first Committee on Ways and Means had 11 members and existed for just two months. It later became a standing committee in 1801, a position it still holds today.
An analysis of U.S. House of Representative committee request letters from the 92nd, 93rd, 97th, 98th, 100th, and 101st Congresses showed that the most common justifications raised by members seeking a committee assignment were prior professional experience, geography and electoral considerations, in that order. About 80 % of justifications in letters fell into one of these three categories. Members who request an assignment to the House Armed Services Committee have a greater military presence in their district, while members requesting assignment to the House Interior Committee generally tend to come from sparsely populated areas with more land held in public trust.
There are three main types of committees -- standing, select or special, and joint.
Standing committees are permanent panels identified as such in chamber rules (House Rule X, Senate Rule XXV).
Because they have legislative jurisdiction, standing committees consider bills and issues and recommend measures for consideration by their respective chambers. They also have oversight responsibility to monitor agencies, programs, and activities within their jurisdictions, and in some cases in areas that cut across committee jurisdictions.
Most standing committees recommend funding levels -- authorizations -- for government operations and for new and existing programs. A few have other functions. For example, the Appropriations Committees recommend appropriations legislation to provide budget authority for federal agencies and programs. The Budget Committees establish aggregate levels for total spending and revenue that serve as guidelines for the work of the authorizing and appropriating panels.
Select or special committees are established generally by a separate resolution of the chamber, sometimes to conduct investigations and studies, and, on other occasions, also to consider measures. Often, select committees examine emerging issues that do not fit clearly within existing standing committee jurisdictions, or that cut across jurisdictional boundaries. A select committee may be permanent or temporary (all current select committees in the House and Senate are considered permanent committees). Instead of select, the Senate sometimes uses the term special committee (as in the Special Committee on Aging).
Joint committees are permanent panels that include members from both chambers, which generally conduct studies or perform housekeeping tasks rather than consider measures. For instance, the Joint Committee on Printing oversees the functions of the Government Printing Office and general printing procedures of the federal government. The chairmanship of joint committees usually alternates between the House and Senate. A conference committee is a temporary joint committee formed to resolve differences between competing House and Senate versions of a measure. Conference committees draft compromises between the positions of the two chambers, which are then submitted to the full House and Senate for approval. x
Other committees are also used in the modern Congress.
In the House of Representatives, there are 20 permanent committees, and 21 in the United States Senate. Four joint committees operate with members from both houses on matters of mutual jurisdiction and oversight.
Committees in the House of Representatives generally have more members, due its larger size, as compared to the smaller 100 - member Senate. Senate rules fix the maximum size for many of its committees, while the House determines the size and makeup of each committee every new Congress.
(click here for complete list with subcommittees)
(click here for complete list with subcommittees)
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who composed the ghana national anthem and the pledge | National Pledge of Ghana - wikipedia
The National Pledge of Ghana is recited immediately after the national anthem "God Bless Our Homeland Ghana '', and is as follows:
I promise on my honour To be faithful and loyal to Ghana my motherland. I pledge myself to the service of Ghana With all my strength and with all my heart. I promise to hold in high esteem. Our heritage, won for us through the blood and toil of our fathers; and I pledge myself in All things to uphold and defend the good name of Ghana. So help me God.
"God Bless Our Homeland Ghana '' is the national anthem of Ghana, after which the National Pledge of Ghana is recited. The national anthem was originally written and composed by Philip Gbeho and adopted in 1957.
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why is laos called land of million elephants | Land of a Million Elephants - wikipedia
Land of a Million Elephants may refer to:
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how did nationalism create a shift in power in europe in the 19th century | European balance of power - wikipedia
The European balance of power referred to European international relations before the First World War, which evolved into the present states of Europe. The current European balance of power is a supranational organization known as the European Union rather than the Nineteenth Century political concept that emerged at the Peace of Paris in 1815. It is often known by the term European State System. Its basic tenet is that no single European power should be allowed to achieve hegemony over a substantial part of the continent and that this is best curtailed by having a small number of ever - changing alliances contend for power, it also meant that none should be able to achieve absolute power.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, English foreign policy strove to prevent a creation of a single universal monarchy in Europe, which many believed France or Spain might attempt to create. To maintain the balance of power, the English made alliances with other states -- including Portugal, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands -- to counter the perceived threat. These Grand Alliances reached their height in the wars against Louis XIV and Louis XV of France. They often involved the English (later the British) and Dutch paying large subsidies to European allies to finance large armies.
In the 18th century, this led to the stately quadrille, with a number of major European powers -- such as Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and France -- changing alliances multiple times to prevent the hegemony of one nation or alliance. A number of wars stemmed, at least in part, from the desire to maintain the balance of power, including the War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years ' War, the War of the Bavarian Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. Following Britain 's success in the Seven Years ' War, many of the other powers began to see Great Britain as a greater threat than France. Several states entered the American War of Independence in the hope of overturning Britain 's growing strength by securing the independence of the Thirteen colonies of British America.
During the 19th century, to achieve lasting peace, the Concert of Europe tried to maintain the balance of power. The territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained, and even more important there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression. Otherwise the Congress system says historian Roy Bridge, "failed '' by 1823. In 1818 the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them. They rejected the plan of Tsar Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers were replaced by growing political and economic rivalries. Artz says the Congress of Verona in 1822 "marked the end. '' There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna 's frontiers along national lines.
Before 1850 Britain and France dominated Europe, but by the 1850s they had become deeply concerned by the growing power of Russia and Prussia. The Crimean War of 1854 -- 55 and the Italian War of 1859 shattered the relations among the Great Powers in Europe.
After 1870 the creation and rise of the German Empire as a dominant nation restructured the European balance of power. For the next twenty years, Otto von Bismarck managed to maintain the balance of power, by proposing treaties and creating many complex alliances between the European nations such as the Triple Alliance.
After the resignation of Otto Von Bismarck in the 1890s, the foreign policy of the German Empire became expansionary and the newly created alliances were proven to be fragile, something that triggered the First World War in 1914. One of the objectives of the Treaty of Versailles, the main post-World War I treaty, was to abolish the dominance of the ' Balance of Power ' concept and replace it with the (global) League of Nations.
This idea floundered as Europe split into three principal factions in the 1920s and 1930s: liberal democratic states led by the UK and France, communist states led by the Soviet Union, and authoritarian nationalists led by Germany and Italy. The failure of the democratic states to prevent the advance of Nazi Germany ultimately led to the Second World War, which led to a temporary alliance between the UK and the Soviets. The UK did not condemn the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, but declared war on Germany. Later they sided with the Soviet Union against Germany after the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union.
During the post-Second World War era the Allies split into two blocs, a balance of power emerged in between the Eastern Bloc: affiliated with the Soviet Union and the Socialist nations of Central and Eastern Europe; the Western Bloc: affiliated with the Western democracies, particularly France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and neutral or non-aligned countries, including the Republic of Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland and Yugoslavia. The majority of the European democratic nations, together with Canada and the US, came together under the military alliance of NATO, which continues to this day and has expanded to other countries in Europe. The first NATO Secretary General, the British Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization 's initial goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down. ''
From the late 20th century, the four most powerful members of the European Union -- the UK, France, Italy and Germany -- are referred to as the EU big four. They are major European powers and the only EU countries individually represented as full members of the G7, the G8 and the G20. The NATO Quint is made up by the United States and the Big Four.
The term G4 is especially (although not only) used to describe meeting of the four nations at the leaders ' level. In addition, the term EU three (or G - 3) is used to describe the grouping of foreign ministers from France, the UK and Germany during the Iran nuclear talks. On the other hand, the grouping of interior ministers that includes Spain and Poland is known as the G6. Germany (which has the largest economy in Europe) is often regarded as the EU 's economic leader, such as with the ongoing European sovereign debt crisis, whilst France and the United Kingdom (both permanent members of the UNSC) often lead in defence and foreign policy matters, such as the intervention in Libya in 2011, even if the major actor in the attack was Italy. This, to an extent, represents a balancing of leadership power for the Western sphere of the continent. How this balance will change after the Brexit vote in 2016 is still an open matter.
There continues however to be a wider, strategic balance of Western and (now) Russian power, albeit with the boundary between the two pushed further east since the collapse of the Soviet Union, with many former Communist countries in central Europe having since joined the EU and NATO.
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who sings the song season of the witch | Season of the Witch (song) - wikipedia
"Season of the Witch '' is an early example of psychedelic rock, written by Donovan and Shawn Phillips. It was released in September 1966 on Donovan 's Epic Records (USA) album, Sunshine Superman.
Originally recorded by Donovan for U.S. release, a version by The Pandamonium was released in the United Kingdom as a single in November 1966 (CBS 202462), while Donovan 's version was finally released in the U.K. in June 1967 on the Pye Records compilation Sunshine Superman. (The song was never released as a single but it became a very popular song with fans, enough so that Donovan himself played it live more than most of his other hits.)
The recording features Bobby Ray on bass and "Fast '' Eddie Hoh on drums. The hauntingly eerie guitar is provided by Jimmy Page, then a noted session guitarist working in England.
The song has been covered by many artists:
The song 's title has been reused for three films:
Season of the Witch was also used as a working title for three different films:
It is also used as the title of four books:
The song title inspired record producer Joe Boyd to name his company Witchseason Productions.
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when is the moon near the north star | Pole star - wikipedia
Pole star or polar star is a name of Polaris in the constellation Ursa Minor, after its property of being the naked - eye star closest to the Earth 's north celestial pole. Indeed, the name Polaris, introduced in the 18th century, is shortened from New Latin stella polaris, meaning "pole star ''. Polaris is also known as Lodestar, Guiding Star, or North Star from its property of remaining in a fixed position throughout the course of the night and its use in celestial navigation. It is a dependable, though inexact, indicator of the direction toward the geographic north pole; it is virtually fixed, and its angle of elevation can also be used to determine latitude. The south celestial pole lacks a bright star like Polaris to mark its position. At present, the naked - eye star nearest to the celestial south pole is the faint Sigma Octantis, sometimes called the South Star.
The identity of the pole stars gradually changes over time because the celestial poles exhibit a slow continuous drift through the star field. The primary reason for this is the precession of Earth 's rotational axis, which causes its orientation to change over time. Precession causes the celestial poles to trace out circles on the celestial sphere approximately once every 26,000 years, passing close to different stars at different times (with an additional slight shift due to the proper motion of the stars).
In a more general sense, a pole star may be any fixed star close to either celestial pole of any given planetary body.
In classical antiquity, Beta Ursae Minoris (Kochab) was closer to the celestial north pole than Alpha Ursae Minoris. While there was no naked - eye star close to the pole, the midpoint between Alpha and Beta Ursae Minoris was reasonably close to the pole, and it appears that the entire constellation of Ursa Minor, in antiquity known as Cynosura (Greek Κυνοσούρα "dog 's tail '') was used as indicating the northern direction for the purposes of navigation by the Phoenicians. The ancient name of Ursa Minor, anglicized as cynosure, has since itself become a term for "guiding principle '' after the constellation 's use in navigation.
Alpha Ursae Minoris (Polaris) was described as ἀειφανής "always visible '' by Stobaeus in the 5th century, when it was still removed from the celestial pole by about 8 °. It was known as scip - steorra ("ship - star '') in 10th - century Anglo - Saxon England, reflecting its use in navigation. At around the same time, in the Hindu Puranas, it became personified under the name Dhruva ("immovable, fixed '').
In the medieval period, Polaris was also known as stella maris "star of the sea '' (from its use for navigation at sea), as in e.g. Bartholomeus Anglicus (d. 1272), in the translation of John Trevisa (1397):
Polaris was associated with Marian veneration from an early time, Our Lady, Star of the Sea being a title of the Blessed Virgin. This tradition goes back to a misreading of Saint Jerome 's translation of Eusebius ' Onomasticon, De nominibus hebraicis (written ca. 390). Jerome gave stilla maris "drop of the sea '' as a (false) Hebrew etymology of the name Maria. This stilla maris was later misread as stella maris; the misreading is also found in the manuscript tradition of Isidore 's Etymologiae (7th century); it probably arises in the Carolingian era; a late 9th - century manuscript of Jerome 's text still has stilla, not stella, but Paschasius Radbertus, also writing in the 9th century, makes an explicit reference to the "Star of the Sea '' metaphor, saying that Mary is the "Star of the Sea '' to be followed on the way to Christ, "lest we capsize amid the storm - tossed waves of the sea. ''
The name stella polaris was coined in the Renaissance, even though at that time it was well recognized that it was several degrees away from the celestial pole; Gemma Frisius in the year 1547 determined this distance as 3 ° 7 '. An explicit identification of Mary as stella maris with the North Star (Polaris) becomes evident in the title Cynosura seu Mariana Stella Polaris (i.e. "Cynosure, or the Marian Polar Star ''), a collection of Marian poetry published by Nicolaus Lucensis (Niccolo Barsotti de Lucca) in 1655.
As of October 2012, Polaris had the declination + 89 ° 19 ′ 8 '' (at epoch J2000 it was + 89 ° 15 ′ 51.2 ''). Therefore, it always appears due north in the sky to a precision better than one degree, and the angle it makes with respect to the true horizon (after correcting for refraction and other factors) is equal to the latitude of the observer to better than one degree. The celestial pole will be nearest Polaris in 2100 and will thereafter become more distant.
Due to the precession of the equinoxes (as well as the stars ' proper motions), the role of North Star has passed (and will pass) from one star to another in the remote past (and in the remote future). In 3000 BC, the faint star Thuban in the constellation Draco was the North Star. At magnitude 3.67 (fourth magnitude) it is only one - fifth as bright as Polaris, and today it is invisible in light - polluted urban skies.
During the 1st millennium BC, β Ursae Minoris was the bright star closest to the celestial pole, but it was never close enough to be taken as marking the pole, and the Greek navigator Pytheas in ca. 320 BC described the celestial pole as devoid of stars. In the Roman era, the celestial pole was about equally distant from α Ursae Minoris (Cynosura) and β Ursae Minoris (Kochab).
The precession of the equinoxes takes about 25,770 years to complete a cycle. Polaris ' mean position (taking account of precession and proper motion) will reach a maximum declination of + 89 ° 32'23 ", which translates to 1657 '' (or 0.4603 °) from the celestial north pole, in February 2102. Its maximum apparent declination (taking account of nutation and aberration) will be + 89 ° 32'50.62 ", which is 1629 '' (or 0.4526 °) from the celestial north pole, on 24 March 2100.
Gamma Cephei (also known as Alrai, situated 45 light - years away) will become closer to the northern celestial pole than Polaris around 3000 AD. Iota Cephei will become the pole star some time around 5200 AD. First - magnitude Deneb will be within 5 ° of the North Pole in 10,000 AD.
When Polaris becomes the North Star again around 27,800 AD, due to its proper motion it then will be farther away from the pole than it is now, while in 23,600 BC it was closer to the pole.
Currently, there is no South Star as useful as Polaris. Sigma Octantis is the closest naked - eye star to the south Celestial pole, but at apparent magnitude 5.45 it is barely visible on a clear night, making it unusable for navigational purposes. It is a yellow giant 275 light years from Earth. Its angular separation from the pole is about 1 ° (as of 2000). The Southern Cross constellation functions as an approximate southern pole constellation, by pointing to where a southern pole star would be.
At the equator, it is possible to see both Polaris and the Southern Cross. The Celestial south pole is moving toward the Southern Cross, which has pointed to the south pole for the last 2000 years or so. As a consequence, the constellation is no longer visible from subtropical northern latitudes, as it was in the time of the ancient Greeks.
Around 200 BC, the star Beta Hydri was the nearest bright star to the Celestial south pole. Around 2800 BC, Achernar was only 8 degrees from the south pole.
In the next 7500 years, the south Celestial pole will pass close to the stars Gamma Chamaeleontis (4200 AD), I Carinae, Omega Carinae (5800 AD), Upsilon Carinae, Iota Carinae (Aspidiske, 8100 AD) and Delta Velorum (9200 AD). From the eightieth to the ninetieth centuries, the south Celestial pole will travel through the False Cross. Around 14,000 AD, when Vega is only 4 ° from the North Pole, Canopus will be only 8 ° from the South Pole and thus circumpolar on the latitude of Bali (8 ° S).
Pole stars of other planets are defined analogously: they are stars (brighter than 6th magnitude, i.e., visible to the naked eye under ideal conditions) that most closely coincide with the projection of the planet 's axis of rotation onto the Celestial sphere. Different planets have different pole stars because their axes are oriented differently. (See Poles of astronomical bodies.)
van Leeuwen, F. (2007). "HIP 11767 ''. Hipparcos, the New Reduction. Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 01.
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what were the social classes in feudal europe | Feudalism - wikipedia
Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. Although derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief), then in use, the term feudalism and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Middle Ages. In its classic definition, by François - Louis Ganshof (1944), feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs.
A broader definition of feudalism, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but also those of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry bound by manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a "feudal society ''. Since the publication of Elizabeth A.R. Brown 's "The Tyranny of a Construct '' (1974) and Susan Reynolds 's Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society.
There is no commonly accepted modern definition of feudalism, at least among scholars. The adjective feudal was coined in the 17th century, and the noun feudalism, often used in a political and propaganda context, was not coined until the 19th century, from the French féodalité (feudality), itself an 18th - century creation.
In a classic definition by François - Louis Ganshof (1944), feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs, though Ganshof himself noted that his treatment related only to the "narrow, technical, legal sense of the word ''.
A broader definition, as described in Marc Bloch 's Feudal Society (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but those of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and those living by their labour, most directly the peasantry bound by manorialism; this order is often referred to as "feudal society '', echoing Bloch 's usage.
Since the publication of Elizabeth A.R. Brown 's "The Tyranny of a Construct '' (1974) and Susan Reynolds 's Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society.
Outside a European context, the concept of feudalism is often used only by analogy (called semi-feudal), most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the shōguns, and sometimes medieval and Gondarine Ethiopia. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as Spring and Autumn period in China, ancient Egypt, the Parthian empire, the Indian subcontinent and the Antebellum and Jim Crow American South.
The term feudalism has also been applied -- often inappropriately or pejoratively -- to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. Some historians and political theorists believe that the term feudalism has been deprived of specific meaning by the many ways it has been used, leading them to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.
The term "féodal '' was used in 17th - century French legal treatises (1614) and translated into English legal treatises as an adjective, such as "feodal government ''.
In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe economic systems, effectively coined the forms "feudal government '' and "feudal system '' in his book Wealth of Nations (1776). In the 19th century the adjective "feudal '' evolved into a noun: "feudalism ''. The term feudalism is recent, first appearing in French in 1823, Italian in 1827, English in 1839, and in German in the second half of the 19th century.
The term "feudal '' or "feodal '' is derived from the medieval Latin word feodum. The etymology of feodum is complex with multiple theories, some suggesting a Germanic origin (the most widely held view) and others suggesting an Arabic origin. Initially in medieval Latin European documents, a land grant in exchange for service was called a beneficium (Latin). Later, the term feudum, or feodum, began to replace beneficium in the documents. The first attested instance of this is from 984, although more primitive forms were seen up to one - hundred years earlier. The origin of the feudum and why it replaced beneficium has not been well established, but there are multiple theories, described below.
The most widely held theory was proposed by Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern in 1870, being supported by, amongst others, William Stubbs and Marc Bloch. Kern derived the word from a putative Frankish term * fehu - ôd, in which * fehu means "cattle '' and - ôd means "goods '', implying "a moveable object of value. '' Bloch explains that by the beginning of the 10th century it was common to value land in monetary terms but to pay for it with moveable objects of equivalent value, such as arms, clothing, horses or food. This was known as feos, a term that took on the general meaning of paying for something in lieu of money. This meaning was then applied to land itself, in which land was used to pay for fealty, such as to a vassal. Thus the old word feos meaning movable property changed little by little to feus meaning the exact opposite: landed property.
Another theory was put forward by Archibald R. Lewis. Lewis said the origin of ' fief ' is not feudum (or feodum), but rather foderum, the earliest attested use being in Astronomus 's Vita Hludovici (840). In that text is a passage about Louis the Pious that says annona militaris quas vulgo foderum vocant, which can be translated as "Louis forbade that military provender (which they popularly call "fodder '') be furnished... ''
Another theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic origin, from fuyū (the plural of fay, which literally means "the returned '', and was used especially for ' land that has been conquered from enemies that did not fight '). Samarrai 's theory is that early forms of ' fief ' include feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others, the plurality of forms strongly suggesting origins from a loanword. The first use of these terms is in Languedoc, one of the least Germanic areas of Europe and bordering Muslim Spain. Further, the earliest use of feuum (as a replacement for beneficium) can be dated to 899, the same year a Muslim base at Fraxinetum (La Garde - Freinet) in Provence was established. It is possible, Samarrai says, that French scribes, writing in Latin, attempted to transliterate the Arabic word fuyū (the plural of fay), which was being used by the Muslim invaders and occupiers at the time, resulting in a plurality of forms -- feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others -- from which eventually feudum derived. Samarrai, however, also advises to handle this theory with care, as Medieval and Early Modern Muslim scribes often used etymologically "fanciful roots '' in order to claim the most outlandish things to be of Arabian or Muslim origin.
Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire: especially in the Carolingian empires, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure necessary to support cavalry without the ability to allocate land to these mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and their power over the territory came to encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres.
These acquired powers significantly diminished unitary power in these empires. Only when the infrastructure existed to maintain unitary power -- as with the European monarchies -- did feudalism begin to yield to this new power structure and eventually disappear.
The classic François - Louis Ganshof version of feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs. A lord was in broad terms a noble who held land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the use of the fief and the protection of the lord, the vassal would provide some sort of service to the lord. There were many varieties of feudal land tenure, consisting of military and non-military service. The obligations and corresponding rights between lord and vassal concerning the fief form the basis of the feudal relationship.
Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony, which was composed of the two - part act of homage and oath of fealty. During homage, the lord and vassal entered into a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command, whilst the lord agreed to protect the vassal from external forces. Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty '' also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an oath follows homage.
Once the commendation ceremony was complete, the lord and vassal were in a feudal relationship with agreed obligations to one another. The vassal 's principal obligation to the lord was to "aid '', or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal could have other obligations to his lord, such as attendance at his court, whether manorial, baronial, both termed court baron, or at the king 's court.
It could also involve the vassal providing "counsel '', so that if the lord faced a major decision he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. At the level of the manor this might be a fairly mundane matter of agricultural policy, but also included sentencing by the lord for criminal offences, including capital punishment in some cases. Concerning the king 's feudal court, such deliberation could include the question of declaring war. These are examples; depending on the period of time and location in Europe, feudal customs and practices varied; see examples of feudalism.
In its origin, the feudal grant of land had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land '' (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution '' or "mutation '' and a "fragmentation of powers '' (Bloch) that was unlike the development of feudalism in England or Italy or Germany in the same period or later: Counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as castellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped / privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use the lord 's mill, etc. (what Georges Duby called collectively the "seigneurie banale ''). Power in this period became more personal.
This "fragmentation of powers '' was not, however, systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later. Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal / feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "liege lord '' was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century.
Feudalism itself decayed and effectively disappeared in most of Western Europe by about 1500, partly since the military power of kings shifted from armies consisting of the nobility to professional fighters (effectively reducing the nobility 's power), but also because the Black Death reduced the nobility 's hold on the lower classes. The system lingered on in parts of Central and Eastern Europe as late as the 1850s. Russia finally abolished serfdom in 1861.
However, even when the original feudal relationships had disappeared, there were many institutional remnants of feudalism left in place. Historian Georges Lefebvre explains how at an early stage of the French Revolution, on just one night of August 4, 1789, France abolished the long - lasting remnants of the feudal order. It announced, "The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely. '' Lefebvre explains:
Without debate the Assembly enthusiastically adopted equality of taxation and redemption of all manorial rights except for those involving personal servitude -- which were to be abolished without indemnification. Other proposals followed with the same success: the equality of legal punishment, admission of all to public office, abolition of venality in office, conversion of the tithe into payments subject to redemption, freedom of worship, prohibition of plural holding of benefices... Privileges of provinces and towns were offered as a last sacrifice.
Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more than a fourth of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners. The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled. Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer paid the tithe to the church.
The phrase "feudal society '' as defined by Marc Bloch offers a wider definition than Ganshof 's and includes within the feudal structure not only the warrior aristocracy bound by vassalage, but also the peasantry bound by manorialism, and the estates of the Church. Thus the feudal order embraces society from top to bottom, though the "powerful and well - differentiated social group of the urban classes '' came to occupy a distinct position to some extent outside the classical feudal hierarchy.
The idea of feudalism was unknown and the system it describes was not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Medieval Period. This section describes the history of the idea of feudalism, how the concept originated among scholars and thinkers, how it changed over time, and modern debates about its use.
The concept of a feudal state or period, in the sense of either a regime or a period dominated by lords who possess financial or social power and prestige, became widely held in the middle of the 18th century, as a result of works such as Montesquieu 's De L'Esprit des Lois (1748; published in English as The Spirit of the Laws), and Henri de Boulainvilliers 's Histoire des anciens Parlements de France (1737; published in English as An Historical Account of the Ancient Parliaments of France or States - General of the Kingdom, 1739). In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to denigrate the antiquated system of the Ancien Régime, or French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment when writers valued reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the "Dark Ages ''. Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages '' including feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain. For them "feudalism '' meant seigneurial privileges and prerogatives. When the French Constituent Assembly abolished the "feudal regime '' in August 1789 this is what was meant.
Adam Smith used the term "feudal system '' to describe a social and economic system defined by inherited social ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and economic privileges and obligations. In such a system wealth derived from agriculture, which was arranged not according to market forces but on the basis of customary labour services owed by serfs to landowning nobles.
Karl Marx also used the term in the 19th century in his analysis of society 's economic and political development, describing feudalism (or more usually feudal society or the feudal mode of production) as the order coming before capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) in their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom and principally by means of labour, produce and money rents. Marx thus defined feudalism primarily by its economic characteristics.
He also took it as a paradigm for understanding the power - relationships between capitalists and wage - labourers in his own time: ' in pre-capitalist systems it was obvious that most people did not control their own destiny -- under feudalism, for instance, serfs had to work for their lords. Capitalism seems different because people are in theory free to work for themselves or for others as they choose. Yet most workers have as little control over their lives as feudal serfs '. Some later Marxist theorists (e.g. Eric Wolf) have applied this label to include non-European societies, grouping feudalism together with Imperial Chinese and pre-Columbian Incan societies as ' tributary '.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, John Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of English society before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had brought feudalism with them to England, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain before 1066. The debate continues today, but a consensus viewpoint is that England before the Conquest had commendation (which embodied some of the personal elements in feudalism) while William the Conqueror introduced a modified and stricter northern French feudalism to England incorporating (1086) oaths of loyalty to the king by all who held by feudal tenure, even the vassals of his principal vassals (Holding by feudal tenure meant that vassals must provide the quota of knights required by the king or a money payment in substitution).
In the 20th century, two outstanding historians offered still more widely differing perspectives. The French historian Marc Bloch, arguably the most influential 20th - century medieval historian., approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one, presenting in Feudal Society (1939; English 1961) a feudal order not limited solely to the nobility. It is his radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers: while the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection -- both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship '', and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy.
In contradistinction to Bloch, the Belgian historian François - Louis Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in Qu'est - ce que la féodalité? ("What is feudalism? '', 1944; translated in English as Feudalism). His classic definition of feudalism is widely accepted today among medieval scholars, though questioned both by those who view the concept in wider terms and by those who find insufficient uniformity in noble exchanges to support such a model.
Although he was never formally a student in the circle of scholars around Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre that came to be known as the Annales School, Georges Duby was an exponent of the Annaliste tradition. In a published version of his 1952 doctoral thesis entitled La société aux XIe et XIIe siècles dans la région mâconnaise (Society in the 11th and 12th centuries in the Mâconnais region), and working from the extensive documentary sources surviving from the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, as well as the dioceses of Mâcon and Dijon, Duby excavated the complex social and economic relationships among the individuals and institutions of the Mâconnais region and charted a profound shift in the social structures of medieval society around the year 1000. He argued that in early 11th century, governing institutions -- particularly comital courts established under the Carolingian monarchy -- that had represented public justice and order in Burgundy during the 9th and 10th centuries receded and gave way to a new feudal order wherein independent aristocratic knights wielded power over peasant communities through strong - arm tactics and threats of violence.
In 1974, U.S. historian Elizabeth A.R. Brown rejected the label feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many, often contradictory, definitions of feudalism, she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically '' into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown 's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds 's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Reynolds argues:
The term feudal has also been applied to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed (See Examples of feudalism). Japan has been extensively studied in this regard. Friday notes that in the 21st century historians of Japan rarely invoke feudalism; instead of looking at similarities, specialists attempting comparative analysis concentrate on fundamental differences. Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading some historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.
Richard Abels notes that "Western Civilization and World Civilization textbooks now shy away from the term ' feudalism '. ''
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who does dr strange fight in the movie | Doctor Strange (2016 film) - wikipedia
Doctor Strange is a 2016 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the fourteenth film of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Scott Derrickson, who wrote it with Jon Spaihts and C. Robert Cargill, and stars Benedict Cumberbatch as Stephen Strange, along with Chiwetel Ejiofor, Rachel McAdams, Benedict Wong, Michael Stuhlbarg, Benjamin Bratt, Scott Adkins, Mads Mikkelsen, and Tilda Swinton. In Doctor Strange, surgeon Strange learns the mystic arts after a career - ending car accident.
Various incarnations of a Doctor Strange film had been in development since the mid-1980s, until Paramount Pictures acquired the film rights in April 2005, on behalf of Marvel Studios. Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were brought on board in June 2010 to write a screenplay. In June 2014, Derrickson and Spaihts were hired to direct and re-write the film, respectively. Cumberbatch was chosen for the eponymous role in December 2014, necessitating a schedule change to work around his other commitments. This gave Derrickson time to work on the script himself, for which he brought Cargill on to help. The film began principal photography in November 2015 in Nepal, before moving to the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and concluding in New York City in April 2016.
Doctor Strange held its world premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and was released in the United States on November 4, 2016, in 3D and IMAX 3D. The film grossed over $677 million worldwide, and was met with positive reviews from critics. It also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects.
In Kathmandu, Nepal, the sorcerer Kaecilius and his zealots enter the secret compound Kamar - Taj and behead its librarian. They steal a few pages from an ancient, mystical text belonging to the Ancient One, a long - lived sorcerer who has taught every student at Kamar - Taj, including Kaecilius, in the mystic arts. The Ancient One pursues the traitors, but Kaecilius and his followers escape.
In New York City, Stephen Strange, an acclaimed but arrogant neurosurgeon, badly injures his hands in a car accident, leaving him unable to operate. Fellow surgeon and former lover Christine Palmer tries to help him move on, but Strange vainly pursues experimental surgeries to heal his hands. Strange eventually learns of Jonathan Pangborn, a paraplegic who mysteriously regained full use of his legs. Pangborn directs Strange to Kamar - Taj, where he is taken in by Mordo, a sorcerer under the Ancient One. The Ancient One demonstrates her power to Strange, revealing the astral plane and other dimensions such as the Mirror Dimension. She eventually agrees to train Strange, despite his arrogance, which reminds her of Kaecilius.
Strange studies under the Ancient One and Mordo, and from ancient books in the library that is now guarded by the master Wong. Strange learns that Earth is protected from threats from other dimensions by a shield generated from three buildings called Sanctums, in New York City, London, and Hong Kong, which are all connected and accessible from Kamar - Taj. The sorcerers ' task is to protect the Sanctums, though Pangborn instead chose to channel mystical energy into just walking again. Strange progresses quickly, and secretly reads the text from which Kaecilius stole pages, learning to bend time with the mystical Eye of Agamotto. Mordo and Wong warn Strange against breaking the laws of nature, drawing a comparison to Kaecilius ' desire for eternal life.
Kaecilius uses the stolen pages to contact the powerful Dormammu of the Dark Dimension, where time is non-existent. Kaecilius destroys the London Sanctum to weaken Earth 's protection. The zealots then attack the New York Sanctum, killing its guardian, but Strange holds them off with the help of the Cloak of Levitation until Mordo and the Ancient One arrive. Strange and Mordo become disillusioned with the Ancient One after Kaecilius reveals that the Ancient One 's long life is due to her drawing power from the Dark Dimension. Kaecilius mortally wounds the Ancient One and escapes to Hong Kong. Before dying, she tells Strange that he too will have to bend the rules to complement Mordo 's steadfast nature in order to defeat Kaecilius. Strange and Mordo arrive in Hong Kong to find Wong dead, the Sanctum destroyed, and the Dark Dimension irresistibly engulfing Earth. Strange uses the Eye to reverse time and save Wong, then creates an infinite time loop inside the Dark Dimension that traps himself and Dormammu in the same moment of time. After repeatedly killing Strange to no avail, Dormammu finally gives in to Strange 's demand that he leave Earth and take Kaecilius and his zealots with him in return for Strange breaking the time loop.
Disgusted by Strange and the Ancient One defying nature 's laws, Mordo departs. Strange returns the Eye to Kamar - Taj, and takes up residence in the New York Sanctum to continue his studies. In a mid-credits scene, Strange decides to help Thor, who has brought his brother Loki to Earth to search for their father Odin. In a post-credits scene, Mordo confronts Pangborn and steals the mystical energy that he uses to walk, stating that Earth has "too many sorcerers ''.
Cumberbatch also portrays, uncredited, the villainous entity Dormammu. The actor suggested he take on the role to Derrickson, feeling that having the character be a "horrific '' reflection of Strange would work better than just "being a big ghoulish monster ''. The director agreed, elaborating that the casting implies that Dormammu does not have a normal physical form in his own dimension, and so is simply imitating Strange for their confrontation. To create the character, Cumberbatch provided motion - capture reference for the visual effects team, and his voice was blended with that of another uncredited British actor, whom Derrickson described as having "a very deep voice ''. The producers also had Tony Todd record voice over for Dormammu as an alternative to Cumberbatch, but ultimately decided on using Cumberbatch for the voice.
Chris Hemsworth reprises his role of Thor from previous MCU films in the film 's mid-credits scene. Additionally, Linda Louise Duan appears, unnamed, as Tina Minoru, Mark Anthony Brighton portrays Daniel Drumm, and Topo Wresniwiro portrays Hamir, all Masters of the Mystic Arts under the Ancient One. The latter is based on Hamir the Hermit, Wong 's father in the comics, who was the Ancient One 's personal manservant. The character is neither a manservant nor Wong 's father in the film. Zara Phythian, Alaa Safi, and Katrina Durden portray zealots under Kaecilius, and Pat Kiernan appears as himself. Doctor Strange co-creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a bus rider reading Aldous Huxley 's The Doors of Perception. Amy Landecker was cast as anesthesiologist Bruner, but the majority of her role was cut from the finished film.
A film based on the Marvel Comics character Doctor Strange was initially listed as being in development at New World Pictures, with a script dated January 21, 1986 by Bob Gale. For unknown reasons, Gale 's film never went further into production. By 1989, Alex Cox had co-written a script with Doctor Strange co-creator Stan Lee. The script had the character traveling to the Fourth Dimension before facing the villain Dormammu on Easter Island, Chile. A film using this script was almost made by Regency, but the company 's films were distributed by Warner Bros. at the time, which was in a dispute with Marvel over merchandising. By December 1992, Wes Craven had signed to write and direct Doctor Strange for release in either 1994 or 1995, with Savoy Pictures distributing. In 1995, David S. Goyer had completed a script for the film. By April 1997, Columbia Pictures had purchased the film rights and Jeff Welch was working on a new screenplay, with Bernie Brillstein and Brad Grey producing.
By April 2000, Columbia dropped Doctor Strange, which then had Michael France attached to write a script and interest from Chuck Russell and Stephen Norrington to direct. By June 2001, Dimension Films acquired the film rights, with Goyer back on board as writer and director. Goyer hinted scheduling conflicts might ensue with a film adaptation of Murder Mysteries, and promised not to be highly dependent on computer - generated imagery. However, by August 2001, Miramax acquired the film rights from Dimension, and by March 2002, Goyer had dropped out of the project. A 2005 release date was announced the next March, while in June 2004, a script still had yet to be written. Marvel Studios CEO Avi Arad stated, "We are nowhere with that. That 's a tough one to write, but we are working on it. We are trying to find the real Jerry Garcia of the writing community. '' In April 2005, Paramount Pictures acquired Doctor Strange from Miramax, as part of Marvel Studios ' attempt to independently produce their own films. At the time, the film was projected to have a budget of no more than $165 million.
In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Doctor Strange. In June 2010, Marvel Studios hired Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer to write Doctor Strange. While promoting Transformers: Dark of the Moon in April 2011, actor Patrick Dempsey indicated he was lobbying to play the title character. In January 2013, Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would appear in some capacity as part of "Phase Three '' of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Feige then reiterated that a Doctor Strange feature film was in development at Marvel Studios that May, and again in November. In February 2014, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Marvel was considering Mark Andrews, Jonathan Levine, Nikolaj Arcel and Dean Israelite to direct the film, and was considering Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger to rewrite the film 's script. Feige denied this report, but confirmed that Marvel was considering prospective candidates. By March, Marvel was considering Andrews, Levine, and Scott Derrickson to direct the film.
In June 2014, Derrickson was chosen to direct the film. He had written a 12 - page scene for the film featuring Strange and an assailant fighting in the astral plane while a doctor attempts to save Strange 's physical body in a hospital, based on a sequence from the comic Doctor Strange: The Oath. Derrickson illustrated the sequence with his own concept art, alongside storyboards from professional artists and an animatic, which he presented in a 90 - minute pitch to the studio. This cost Derrickson an "obnoxious amount '' of his own money, but he felt it necessary to prove "that I wanted (the job) more than anyone '', especially after Marvel told him that more people had lobbied to direct Doctor Strange than any of their other films. Derrickson ultimately had eight meetings with Marvel for the film. After he was hired, Marvel bought the 12 - page scene from Derrickson, and it became one of the film 's main set pieces. On transitioning from horror films to a superhero film, Derrickson said, "It was nice to work on something more positive. And not have my headspace in something so dark for so long. But it was also weirdly similar because of the fantastical nature of the movie ''. In his horror films, Derrickson tried to use "real characters and real character drama played by good actors... (to) encounter the fantastical '', and so he wanted actors of the same high caliber for Doctor Strange through which he could introduce the more fantastical elements to the MCU.
Derrickson and Marvel had originally discussed him writing the film alongside his Sinister co-writer C. Robert Cargill, with Derrickson also directing, but Marvel felt that they would not be able to reach their intended release date of July 2016 if Derrickson filled both roles. When Derrickson was chosen as director, Marvel passed on Cargill as an individual writer, with Jon Spaihts hired to rewrite the script instead. Spaihts, a big fan of Doctor Strange as a child, had started "pestering '' Marvel as soon as he read reports of the company searching for a director for the film. This eventually led to him meeting with the studio, before they actually began looking for writers for the film. Spaihts said that they talked "all afternoon, and the fit was right '', but he received a call from Marvel several days later saying that they were not completely sure they wanted to take the film in the same direction as Spaihts, and were going to look at other writers. Spaihts told his agent to not "take that answer. Call them back, tell them there 's a lot of right answers, and get me back in the room '', and after talking with Marvel for "another three or four hours '' he was given the job. Marvel never seriously looked at any other writer for the film. Derrickson was already hired when Spaihts joined, and the pair spent several months working on the film 's story with Feige and executive producer Stephen Broussard. They started writing the film from the beginning, and initially were unsure whether it would be an origin story, or if it would begin with Strange already as a "fully - formed '' sorcerer. Spaihts ultimately felt that "the origin story of this character, as depicted in the comics, is so operatic and beautiful, and so tragic and epic in its sweep, that it was unavoidable. We had to tell that story, and tell our best version of it. '' Elements from Spaihts ' early drafts that he later stated were still in the final film include many of the film 's set pieces, such as the climactic battle, which came straight from Derrickson, as well as "little things '' from Spaihts, "like a bandaged hand running down a row of prayer bells in a Nepalese temple. '' Derrickson wanted Nightmare to be the film 's antagonist, along with the concept of "nightmares themselves as being a dimension '', but Feige felt "getting across the idea of the Dream Dimension as another dimension '' would have been challenging alongside everything else that the film introduces. Dormammu, "the most present villain in the comics '', became the film 's main villain.
During the early development process, Marvel, Derrickson, and Spaihts all envisioned Benedict Cumberbatch playing the title role. By the end of June, Marvel had reportedly been looking at Tom Hardy and Jared Leto for the film 's lead as well, while Édgar Ramírez, who worked with Derrickson on 2014 's Deliver Us from Evil, had discussed a possible role with the director. In July, after fans and the media had also championed Cumberbatch for the role of Doctor Strange, the actor explained at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International that he would be unable to accept the role due to commitments to other projects. Feige stated that a lead actor would be announced "relatively quickly '', and by the end of that month Joaquin Phoenix entered talks to play the character. By September 2014, Marvel Studios was in negotiations to shoot Doctor Strange at Pinewood - Shepperton in the UK, with crews being assembled for a move into Shepperton Studios in late 2014 / early 2015, for filming in May 2015. Negotiations with Phoenix ended in October 2014, as the actor felt that blockbuster films would never be "fulfilling '', with "too many requirements that went against (his) instincts for character. '' Marvel then placed Leto, Ethan Hawke, Oscar Isaac, Ewan McGregor, Matthew McConaughey, Jake Gyllenhaal, Colin Farrell, and Keanu Reeves on their shortlist for the character. Ryan Gosling also had discussions to play the character, while Reeves was not approached about the role, and Cumberbatch was still considered to be in contention. In October, Cumberbatch entered negotiations to play the character, and was officially cast in December. Feige explained that Marvel had kept returning to him for the role while considering other actors, with Derrickson noting that even during discussions with Phoenix, he and Marvel still wanted to cast Cumberbatch in the role. The company eventually decided to change the film 's production schedule to fit around Cumberbatch 's commitments, allowing him to join the project.
With the film 's new production schedule, its intended release date was pushed back to November 2016, and Derrickson was able to do some work on the script himself. He brought Cargill in to work with him on this as was originally planned. Describing the film, Cargill called it both a superhero film and a fantasy film, saying "it 's a very magical fantasy universe, but at the same time it plays by some of the superhero tropes that people enjoy. '' Spaihts returned later in the process to "do some more writing and help bring the movie home '', and said he was "delighted '' by the work that Derrickson and Cargill had done in the interim. Feige and Derrickson have noted that, in addition to The Oath and Steve Ditko 's original work on Doctor Strange, an influence on all the film 's writers was the Doctor Strange comic book Into Shamball.
In January 2015, Chiwetel Ejiofor entered preliminary talks with Marvel for a role in the film, later revealed to be Baron Mordo. Ejiofor 's role was confirmed during the 2015 D23 Expo. In April, Derrickson and members of the production team visited New York City to scout potential filming locations, while Feige revealed that filming would begin that November. A month later, Tilda Swinton was in talks to play the Ancient One. In June 2015, Derrickson announced that he was going to London to begin work on the film, and Feige confirmed that Strange 's Sanctum Sanctorum would appear, located on Bleecker Street in New York City 's Greenwich Village, as in the comics. Swinton confirmed her role in the film in July, when Rachel McAdams was being considered for the female lead. McAdams cautioned that "it 's still super-early, and I do n't know where that 's gon na go, if it 's gon na go anywhere at all '', but she ultimately confirmed her role during the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival. Mads Mikkelsen entered into early negotiations to play a villain in August, "one of a number of actors being considered for the unspecified villianous role. ''
In September 2015, Guardians of the Galaxy director James Gunn stated that many of the crew that worked on that film were unable to return for its sequel, because they had committed to Doctor Strange. Derrickson also revealed that Gunn had provided notes on the script, beyond the general conversing the MCU directors have between themselves for their films. At the end of the month, Feige stated that additional casting announcements would be made "before the end of the year '', and by early November, Michael Stuhlbarg entered negotiations to appear in the film as Nicodemus West, a rival of Strange.
Feige felt that the visuals of the film needed "to be a Ditko / Kubrick / Miyazaki / The Matrix mind - trip '', and said that "You do n't get into it in Harry Potter, but if a scientist went to Hogwarts he 'd find out how some of that stuff is happening! We 're not going to spend a lot of time on that, but there will be some of that. And particularly for a character like Strange, who goes from a man of science to a man of faith and who traverses both worlds. '' In developing the film 's magic, Derrickson felt a responsibility to not repeat the representation of magic from previous films, like Fantasia and Harry Potter, wanting "to find a new way to make it feel more tactical and real and surreal. And to root it in gestures as opposed to spoken incantations and things like that. '' Feige called Doctor Strange the "doorway '' into the supernatural side of the MCU, a role that Derrickson noted was also served by the character in the early comics, when the Doctor Strange comics "broke open the Marvel comic book universe into the Marvel multiverse ''. Discussing the portrayal of other dimensions in the film, Feige stated that it would not explore parallel realities like the comics ' "Earth - 616 and Earth 617 '', but would instead feature "dimensions that are so mind - bending that you can barely perceive them '', like the Astral plane, Dark Dimension, and Mirror Dimension.
Astrophysicist Adam Frank served as a scientific consultant on the film, having already known Derrickson and been a Marvel fan since childhood. Frank advised on "the human experience of space and time '', helping Marvel conceive ideas for their cinematic multiverse, and suggesting dialogue for characters based on their beliefs, whether they were materialist, rationalist, reductionist, or "had this enlarged perspective. '' He noted that modern movie goers may not necessarily understand these complex scientific ideas, but do appear to appreciate "amazing things happen (ing) from science. So by grounding your stories enough in science to not so much make them plausible, but to allow that science to open up new possibilities -- people are used to that in their lives. So I think it makes sense to them, and it 's exciting to them ''. This was an aspect of previous MCU films that Frank called a "great thing... speaking as a scientist '', saying that "they build a coherent and consistent universe that respects the scientific process and that uses enough of real science to make things plausible or build off them. ''
Principal photography began in Nepal on November 4, 2015, under the working title Checkmate. Ben Davis, serving as cinematographer for the film after doing the same on Guardians of the Galaxy and Avengers: Age of Ultron, described Doctor Strange as Marvel 's Fantasia, and noted that a lot of previsualization was required to figure out how to shoot the "psychedelic '', M.C. Escher - inspired imagery. Davis used the Arri Alexa 65 camera for the film, along with the Arri Alexa XT Plus. Vision Research Phantom Flex 4Ks, which shoot up to 1000 fps, were used for high speed sequences like Strange 's car crash.
Derrickson chose Nepal as a location to feature an "Eastern city '' that would not be familiar to most audiences. After scouting and deciding on locations in the country, many of those areas were destroyed by the April 2015 Nepal earthquake. Rather than choosing another country, Derrickson and Cumberbatch felt that bringing attention and tourism to Nepal following the event "was all the more reason to shoot there ''. Cumberbatch said that shooting in Nepal was "absolutely vital to this film, I think not least because it 's so based in something that is exotic. It was a magical way to start the shoot. It 's important to a film like this -- which has a profound gearshift into a spiritual and otherworldly dimension -- that the portal for that be in a place that actually happens in itself to be incredibly spiritual and marvelous. '' The eventual filming locations around the Kathmandu Valley included the Pashupatinath and Swayambhunath Temples; Thamel and New Road in Kathmandu; and the Patan Durbar Square in Patan.
Production moved to Longcross Studios in the UK on November 11, and was scheduled to stay there until March 2016. The real Kathmandu street that led into the fictional Kamar - Taj courtyard was replicated at Longcross, which production designer Charles Wood described as "very hard because Kathmandu is a most beautiful city and it 's steeped in history. To transition from that level of detail and history, with the shape of the streets, the warping of the buildings, these ancient bricks and these ancient tiles, was a real challenge. '' For authenticity, the set was dressed with real food, and populated with dogs, pigeons, and Nepalese extras, many of whom were relatives of people who live on the real Kathmandu street. The inside of Kamar - Taj was also constructed at Longcross, with "sculptors creating beautiful columns and wall decorations and craftsmen building screens and doors to evoke the exotic feel of the ancient sanctuary. '' Wood 's goal was to make the set feel like the Ancient One and her disciples actually lived there, and give it a "truly spiritual, truly magical '' feel, while integrating it into a real building that the production filmed in Kathmandu. This and the Kathmandu street were two of twenty - one sets that the crew built at Longcross. Others included Doctor Strange 's Sanctum Sanctorum, and a Hong Kong street "complete with over 80 neon signs and a giant roof to keep the rain out. ''
Filming also took place in Hong Kong, and in New York City 's Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood. Additional New York City - set scenes were shot at Shepperton Studios, and later in London. By the end of November, the casting of Mikkelsen and Stuhlbarg was confirmed, alongside Amy Landecker and Scott Adkins in unspecified roles. Additionally, Benedict Wong heard about the film from his friend Ejiofor, and sought a role in it himself. He was cast as Wong in January, and immediately joined the production for filming. Lamborghini provided six Huracán LP 610 - 4 Spyders for use in the film, one of which the production wrecked during filming. Lamborghini said that they felt "there are a lot of characteristics of Doctor Strange that are connected with the Lamborghini philosophy. '' The Lamborghini crash scene was filmed at Northfleet, Kent by the River Thames. Also in January 2016, filming took place at Exeter College, Oxford. The next month, Feige revealed that the film originally had a prologue that took place in CERN, due to the real world research being done at the facility on alternate dimensions and parallel universes. Production moved to New York City 's Flatiron District in April, where set photos revealed that Zara Phythian had joined the cast. Principal photography wrapped in New York City on April 3, 2016.
In June 2016, a Diamond Select Toys press release for Doctor Strange toys, in their Marvel Minimates line, named Mikkelsen 's character Kaecilius and McAdams ' character Christine Palmer. Mikkelsen 's role was confirmed in an official tie - in comic for the film, while McAdams ' was confirmed at San Diego Comic Con 2016. Additionally, Benjamin Bratt was revealed to have been cast as Jonathan Pangborn; Adkins ' role was revealed to be Lucian, a follower of Kaecilius; and Landecker 's role was later revealed to be anesthesiologist Dr. Bruner. The latter was mostly cut from the film, with Landecker explaining that she had been cast in the small role, for two scenes at the beginning of the film, because Derrickson was a fan of her performance in A Serious Man, which also starred Stuhlbarg. After filming her first scene, in which she assists Strange with a surgery, Landecker asked not to be involved in the other scene because she had no lines for it and was only seen from behind, and instead wished to attend a special premiere at the White House for her series Transparent. The actress believed she was later cut from the first scene, but she is still credited for a brief appearance. Also, Derrickson revealed that Lulu Wilson had been cast as Strange 's sister, for a scene depicting her drowning at a young age. The scene had been shot, and Derrickson thought it was "great (as a) self - contained scene '', but it "did n't work '' with the rest of the film, and was cut.
Also at San Diego Comic Con, Derrickson noted that there were still "a couple pickup shoots '' to do for the film to "clarify the logic ''. Further content for the film 's training sequence was also shot during these reshoots, as early test audiences "loved (the training portion of the film) and wanted more ''. Wong indicated that the reshoots had been completed in August. Dan Harmon wrote material for these additional scenes, which Derrickson described as "script analysis and dialogue work '', not enough to receive credit in the film. Feige said that in addition to any humor that Harmon could add to the film, he was brought on to "give us his opinions on the sci - fi concepts. '' Before the film 's sets were demolished, Thor: Ragnarok director Taika Waititi took advantage by writing and filming a scene featuring Strange meeting Chris Hemsworth 's Thor. The scene was for Ragnarok and shot before that film began production. Derrickson and Marvel felt the scene was "kind of perfect '' to show Strange joining the wider MCU after his stand alone introduction, and so added it to Doctor Strange as a mid-credits scene. A post-credits scene, directed by Derrickson, teases Mordo 's role as an antagonist to Strange in a potential Doctor Strange sequel. Stan Lee 's cameo in the film was directed by Gunn on the set of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. This was alongside several other Lee cameos, to limit the amount of travel he had to do for the next four MCU films. Gunn contacted Derrickson during the shoot to ensure that the shot matched up with the respective Doctor Strange scene, and "kept throwing lines at '' Lee on the day to give Derrickson and Marvel plenty of options to choose from for the film. Additional options Gunn filmed included: Lee reading a book and asking a gentleman next to him if he knew what the word excelsior meant; Lee laughing really hard and stating he was laughing for no reason, being "totally crazy ''; and Lee laughing hysterically at a Garfield book, noting how the character "HATES Mondays but he LOVES lasagna! ''. Gunn felt the Garfield option was originally meant to appear in the final version of the film, but ended up being too long for the scene. By October 10, 2016, Derrickson had completed the film.
Feige described the film 's use of 3D as serving the storytelling, saying, "hopefully it helps bend people 's minds even more than with just the flat screen. '' He said that "there are sequences of the film that 3D is actually necessary to tell the dimensional story that is happening through visuals ''. However, he noted that during visual effects reviews for the film it became apparent that these sequences were adversely affecting the story when viewed in 2D, which necessitated adjustments so the sequences would work in all formats. Over one hour of footage in the film was "specially formatted '' for IMAX.
Visual effects for Doctor Strange were provided by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Method Studios, Framestore, Lola VFX, Luma Pictures, Rise FX, Crafty Apes, and SPOV, contributing to 1450 effects shots. Previsualization was handled by The Third Floor. All vendors worked on the common magical elements (mandalas, magical runes shields, whips, stalks and aerial ' lily pads ', and portals). Visual effects supervisor Stephane Ceretti, who also worked on Guardians of the Galaxy, explained the similarities and differences between the two films, saying, "there 's some resemblance in some of the things that we 've done. In the same way, it 's a totally different world. In (Guardians), it 's more sci - fi oriented and crazy colors. More of a comedy kind of take on things as well. This one is a little bit more serious. It 's also a little bit more trippy. We use very different techniques, actually. Guardians was also for us a huge animation film. This one was less of it. This one was more about the environments and effects ''.
Further discussing the film 's visuals, Derrickson described influences as "the Steve Ditko, Stan Lee comics (which) were all about these weird visuals '', as well as "a fair amount of surrealist art and photography and M.C. Escher ''. Additional inspiration for the film 's visuals came from "a bunch of experimental, fractal videos from YouTube '' that Derrickson found, and the mobile video game Monument Valley. Derrickson 's "ambition was to use cutting - edge visual effects to do things that are fresh and new -- to not just blow things up. '' Feige explained that one of the more difficult areas to be inventive was the action sequences, as Derrickson did not want them "to simply be: someone shoots a bolt of lightning, and someone blocks a ball of lightning, so someone throws another bolt of lightning... '' Instead, they tried to incorporate the use of different dimensions into the action "in the interest of creating a visual tapestry that is totally different in terms of an action scene we 've seen in any other movies. '' On the film 's set pieces, Derrickson reiterated that the film 's astral fight scene was based on The Oath comic, while adding that the end fight was "an attempt to capture the quality of that artwork '' from the original comics, and the mirror dimension chase was an attempt to take Inception "to the Nth degree and take it way more surreal and way farther. But I certainly owe something to that movie. '' Specifically for the climax of the film, Derrickson wanted to play on the superhero trope of "a big fight scene where they 're tearing up a city, and there 's a portal opening up and they have to close it '', subverting it by having the villain defeated with an intelligent use of power rather than showing "which CGI thing can hit the other CGI thing harder ''.
ILM worked on the folding Manhattan mirror sequence (chosen because of their work creating a digital New York in The Avengers) and the time fight sequence in Hong Kong, which consisted of 200 and 150 shots, respectively. They began work on the film 10 months before filming began to plan out the Manhattan sequence; it was mainly CGI, though some New York location shots were used. The sequence was mainly handled by ILM 's San Francisco and Vancouver offices. The Hong Kong time sequence was done mainly by ILM 's London office. ILM also created digital doubles for many of the actors, which were shared with the other vendors. Method Studios, who worked on the Quantum Realm in Ant - Man, worked on the "magical mystery tour '' sequence, with Strange hurtling through various dimensions. The sequence was handled by Method 's Los Angeles studio, with their Vancouver studio contributing the opening shot of the sequence. The only shot Method did not work on in the sequence was the one that linked to Dormammu, as Luma Pictures assisted in his creation (they handled his other appearances in the film). Method created 7 dimensions for the sequence: the initial wormhole to the "Speaker Cone ''; the Bioluminesce world; the fractals of "soft solid '' world; a version of the Quantum Realm; Strange falling through his own eye and Cosmic Scream; the Dark Dimension; and the Shape Shifting realm. The Shape Shifting realm originally had Strange morphing and changing shape, but that was ultimately removed as Derrickson felt the audience needed to see Cumberbatch. Method 's Vancouver studio created Strange 's car crash, the rooftop training, and the sequence in which Strange experiments with time on an apple in the Kamar - Taj library. The car crash blended the high speed photography and some green screen sequences, with digital assets for both Cumberbatch and the car. In total, Method worked on 270 effects shots.
Framestore was chosen to work on the Cloak of Levitation, due to their work creating Rocket in Guardians of the Galaxy. Ceretti called Cloak 's actions "kind of scripted but not as deeply '' as the end result, and said that during the pre-visualization process "we had a big discussion about the arc of the story of the Cloak in the film ''. Framestore also worked on environment shots, the Mandelbrot set sequences, high resolution digital doubles, the astral form, and the Crimson Bands of Cyttorak restraint for Kaecilius, totaling over 365 shots. Alexis Wajsbrot, Framestore 's CG Supervisor, called the astral form "one of the hardest effects we 've had to deal with at Framestore; finding the right balance of a look that was subtle but also beautiful. '' Lola VFX worked on the Zealots ' eyes, supplementing the make - up work with effects based on a geode. They also created digital tears for Kaecilius when he is in the Crimson Bands of Cyttorak. In addition to Dormammu and the Dark Dimension, Luma Pictures also created the first mirror sequence at the beginning of the film. In creating Dormammu, Ceretti stated that they wanted to avoid the fiery head look from the comics as "it had been done before. The whole idea is he 's a character that lives in - between dimensions. He can also take whatever shapes he wants to take. (When he is talking to Strange) you can feel all these ripples in his face and all that stuff... these kind of opening windows to other dimensions, and all the reflective qualities of it. We really wanted to add the evocation of that fire, but we did n't want to do fire so we went for (a) multicolored approach to try and keep the psychedelic (look) of the entire space. '' On the Dark Dimension, Ceretti said, "We tried to make it alive all the time -- the whole idea of the Dark Dimension is that it 's a dynamic environment, '' with the Luma team referencing the Ditko art and a poster that when lit "with a blacklight it becomes very saturated (with) colors, crazy blacklight colors. '' He continued, "It was all about finding the right balance between all these elements to pay homage to and to tribute the work of Steve Ditko, but to make it more current to the 21st century. If you look at the detail of the shapes that we have in the Dark Dimension, you can almost point to things in the comic books (that) we really tried to be faithful to. ''
In May 2016, Michael Giacchino revealed that he would score the film. Derrickson called the score "magic in the literal sense of the word, '' adding Giacchino "is doing what good scorers do, which is he is not just creating music that supports the images, he 's adding a third thing to the movie. It becomes something new with his music in there that it did n't have with temp music. '' The score was recorded at Abbey Road Studios. During a recording session, Paul McCartney heard one of Giacchino 's cues being recorded and likened it to The Beatles song "I Am the Walrus ''. Derrickson, a Bob Dylan fan, looked for a place in the film to include one of his songs, but could not find one. However, he was able to include the song "Interstellar Overdrive '' by Pink Floyd. Derrickson had hoped to use either "Interstellar Overdrive '' or The Jimi Hendrix Experience 's "Are You Experienced? '' for the film 's credits, but the royalties to use either in the credits were too expensive, resulting in Giacchino creating the track "The Master Of The Mystic End Credits ''. A soundtrack album from Hollywood Records was released digitally on October 21, 2016, with a physical release on November 18, 2016.
Doctor Strange held its world premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and had its premiere in Hollywood at the TCL Chinese Theatre and El Capitan Theatre on October 20, 2016. The film was released in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2016, alongside a total of 33 markets in its first weekend, with 213 IMAX screens in 32 of those markets. It was screened at the EW PopFest on October 28, 2016 in Los Angeles. Doctor Strange 's North America release on November 4 took place in 3,882 venues, of which 3,530 were in 3D, along with 379 IMAX theaters, 516 premium large - format (Disney 's biggest release in that format to date), and 189 D - Box locations. Overall, Doctor Strange had the widest IMAX release ever globally, along with being the first film to release on more than 1,000 IMAX screens. It was previously reported to have been scheduled for a July 8, 2016 release, before the production schedule shifted to accommodate Cumberbatch 's other commitments.
In August 2015, a concept art trailer narrated by Derrickson was shown at the D23 Expo. The images showed artwork of Cumberbatch in a traditional Doctor Strange outfit from the comics, as well as a rough sequence of the plot, highlighting points such as Strange 's accident, his journey for healing, and fighting Ejiofor as Mordo (before the character was moved away from a villainous role in the film per discussions between Derrickson and the actor). The trailer was met with "a very big reaction from the gathered crowd. ''
On April 12, 2016, the first teaser trailer for the film debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly compared the "series of kaleidoscopic, world - bending scenes '' featured in the trailer to the film Inception, as did Scott Mendelson of Forbes. Forbes added that the structure of the trailer resembled early marketing for the film Batman Begins. The Hollywood Reporter 's Graeme McMillian criticised these similarities, as well as similarities to The Matrix and between Cumberbatch 's American accent and that of Hugh Laurie 's Gregory House from House, calling them not "necessarily a real problem, of course... (but) there 's nothing there outside the derivative aspects: due to the nature of the trailer, there 's no story beyond the ' white man finds enlightenment in Asia ' trope and barely any dialogue to let audiences decide that maybe the performances will elevate the material. '' McMillian did enjoy the visual effects and the visual of "Tilda Swinton literally knock (ing) Benedict Cumberbatch 's soul out of his body, '' but concluded, "as an introduction to not only a brand new franchise for Marvel, but a potential new genre, this feels far less bold and assured '' than the first trailer for Guardians of the Galaxy.
In July 2016, Marvel Comics released a prelude tie - in comic written by Will Corona Pilgrim, with art by Jorge Fornés. The issue sees four Masters of the Mystic Arts -- Kaecilius, Wong, Tina Minoru and Daniel Drumm -- pursue a woman who has stolen a mystical relic. A second issue, centered on the Ancient One training apprentices in the magical arts at Kamar - Taj, was released a month later. Derrickson, Cumberbatch, Swinton, Ejiofor, McAdams, Mikkelsen, and Wong attended San Diego Comic - Con 2016, where they debuted an exclusive clip and the second trailer for the film. The next month, the same Comic - Con clip was screened at the Asia Pop Comic Convention Manila. In September 2016, an additional prelude comic was released, centered on Kaecilius, while behind the scenes footage was released as a special feature on the Captain America: Civil War Blu - ray. Also in September, Marvel, in partnership with Dolby Laboratories, Broadcom, Synchrony Bank, and Society for Science & the Public, announced "The Magic of STEM Challenge '', aimed at females aged 15 through 18 in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics education) fields. The challenge was for contestants to submit videos of them finding mentors to explore ideas once thought to only be possible with magic. Five winners would attend the world premiere of the film, and receive a tour of Walt Disney Studios, as well as a $1,000 saving account from Synchrony Bank, with one grand prize winner receiving a mentorship with Walt Disney Studio 's Digital Team.
On October 10, 2016, approximately 15 minutes of footage was screened at 115 IMAX 3D locations in North America, and select 3D and IMAX 3D locations worldwide. Fans attending the event received an exclusive IMAX poster for the film. Umberto Gonzales of TheWrap called the footage "stunning to behold ''. He added that a sequence shown in which the Ancient One sends Strange "on his first trippy tour through the multiverse '' was "where the IMAX 3D really shines. The audience is given an incredible visual tour of the multiverse which features other dimensions and other realities. It really is something to behold in IMAX 3D, '' concluding that "after being shown only 15 minutes of incredible preview footage, IMAX 3D is the definitive format to see the film. '' Britt Hayes for Screen Crush felt the footage was "dizzying '' and "far weirder and wilder than (the) trailers are letting on, '' though felt it was a bit difficult "to judge some of what was shown out of context (especially earlier scenes) ''. Regarding the same sequence where the Ancient One sends Strange through the multiverse, Hayes said, "Seth Rogen 's comedic drug trip sequences have nothing on the psychedelic visuals employed here. It 's astounding, elaborate stuff, and easily provides the most entertaining moments in the footage. '' IGN 's Terri Schwartz said the sequences shown were where "Derrickson 's horror aesthetics shine through ''.
Marvel provided Twitter stickers, Giphy content, Facebook Live, Snapchat lenses and filter, Tumblr stunts, and Instagram special content related to the film. Additionally, Microsoft Surface had a promotional sponsorship of the film, due to the use of the device in the filmmaking process. A partnership with Google 's Tilt Brush app featured a "Mixed Reality '' "stunt with artists across Los Angeles, London and Hong Kong, inspired by different dimensions in Doctor Strange and recreating the worlds in VR for an immersive visual experience.
Doctor Strange was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on February 14, 2017, and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and DVD on February 28, 2017. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; an exclusive preview of the Phase Three films Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Thor: Ragnarok, Black Panther, and Avengers: Infinity War; and Team Thor: Part 2, a continuation of the "mockumentary '' short film Team Thor, that was directed by Waititi. Best Buy released an exclusive collector 's edition steelbook case for the regular and 3D Blu - ray release, featuring art based on the Book of Cagliostro and the Eye of Agamotto. Target 's Blu - ray versions have an additional exclusive featurette, while the digital version also features an exclusive featurette.
Doctor Strange grossed $232.6 million in the United States and Canada and $445.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $677.7 million. The film became the biggest IMAX opening in November domestically ($12.2 million), internationally ($24 million), and globally ($24.2 million), overtaking Interstellar 's records. By November 27, 2016, the film had become the biggest single - character introduction film in the MCU. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $122.65 million, accounting for "production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from '' home media, placing it 11th on their list of 2016 's "Most Valuable Blockbusters ''.
Doctor Strange earned $32.6 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada, including Thursday previews, with a total weekend gross of $85.1 million; IMAX contributed $12.2 million to the opening weekend gross, with 3D contributing $24 million. The film was the number one film for the weekend, and became the second largest opening in November for Disney. Initial projections for the film in late August 2016 had it earning as low as $50 million to as high as $88 million in its opening weekend, with projections revised to $65 -- 75 million closer to the film 's release. Doctor Strange remained the top film in its second weekend, and fell to second in its third, behind Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. In its fourth weekend, Doctor Strange was the third highest - grossing film, behind Fantastic Beasts and Moana. It fell to fifth in its fifth and sixth weekends, and by its seventh weekend had fallen to the ninth - highest - grossing place. It was projected to earn $255 million for its total domestic gross.
Outside the United States and Canada, Doctor Strange earned $87.7 million in its first weekend from 33 markets, becoming the top film in all markets except Lithuania and Finland. South Korea was the top market overall with $18.1 million, locally the biggest opening weekend ever for an original Marvel release, along with an all - time best opening for an IMAX film. IMAX garnered a record $7.8 million, the best international IMAX debut for a film in the month of October, with Russia seeing its biggest Saturday IMAX gross for a Marvel film. Additionally, Hong Kong ($3.2 million), Thailand ($2.5 million), Malaysia ($2.4 million), and Singapore ($2.2 million) also had the biggest opening weekend ever for an original Marvel film. In its second weekend, the film opened in 22 additional markets, becoming the top film in China with $44.4 million, the highest 3 - day opening weekend for a first installment superhero film there. China 's opening was also the third highest for an MCU film, behind Avengers: Age of Ultron and Captain America: Civil War, as well as the best 3 - day opening for an IMAX film in November with $6.3 million. IMAX also set November opening records in India, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador. Brazil was also a top market, earning $7.9 million. Doctor Strange remained the number one film in its third weekend for the third consecutive week in Denmark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Australia, Hong Kong, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Singapore, and number one for the second week in China and Russia. It also became the highest - grossing original MCU release in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Its fourth weekend saw China 's total gross surpass $100 million, "an increasingly rare feat in 2016. '' The next weekend, Doctor Strange opened in Argentina, where it was the number one film and earned $1 million. The film 's fourteenth weekend saw it open in Japan, where it was number one with $4.5 million. As of December 4, 2016, the film 's largest markets were China ($110.3 million), South Korea ($41.3 million), and the United Kingdom and Ireland ($27.9 million).
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 90 % approval rating, based on reviews from 298 critics, with an average rating of 7.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Doctor Strange artfully balances its outré source material against the blockbuster constraints of the MCU, delivering a thoroughly entertaining superhero origin story in the bargain. '' On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 72 out of 100, based on reviews from 49 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy called Doctor Strange "an engaging, smartly cast and sporadically eye - popping addition '' to the franchise, adding "this action movie ostensibly rooted in the mind - expanding tenets of Eastern mysticism is different enough to establish a solid niche alongside the blockbuster combine 's established money machines. '' McCarthy, in addition to praising the acting, felt that there were certain sequences that "go far beyond (Inception) in visual spectacle '' and that the time manipulation sequences, "seen to outstanding advantage in 3D, (were what) mind - trip - seeking audiences back in Doctor Strange 's origin days would have called ' far - out ' but today 's fans will simply deem ' amazing '. '' Peter Debruge of Variety called the film "Marvel 's most satisfying entry since Spider - Man 2, '' and wrote that despite having "the same look, feel, and fancy corporate sheen '' as the other MCU films, it "boasts an underlying originality and freshness missing from the increasingly cookie - cutter comic - book realm of late. '' Debruge also praised the casting along with the multitude of visual effects the film was able to achieve. Alonso Duralde, reviewing for TheWrap said, "True, Doctor Strange is an origin story, and occasionally hemmed in by the genre 's narrative requirements, but it 's smart enough to bring in great British actors to make the predictable paces and life lessons feel fresh and fascinating. '' Regarding the film 's visuals, Duralde praised them, exclaiming, "In a year where bloated, empty spectacles have induced a crushing level of CG fatigue, this funny, freaky adventure reminds us of how effective VFX can be when they 've got some imagination behind them. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said, "The giddily enjoyable Doctor Strange... is part of Marvel 's strategy for world domination, yet it 's also so visually transfixing, so beautiful and nimble that you may even briefly forget the brand. Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times said, "Within the familiar narrative contours of the origin story, writer - director Scott Derrickson crams in enough out - of - body experiences, spatial - temporal shenanigans and dazzlingly kaleidoscopic visuals to make you wonder if he and his co-writers... were dropping acid behind the scenes. ''
Conversely, Angelica Jade Bastién, writing for RogerEbert.com, said, "For all of its wondrous world - building and trippy effects, Doctor Strange is n't the evolutionary step forward for Marvel that it needs to be storytelling-wise. Underneath all of its improvements, the core narrative is something we 've seen countless times. '' Mara Reinstein of US Weekly called the film "joyless '' and wrote, "Despite (Benedict Cumberbatch 's) alluring powers, he ca n't save an overly convoluted film that relies on a galaxy of derivative 3 - D special - effect tricks... Nobody is having much fun here -- save for the doctor 's Cloak of Levitation that has its own devilish personality and can whisk him out of scary situations. '' Rex Reed of the New York Observer called Doctor Strange "an awkwardly cliché - riddled mix of hamstrung imagination and bizarro reality '' and said, "None of it makes any sense... For characterization, dialogue, narrative arc, acceptable acting and coherence, go elsewhere. '' Adam Graham of The Detroit News said, "Cumberbatch is wildly charismatic in the lead role... But that 's the thing: He 's a better party guest than he is a host. Doctor Strange is a fine introduction, but by the end, you 're not sad to be headed for the door. ''
In April 2016, co-writer Cargill stated that Marvel felt some initial ideas for the film from him and Derrickson highlighted too much of the "weird stuff '' associated with the character to feature in an origin story, but told the duo to hold onto them for potential future films. In October 2016, Derrickson confirmed he had plans for a sequel, saying, "I love the character, I love the visual possibilities, and I know the comics so well -- (the first movie is) the tip of an iceberg. There 's so much progress that can be made. '' He would like to follow the example of The Dark Knight and "bring in a villain where you really got to go deep (and have) a more visceral experience ''. Cumberbatch added that he had signed on for at least one more Doctor Strange solo film. Derrickson hoped to feature Nightmare in a potential sequel, and expressed interest in further exploring the characters Jonathan Pangborn and Hamir in a sequel, after their smaller roles in the first film. He also explained that he is "kept in the loop '' on how the Avengers films will use Strange, because of his close relationships with Feige and co-director Joe Russo. Spaihts has also expressed interest in seeing Clea appear in a potential sequel. By April 2017, it was reported that Derrickson would return for a potential sequel, beginning work on it after fulfilling his commitments to the television series, Locke & Key.
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how many seats in ontario to have party status | Official party status - wikipedia
Official party status refers to the Canadian practice of recognizing political parties in the Parliament of Canada and the provincial legislatures. In official documents, this is sometimes referred to as being a recognized party (French: parti reconnu). The type of recognition and threshold needed to obtain it varies. However, the most coveted privileges are funding for party research offices and the right to ask questions during Question Period.
Recognition in Parliament allows parties certain parliamentary privileges. Generally official party status is dependent on winning a minimum number of seats (that is, the number of Members of Parliament or Members of the Legislative Assembly elected).
Federally, the idea of recognizing parties for official status started in 1963. Prior to this, the only opposition recognition was that of the Leader of the Opposition, effectively limiting "official status '' to the Government and the largest Opposition party. It was not until 1970 that the Elections Act was amended to allow parties to register and thus have their party name on the ballot.
Rules on official party status are not laws, but are internal rules governing the legislature. Therefore, the members of a legislature may, if they choose, pass a motion to dispense with the rules and grant official status to parties that would otherwise fail to qualify. There are many examples of this practice.
Since 1985, a party must have at least 12 seats to be recognized as an official party in the House of Commons. Recognition means that the party will get time to ask questions during question period, and money for research and staff (both are proportional to the number of seats.)
In the Senate, a party must have five seats and must be registered by Elections Canada. Once the party has been recognized in the Senate, it retains its status even if it becomes deregistered, so long as it keeps at least five seats. This rule means that the rump Progressive Conservative Party caucus in the Senate qualified for official status after the rest of that party merged into the Conservative Party of Canada.
In 2016, Senators without any party affiliation formed the Independent Senators Group, which has been granted some privileges similar to those of a party.
In the general elections of 1997, 2001, and 2008 the Alberta New Democratic Party failed to win the requisite four seats to gain official party status in the Legislature. Nevertheless, the Progressive Conservative granted party status to the NDP after each election.
In 2001, B.C. Premier Gordon Campbell was criticized for his decision not to grant the British Columbia New Democratic Party official party status; it was the only opposition party in the legislature, but it had won only two seats in the last election.
In New Brunswick, parties require 5 seats or 20 % of the popular vote to get official party status. However, parties with one or more seats have been allowed time in Question Period with consent of other parties. The Liberals won every seat in New Brunswick 's legislature in 1987. The government allowed the Progressive Conservative Party, which finished second place in the election in the number of votes received, to submit written questions to ministers during Question Period.
Following the 1999 Ontario general election, the Ontario New Democratic Party were reduced to nine seats in the legislature. The rules at the time of the election called for parties to hold 12 seats to maintain party status. Premier Mike Harris, citing the reduction in seats from 130 to 103 (- 20.76 %), subsequently lowered the required number of seats for official party status from 12 to 8 (33 1 / 3 %). The mathematically corresponding cut would therefore have been from 12 seats to 9 seats (25 %, slightly higher than the seat reduction), or to 10 seats (16 2 / 3 %, slightly lower).
In the 2003 election, the New Democrats won only seven seats in the Ontario Legislative Assembly. The new Liberal government refused to accord official party status to the NDP, with Premier Dalton McGuinty instead offering the NDP additional funding in return for accepting their status as independents; NDP leader Howard Hampton refused and disrupted the throne speech in protest. MPP Marilyn Churley threatened to legally change her surname to "Churley - NDP '' so that the Speaker would be forced to say NDP when recognizing her in the House (a non-official party loses the right to have its members addressed in the Legislature by party affiliation). The PC 's Bill Murdoch also considered joining the NDP caucus to help them make official status. Andrea Horwath 's by - election win in May 2004 regained official party status for the NDP.
After Churley resigned to run in the 2006 federal election, bringing the party to only seven members again, the government decided to allow the NDP to retain official status pending the results of the by - election to replace her, which the NDP won.
In the 2018 Ontario general election the incumbent Liberals dropped from a majority government of 55 seats to 7 seats, one seat less than official party status. The Green Party of Ontario also elected its first member in the 2018 election and similarly lacks official party status.
In 1989, the Equality Party won four seats in Quebec 's National Assembly (eight seats short of the total needed for official status). Although it did not receive official party status, its members were granted some of the privileges of an official party: their seats in the Assembly were placed together, as were their offices in the Parliament Building. They were also granted a limited number of opportunities to ask questions during Question Period. The party had no success in subsequent elections, and stopped organizing after the 2003 Quebec election. This precedent was followed when Action démocratique du Québec elected four members in 2003 and seven members in 2008. However, when the seven former ADQ members joined with two former Parti Québécois members in January 2012 to form Coalition Avenir Québec, the governing Liberals and opposition Parti Québécois refused to grant any status to the new party, requiring all nine members to sit as independents.
Official party status is not to be confused with being a registered party. A political party (even if they have no parliamentary seats) may register with Elections Canada or a provincial chief electoral officer. Doing so allows the political party to run candidates for office during elections, issue tax receipts for donations, and spend money on advertising and campaigning during election campaigns. In return, the party must obey campaign spending and donation limits, disclose the source of large donations, and obey various election laws.
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which country had a one party system for seventy one years | Institutional Revolutionary party - wikipedia
The Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional, PRI) is a Mexican political party founded in 1929 that held power uninterruptedly in the country for 71 years from 1929 to 2000, first as the National Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Nacional Revolucionario, PNR), then as the Party of the Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Partido de la Revolución Mexicana, PRM), and finally renaming itself as the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1946.
Though it is a full member of the Socialist International (along with its rival, the left - wing PRD, they make Mexico one of the few nations with two major, competing parties part of the same international grouping), the PRI is not considered a social democratic party in the traditional sense.
Throughout its nine - decade existence, the PRI has adopted a very wide array of ideologies (often determined by the President of the Republic in turn). In the 1980s, the Party went through reforms that shaped its current incarnation, with policies characterized as centre - right, such as the privatization of State - run companies, closer relations with the Catholic church, and embracing free - market capitalism. At the same time, the left - wing members of the party abandoned the PRI and founded the Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolución Democrática, PRD) in 1989.
The adherents of the PRI party are known in Mexico as priístas and the party is nicknamed el tricolor because of its use of the Mexican national colors of green, white and red, found on the Mexican flag.
The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) is described by some scholars as a "state party '', a term which captures both the non-competitive history and character of the party itself, and the inextricable connection between the party and the Mexican nation - state for much of the 20th century. In 1990, Peruvian Nobel Prize laureate for literature, Mario Vargas Llosa, called the uninterrupted Mexican government under the PRI la dictadura perfecta ("the perfect dictatorship ''). The current president of Mexico, Enrique Peña Nieto, is a member of the PRI.
The PRI has been criticized for using the colors of the national flag in its logo, something considered not unreasonable in many countries, but frowned upon in Mexico, while there is no law that forbids this act.
According to the Statesman Journal, for more than seven decades, the PRI ran Mexico under an "autocratic, endemically corrupt, crony - ridden government ''. The elites of the PRI ruled the police and the judicial system, and justice was only available if purchased with bribes. During its time in power, the PRI became a symbol of corruption, repression, economic mismanagement, and electoral frauds, and many educated Mexicans and urban dwellers worried that its return could signify a return to Mexico 's past.
At first glance, the PRI 's name looks like a confusing oxymoron or paradox to English speakers since they normally associate the term "revolution '' with the destruction of "institutions. '' As Rubén Gallo has explained, the Mexican concept of institutionalizing the Revolution simply refers to the corporatist nature of the PRI -- that is, the PRI subsumed the "disruptive energy '' of the Revolution (and thereby ensured its own longevity) by co-opting and incorporating its enemies into its bureaucratic government as new institutional sectors.
The political party went through two names before settling into its third and current name.
Even though the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution had ended in 1920, Mexico had continued to encounter political unrest. A grave political crisis caused by the 1928 assassination of president - elect Álvaro Obregón led to the founding in 1929 of the "National Revolutionary Party '' (Spanish: Partido Nacional Revolucionario, PNR) by Plutarco Elías Calles, Mexico 's president from 1924 to 1928.
The intent was to institutionalize the agreements result of Mexican Revolution. In the first years of the party 's existence, the PNR was, above all, the only political machine existing. As ' President ' of the government, the executive President continued to hold executive power as in an era known as the Maximato. The party was the result of Plutarco Elías Calles 's efforts to stop the violent struggle for power between the victorious factions of the Mexican Revolution, and guarantee the peaceful transmission of power for members of the party. The following presidents of this period, Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio and Abelardo L. Rodríguez were from the same ideology as Plutarco Elías Calles.
This ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, a candidate handpicked by the liberal PNR leaders. Though the now strongly conservative Calles thought he could control him, it quickly became clear Cárdenas would not accept a subordinate role like his predecessors did. After establishing himself in the presidency, in 1936 Cárdenas had Calles and dozens of his corrupt associates arrested or deported to the United States. Cárdenas became perhaps Mexico 's most - popular 20th - century president and most renowned for expropriating the oil interests of the United States and European petroleum companies in the run - up to World War II. He was a person of leftist ideas who nationalized different industries and provided many social institutions which are dear to the Mexican people and had the party renamed the "Party of the Mexican Revolution '' (PRM).
Lázaro Cárdenas (president of the party and, in 1938, president of Mexico) renamed the party the Party of the Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Partido de la Revolución Mexicana, PRM) whose aim was to establish a democracy of workers and socialism. However, this was never achieved and his main intention was to create the broad - based political alliances necessary for the PRI 's long - term survival, splitting the party into mass organizations representing different interest groups and acting as the political consciousness of the country in a more realistic level (for example, the Confidential National, the farmer 's group). His strategy with the party mirrored the balanced ticket approach of 1930s Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak, characteristic of Chicago by balancing ethnic interests. Settling disputes and power struggles within the party structure helped prevent congressional gridlock and possible armed rebellions, but this style of dispute resolution also created a "rubber stamp '' legislative apparatus.
Cárdenas 's successor Manuel Ávila Camacho gave the party its present name in 1946. The party, under its three different names, held every political position until 1946 when the PAN started winning posts for municipal president and federal deputies and senators, starting in 1946, after the party changed its name to its current name, the Institutional Revolutionary Party. By then, the party had acquired a reputation for corruption, and while this was admitted (to a degree) by some of its affiliates, its supporters maintained that the role of the party was crucial in the modernization and stabilization of Mexico.
Despite the emergence of the PAN, the PRI won every presidential election from 1929 to 1982, by well over 70 percent of the vote -- margins that were usually obtained by massive electoral frauds. Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI 's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as "the tap of the finger '' (Spanish: el dedazo), which was integral in the continued success of the PRI towards the end of the 20th century. In essence, given the PRI 's overwhelming dominance, the president chose his successor. The PRI 's dominance was near - absolute at all other levels as well. It held an overwhelming majority in the Chamber of Deputies, as well as every seat in the Senate and every state governorship. When the process of _̈ el dedazo _̈ failed, the PRI fell as well. The last person to receive _̈ el dedazo _̈ was President Ernesto Zedillo, the ex-campaign manager of the previous President Carlos Salinas. Zedillo changed the course of Mexican politics by holding a Democratic election for the first time since 1929. Vicente Fox, a candidate from the PAN won the election, ending the 71 - year reign of the PRI.
The first four decades of government of the PRI are dubbed the "Mexican Miracle '', a period of economic growth through substitution of imports and low inflation. Much of the growth was spurred by successful national development plans which, following the steps of the Soviet Union, provided for major investment on infrastructure. From 1940 to 1970 GDP increased sixfold and the population only doubled while the peso - dollar parity was maintained.
The improvement of the economy had a disparate impact in different social sectors and discontent started growing within the low classes. In 1968 Mexico City became the first city in the Spanish - speaking world to be chosen to host an Olympic Games. Using the international focus on the country, students at the National Mexican Autonomous University (UNAM) protested the lack of democracy and social justice. President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz (1964 -- 1970) ordered the army to occupy the university to suppress the revolt and minimize the disruption of the Olympic Games. On October 2, 1968, student groups demanding the withdrawal of the IPN protested at the Plaza de las Tres Culturas. Unaccustomed to this type of protest, the Mexican Government made an unusual move by asking the United States for assistance, through LITEMPO, a spy - program to inform the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the US to obtain information from Mexico. The CIA responded by sending military radios, weapons and ammunition. The LITEMPO had previously provided the Díaz Ordaz government with 1,000 rounds of. 223 Remington ammunition in 1963. During the protests shots were fired and a number of students died (officially 39, although hundreds are claimed) and hundreds were arrested. The President of the Olympic Committee then declared that the protests were against the government and not the Olympics so the games proceeded.
The government of Luis Echeverría (1970 -- 76), secretary of interior during the Díaz Ordaz administration, increased social spending, through external debt, at a time when oil production and prices were surging. However, the growth of the economy came accompanied by inflation and then by a plummeting of oil prices and increases in interest rates. Investment started fleeing the country and the peso became overvalued, to prevent a devaluation and further fleeing of investments, the Bank of Mexico borrowed 360 million dollars from the Federal Reserve with the promise of stabilizing the economy. External debt reached the level of $25 billion. Unable to contain the fleeing of dollars, Echeverría allowed the peso to float for the first time on August 31, 1976, then again later and the peso lost half of its value. Echeverría designated José López Portillo, his secretary of Finance, as his successor for the term 1976 - 82, hoping that the new administration would have a tighter control on inflation and to preserve political unity.
During his campaign, López Portillo promised to defend the peso "Como un perro '', López Portillo refused to devalue the currency saying "The president who devalues, devalues himself. '' The discovery of significant oil sites in Tabasco and Campeche helped the economy to recover and López Portillo promised to "administer the abundance. '' The development of the promising oil industry was financed through external debt which reached 59 billion dollars (compared to 25 billion during Echeverría). Oil production increased from 94,000 barrels per day (14,900 m / d) at the beginning of his administration to 1,500,000 barrels per day (240,000 m / d) at the end of his administration and Mexico became the fourth largest oil producer in the world. The price for a barrel of oil also increased from three dollars in 1970 to 35 dollars in 1981.
The government attempted to develop heavy industry. However, waste became the rule as centralized resource allocation and distribution systems were accompanied by inefficiently located factories incurring high transport costs.
Mexico increased its international presence during López Portillo: in addition to becoming the world 's fourth oil exporter, Mexico restarted relations with the post Franco - Spain in 1977, allowed Pope John Paul II to visit Mexico, welcomed American president Jimmy Carter and broke relations with Somoza and supported the Sandinista National Liberation Front in its rebellion against the United States supported government. López Portillo also proposed the Plan Mundial de Energéticos in 1979 and summoned a North - South World Summit in Cancún in 1981 to seek solutions to social problems. In 1979, the PRI founded the COPPPAL, the Permanent Conference of Political Parties of Latin America and the Caribbean, an organization created "to defend democracy and all lawful political institutions and to support their development and improvement to strengthen the principle of self determination of the peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean ''.
López Portillo also freed political prisoners and proposed a reform called Ley Federal de Organizaciones Políticas y Procesos Electorales which gave official registry to opposition groups such as the Mexican Democratic Party and the Mexican Communist Party. This law also created positions in the lower chamber of congress for opposition parties through proportionality of votes, relative majority, uninominal and plurinominal. As a result, in 1979, the first independent (non-PRI) communist deputies were elected to the Congress of Mexico.
Social programs were also created through the Alliance for Production, Global Development Plan, el COPLAMAR, Mexican Nourishing System, to attain independence on food, to reform public administration. López Portillo also created the secretaries of Programming and Budgeting, Agriculture and Water Resources, Industrial Support, Fisheries and Human Settlements and Public Works. Mexico then obtained high economic growth, a recuperation of salaries and an increase in spending on education and infrastructure. This way, social and regional inequalities started to diminish.
All this prosperity ended when the over-supply of oil in early 1982 caused oil prices to plummet and damaged severely the national economy. Interest rates skyrocketed in 1981 and external debt reached 86 billion dollars and exchange rates went from 26 to 70 pesos per dollar and inflation of 100 %. This situation became so desperate that Lopez - Portillo ordered the suspension on payments of external debt and the nationalization of the banking industry in 1982 consistent with the Socialist goals of the PRI. Capital fled Mexico at a rate never seen before in history. The Mexican government provided subsidies to staple food products and rail travel; this diminished the consequences of the crises on the populace. Job growth stagnated and millions of people migrate North to escape the economic stagnation. López Portillo 's reputation plummeted and his character became the butt of jokes from the press.
The attempted industrialization had not been responsive to consumer needs. Therefore, unprecedented urbanization and overcrowding followed and so, substandard pre-fabricated apartment blocs had to be built in large cities.
Miguel de la Madrid was the first of a series of economists to rule the country, a technocrat who started to implement neoliberal reforms, causing the number of state - owned industries to decline from 1155 to a mere 412. After the 1982 default, crisis lenders were unwilling to loan Mexico and this resulted in currency devaluations to finance spending. An earthquake in September 1985, in which his administration was criticised for its slow and clumsy reaction, added more woe to the problems. As a result of the crisis, black markets supplied by goods stolen from the public sector appeared. Galloping inflation continued to plague the country, hitting a record high in 1987 at 159.2 %.
In 1986, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (former Governor of Michoacán and son of the former president of Mexico Lázaro Cárdenas) formed the "Democratic Current '' (Spanish: Corriente Democrática) of the PRI, which criticized the federal government for reducing spending on social programs to increase payments on foreign debt. The members of the Democratic Current were expelled from the party and formed the National Democratic Front (FDN, Spanish: Frente Democrático Nacional) in 1987. The following year, the FDN elected Cárdenas as presidential candidate for the 1988 presidential election which was won by Carlos Salinas de Gortari, obtaining 50.89 % of the votes (according to official figures) versus 32 % of Cárdenas. The official results were delayed, with the Secretary of the Interior (until then, the organizer of elections) blaming it on a computer system failure. Cárdenas, who claimed to have won and claimed such computer failure was caused by a manipulation of the system to count votes. Manuel Clouthier of the National Action Party (Mexico) also claimed to have won, although not as vocally.
Miguel de la Madrid, Mexico 's president at the time of the 1988 election, admitted in 2004 that, on the evening of the election, he received news that Cárdenas was going to win by a majority, and that he and others rigged the election as a result.
Clouthier, Cárdenas and Rosario Ibarra de Piedra then complained before the building of the Secretary of the Interior. Clouthier and his followers then set up other protests, among them one at the Chamber of Deputies, demanding that the electoral packages be opened. In 1989, Clouthier presented an alternative cabinet (a British style Shadow Cabinet) with Diego Fernández de Cevallos, Jesús González Schmal, Fernando Canales Clariond, Francisco Villarreal Torres, Rogelio Sada Zambrano, María Elena Álvarez Bernal, Moisés Canales, Vicente Fox, Carlos Castillo Peraza and Luis Felipe Bravo Mena as cabinet members and Clouthier as cabinet coordinator. The purpose of this cabinet was to vigilate the actions of the government. Clouthier died next October in an accident with Javier Calvo, a federal deputy. The accident has been claimed by the PAN as a state assassination since then. That same year, the PRI lost its first state government with the election of Ernesto Ruffo Appel as governor of Baja California.
In 1990 Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa called the government under the PRI la dictadura perfecta ("the perfect dictatorship ''). In 1994, for the first time since the revolution, a presidential candidate was murdered, Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta. His campaign director, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon, was subsequently elected in the first presidential election monitored by international observers. A number of factors, including the 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, caused the PRI to lose its absolute majority in both chambers of the federal congress for the first time in 1997.
After several decades in power the PRI had become a symbol of corruption and electoral fraud. The conservative National Action Party (PAN) became a stronger party after 1976 when it obtained the support from businessmen after recurring economic crises. Consequently, the PRI 's left wing separated and formed its own party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) in 1989.
Critics claim electoral fraud, with voter suppression and violence, was used when the political machine did not work and elections were just a ritual to simulate the appearance of a democracy. However, the three major parties now make the same claim against each other (PRD against Vicente Fox 's PAN and PAN vs. López Obrador 's PRD, and the PRI against the PAN at the local level and local elections such as the Yucatán state election, 2007). Two other PRI presidents Miguel de la Madrid and Carlos Salinas de Gortari privatized many outmoded industries, including banks and businesses, entered the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and also negotiated the North American Free Trade Agreement.
Greater economic stability since the last major economic crisis in Mexico (the 1995 peso crisis) was achieved in great part through economic reforms begun under Ernesto Zedillo, who was the last successive PRI - nominated president to serve since the Mexican Revolution, and whose tenure commenced just as the peso crisis was coming to a head. Subsequent administrations maintained stability with continued assistance from PRI members such as Secretary of Finance Francisco Gil Diaz and Bank of Mexico Governor Guillermo Ortiz.
Prior to the 2000 general elections, the PRI held its first primaries to elect the party 's presidential candidate. The primary candidates, nicknamed "los cuatro fantásticos '' (Spanish for The Fantastic Four), were:
The favorites in the primaries were Labastida and Madrazo, and the latter initiated a campaign against the first, perceived as Zedillo 's candidate since many former secretaries of the interior were chosen as candidates by the president. His campaign, produced by prominent publicist Carlos Alazraki, had the motto "Dale un Madrazo al dedazo '' or "Give a Madrazo to the dedazo '' with "madrazo '' being an offensive slang term for a "strike '' and "dedazo '' a slang used to describe the unilaterally choosing of candidates by the president (literally "finger - strike '').
The growth of the PAN and PRD parties culminated in 2000, when the PAN won the presidency, and again in 2006 (won this time by the PAN with a small margin over the PRD.) Many prominent members of the PAN (Manuel Clouthier, Addy Joaquín Coldwell and Demetrio Sodi), most of the PRD (most notably all three Mexico City mayors Andrés Manuel López Obrador, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and Marcelo Ebrard), the PVEM (Jorge González Torres) and New Alliance (Roberto Campa) were once members of the PRI, including many presidential candidates from the opposition (Clouthier, López Obrador, Cárdenas, González Torres, Campa and Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, among many others).
In the presidential elections of July 2, 2000, its candidate Francisco Labastida Ochoa was defeated by Vicente Fox, after getting only 36.1 % of the popular vote. It was to be the first Presidential electoral defeat of the PRI. In the senatorial elections of the same date, the party won with 38.1 %, or 33 out of 128 seats in the Senate of Mexico.
After much restructuring, the party was able to make a recovery, winning the greatest number of seats (5 % short of a true majority) in Congress in 2003: at these elections, the party won 224 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, remaining as the largest single party in both the Chamber of Deputies and Senate. In the Federal District the PRI obtained only one borough mayorship (jefe delegacional) out of 16, and no first - past - the - post members of the city assembly. The PRI recouped some significant losses on the state level (most notably, the governorship of former PAN stronghold Nuevo León). On August 6, 2004, in two closely contested elections in Oaxaca and Tijuana, PRI candidates Ulises Ruiz Ortiz and Jorge Hank Rhon won the races for the governorship and municipal presidency respectively. The PAN had held control of the president 's office of the municipality of Tijuana for 15 years. Six out of eight gubernatorial elections held during 2005 were won by the PRI: Quintana Roo, Hidalgo, Colima, Estado de México, Nayarit, and Coahuila. The PRI then controlled the states on the country 's northern border with the US except for Baja California.
Later that year Roberto Madrazo, president of the PRI, left his post to seek a nomination as the party 's candidate in the 2006 presidential election. According to the statutes, the presidency of the party would then go to Elba Esther Gordillo as party secretary. The rivalry between Madrazo and Gordillo caused Mariano Palacios Alcocer instead to become president of the party, (Elba Esther Gordillo would later on be declared a criminal and arrested in 2013.). After what was perceived an imposition of Madrazo as candidate a group was formed called Unidad Democrática (Spanish: "Democratic Unity ''), although nicknamed Todos Unidos Contra Madrazo (Spanish: "Everybody United Against Madrazo '' or "TUCOM '') which was formed by governors and former state governors:
Montiel won the right to run against Madrazo for the candidacy but withdrew when it was made public that he and his French wife had multi-million properties in Europe. Madrazo and Everardo Moreno contended in the primaries which was won by the first. Madrazo then represented the PRI and the Ecologist Green Party of Mexico (PVEM) in the Alliance for Mexico coalition.
During his campaign Madrazo declared that the PRI and PRD were "first cousins '', to this Emilio Chuayffet Chemor responded that if that was the case then Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO), candidate of the PRD would also be a first cousin and he might win the election.
AMLO was, by then, the favorite in the polls, with many followers within the PRI. Madrazo, second at the polls, then released TV spots against AMLO with little success, his campaign was managed again by Alazraki. Felipe Calderón ran a more successful campaign and then tied with Madrazo and later surpassed him as the second favorite. Gordillo, also the teachers ' union leader, resentful against Madrazo, helped a group of teachers constitute the New Alliance Party. Divisions within the party and a successful campaign of the PAN candidate caused Madrazo to fall to third place. The winner, as announced by the Federal Electoral Institute and valuated by the Mexican Election Tribunal amidst a controversy, was Felipe Calderón of the ruling PAN. On November 20 of the same year, a group of young PRI politicians launched a movement that is set to reform and revolutionize the party. The PRI candidate failed to win a single state in the 2006 presidential election.
In the 2006 legislative elections the party won 106 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 35 out of 128 Senators.
In 2007 the PRI re-gained the governorship of Yucatán and was the party with the most mayorships and state congresspeople in the elections in Yucatán (tying with the PAN in the number of deputies), Chihuahua, Durango, Aguascalientes, Veracruz, Chiapas and Oaxaca. The PRI obtained the most mayorships in Zacatecas and the second most deputies in the congressional elections of Zacatecas and Baja California.
In 2009, the PRI re-gained plurality control of Mexican congress. This is the first time congress will be controlled by the PRI since the first initial victory by the opposing party PAN in the year 2000.
Under Enrique Peña Nieto and after ruling for most of the past century in Mexico, the PRI returned to the presidency as it had brought hopes to those who gave the PRI another chance and fear to those who worry about the old PRI tactics of making deals with the cartels in exchange for relative peace. According to an article published by The Economist on June 23, 2012, part of the reason why Peña Nieto and the PRI were voted back to the presidency after a 12 - year struggle lies in the disappointment of the ruling of the PAN. Buffeted by China 's economic growth and the economic recession in the United States, the annual growth of Mexico 's economy between 2000 and 2012 was 1.8 %. Poverty exacerbated, and without a ruling majority in Congress, the PAN presidents were unable to pass structural reforms, leaving monopolies and Mexico 's educational system unchanged. In 2006, Felipe Calderón chose to make the battle against organized crime the centerpiece of his presidency. Nonetheless, with over 60,000 dead and a lack of any real progress, Mexican citizens became tired of a fight they had first supported, and not by majority. The Economist alleged that these signs are "not as bad as they look, '' since Mexico is more democratic, it enjoys a competitive export market, has a well - run economy despite the crisis, and there are tentative signs that the violence in the country may be plummeting. But if voters want the PRI back, it is because "the alternatives (were) weak ''. The newspaper also alleges that Mexico 's preferences should have gone left - wing, but the candidate that represented that movement -- Andrés Manuel López Obrador -- was seen with "disgraceful behaviour ''. The conservative candidate, Josefina Vázquez Mota, was deemed worthy but was considered by The Economist to have carried out a "shambolic campaign ''. Thus, Peña Nieto wins by default, been considered by the newspaper as the "least bad choice '' for reform in Mexico.
When it was tossed from the presidency in the year 2000, few expected that the "perfect dictatorship '', a description coined by Mario Vargas Llosa, would return again in only 12 years. Associated Press published an article on July 2012 noting that many immigrants living in the United States were worried about the PRI 's return to power and that it could dissuade many from returning to their homeland. The vast majority of the 400,000 voters outside of Mexico voted against Peña Nieto, and said they were "shocked '' that the PRI -- which largely convinced them to leave Mexico -- had returned. Voters that favored Peña Nieto, however, believed that the PRI "had changed '' and that more jobs would be created under the new regime. Moreover, some U.S. officials were concerned that Peña Nieto 's security strategy meant the return to the old and corrupt practices of the PRI regime, where the government made deals and turned a blind eye on the cartels in exchange for peace. After all, they worried that Mexico 's drug war, which had already cost over 50,000 lives, would make Mexicans question on why they should "pay the price for a US drug habit ''. Peña Nieto denied, however, that his party would tolerate corruption, and stated he would not make deals with the cartels. In spite of Peña 's words, a pool from September 20, 2016, revealed that 83 % of Mexican citizens perceived the PRI as the most corrupt political party in Mexico.
The return of the PRI brought some perceived negative consequences, among them:
The Chamber of Deputies also suffered from controversies from members of the PRI:
On November 27, 2017, Meade announced he would compete in the 2018 presidential election, representing the PRI. He has been reported to have been handpicked directly by president Enrique Peña Nieto through the controversial practice known as "El Dedazo '' (the literal translation would be "The big finger '', the slang phrase regards towards the incumbent president directly pointing towards his successor).
Following the serious alegations of electoral fraud, concerning the election of Enrique Peña Nieto 's cousin Alfredo del Mazo Maza as governor of the state of Mexico, in December 2017, Mexican newspaper Regeneracion warned about the possibility of the PRI committing an electoral fraud on the presidential election, citing the controversial law of internal security that the PRI senators approved as the means to diminish the protests towards such electoral fraud. The website Bloomberg also supported that possible outcome, with Tony Payan, director of the Houston 's Mexico Center at Rice University 's Baker Institute, suggesting that both vote buyout and computer hackings were possible, citing the 1988 previous electoral fraud committed by the PRI. Bloomberg 's article also suggested Meade could also receive unfair help from the over-budget amounts of money spent in publicity by incumbent president Enrique Peña Nieto (who also campaigned with the PRI). A December 2017 article of The New York Times reported Peña Nieto spending about 2,000 million dollars on publicity during his first 5 years as president, the largest publicity budget ever spent by a Mexican President. Additionally, the article mentioned concerns about 68 percent of news journalists admitting to not believe to have enough freedom of speech. To support the statement, the article mentioned the time award - winning news reporter Carmen Aristegui was controversially fired shortly after revealing the Mexican White House scandals (concerning a conflict of interest regarding a house owned by Enrique Peña Nieto).
After the Facebook scandal involving Cambridge Analytica in the United States presidential election, in April 2018, Forbes published the British news program Channel 4 News had mentioned the existence of proof revealing ties between the PRI and Cambridge Analytica, suggesting a "modus operandi '' similar to the one in the United States. The info said they worked together at least until January 2018. An investigation was requested, unlike the previous allegations of Russian and American intervention, there seems to be actual proof.
The perceived political favoritism of Televisa towards the PRI, and the concept of the "cortinas de humo (smoke screens) '' was explored in the Mexican black - comedy film The Perfect Dictatorship (2014), directed and written by Luis Estrada, whose plot directly criticizes both the PRI and Televisa. Taking place in a Mexico with a tightly controlled media landscape, the plot centers around a corrupt politician (a fictional stand - in for Enrique Peña Nieto) from a political party (serving as a fictional stand - in for the PRI), and how he makes a deal with TV MX (which serves as a stand - in to Televisa) to manipulate the diffusion of news towards his benefit, in order to save his political career. The director made it based on the perceived media manipulation in Mexico.
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what is the most widely recognized formal african american organization in america | W.E.B. Du Bois - wikipedia
William Edward Burghardt "W.E.B. '' Du Bois (/ duːˈbɔɪs / doo - BOYSS; February 23, 1868 -- August 27, 1963) was an American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, writer and editor. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community. After completing graduate work at the University of Berlin and Harvard, where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate, he became a professor of history, sociology and economics at Atlanta University. Du Bois was one of the co-founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of African - American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta compromise, an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African - American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership.
Racism was the main target of Du Bois 's polemics, and he strongly protested against lynching, Jim Crow laws, and discrimination in education and employment. His cause included people of color everywhere, particularly Africans and Asians in colonies. He was a proponent of Pan-Africanism and helped organize several Pan-African Congresses to fight for the independence of African colonies from European powers. Du Bois made several trips to Europe, Africa and Asia. After World War I, he surveyed the experiences of American black soldiers in France and documented widespread prejudice in the United States military.
Du Bois was a prolific author. His collection of essays, The Souls of Black Folk, was a seminal work in African - American literature; and his 1935 magnum opus Black Reconstruction in America challenged the prevailing orthodoxy that blacks were responsible for the failures of the Reconstruction Era. Borrowing a phrase from Frederick Douglass, he popularized the use of the term color line to represent the injustice of the separate but equal doctrine prevalent in American social and political life. He opens The Souls of Black Folk with the central thesis of much of his life 's work: "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color - line. ''
He wrote one of the first scientific treatises in the field of American sociology, and he published three autobiographies, each of which contains insightful essays on sociology, politics and history. In his role as editor of the NAACP 's journal The Crisis, he published many influential pieces. Du Bois believed that capitalism was a primary cause of racism, and he was generally sympathetic to socialist causes throughout his life. He was an ardent peace activist and advocated nuclear disarmament. The United States ' Civil Rights Act, embodying many of the reforms for which Du Bois had campaigned his entire life, was enacted a year after his death.
William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born on February 23, 1868, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to Alfred and Mary Silvina (née Burghardt) Du Bois. Mary Silvina Burghardt 's family was part of the very small free black population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state. She was descended from Dutch, African and English ancestors. William Du Bois 's maternal great - great - grandfather was Tom Burghardt, a slave (born in West Africa around 1730) who was held by the Dutch colonist Conraed Burghardt. Tom briefly served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, which may have been how he gained his freedom during the 18th century. His son Jack Burghardt was the father of Othello Burghardt, who was the father of Mary Silvina Burghardt.
William Du Bois claimed Elizabeth Freeman as his relative and wrote that she married Jack Burghardt. But Freeman was 20 years older than Burghardt, and no record of such a marriage has been found. It may have been Freeman 's daughter, Betsy Humphrey, who married Burghardt after her first husband, Jonah Humphrey, left the area "around 1811 '', and after Burghardt 's first wife died (c. 1810). If so, Freeman would have been William Du Bois 's step - great - great - grandmother. Anecdotal evidence supports Humphrey 's marrying Burghardt; a close relationship of some form is likely.
William Du Bois 's paternal great - grandfather was James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie, New York, an ethnic French - American of Huguenot origin who fathered several children with slave women. One of James ' mixed - race sons was Alexander, who was born on Long Cay in the Bahamas in 1803; in 1810 he immigrated to the United States with his father. He traveled and worked in Haiti, where he fathered a son, Alfred, with a mistress. Alexander returned to Connecticut, leaving Alfred in Haiti with his mother.
Sometime before 1860, Alfred Du Bois emigrated to the United States, settling in Massachusetts. He married Mary Silvina Burghardt on February 5, 1867, in Housatonic. Alfred left Mary in 1870, two years after their son William was born. Mary Burghardt Du Bois moved with her son back to her parents ' house in Great Barrington until he was five. She worked to support her family (receiving some assistance from her brother and neighbors), until she suffered a stroke in the early 1880s. She died in 1885.
Great Barrington had a majority European American community, who treated Du Bois generally well. He attended the local integrated public school and played with white schoolmates. As an adult, he wrote about racism which he felt as a fatherless child and the experience of being a minority in the town. But teachers recognized his ability and encouraged his intellectual pursuits, and his rewarding experience with academic studies led him to believe that he could use his knowledge to empower African Americans. Du Bois graduated from the town 's Searles High School. When Du Bois decided to attend college, the congregation of his childhood church, the First Congregational Church of Great Barrington, raised the money for his tuition.
Relying on money donated by neighbors, Du Bois attended Fisk University, a historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee, from 1885 to 1888. His travel to and residency in the South was Du Bois 's first experience with Southern racism, which at the time encompassed Jim Crow laws, bigotry, suppression of black voting, and lynchings; the lattermost reached a peak in the next decade. After receiving a bachelor 's degree from Fisk, he attended Harvard College (which did not accept course credits from Fisk) from 1888 to 1890, where he was strongly influenced by his professor William James, prominent in American philosophy. Du Bois paid his way through three years at Harvard with money from summer jobs, an inheritance, scholarships, and loans from friends. In 1890, Harvard awarded Du Bois his second bachelor 's degree, cum laude, in history. In 1891, Du Bois received a scholarship to attend the sociology graduate school at Harvard.
In 1892, Du Bois received a fellowship from the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen to attend the University of Berlin for graduate work. While a student in Berlin, he traveled extensively throughout Europe. He came of age intellectually in the German capital while studying with some of that nation 's most prominent social scientists, including Gustav von Schmoller, Adolph Wagner, and Heinrich von Treitschke. After returning from Europe, Du Bois completed his graduate studies; in 1895 he was the first African American to earn a Ph. D. from Harvard University.
-- Du Bois, "Strivings of the Negro People '', 1897
In the summer of 1894, Du Bois received several job offers, including one from the prestigious Tuskegee Institute; he accepted a teaching job at Wilberforce University in Ohio. At Wilberforce, Du Bois was strongly influenced by Alexander Crummell, who believed that ideas and morals are necessary tools to effect social change. While at Wilberforce, Du Bois married Nina Gomer, one of his students, on May 12, 1896.
After two years at Wilberforce, Du Bois accepted a one - year research job from the University of Pennsylvania as an "assistant in sociology '' in the summer of 1896. He performed sociological field research in Philadelphia 's African - American neighborhoods, research which formed the foundation for his landmark study, The Philadelphia Negro, published in 1899 while he was teaching at Atlanta University. It was the first case study of a black community in the United States. By the 1890s, Philadelphia 's black neighborhoods had a negative reputation in terms of crime, poverty, and mortality. Du Bois 's book undermined the stereotypes with experimental evidence and shaped his approach to segregation and its negative impact on black lives and reputations. The results led Du Bois to realize that racial integration was the key to democratic equality in American cities.
While taking part in the American Negro Academy (ANA) in 1897, Du Bois presented a paper in which he rejected Frederick Douglass 's plea for black Americans to integrate into white society. He wrote: "we are Negroes, members of a vast historic race that from the very dawn of creation has slept, but half awakening in the dark forests of its African fatherland ''. In the August 1897 issue of The Atlantic Monthly, Du Bois published "Strivings of the Negro People '', his first work aimed at the general public, in which he enlarged upon his thesis that African Americans should embrace their African heritage while contributing to American society.
In July 1897, Du Bois left Philadelphia and took a professorship in history and economics at the historically black Atlanta University in Georgia. His first major academic work was his book The Philadelphia Negro (1899), a detailed and comprehensive sociological study of the African - American people of Philadelphia, based on the field work he did in 1896 -- 1897. The work was a breakthrough in scholarship because it was the first scientific study of African Americans and a major contribution to early scientific sociology in the U.S. In the study, Du Bois coined the phrase "the submerged tenth '' to describe the black underclass. Later in 1903 he popularized the term, the "Talented Tenth '', applied to society 's elite class. Du Bois 's terminology reflected his opinion that the elite of a nation, both black and white, were critical to achievements in culture and progress. Du Bois wrote in this period in a dismissive way of the underclass, describing them as "lazy '' or "unreliable '', but -- in contrast to other scholars -- he attributed many of their societal problems to the ravages of slavery.
Du Bois 's output at Atlanta University was prodigious, in spite of a limited budget: he produced numerous social science papers and annually hosted the Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems. Du Bois also received grants from the U.S. government to prepare reports about African - American workforce and culture. His students considered him to be a brilliant, but aloof and strict, teacher.
In 1900 Du Bois attended the First Pan-African Conference, held in London from July 23 to 25. (This was just before the Paris Exhibition of 1900 "to allow tourists of African descent to attend both events ''.) It was organized by men from the Caribbean: Haitians Anténor Firmin and Bénito Sylvain and Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams. Du Bois played a leading role, drafting a letter ("Address to the Nations of the World '') to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism, to grant colonies in Africa and the West Indies the right to self - government and to demand political and other rights for African Americans. By this time, southern states were passing new laws and constitutions to disfranchise most African Americans, an exclusion from the political system that lasted into the 1960s.
At the conclusion of the conference, delegates unanimously adopted the "Address to the Nations of the World '', and sent it to various heads of state where people of African descent were living and suffering oppression. The address implored the United States and the imperial European nations to "acknowledge and protect the rights of people of African descent '' and to respect the integrity and independence of "the free Negro States of Abyssinia, Liberia, Haiti, etc. '' It was signed by Bishop Alexander Walters (President of the Pan-African Association), the Canadian Rev. Henry B. Brown (Vice-President), Williams (General Secretary) and Du Bois (Chairman of the Committee on the Address). The address included Du Bois 's observation, "The problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the colour - line. '' He used this again three years later in the "Forethought '' of his book, The Souls of Black Folk (1903).
In the first decade of the new century, Du Bois emerged as a spokesperson for his race, second only to Booker T. Washington. Washington was the director of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, and wielded tremendous influence within the African - American and white communities. Washington was the architect of the Atlanta Compromise, an unwritten deal he struck in 1895 with Southern white leaders who dominated state governments after Reconstruction. Essentially the agreement provided that Southern blacks, who overwhelmingly lived in rural communities, would submit to the current discrimination, segregation, disenfranchisement, and non-unionized employment; that Southern whites would permit blacks to receive a basic education, some economic opportunities, and justice within the legal system; and that Northern whites would invest in Southern enterprises and fund black educational charities.
Despite initially sending congratulations to Washington for his Atlanta Exposition Speech, Du Bois later came to oppose Washington 's plan, along with many other African Americans, including Archibald H. Grimke, Kelly Miller, James Weldon Johnson and Paul Laurence Dunbar -- representatives of the class of educated blacks that Du Bois would later call the "talented tenth ''. Du Bois felt that African Americans should fight for equal rights and higher opportunities, rather than passively submit to the segregation and discrimination of Washington 's Atlanta Compromise.
Du Bois was inspired to greater activism by the lynching of Sam Hose, which occurred near Atlanta in 1899. Hose was tortured, burned and hung by a mob of two thousand whites. When walking through Atlanta to discuss the lynching with newspaper editor Joel Chandler Harris, Du Bois encountered Hose 's burned knuckles in a storefront display. The episode stunned Du Bois, and he resolved that "one could not be a calm, cool, and detached scientist while Negroes were lynched, murdered, and starved ''. Du Bois realized that "the cure was n't simply telling people the truth, it was inducing them to act on the truth ''.
In 1901, Du Bois wrote a review critical of Washington 's autobiography Up from Slavery, which he later expanded and published to a wider audience as the essay "Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others '' in The Souls of Black Folk. Later in life, Du Bois regretted having been critical of Washington in those essays. One of the contrasts between the two leaders was their approach to education: Washington felt that African - American schools should focus primarily on industrial education topics such as agricultural and mechanical skills, to prepare southern blacks for the opportunities in the rural areas where most lived. Du Bois felt that black schools should focus more on liberal arts and academic curriculum (including the classics, arts, and humanities), because liberal arts were required to develop a leadership elite. However, as sociologist E. Franklin Frazier and economists Gunnar Myrdal and Thomas Sowell have argued, such disagreement over education was a minor point of difference between Washington and Du Bois; both men acknowledged the importance of the form of education that the other emphasized. Sowell has also argued that, despite genuine disagreements between the two leaders, the supposed animosity between Washington and Du Bois actually formed among their followers, not between Washington and Du Bois themselves. Du Bois himself also made this observation in an interview published in The Atlantic Monthly in November 1965.
In 1905, Du Bois and several other African - American civil rights activists -- including Fredrick L. McGhee, Jesse Max Barber and William Monroe Trotter -- met in Canada, near Niagara Falls. There they wrote a declaration of principles opposing the Atlanta Compromise, and incorporated as the Niagara Movement in 1906. Du Bois and the other "Niagarites '' wanted to publicize their ideals to other African Americans, but most black periodicals were owned by publishers sympathetic to Washington. Du Bois bought a printing press and started publishing Moon Illustrated Weekly in December 1905. It was the first African - American illustrated weekly, and Du Bois used it to attack Washington 's positions, but the magazine lasted only for about eight months. Du Bois soon founded and edited another vehicle for his polemics, The Horizon: A Journal of the Color Line, which debuted in 1907. Freeman H.M. Murray and Lafayette M. Hershaw served as The Horizon 's co-editors.
The Niagarites held a second conference in August 1906, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of abolitionist John Brown 's birth, at the West Virginia site of Brown 's raid on Harper 's Ferry. Reverdy C. Ransom spoke and addressed the fact that Washington 's primary goal was to prepare blacks for employment in their current society: "Today, two classes of Negroes,... are standing at the parting of the ways. The one counsels patient submission to our present humiliations and degradations;... The other class believe that it should not submit to being humiliated, degraded, and remanded to an inferior place... it does not believe in bartering its manhood for the sake of gain. ''
In an effort to portray the genius and humanity of the black race, Du Bois published The Souls of Black Folk (1903), a collection of 14 essays. James Weldon Johnson said the book 's effect on African Americans was comparable to that of Uncle Tom 's Cabin. The introduction famously proclaimed that "the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line ''. Each chapter begins with two epigraphs -- one from a white poet, and one from a black spiritual -- to demonstrate intellectual and cultural parity between black and white cultures. A major theme of the work was the double consciousness faced by African Americans: being both American and black. This was a unique identity which, according to Du Bois, had been a handicap in the past, but could be a strength in the future: "Henceforth, the destiny of the race could be conceived as leading neither to assimilation nor separatism but to proud, enduring hyphenation. ''
Jonathon S. Kahn in Divine Discontent: The Religious Imagination of Du Bois shows how Du Bois, in his The Souls of Black Folk, represents an exemplary text of pragmatic religious naturalism. On page 12 Kahn writes: "Du Bois needs to be understood as an African American pragmatic religious naturalist. By this I mean that, like Du Bois the American traditional pragmatic religious naturalism, which runs through William James, George Santayana and John Dewey, seeks religion without metaphysical foundations. '' Kahn 's interpretation of religious naturalism is very broad but he relates it to specific thinkers. Du Bois 's anti-metaphysical viewpoint places him in the sphere of religious naturalism as typified by William James and others.
Two calamities in the autumn of 1906 shocked African Americans, and they contributed to strengthening support for Du Bois 's struggle for civil rights to prevail over Booker T. Washington 's accommodationism. First, President Teddy Roosevelt dishonorably discharged 167 black soldiers because they were accused of crimes as a result of the Brownsville Affair. Many of the discharged soldiers had served for 20 years and were near retirement. Second, in September, riots broke out in Atlanta, precipitated by unfounded allegations of black men assaulting white women. This was a catalyst for racial tensions based on a job shortage and employers playing black workers against white workers. Ten thousand whites rampaged through Atlanta, beating every black person they could find, resulting in over 25 deaths. In the aftermath of the 1906 violence, Du Bois urged blacks to withdraw their support from the Republican Party, because Republicans Roosevelt and William Howard Taft did not sufficiently support blacks. Most African Americans had been loyal to the Republican Party since the time of Abraham Lincoln.
Du Bois wrote the essay, "A Litany at Atlanta '', which asserted that the riot demonstrated that the Atlanta Compromise was a failure. Despite upholding their end of the bargain, blacks had failed to receive legal justice in the South. Historian David Lewis has written that the Compromise no longer held because white patrician planters, who took a paternalistic role, had been replaced by aggressive businessmen who were willing to pit blacks against whites. These two calamities were watershed events for the African - American community, marking the ascendancy of Du Bois 's vision of equal rights.
In addition to writing editorials, Du Bois continued to produce scholarly work at Atlanta University. In 1909, after five years of effort, he published a biography of abolitionist John Brown. It contained many insights, but also contained some factual errors. The work was strongly criticized by The Nation, which was owned by Oswald Villard, who was writing his own, competing biography of John Brown. Du Bois 's work was largely ignored by white scholars. After publishing a piece in Collier 's magazine warning of the end of "white supremacy '', Du Bois had difficulty getting pieces accepted by major periodicals. But he did continue to publish columns regularly in The Horizon magazine.
-- Du Bois, "Address at Fourth Niagara conference '', 1908
Du Bois was the first African American invited by the American Historical Association (AHA) to present a paper at their annual conference. He read his paper, Reconstruction and Its Benefits, to an astounded audience at the AHA 's December 1909 conference. The paper went against the mainstream historical view, promoted by the Dunning School of scholars at Columbia University, that Reconstruction was a disaster, caused by the ineptitude and sloth of blacks. To the contrary, Du Bois asserted that the brief period of African - American leadership in the South accomplished three important goals: democracy, free public schools, and new social welfare legislation. He asserted that it was the federal government 's failure to manage the Freedmen 's Bureau, to distribute land, and to establish an educational system, that doomed African - American prospects in the South. When Du Bois submitted the paper for publication a few months later in the American Historical Review, he asked that the word Negro be capitalized. The editor, J. Franklin Jameson, refused, and published the paper without the capitalization. The paper was mostly ignored by white historians. Du Bois later developed his paper as his ground - breaking 1935 book, Black Reconstruction, which marshaled extensive facts to support his assertions. The AHA did not invite another African - American speaker until 1940.
In May 1909, Du Bois attended the National Negro Conference in New York. The meeting led to the creation of the National Negro Committee, chaired by Oswald Villard, and dedicated to campaigning for civil rights, equal voting rights, and equal educational opportunities. The following spring, in 1910, at the second National Negro Conference, the attendees created the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). At Du Bois 's suggestion, the word "colored '', rather than "black '', was used to include "dark skinned people everywhere ''. Dozens of civil rights supporters, black and white, participated in the founding, but most executive officers were white, including Mary Ovington, Charles Edward Russell, William English Walling, and its first president, Moorfield Storey.
NAACP leaders offered Du Bois the position of Director of Publicity and Research. He accepted the job in the summer of 1910, and moved to New York after resigning from Atlanta University. His primary duty was editing the NAACP 's monthly magazine, which he named The Crisis. The first issue appeared in November 1910, and Du Bois pronounced that its aim was to set out "those facts and arguments which show the danger of race prejudice, particularly as manifested today toward colored people ''. The journal was phenomenally successful, and its circulation would reach 100,000 in 1920. Typical articles in the early editions included one that inveighed against the dishonesty and parochialism of black churches, and one that discussed the Afrocentric origins of Egyptian civilization.
An important Du Bois editorial from 1911 helped initiate a nationwide push to induce the Federal government to outlaw lynching. Du Bois, employing the sarcasm he frequently used, commented on a lynching in Pennsylvania: "The point is he was black. Blackness must be punished. Blackness is the crime of crimes... It is therefore necessary, as every white scoundrel in the nation knows, to let slip no opportunity of punishing this crime of crimes. Of course if possible, the pretext should be great and overwhelming -- some awful stunning crime, made even more horrible by the reporters ' imagination. Failing this, mere murder, arson, barn burning or impudence may do. ''
The Crisis carried editorials by Du Bois that supported the ideals of unionized labor but excoriated the racism demonstrated by its leaders, who systematically excluded blacks from membership. Du Bois also supported the principles of the Socialist Party (he was briefly a member of the party from 1910 to 1912), but he denounced the racism demonstrated by some socialist leaders. Frustrated by Republican president Taft 's failure to address widespread lynching, Du Bois endorsed Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential race, in exchange for Wilson 's promise to support black causes.
Throughout his writings, Du Bois supported women 's rights, but he found it difficult to publicly endorse the women 's right - to - vote movement because leaders of the suffragism movement refused to support his fight against racial injustice. A Crisis editorial from 1913 broached the taboo subject of interracial marriage: although Du Bois generally expected persons to marry within their race, he viewed the problem as a women 's rights issue, because laws prohibited white men from marrying black women. Du Bois wrote "(anti-miscegenation) laws leave the colored girls absolutely helpless for the lust of white men. It reduces colored women in the eyes of the law to the position of dogs. As low as the white girl falls, she can compel her seducer to marry her... We must kill (anti-miscegenation laws) not because we are anxious to marry the white men 's sisters, but because we are determined that white men will leave our sisters alone. ''
During the years 1915 and 1916, some leaders of the NAACP -- disturbed by financial losses at The Crisis, and worried about the inflammatory rhetoric of some of its essays -- attempted to oust Du Bois from his editorial position. Du Bois and his supporters prevailed, and he continued in his role as editor. In a 1919 column titled "The True Brownies '', he announced the creation of The Brownies ' Book, the first magazine published for African - American children and youth, which he founded with Augustus Granville Dill and Jessie Redmon Fauset.
The 1910s were a productive time for Du Bois. In 1911 he attended the First Universal Races Congress in London and he published his first novel, The Quest of the Silver Fleece. Two years later, Du Bois wrote, produced, and directed a pageant for the stage, The Star of Ethiopia. In 1915, Du Bois published The Negro, a general history of black Africans, and the first of its kind in English. The book rebutted claims of African inferiority, and would come to serve as the basis of much Afrocentric historiography in the 20th century. The Negro predicted unity and solidarity for colored people around the world, and it influenced many who supported the Pan-African movement.
In 1915, The Atlantic Monthly carried an essay by Du Bois, "The African Roots of the War '', which consolidated Du Bois 's ideas on capitalism and race. In it, he argued that the scramble for Africa was at the root of World War I. He also anticipated later Communist doctrine, by suggesting that wealthy capitalists had pacified white workers by giving them just enough wealth to prevent them from revolting, and by threatening them with competition by the lower - cost labor of colored workers.
Du Bois used his influential role in the NAACP to oppose a variety of racist incidents. When the silent film The Birth of a Nation premiered in 1915, Du Bois and the NAACP led the fight to ban the movie, because of its racist portrayal of blacks as brutish and lustful. The fight was not successful, and possibly contributed to the film 's fame, but the publicity drew many new supporters to the NAACP.
The private sector was not the only source of racism: under President Wilson, the plight of African Americans in government jobs suffered. Many federal agencies adopted whites - only employment practices, the Army excluded blacks from officer ranks, and the immigration service prohibited the immigration of persons of African ancestry. Du Bois wrote an editorial in 1914 deploring the dismissal of blacks from federal posts, and he supported William Monroe Trotter when Trotter brusquely confronted Wilson about Wilson 's failure to fulfill his campaign promise of justice for blacks.
The Crisis continued to wage a campaign against lynching. In 1915, it published an article with a year - by - year tabulation of 2,732 lynchings from 1884 to 1914. The April 1916 edition covered the group lynching of six African Americans in Lee County, Georgia. Later in 1916, the "Waco Horror '' article covered the lynching of Jesse Washington, a mentally impaired 17 - year - old African American. The article broke new ground by utilizing undercover reporting to expose the conduct of local whites in Waco, Texas.
The early 20th century was the era of the Great Migration of blacks from the Southern United States to the Northeast, Midwest and West. Du Bois wrote an editorial supporting the Great Migration, because he felt it would help blacks escape Southern racism, find economic opportunities, and assimilate into American society.
Also in the 1910s the American eugenics movement was in its infancy, and many leading eugenicists were openly racist, defining Blacks as "a lower race ''. Du Bois opposed this view as an unscientific aberration, but still maintained the basic principle of eugenics: that different persons have different inborn characteristics that make them more or less suited for specific kinds of employment, and that by encouraging the most talented members of all races to procreate would better the "stocks '' of humanity.
As the United States prepared to enter World War I in 1917, Du Bois 's colleague in the NAACP, Joel Spingarn, established a camp to train African Americans to serve as officers in the United States military. The camp was controversial, because some whites felt that blacks were not qualified to be officers, and some blacks felt that African Americans should not participate in what they considered a white man 's war. Du Bois supported Spingarn 's training camp, but was disappointed when the Army forcibly retired one of its few black officers, Charles Young, on a pretense of ill health. The Army agreed to create 1,000 officer positions for blacks, but insisted that 250 come from enlisted men, conditioned to taking orders from whites, rather than from independent - minded blacks that came from the camp. Over 700,000 blacks enlisted on the first day of the draft, but were subject to discriminatory conditions which prompted vocal protests from Du Bois.
After the East St. Louis riots occurred in the summer of 1917, Du Bois traveled to St. Louis to report on the riots. Between 40 and 250 African Americans were massacred by whites, primarily due to resentment caused by St. Louis industry hiring blacks to replace striking white workers. Du Bois 's reporting resulted in an article "The Massacre of East St. Louis '', published in the September issue of The Crisis, which contained photographs and interviews detailing the violence. Historian David Levering Lewis concluded that Du Bois distorted some of the facts in order to increase the propaganda value of the article. To publicly demonstrate the black community 's outrage over the riots, Du Bois organized the Silent Parade, a march of around 9,000 African Americans down New York City 's Fifth Avenue, the first parade of its kind in New York, and the second instance of blacks publicly demonstrating for civil rights.
The Houston riot of 1917 disturbed Du Bois and was a major setback to efforts to permit African Americans to become military officers. The riot began after Houston police arrested and beat two black soldiers; in response, over 100 black soldiers took to the streets of Houston and killed 16 whites. A military court martial was held, and 19 of the soldiers were hung, and 67 others were imprisoned. In spite of the Houston riot, Du Bois and others successfully pressed the Army to accept the officers trained at Spingarn 's camp, resulting in over 600 black officers joining the Army in October 1917.
Federal officials, concerned about subversive viewpoints expressed by NAACP leaders, attempted to frighten the NAACP by threatening it with investigations. Du Bois was not intimidated, and in 1918 he predicted that World War I would lead to an overthrow of the European colonial system and to the "liberation '' of colored people worldwide -- in China, in India, and especially in America. NAACP chairman Joel Spingarn was enthusiastic about the war, and he persuaded Du Bois to consider an officer 's commission in the Army, contingent on Du Bois writing an editorial repudiating his anti-war stance. Du Bois accepted this bargain and wrote the pro-war "Close Ranks '' editorial in June 1918 and soon thereafter he received a commission in the Army. Many black leaders, who wanted to leverage the war to gain civil rights for African Americans, criticized Du Bois for his sudden reversal. Southern officers in Du Bois 's unit objected to his presence, and his commission was withdrawn.
When the war ended, Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1919 to attend the first Pan-African Congress and to interview African - American soldiers for a planned book on their experiences in World War I. He was trailed by U.S. agents who were searching for evidence of treasonous activities. Du Bois discovered that the vast majority of black American soldiers were relegated to menial labor as stevedores and laborers. Some units were armed, and one in particular, the 92nd Division (the Buffalo soldiers), engaged in combat. Du Bois discovered widespread racism in the Army, and concluded that the Army command discouraged African Americans from joining the Army, discredited the accomplishments of black soldiers, and promoted bigotry.
After returning from Europe, Du Bois was more determined than ever to gain equal rights for African Americans. Black soldiers returning from overseas felt a new sense of power and worth, and were representative of an emerging attitude referred to as the New Negro. In the editorial "Returning Soldiers '' he wrote: "But, by the God of Heaven, we are cowards and jackasses if, now that the war is over, we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner, longer, more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land. '' Many blacks moved to northern cities in search of work, and some northern white workers resented the competition. This labor strife was one of the causes of the Red Summer of 1919, a horrific series of race riots across America, in which over 300 African Americans were killed in over 30 cities. Du Bois documented the atrocities in the pages of The Crisis, culminating in the December publication of a gruesome photograph of a lynching that occurred during the Omaha, Nebraska race riot.
The most egregious episode during the Red Summer was a vicious attack on blacks in Elaine, Arkansas, in which nearly 200 blacks were murdered. Reports coming out of the South blamed the blacks, alleging that they were conspiring to take over the government. Infuriated with the distortions, Du Bois published a letter in the New York World, claiming that the only crime the black sharecroppers had committed was daring to challenge their white landlords by hiring an attorney to investigate contractual irregularities. Over 60 of the surviving blacks were arrested and tried for conspiracy, in the case known as Moore v. Dempsey. Du Bois rallied blacks across America to raise funds for the legal defense, which, six years later, resulted in a Supreme Court victory authored by Oliver Wendell Holmes. Although the victory had little immediate impact on justice for blacks in the South, it marked the first time the Federal government used the 14th amendment guarantee of due process to prevent states from shielding mob violence.
In 1920, Du Bois published Darkwater: Voices From Within the Veil, the first of three autobiographies he would write. The "veil '' was that which covered colored people around the world. In the book, he hoped to lift the veil and show white readers what life was like behind the veil, and how it distorted the viewpoints of those looking through it -- in both directions. The book contained Du Bois 's feminist essay, "The Damnation of Women '', which was a tribute to the dignity and worth of women, particularly black women.
Concerned that textbooks used by African - American children ignored black history and culture, Du Bois created a monthly children 's magazine, The Brownies ' Book. Initially published in 1920, it was aimed at black children, who Du Bois called "the children of the sun ''.
Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1921 to attend the second Pan-African Congress. The assembled black leaders from around the world issued the London Resolutions and established a Pan-African Association headquarters in Paris. Under Du Bois 's guidance, the resolutions insisted on racial equality, and that Africa be ruled by Africans (not, as in the 1919 congress, with the consent of Africans). Du Bois restated the resolutions of the congress in his Manifesto To the League of Nations, which implored the newly formed League of Nations to address labor issues and to appoint Africans to key posts. The League took little action on the requests.
Another important African American leader of the 1920s was Marcus Garvey, promoter of the Back - to - Africa movement and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Garvey denounced Du Bois 's efforts to achieve equality through integration, and instead endorsed racial separatism. Du Bois initially supported the concept of Garvey 's Black Star Line, a shipping company that was intended to facilitate commerce within the African diaspora. But Du Bois later became concerned that Garvey was threatening the NAACP 's efforts, leading Du Bois to describe him as fraudulent and reckless. Responding to Garvey 's slogan "Africa for the Africans '', Du Bois said that he supported that concept, but denounced Garvey 's intention that Africa be ruled by African Americans.
Du Bois wrote a series of articles in The Crisis between 1922 and 1924 attacking Garvey 's movement, calling him the "most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and the world. '' Du Bois and Garvey never made a serious attempt to collaborate, and their dispute was partly rooted in the desire of their respective organizations (NAACP and UNIA) to capture a larger portion of the available philanthropic funding.
Harvard 's decision to ban blacks from its dormitories in 1921 was decried by Du Bois as an instance of a broad effort in the U.S. to renew "the Anglo - Saxon cult; the worship of the Nordic totem, the disfranchisement of Negro, Jew, Irishman, Italian, Hungarian, Asiatic and South Sea Islander -- the world rule of Nordic white through brute force. '' When Du Bois sailed for Europe in 1923 for the third Pan-African Congress, the circulation of The Crisis had declined to 60,000 from its World War I high of 100,000, but it remained the preeminent periodical of the civil rights movement. President Coolidge designated Du Bois an "Envoy Extraordinary '' to Liberia and -- after the third congress concluded -- Du Bois rode a German freighter from the Canary Islands to Africa, visiting Liberia, Sierra Leone and Senegal.
Du Bois frequently promoted African - American artistic creativity in his writings, and when the Harlem Renaissance emerged in the mid-1920s, his article "A Negro Art Renaissance '' celebrated the end of the long hiatus of blacks from creative endeavors. His enthusiasm for the Harlem Renaissance waned as he came to believe that many whites visited Harlem for voyeurism, not for genuine appreciation of black art. Du Bois insisted that artists recognize their moral responsibilities, writing that "a black artist is first of all a black artist. '' He was also concerned that black artists were not using their art to promote black causes, saying "I do not care a damn for any art that is not used for propaganda. '' By the end of 1926, he stopped employing The Crisis to support the arts.
Progressive Era
Repression and persecution
Civil rights / anti-War movements
When Du Bois became editor of The Crisis magazine in 1911, he joined the Socialist Party of America on the advice of NAACP founders Mary Ovington, William English Walling and Charles Edward Russell. However, he supported the Democrat Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential campaign, a breach of the rules, and was forced to resign from the Socialist Party. Du Bois remained: "convinced that socialism was an excellent way of life, but I thought it might be reached by various methods. ''
Nine years after the 1917 Russian Revolution, Du Bois extended a trip to Europe to include a visit to the Soviet Union. Du Bois was struck by the poverty and disorganization he encountered in the Soviet Union, yet was impressed by the intense labors of the officials and by the recognition given to workers. Although Du Bois was not yet familiar with the communist theories of Karl Marx or Vladimir Lenin, he concluded that socialism may be a better path towards racial equality than capitalism.
Although Du Bois generally endorsed socialist principles, his politics were strictly pragmatic: in 1929, Du Bois endorsed Democrat Jimmy Walker for mayor of New York, rather than the socialist Norman Thomas, believing that Walker could do more immediate good for blacks, even though Thomas ' platform was more consistent with Du Bois 's views. Throughout the 1920s, Du Bois and the NAACP shifted support back and forth between the Republican Party and the Democratic Party, induced by promises from the candidates to fight lynchings, improve working conditions, or support voting rights in the South; invariably, the candidates failed to deliver on their promises.
-- Du Bois, "Of Alexander Crummell '', in The Souls of Black Folk, 1903
A rivalry emerged in 1931 between the NAACP and the Communist Party, when the Communists responded quickly and effectively to support the Scottsboro Boys, nine African - American youth arrested in 1931 in Alabama for rape. Du Bois and the NAACP felt that the case would not be beneficial to their cause, so they chose to let the Communist Party organize the defense efforts. Du Bois was impressed with the vast amount of publicity and funds the Communists devoted to the partially successful defense effort, and he came to suspect that the Communists were attempting to present their party to African Americans as a better solution than the NAACP. Responding to criticisms of the NAACP from the Communist Party, Du Bois wrote articles condemning the party, claiming that it unfairly attacked the NAACP, and that it failed to fully appreciate racism in the United States. The Communist leaders, in turn, accused Du Bois of being a "class enemy '', and claimed that the NAACP leadership was an isolated elite, disconnected from the working - class blacks they ostensibly fought for.
Du Bois did not have a good working relationship with Walter Francis White, president of the NAACP since 1931. That conflict, combined with the financial stresses of the Great Depression, precipitated a power struggle over The Crisis. Du Bois, concerned that his position as editor would be eliminated, resigned his job at The Crisis and accepted an academic position at Atlanta University in early 1933. The rift with the NAACP grew larger in 1934 when Du Bois reversed his stance on segregation, stating that "separate but equal '' was an acceptable goal for African Americans. The NAACP leadership was stunned, and asked Du Bois to retract his statement, but he refused, and the dispute led to Du Bois 's resignation from the NAACP.
After arriving at his new professorship in Atlanta, Du Bois wrote a series of articles generally supportive of Marxism. He was not a strong proponent of labor unions or the Communist Party, but he felt that Marx 's scientific explanation of society and the economy were useful for explaining the situation of African Americans in the United States. Marx 's atheism also struck a chord with Du Bois, who routinely criticized black churches for dulling blacks ' sensitivity to racism. In his 1933 writings, Du Bois embraced socialism, but asserted that "(c) olored labor has no common ground with white labor '', a controversial position that was rooted in Du Bois 's dislike of American labor unions, which had systematically excluded blacks for decades. Du Bois did not support the Communist Party in the U.S. and did not vote for their candidate in the 1932 presidential election, in spite of an African American on their ticket.
Back in the world of academia, Du Bois was able to resume his study of Reconstruction, the topic of the 1910 paper that he presented to the American Historical Association. In 1935, he published his magnum opus, Black Reconstruction in America. The book presented the thesis, in the words of the historian David Levering Lewis, that "black people, suddenly admitted to citizenship in an environment of feral hostility, displayed admirable volition and intelligence as well as the indolence and ignorance inherent in three centuries of bondage. '' Du Bois documented how black people were central figures in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, and also showed how they made alliances with white politicians. He provided evidence that the coalition governments established public education in the South, and many needed social service programs. The book also demonstrated the ways in which black emancipation -- the crux of Reconstruction -- promoted a radical restructuring of United States society, as well as how and why the country failed to continue support for civil rights for blacks in the aftermath of Reconstruction.
The book 's thesis ran counter to the orthodox interpretation of Reconstruction maintained by white historians, and the book was virtually ignored by mainstream historians until the 1960s. Thereafter, however, it ignited a "revisionist '' trend in the historiography of Reconstruction, which emphasized black people 's search for freedom and the era 's radical policy changes. By the 21st century, Black Reconstruction was widely perceived as "the foundational text of revisionist African American historiography. ''
In the final chapter of the book, "XIV. The Propaganda of History '', Du Bois evokes his efforts at writing an article for the Encyclopædia Britannica on the "history of the American Negro ''. After the editors had cut all reference to Reconstruction, he insisted that the following note appear in the entry: "White historians have ascribed the faults and failures of Reconstruction to Negro ignorance and corruption. But the Negro insists that it was Negro loyalty and the Negro vote alone that restored the South to the Union; established the new democracy, both for white and black, and instituted the public schools. '' The editors refused and, so, Du Bois withdrew his article.
In 1932, Du Bois was selected by several philanthropies -- including the Phelps - Stokes Fund, the Carnegie Corporation, and the General Education Board -- to be the managing editor for a proposed Encyclopedia of the Negro, a work Du Bois had been contemplating for 30 years. After several years of planning and organizing, the philanthropies cancelled the project in 1938, because some board members believed that Du Bois was too biased to produce an objective encyclopedia.
Du Bois took a trip around the world in 1936, which included visits to Nazi Germany, China and Japan. While in Germany, Du Bois remarked that he was treated with warmth and respect. After his return to the United States, he expressed his ambivalence about the Nazi regime. He admired how the Nazis had improved the German economy, but he was horrified by their treatment of the Jewish people, which he described as "an attack on civilization, comparable only to such horrors as the Spanish Inquisition and the African slave trade. ''
Following the 1905 Japanese victory in the Russo - Japanese War, Du Bois became impressed by the growing strength of Imperial Japan. He considered the victory of Japan over Tsarist Russia as an example of colored peoples defeating white peoples. A representative of Japan 's "Negro Propaganda Operations '' traveled to the United States during the 1920s and 1930s, meeting with Du Bois and giving him a positive impression of Imperial Japan 's racial policies. In 1936, the Japanese ambassador arranged a trip to Japan for Du Bois and a small group of academics.
Du Bois opposed the U.S. intervention in World War II, particularly in the Pacific, because he believed that China and Japan were emerging from the clutches of white imperialists. He felt that the European Allies waging war against Japan was an opportunity for whites to reestablish their influence in Asia. He was deeply disappointed by the US government 's plan for African Americans in the armed forces: Blacks were limited to 5.8 % of the force, and there were to be no African - American combat units -- virtually the same restrictions as in World War I. With blacks threatening to shift their support to President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Republican opponent in the 1940 election, Roosevelt appointed a few blacks to leadership posts in the military.
Dusk of Dawn, Du Bois 's second autobiography, was published in 1940. The title refers to Du Bois 's hope that African Americans were passing out of the darkness of racism into an era of greater equality. The work is part autobiography, part history, and part sociological treatise. Du Bois described the book as "the autobiography of a concept of race (...) elucidated and magnified and doubtless distorted in the thoughts and deeds which were mine (...) Thus for all time my life is significant for all lives of men. ''
In 1943, at the age of 76, Du Bois was abruptly fired from his position at Atlanta University by college president Rufus Clement. Many scholars expressed outrage, prompting Atlanta University to provide Du Bois with a lifelong pension and the title of professor emeritus. Arthur Spingarn remarked that Du Bois spent his time in Atlanta "battering his life out against ignorance, bigotry, intolerance and slothfulness, projecting ideas nobody but he understands, and raising hopes for change which may be comprehended in a hundred years. ''
Turning down job offers from Fisk and Howard, Du Bois re-joined the NAACP as director of the Department of Special Research. Surprising many NAACP leaders, Du Bois jumped into the job with vigor and determination. During the 10 years while Du Bois was away from the NAACP, its income had increased fourfold, and its membership had soared to 325,000 members.
Du Bois was a member of the three - person delegation from the NAACP that attended the 1945 conference in San Francisco at which the United Nations was established. The NAACP delegation wanted the United Nations to endorse racial equality and to bring an end to the colonial era. To push the United Nations in that direction, Du Bois drafted a proposal that pronounced "(t) he colonial system of government (...) is undemocratic, socially dangerous and a main cause of wars ''. The NAACP proposal received support from China, Russia and India, but it was virtually ignored by the other major powers, and the NAACP proposals were not included in the United Nations charter.
After the United Nations conference, Du Bois published Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace, a book that attacked colonial empires and, in the words of one reviewer, "contains enough dynamite to blow up the whole vicious system whereby we have comforted our white souls and lined the pockets of generations of free - booting capitalists. ''
In late 1945, Du Bois attended the fifth, and final, Pan-African Congress, in Manchester, England. The congress was the most productive of the five congresses, and there Du Bois met Kwame Nkrumah, the future first president of Ghana who would later invite Du Bois to Africa.
Du Bois helped to submit petitions to the UN concerning discrimination against African Americans, the most noteworthy of which was the NAACP 's "An Appeal to the World: A Statement on the Denial of Human Rights to Minorities in the Case of Citizens of Negro Descent in the United States of America and an Appeal to the United Nations for Redress ''. This advocacy laid the foundation for the later report and petition called "We Charge Genocide '', submitted in 1951 by the Civil Rights Congress. "We Charge Genocide '' accuses the U.S. of systematically sanctioning murders and inflicting harm against African Americans and therefore committing genocide.
When the Cold War commenced in the mid-1940s, the NAACP distanced itself from Communists, lest its funding or reputation suffer. The NAACP redoubled their efforts in 1947 after Life magazine published a piece by Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. claiming that the NAACP was heavily influenced by Communists. Ignoring the NAACP 's desires, Du Bois continued to fraternize with communist sympathizers such as Paul Robeson, Howard Fast and Shirley Graham (his future second wife). Du Bois wrote "I am not a communist (...) On the other hand, I (...) believe (...) that Karl Marx (...) put his finger squarely upon our difficulties (...) ''. In 1946, Du Bois wrote articles giving his assessment of the Soviet Union; he did not embrace communism and he criticized its dictatorship. However, he felt that capitalism was responsible for poverty and racism, and felt that socialism was an alternative that might ameliorate those problems. The Soviets explicitly rejected racial distinctions and class distinctions, leading Du Bois to conclude that the USSR was the "most hopeful country on earth. '' Du Bois 's association with prominent communists made him a liability for the NAACP, especially since the FBI was starting to aggressively investigate communist sympathizers; so -- by mutual agreement -- he resigned from the NAACP for the second time in late 1948. After departing the NAACP, Du Bois started writing regularly for the leftist weekly newspaper the National Guardian, a relationship that would endure until 1961.
Du Bois was a lifelong anti-war activist, but his efforts became more pronounced after World War II. In 1949, Du Bois spoke at the Scientific and Cultural Conference for World Peace in New York: "I tell you, people of America, the dark world is on the move! It wants and will have Freedom, Autonomy and Equality. It will not be diverted in these fundamental rights by dialectical splitting of political hairs (...) Whites may, if they will, arm themselves for suicide. But the vast majority of the world 's peoples will march on over them to freedom! ''
In the spring of 1949, he spoke at the World Congress of the Partisans of Peace in Paris, saying to the large crowd: "Leading this new colonial imperialism comes my own native land built by my father 's toil and blood, the United States. The United States is a great nation; rich by grace of God and prosperous by the hard work of its humblest citizens (...) Drunk with power we are leading the world to hell in a new colonialism with the same old human slavery which once ruined us; and to a third World War which will ruin the world. '' Du Bois affiliated himself with a leftist organization, the National Council of Arts, Sciences and Professions, and he traveled to Moscow as its representative to speak at the All - Soviet Peace Conference in late 1949.
During the 1950s, the U.S. government 's anti-communist McCarthyism campaign targeted Du Bois because of his socialist leanings. Historian Manning Marable characterizes the government 's treatment of Du Bois as "ruthless repression '' and a "political assassination ''.
The FBI began to compile a file on Du Bois in 1942, investigating him for possible subversive activities. The original investigation appears to have ended in 1943 because the FBI was unable to discover sufficient evidence against Du Bois. In 1949, the FBI reopened its files on Du Bois on the suspicion that he was among a group of "Concealed Communists. '' The most aggressive government attack against Du Bois occurred in the early 1950s, as a consequence of Du Bois 's opposition to nuclear weapons. In 1950 Du Bois became chair of the newly created Peace Information Center (PIC), which worked to publicize the Stockholm Peace Appeal in the United States. The primary purpose of the appeal was to gather signatures on a petition, asking governments around the world to ban all nuclear weapons.
The U.S. Justice department alleged that the PIC was acting as an agent of a foreign state, and thus required the PIC to register with the federal government. Du Bois and other PIC leaders refused, and they were indicted for failure to register. After the indictment, some of Du Bois 's associates distanced themselves from him, and the NAACP refused to issue a statement of support; but many labor figures and leftists -- including Langston Hughes -- supported Du Bois.
He was finally tried in 1951 represented by civil rights attorney Vito Marcantonio. The case was dismissed before the jury rendered a verdict as soon as the defense attorney told the judge that "Dr. Albert Einstein has offered to appear as character witness for Dr. Du Bois ''. Du Bois 's memoir of the trial is In Battle for Peace. Even though Du Bois was not convicted, the government confiscated Du Bois 's passport and withheld it for eight years.
Du Bois was bitterly disappointed that many of his colleagues -- particularly the NAACP -- did not support him during his 1951 PIC trial, whereas working class whites and blacks supported him enthusiastically. After the trial, Du Bois lived in Manhattan, writing and speaking, and continuing to associate primarily with leftist acquaintances. His primary concern was world peace, and he railed against military actions, such as the Korean War, which he viewed as efforts by imperialist whites to maintain colored people in a submissive state.
In 1950, at the age of 82, Du Bois ran for U.S. Senator from New York on the American Labor Party ticket and received about 200,000 votes, or 4 % of the statewide total. Du Bois continued to believe that capitalism was the primary culprit responsible for the subjugation of colored people around the world, and therefore -- although he recognized the faults of the Soviet Union -- he continued to uphold communism as a possible solution to racial problems. In the words of biographer David Lewis, Du Bois did not endorse communism for its own sake, but did so because "the enemies of his enemies were his friends ''. The same ambiguity characterized Du Bois 's opinions of Joseph Stalin: in 1940 he wrote disdainfully of the "Tyrant Stalin '', but when Stalin died in 1953, Du Bois wrote a eulogy characterizing Stalin as "simple, calm, and courageous '', and lauding him for being the "first (to) set Russia on the road to conquer race prejudice and make one nation out of its 140 groups without destroying their individuality ''.
The U.S. government prevented Du Bois from attending the 1955 Bandung Conference in Indonesia. The conference was the culmination of 40 years of Du Bois 's dreams -- a meeting of 29 nations from Africa and Asia, many recently independent, representing most of the world 's colored peoples. The conference celebrated their independence, as the nations began to assert their power as non-aligned nations during the Cold War. In 1958, Du Bois regained his passport, and with his second wife, Shirley Graham Du Bois, he traveled around the world, visiting Russia and China. In both countries he was celebrated. Du Bois later wrote approvingly of the conditions in both countries.
Du Bois became incensed in 1961 when the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the 1950 McCarran Act, a key piece of McCarthyism legislation which required communists to register with the government. To demonstrate his outrage, he joined the Communist Party in October 1961, at the age of 93. Around that time, he wrote: "I believe in communism. I mean by communism, a planned way of life in the production of wealth and work designed for building a state whose object is the highest welfare of its people and not merely the profit of a part. ''
Ghana invited Du Bois to Africa to participate in their independence celebration in 1957, but he was unable to attend because the U.S. government had confiscated his passport in 1951. By 1960 -- the "Year of Africa '' -- Du Bois had recovered his passport, and was able to cross the Atlantic and celebrate the creation of the Republic of Ghana. Du Bois returned to Africa in late 1960 to attend the inauguration of Nnamdi Azikiwe as the first African governor of Nigeria.
While visiting Ghana in 1960, Du Bois spoke with its president about the creation of a new encyclopedia of the African diaspora, the Encyclopedia Africana. In early 1961, Ghana notified Du Bois that they had appropriated funds to support the encyclopedia project, and they invited Du Bois to come to Ghana and manage the project there. In October 1961, at the age of 93, Du Bois and his wife traveled to Ghana to take up residence and commence work on the encyclopedia. In early 1963, the United States refused to renew his passport, so he made the symbolic gesture of becoming a citizen of Ghana. While it is sometimes stated that he renounced his U.S. citizenship at that time, and he did state his intention to do so, Du Bois never actually did. His health declined during the two years he was in Ghana, and he died on August 27, 1963, in the capital of Accra at the age of 95. The following day, at the March on Washington, speaker Roy Wilkins asked the hundreds of thousands of marchers to honor Du Bois with a moment of silence. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, embodying many of the reforms Du Bois had campaigned for his entire life, was enacted almost a year after his death.
Du Bois was given a state funeral on August 29 -- 30, 1963, at Nkrumah 's request, and buried beside the western wall of Christiansborg Castle (now Osu Castle), then the seat of government in Accra. In 1985, another state ceremony honored Du Bois and, with the ashes of his wife Shirley Graham Du Bois, who died in 1977, his body was re-interred at their former home, which was dedicated the W.E.B. Du Bois Memorial Centre for Pan African Culture in his memory.
Du Bois was organized and disciplined: his lifelong regimen was to rise at 7: 15, work until 5, eat dinner and read a newspaper until 7, then read or socialize until he was in bed, invariably before 10. He was a meticulous planner, and frequently mapped out his schedules and goals on large pieces of graph paper. Many acquaintances found him to be distant and aloof, and he insisted on being addressed as "Dr. Du Bois ''. Although he was not gregarious, he formed several close friendships with associates such as Charles Young, Paul Laurence Dunbar, John Hope and Mary White Ovington. His closest friend was Joel Spingarn -- a white man -- but Du Bois never accepted Spingarn 's offer to be on a first name basis. Du Bois was something of a dandy -- he dressed formally, carried a walking stick, and walked with an air of confidence and dignity. He was relatively short, standing at 5 feet 5.5 inches (166 cm), and always maintained a well - groomed mustache and goatee. He enjoyed singing and playing tennis.
Du Bois was married twice, first to Nina Gomer (m. 1896, d. 1950), with whom he had two children, a son Burghardt (who died as an infant) and a daughter Yolande, who became a high - school teacher in Baltimore after attending Fisk University. With her father 's support, Yolande married Countee Cullen, a famous poet of the Harlem Renaissance. As a widower, Du Bois married Shirley Graham (m. 1951, d. 1977), an author, playwright, composer and activist. She brought her son David Graham to the marriage. David grew close to Du Bois and took his stepfather 's name; he also worked for African - American causes. The historian David Levering Lewis wrote that Du Bois engaged in several extramarital relationships.
Although Du Bois attended a New England Congregational church as a child, he abandoned organized religion while at Fisk College. As an adult, Du Bois described himself as agnostic or a freethinker, but at least one biographer concluded that Du Bois was virtually an atheist. However, another analyst of Du Bois 's writings concluded that he had a religious voice, albeit radically different from other African - American religious voices of his era, and inaugurated a 20th - century spirituality to which Ralph Ellison, Zora Neale Hurston, and James Baldwin also belong.
When asked to lead public prayers, Du Bois would refuse. In his autobiography, Du Bois wrote:
"When I became head of a department at Atlanta, the engagement was held up because again I balked at leading in prayer (...) I flatly refused again to join any church or sign any church creed. (...) I think the greatest gift of the Soviet Union to modern civilization was the dethronement of the clergy and the refusal to let religion be taught in the public schools. ''
Du Bois accused American churches of being the most discriminatory of all institutions. He also provocatively linked African - American Christianity to indigenous African religions. Du Bois occasionally acknowledged the beneficial role religion played in African - American life -- as the "basic rock '' which served as an anchor for African - American communities -- but in general disparaged African - American churches and clergy because he felt they did not support the goals of racial equality and hindered activists ' efforts.
Although Du Bois was not personally religious, he infused his writings with religious symbology, and many contemporaries viewed him as a prophet. His 1904 prose poem, "Credo '', was written in the style of a religious creed and widely read by the African - American community. Moreover, Du Bois, both in his own fiction and in stories published in The Crisis, often analogized lynchings of African Americans to Christ 's crucifixion. Between 1920 and 1940, Du Bois shifted from overt black messiah symbolism to more subtle messianic language.
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who holds the record for the fastest tennis serve | Fastest recorded Tennis serves - wikipedia
This article lists the fastest recorded tennis serves in the men 's and women 's games. This list may not be historically complete. For instance, there are reports that Bill Tilden had a serve that was clocked at 163.3 mph but there is nothing to verify that.
Although the Association of Tennis Professionals does not formally recognize service speed records made in Challenger events due to the variance in radar guns, the serve of 263.4 km / h (163.7 mph) recorded by Australian Sam Groth at an ATP Challenger event in Busan, South Korea in May 2012 was measured using approved equipment according to ATP, and other data gathered appeared within a normal range. However, John Isner holds the official record for the fastest serve at 253 km / h (157.2 mph).
Ivo Karlović with a 232 km / h (144 mph) second serve in the quarterfinals of the 2007 Legg Mason Tennis Classic in Washington, holds the record for the fastest second serve ever recorded.
Not recognized by ATP Not formally recognized by ATP and / or unsourced
Cite error: There are < ref group = note > tags on this page, but the references will not show without a ((reflist group = note)) template (see the help page).
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poem i met a man upon the stair | Antigonish (poem) - wikipedia
"Antigonish '' is an 1899 poem by American educator and poet William Hughes Mearns. It is also known as "The Little Man Who Was n't There '' and was adapted as a hit song under the latter title.
Inspired by reports of a ghost of a man roaming the stairs of a haunted house, in Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada, the poem was originally part of a play called The Psyco - ed, which Mearns had written for an English class at Harvard University, circa 1899. In 1910, Mearns staged the play with the Plays and Players, an amateur theatrical group, and on 27 March 1922, newspaper columnist FPA printed the poem in "The Conning Tower '', his column in the New York World. Mearns subsequently wrote many parodies of this poem, giving them the general title of Later Antigonishes.
"As I was going up the stair I met a man who was n't there! He was n't there again today, Oh how I wish he 'd go away! '' When I came home last night at three, The man was waiting there for me But when I looked around the hall, I could n't see him there at all! Go away, go away, do n't you come back any more! Go away, go away, and please do n't slam the door... Last night I saw upon the stair, A little man who was n't there, He was n't there again today Oh, how I wish he 'd go away...
Other versions were recorded by:
Mearns ' "Antigonish '' has been used numerous times in popular culture, often with slight variations in the lines. Examples include:
... Upon the stair, I met a man who was not there... He was not there again today, I wish to gosh he 'd go away.
Multiple artists have used excerpts from or referenced "Antigonish '' in songs. For example:
We passed upon the stair We spoke of was and when Although I was n't there He said I was his friend...
There was a man upon the stair When I looked back, he was n't there He was n't there again today I think he 's from the CIA.
In Downing Street upon the stair I met a man who was n't Blair. He was n't Blair again today. Oh how I wish he 'd go away.
Last night I saw upon the stair A tallish man who was n't there He was n't there again today Oh, how I wish he 'd go away!
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dark money is political money that comes from donors who do not have to be disclosed | Dark money - wikipedia
In the politics of the United States, dark money is funds given to nonprofit organizations -- and include 501 (c) (4) (social welfare) 501 (c) (5) (unions) and 501 (c) (6) (trade association) groups -- that can receive unlimited donations from corporations, individuals and unions. They can spend funds to influence elections, but are not required to disclose their donors. Dark money first entered politics with Buckley v. Valeo (1976) when the United States Supreme Court laid out Eight Magic Words that define the difference between electioneering and issue advocacy.
According to the Center for Responsive Politics, "spending by organizations that do not disclose their donors has increased from less than $5.2 million in 2006 to well over $300 million in the 2012 presidential cycle and more than $174 million in the 2014 midterms. '' The New York Times editorial board has opined that the 2014 midterm elections were influenced by "the greatest wave of secret, special - interest money ever raised in a congressional election. ''
The term was first used by the Sunlight Foundation to describe undisclosed funds that were used during the United States 2010 mid-term election. An example of the usage of the term "dark money '' can be seen in a letter of resignation to President Donald Trump, by former Federal Election Commissioner (FEC), Ann Ravel: "Since 2010, well over $800 million in dark money has been spent in competitive races. At the same time, elections have become more and more expensive. Most of the funding comes from a tiny, highly unrepresentative part of the population. ''
The rise of dark money groups was aided by the U.S. Supreme Court decisions in FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (2008) and Citizens United v. FEC (2010). In Citizens United, the Court ruled (by a 5 -- 4 vote) that corporations and unions could spend unlimited amounts of money to advocate for or against political candidates.
In some elections, dark money groups have surpassed traditional political action committees (PAC) and "super PACs '' (independent - expenditure - only committees) in the volume of spending. In 2012, Freedom Partners had the ninth - highest revenues among all U.S. trade associations which filed tax returns that year, more than "established heavyweights '' such as the American Petroleum Institute, PhRMA, and U.S. Chamber of Commerce. Freedom Partners largely acted as a conduit for campaign spending; of the $238 million it spent in 2012, 99 percent went to other groups, and Freedom Partners itself did not have any employees. This was a major distinction between other high - revenue trade associations, which typically have many employees and devote only about 6 percent of spending to grants to outside groups. In 2014, Freedom Partners was identified as the "poster child '' for the rise of dark money. The largest and most complex network of dark money groups are funded by conservative billionaire business magnates Charles and David Koch; the Koch brothers ' network accounted for about a quarter of dark money spending in 2012.
Approaching the 2018 midterm elections, in mid-September, just 15 groups accounted for three - quarters of the anonymous cash.
According to the Center for Responsive Politics, dark money (which it defined as funds from outside groups that did not publicly disclose donors, plus groups that received a substantial portion of their contributions from such nondisclosing groups) accounted for nearly 44 % of outside spending in the 2010 election cycle.
In the 2012 election cycle, more than $308 million in dark money was spent, according to the Center for Responsive Politics. An estimated 86 percent was spent by conservative groups, 11 percent by liberal groups and 3 percent by other groups.
The three dark money groups which spent the largest sums were Karl Rove 's American Crossroads / Crossroads GPS ($71 million), the Koch brothers ' Americans for Prosperity ($36 million) and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce ($35 million), all conservative groups. The three liberal groups with the largest dark - money expenditures were the League of Conservation Voters ($11 million), Patriot Majority USA, a group focusing on public schools and infrastructure ($7 million), and Planned Parenthood (almost $7 million).
The 2014 election cycle saw the largest amount of dark money ever spent in a congressional election; the New York Times editorial board described 2014 "the greatest wave of secret, special - interest money ever. '' On the eve of the election, Republican - leaning dark money groups dominated, with $94.6 million in expenditures, exceeding dark money expenditures by Democratic - leaning dark money groups ($28.4 million), and by expenditures that could not be classified ($1.9 million). Karl Rove 's dark money group Crossroads GPS alone spent over $47 million in the 2014 election cycle.
In the Senate elections, dark money spending was highly concentrated in a handful of targeted competitive states, and especially in Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Kentucky, and North Carolina. In the eleven most competitive Senate races, $342 million was spent by non-party outside groups, significantly more than the $89 million spent by the political parties.
In the 2014 Kentucky election, a key player was the "Kentucky Opportunity Coalition, '' a group supporting Mitch McConnell, Republican of Kentucky, whom the New York Times editorial board has described as "the most prominent advocate for unlimited secret campaign spending in Washington. '' The Kentucky Opportunity Coalition, a 501 (c) (4) "social welfare '' group, raised more than $21 million, while McConnell raised about $32 million and McConnell 's opponent, Democratic candidate Alison Lundergan Grimes, raised about $19 million. According to a Center for Public Integrity analysis of data provided by advertising tracking firm Kantar Media / CMAG, the group ran more than 12,400 television advertisements. Every Kentucky Opportunity Coalition 's television advertisements mentioned either McConnell or Grimes; overall, about 53 percent of the group 's ads praised McConnell while the rest were attack ads against Grimes. The Kentucky Opportunity Coalition relied heavily on political consultants in Washington, D.C. and Virginia linked to Karl Rove 's Crossroads groups, and received $390,000 in a grant from Crossroads GPS. Described as "mysterious, '' the group was listed by a Post Office box, and the only name formally associated with the group was political operative J. Scott Jennings, a deputy political director in the George W. Bush administration, a worker for McConnell 's previous campaigns. Melanie Sloan of the watchdog organization Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington said that the Kentucky Opportunity Coalition was "nothing more than a sham. ''
Dark money also played a role in other competitive Senate seats in 2014. In ten competitive Senate seats, the winners had the following in dark - money support, according to an analysis by the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law:
In North Carolina, the pro-Tillis group "Carolina Rising '' received nearly all (98.7 %) of its funds from Crossroads GPS; the Center for Responsive Politics highlighted this as an example of how Crossroads GPS, a 501 (c) (4) group, "evades limits on political activity through grants '' to other 501 (c) (4) groups. In the 2014 cycle, Crossroads GPS also gave $5.25 million to the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, $2 million to the American Future Fund, and $390,000 to the Kentucky Opportunity Coalition. In total, Crossroads GPS spent more than $13.6 million on grants to other groups, which it described as being for the purposes of "social welfare. ''
In 2014, the Democratic Party - aligned dark money group Patriot Majority USA, a 501 (c) (4), spent almost $13.7 million on "direct and indirect political campaign activities, '' airing 15,000 television ads in targeted Senate races. About half of the $30 raised by the group came from five anonymous donors. The group was led by Craig Varoga, "a staunch ally '' of Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid, Democrat of Nevada.
In Alaska, Mark Begich was "one of the few Democratic candidates to come close to receiving as much support from dark money as his Republican opponent. '' The pro-Begich Alaska Salmon PAC, funded entirely by the League of Conservation Voters and its Alaska affiliate, spent funds in support of Begich.
According to the Center for Responsive Politics, by October 2015, $4.88 million in dark money had already been spent for the 2016 election cycle, "more than 10 times the $440,000 that was spent at this point during the 2012 cycle. '' The money was spent by six groups - five conservative groups (including the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, which spent $3 million, and Americans for Prosperity, which spent $1.5 million) and one liberal group (Planned Parenthood, which spent just under $75,000).
According to Richard Skinner of the Sunlight Foundation, "the focus of early dark money being spent in the 2016 cycle '' is on competitive U.S. Senate elections and some U.S. House of Representatives races. However, dark money also is playing a role in the 2016 Republican presidential primaries; by June 2015, at least four Republican presidential candidates were raising funds via 501 (c) (4) organizations: Bobby Jindal 's America Next, Rick Perry 's Americans for Economic Freedom, John Kasich 's Balanced Budget Forever, and Jeb Bush 's Right to Rise.
In September 2018, the Supreme Court ruled against a 40 - year FEC dark money loophole, requiring "independent expenditure '' groups disclose donations over a certain amount.
501 (c) "dark money '' groups are distinct from super PACs. While both types of entity can raise and spend unlimited sums of money, super PACs "must disclose their donors, '' while 501 (c) groups "must not have politics as their primary purpose but do n't have to disclose who gives them money. '' However, a single individual or group can create both types of entity and combine their powers, making it difficult to trace the original source of funds. ProPublica explains: "Say some like - minded people form both a Super-PAC and a nonprofit 501 (c) (4). Corporations and individuals could then donate as much as they want to the nonprofit, which is n't required to publicly disclose funders. The nonprofit could then donate as much as it wanted to the Super-PAC, which lists the nonprofit 's donation but not the original contributors. '' In at least one high - profile case, a donor to a super PAC kept his name hidden by using an LLC formed for the purpose of hiding their personal name. One super PAC, that originally listed a $250,000 donation from an LLC that no one could find, led to a subsequent filing where the previously "secret donors '' were revealed.
During the 2016 election cycle, "dark money '' contributions via shell LLCs became increasingly common. The Associated Press, Center for Public Integrity, and Sunlight Foundation all "flagged dozens of donations of anywhere from $50,000 to $1 million routed through non-disclosing LLCs to super PACs '' backing various presidential candidates, including Marco Rubio, Hillary Clinton, Ted Cruz, John Kasich, Jeb Bush, and Carly Fiorina.
Bradley A. Smith, a former FEC chairman who is now with the Center for Competitive Politics, a group that opposes campaign - finance reform, argues that this practice is not problematic, writing that "it is possibly the making of a campaign contribution in the name of another, '' a violation of existing law.
According to Kathy Kiely, managing editor of the Sunlight Foundation, "untraceable dark money is a preferred tactic of conservatives, while Democrats tend to use traceable super PACs. ''
The first federal law requiring disclosure of campaign contributions, the Federal Corrupt Practices Act, was passed in 1910. By the late 1970s, virtually all states and the federal government required public disclosure of campaign contributions and information on political donors. Most states and the federal government also required public disclosure of information about donors and amounts spent on independent expenditures, that is, expenditures made independently of a candidate 's campaign.
In January 2010, at least 38 states and the federal government required disclosure for all or some independent expenditures or electioneering communications, for all sponsors.
Yet despite disclosure rules, it is possible to spend money without voters knowing the identities of donors before the election. In federal elections, for example, political action committees have the option to choose to file reports on a "monthly '' or "quarterly '' basis. This allows funds raised by PACs in the final days of the election to be spent and votes cast before the report is due.
In addition to PACs, non-profit groups ranging from Planned Parenthood to Crossroads may make expenditures in connection with political races. Since these non-profits are not political committees, as defined in the Federal Election Campaign Act, they have few reporting requirements beyond the amounts of their expenditures. They are not required by law to publicly disclose information on their donors. As a result, voters do not know who gave money to these groups. Reports have disclosed instances where non-profits were managed by close associates, former staff, or a candidate 's family member, and this has led to concern that the candidates benefiting from their expenditures would be able to know who donated the funds to the non-profit group, but the public would not.
For example, in the 2012 election cycle, one organization, the National Organization for Marriage, or NOM, operated two non-profit arms that received millions in donations from just a few donors. It in turn funded several different PACs. While these PACs had to disclose that NOM contributed the funds, they were not required to disclose who gave money to NOM.
On March 30, 2012 a U.S. District Court ruled that all groups that spend money on electioneering communications must report all donors that give more than $1,000. However, this ruling was overturned on appeal.
Democrats in the United States Congress have repeatedly introduced the DISCLOSE Act, proposed legislation to require disclosure of election spending by "corporations, labor unions, super-PACs, and, most importantly, politically active nonprofits. '' The 2014 version of the DISCLOSE Act would require covered groups, including 501 (c) (4), to reveal the source of election - spending donations of $10,000 or more. The bill also targets the use of pass - through and shell corporations to evade disclosure by requiring that such groups disclose the origin of contributions. Senate Republicans, led by their leader Mitch McConnell, "have blocked earlier iterations of the DISCLOSE Act since 2010. ''
According to Columbia Law School 's Richard Briffault, disclosure of campaign expenditures, contributions, and donors is intended to deter corruption.
The Federal Elections Commission, which regulates federal elections, has been unable to control dark money. According to the Center for Public Integrity, FEC commissioners are voting on many fewer enforcement matters than in the past because of "an overtaxed staff and commissioner disagreement. '' The IRS (rather than the FEC) is responsible for oversight of 501 (c) (4) groups. The IRS "found itself ill - prepared for the groundswell '' of such groups taking and spending unlimited amounts of money for political purposes in the wake of the U.S. Supreme Court 's decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission in 2010. The agency particularly "struggled to identify which organizations appeared to be spending more than the recommended 50 percent of their annual budgets on political activities -- and even to define what ' political spending ' was. '' When the IRS began looking at nonprofit spending, it was accused of improper targeting in a 2013 controversy.
"With the FEC and IRS duly sidelined '' advocates for disclosure turned to the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC); nine academics from universities across the U.S. filed petitioned the SEC in August 2011 for the agency to "develop rules to require public companies to disclose to shareholders the use of corporate resources for political activities. '' The petition received over a million comments in the following month, "a record amount for the SEC, with the overwhelming majority of voters asking for better disclosure. '' According to Lucian Bebchuk, a Harvard professor of law, economics, and finance who helped draft the petition, the request had drawn the support of "nearly a dozen senators and more than 40 members of the House. '' Under current SEC regulations, public corporations must file a Form 8 - K report to publicly announce major events of interest to shareholders. The Sunlight Foundation, a group which advocates for a comprehensive disclosure regime, has proposed that the 8 - K rule should be updated to require that aggregate spending of $10,000 on political activities (such as monetary contributions, in - kind contributions, and membership dues or other payments to organizations that engage in political activities) should be disclosed and made publicly available via the 8 - K system.
In 2015, Republicans in Congress successfully pushed for a rider in a 2015 omnibus spending bill that bars the IRS from clarifying the social - welfare tax exemption to combat dark money "from advocacy groups that claim to be social welfare organizations rather than political committees. '' Other provisions in the 2015 bill bar the SEC from requiring corporations to disclose campaign spending to shareholders, and a ban application of the gift tax to nonprofit donors. The Obama administration opposed these provisions, but President Obama eventually acceded to them in December 2015, with the White House declining to comment. The nonpartisan Campaign Legal Center said in a statement that the dark - money provision ensures "that the door to secret foreign dollars in U.S. elections remains wide open through secret contributions to these ostensibly ' nonpolitical ' groups that run campaign ads without any disclosure of their donors. ''
The Center for Competitive Politics (CCP), chaired by former FEC chairman Bradley A. Smith, opposes legislation to require the disclosure of dark - money groups, saying: "Our view is that many people will be driven out of politics if they are forced to disclose their names and their personal information. The purpose of disclosure is to help people monitor the government, not for the government to monitor the people. '' The Center for Competitive Politics views "dark money '' as a pejorative term, stating that the phrase "evokes an emotional, fearful reaction '' and contending that "many of the statistics published on the topic aim to mislead rather than enlighten. '' The CCP maintains that dark money "comprises a very small percentage of total campaign spending, '' calculating the percent of money spent in federal elections by organizations that did not provide itemized disclosure of their donors as 4.3 % in 2012 and 3.7 % in 2014.
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a brief study of wannacry threat ransomware attack 2017 | WannaCry ransomware attack - wikipedia
The WannaCry ransomware attack was a May 2017 worldwide cyberattack by the WannaCry ransomware cryptoworm, which targeted computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system by encrypting data and demanding ransom payments in the Bitcoin cryptocurrency.
The attack began on Friday, 12 May 2017, and within a day was reported to have infected more than 230,000 computers in over 150 countries. Parts of the United Kingdom 's National Health Service (NHS) were infected, causing it to run some services on an emergency - only basis during the attack, Spain 's Telefónica, FedEx and Deutsche Bahn were hit, along with many other countries and companies worldwide. Shortly after the attack began, Marcus Hutchins, a 22 - year - old web security researcher from North Devon in England then known as MalwareTech discovered an effective kill switch by registering a domain name he found in the code of the ransomware. This greatly slowed the spread of the infection, effectively halting the initial outbreak on Monday, 15 May 2017, but new versions have since been detected that lack the kill switch. Researchers have also found ways to recover data from infected machines under some circumstances.
WannaCry propagates using EternalBlue, an exploit of Windows ' Server Message Block (SMB) protocol. Much of the attention and comment around the event was occasioned by the fact that the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) had already discovered the vulnerability, but used it to create an exploit for its own offensive work, rather than report it to Microsoft. Microsoft eventually discovered the vulnerability, and on Tuesday, March 14, 2017, they issued security bulletin MS17 - 010, which detailed the flaw and announced that patches had been released for all Windows versions that were currently supported at that time, these being Windows 7, Windows 8.1, Windows 10, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2012, and Windows Server 2016, in addition to Windows Vista (which had recently ended support). However, many Windows users had not installed the patches when, two months later on May 12, 2017, WannaCry used the EternalBlue vulnerability to spread itself. The next day, Microsoft released emergency security patches for Windows 7 and Windows 8. Organizations were advised to patch Windows and plug the vulnerability in order to protect themselves from the cyber attack.
Those still running older, unsupported versions of Microsoft Windows, such as Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, were initially at particular risk, but Microsoft released an emergency security patch for these platforms as well. Almost all victims of the cyberattack were running Windows 7, prompting a security researcher to argue that its effects on Windows XP users were "insignificant '' in comparison.
Within four days of the initial outbreak, new infections had slowed to a trickle.
Several organizations released detailed technical writeups of the malware, including Microsoft, Cisco, Malwarebytes, Symantec and McAfee.
The "payload '' works in the same fashion as most modern ransomware: it finds and encrypts a range of data files, then displays a "ransom note '' informing the user and demanding a payment in bitcoin. It is considered a network worm because it also includes a "transport '' mechanism to automatically spread itself. This transport code scans for vulnerable systems, then uses the EternalBlue exploit to gain access, and the DoublePulsar tool to install and execute a copy of itself.
The WannaCry ransomware attack was a May 2017 worldwide cyberattack by the WannaCry ransomware cryptoworm, which targeted computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system by encrypting data and demanding ransom payments in the Bitcoin cryptocurrency.
The software contained a URL that, when discovered by a security researcher, Marcus Hutchins, and the corresponding domain registered to track activity from infected machines, was found to act as a "kill switch '' that shut down the software before it executed its payload, stopping the spread of the ransomware. The researcher speculated that this had been included in the software as a mechanism to prevent it being run on quarantined machines used by anti-virus researchers; he observed that some sandbox environments will respond to all queries with traffic in order to trick the software into thinking that it is still connected to the internet, so the software attempts to contact an address which did not exist, to detect whether it was running in a sandbox, and do nothing if so. He also noted that it was not an unprecedented technique, having been observed in the Necurs trojan.
On 19 May, it was reported that hackers were trying to use a Mirai botnet variant to effect a distributed attack on WannaCry 's kill - switch domain with the intention of knocking it offline. On 22 May, @ MalwareTechBlog protected the domain by switching to a cached version of the site, capable of dealing with much higher traffic loads than the live site.
The network infection vector, EternalBlue, was released by the hacker group called The Shadow Brokers on 14 April 2017, along with other tools apparently leaked from Equation Group, which is widely believed to be part of the United States National Security Agency.
EternalBlue exploits a vulnerability in Microsoft 's implementation of the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol. This Windows vulnerability was not a zero - day flaw, but one for which Microsoft had released a "critical '' advisory, along with a security patch to fix the vulnerability two months before, on 14 March 2017. The patch was to the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol used by Windows, and fixed several versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system, including Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8.1, and Windows 10, as well as server and embedded versions such as Windows Server 2008 onwards and Windows Embedded POSReady 2009 respectively, but not the older unsupported Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, and Windows 8 (unsupported because Windows 8.1 is classified as a mandatory service pack upgrade). The day after the WannaCry outbreak Microsoft released updates for these too.
DoublePulsar is a backdoor tool, also released by The Shadow Brokers on 14 April 2017, Starting from 21 April 2017, security researchers reported that computers with the DoublePulsar backdoor installed were in the tens of thousands. By 25 April, reports estimated the number of infected computers to be up to several hundred thousands, with numbers increasing exponentially every day. The WannaCry code can take advantage of any existing DoublePulsar infection, or installs it itself.
Linguistic analysis of the ransom notes indicated the authors were likely fluent in Chinese and proficient in English, as the versions of the notes in those languages were probably human - written while the rest seemed to be machine - translated.
Cybersecurity companies Kaspersky Lab and Symantec have both said the code has some similarities with that previously used by the Lazarus Group (believed to have carried out the cyberattack on Sony Pictures in 2014 and a Bangladesh bank heist in 2016 -- and linked to North Korea). This could also be either simple re-use of code by another group or an attempt to shift blame -- as in a cyber false flag operation; but a leaked internal NSA memo is alleged to have also linked the creation of the worm to North Korea. The President of Microsoft said he believed North Korea was the originator of the WannaCry attack, and the UK 's National Cyber Security Centre reached the same conclusion.
North Korea itself denies being responsible for the cyberattack.
On 12 May 2017, WannaCry began affecting computers worldwide, with evidence pointing to an initial infection in Asia at 7: 44am UTC. The initial infection was likely through an exposed vulnerable SMB port, rather than email phishing as initially assumed.
When executed, the malware first checks the "kill switch '' domain name; if it is not found, then the ransomware encrypts the computer 's data, then attempts to exploit the SMB vulnerability to spread out to random computers on the Internet, and "laterally '' to computers on the same network. As with other modern ransomware, the payload displays a message informing the user that files have been encrypted, and demands a payment of around $300 in bitcoin within three days, or $600 within seven days. Three hardcoded bitcoin addresses, or "wallets '', are used to receive the payments of victims. As with all such wallets, their transactions and balances are publicly accessible even though the cryptocurrency wallet owners remain unknown. As of 14 June 2017, at 00: 18 ET, a total of 327 payments totaling $130,634.77 (51.62396539 XBT) had been transferred.
Organizations that had not installed Microsoft 's security update were affected by the attack. Those still running the older Windows XP were at particularly high risk because no security patches had been released since April 2014 (with the exception of one emergency patch released in May 2014). However, on the day after the outbreak, an emergency, out - of - band security update was released for XP and Windows Server 2003. A Kaspersky Labs study reported that less than 0.1 percent of the affected computers were running Windows XP, and that 98 percent of the affected computers were running Windows 7. In a controlled testing environment, the cybersecurity firm Kryptos Logic found that they were unable to infect a Windows XP system with WannaCry using just the exploits, as the payload failed to load, or caused the operating system to crash rather than actually execute and encrypt files. However, when executed manually, WannaCry could still operate on Windows XP.
The process of virus execution can be divided into three steps: the main program file uses the vulnerability to spread itself, and run "WannaCry '' ransom program; "WannaCry '' ransom program will encrypt the file; the ransom interface (@ WanaDecryptor @. exe) displays the ransom information and decrypts the samples.
Main program (mssecsvc. exe) file analysis: The sample main program is the main spread program of this event that is responsible for spreading itself and releasing the "WannaCry '' ransom program, and then "WannaCry '' encrypts user files and execute malicious behavior.
"WannaCry '' ransom program (tasksche. exe) analysis: The sample itself has an encrypted original RSA public key, and the attacker retains the decrypted RSA private key. Before encrypting the files, the CryptoAPI that calls Windows generates a new pair of RSA key, known as the sub-public key and sub-private key. And then, the sample encrypts the sub-private key with the original RSA public key and saves it as "00000000. eky '' and the sub-public key is saved as "00000000. pky ''.
The sample generates an AES key for encrypting the file, the contents of the encrypted file are M2, and the AES key is encrypted with the sub-public key "00000000. pky ''. The contents of the encrypted file are M1. Then merge M1 and M2 and add file header "WANACRY! '' to save the encrypted file.
When decrypting a file, the attacker decrypts the sub-private key "00000000. eky '' and saves the file as "00000000. dky '' for decrypting the file after receiving the decrypted file. The sample itself also has another pair of primary RSA public keys and private keys, which are used to decrypt the display files.
Each encrypted file uses a different AES key. If you want to decrypt the file, you need to acquire the RSA sub-private key, decrypt the AES key of the file header, and then use the AES key to decrypt files. If there is no RSA sub-private key, the AES key can not be decrypted and the file can not be decrypted.
Ransomware interface, decryption program (@ WanaDecryptor @. exe) analysis: "@ WanaDecryptor @. exe '' is the ransomware interface program that displayed after sample has encrypted user data, which is responsible for displaying the Bitcoin wallet address and presenting part of the decrypted files. If wanting to decrypt all the files, you need to pay the "ransom ''. For darknet (Tor), the majority of infected users show the three default Bitcoin wallet address, which makes a lot of people think that the attacker can not distinguish who paid the money and can not decrypt the file for specified users.
Several hours after the initial release of the ransomware on 12 May 2017, while trying to establish the size of the attack, a researcher known by the name MalwareTech accidentally discovered what amounted to a "kill switch '' hardcoded in the malware. Registering a domain name for a DNS sinkhole stopped the attack spreading as a worm, because the ransomware only encrypted the computer 's files if it was unable to connect to that domain, which all computers infected with WannaCry before the website 's registration had been unable to do. While this did not help already infected systems, it severely slowed the spread of the initial infection and gave time for defensive measures to be deployed worldwide, particularly in North America and Asia, which had not been attacked to the same extent as elsewhere.
On 16 May 2017, researchers from University College London and Boston University reported that their PayBreak system could defeat WannaCry and several other families of ransomware.
Within four days of the initial outbreak, new infections had slowed to a trickle.
It was discovered that Windows encryption APIs used by WannaCry may not completely clear the prime numbers used to generate the payload 's private keys from the memory, making it possible to potentially retrieve the required key if they had not yet been overwritten or cleared from resident memory. This behaviour was used by a French researcher to develop a tool known as WannaKey, which automates this process on Windows XP systems. This approach was iterated upon by a second tool known as Wanakiwi, which was tested to work on Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2 as well.
The scale of the attack and subsequent exposure of vulnerabilities prompted Micosoft to release new security updates for older versions of Windows that are no longer supported, including for Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows XP Embedded and Windows 7 Embedded. In a statement regarding the matter, the head of Microsoft 's Cyber Defense Operations Center, Adrienne Hall, said that "Due to the elevated risk for destructive cyber-attacks at this time, we made the decision to take this action because applying these updates provides further protection against potential attacks with characteristics similar to WannaCrypt (alternative name to WannaCry) ''.
Experts advised against paying the ransom due to no reports of people getting their data back after payment and as high revenues would encourage more of such campaigns.
The ransomware campaign was unprecedented in scale according to Europol, which estimates that around 200,000 computers were infected across 150 countries. According to Kaspersky Lab, the four most affected countries were Russia, Ukraine, India and Taiwan.
The attack affected many National Health Service hospitals in England and Scotland, and up to 70,000 devices -- including computers, MRI scanners, blood - storage refrigerators and theatre equipment -- may have been affected. On 12 May, some NHS services had to turn away non-critical emergencies, and some ambulances were diverted. In 2016, thousands of computers in 42 separate NHS trusts in England were reported to be still running Windows XP. NHS hospitals in Wales and Northern Ireland were unaffected by the attack.
Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK in Tyne and Wear, England, halted production after the ransomware infected some of their systems. Renault also stopped production at several sites in an attempt to stop the spread of the ransomware.
The attack 's impact is said to be relatively low compared to other potential attacks of the same type and could have been much worse had a security expert, who was independently researching the malware, not discovered that a kill - switch had been built in by its creators or if it had been specifically targeted on highly critical infrastructure, like nuclear power plants, dams or railway systems.
According to Cyber risk modeling firm Cyence, economic losses from the cyber attack could reach up to $4 billion, with other groups estimating the losses to be in the hundreds of millions.
Via a honeypot mechanism, Security researcher Miroslav Stampar detected a new malware named "EternalRocks '' that uses seven leaked NSA hacking tools and leaves Windows machines vulnerable for future attacks that may occur at any time. When installed, the worm names itself WannaCry in attempt to evade security experts.
A number of experts highlighted the NSA 's non-disclosure of the underlying vulnerability, and their loss of control over the EternalBlue attack tool that exploited it. Edward Snowden said that if the NSA had "privately disclosed the flaw used to attack hospitals when they found it, not when they lost it, the attack may not have happened ''. British cybersecurity expert Graham Cluley also sees "some culpability on the part of the U.S. intelligence services ''. According to him and others "they could have done something ages ago to get this problem fixed, and they did n't do it ''. He also said that despite obvious uses for such tools to spy on people of interest, they have a duty to protect their countries ' citizens. Others have also commented that this attack shows that the practice of intelligence agencies to stockpile exploits for offensive purposes rather than disclosing them for defensive purposes may be problematic. Microsoft president and chief legal officer Brad Smith wrote, "Repeatedly, exploits in the hands of governments have leaked into the public domain and caused widespread damage. An equivalent scenario with conventional weapons would be the U.S. military having some of its Tomahawk missiles stolen. '' Russian President Vladimir Putin placed the responsibility of the attack on U.S. intelligence services, for having created EternalBlue. On 17 May, United States bipartisan lawmakers introduced the PATCH Act that aims to have exploits reviewed by an independent board to "balance the need to disclose vulnerabilities with other national security interests while increasing transparency and accountability to maintain public trust in the process ''.
The United States Congress will also hold a hearing on the attack on June 15. Two subpanels of the House Science Committee will hear the testimonies from various individuals working in the government and non-governmental sector about how the US can improve its protection mechanisms for its systems against similar attacks in the future.
A cybersecurity researcher, working in loose collaboration with UK 's National Cyber Security Centre, researched the malware and discovered a "kill switch ''. Later globally dispersed security researchers collaborated online to develop open source tools that allow for decryption without payment under some circumstances. Snowden states that when "(NSA) - enabled ransomware eats the Internet, help comes from researchers, not spy agencies '' and asks why this is the case.
Other experts also used the publicity around the attack as a chance to reiterate the value and importance of having good, regular and secure backups, good cybersecurity including isolating critical systems, using appropriate software, and having the latest security patches installed. Adam Segal, director of the digital and cyberspace policy program at the Council on Foreign Relations, stated that "the patching and updating systems are broken, basically, in the private sector and in government agencies ''. In addition, Segal said that governments ' apparent inability to secure vulnerabilities "opens a lot of questions about backdoors and access to encryption that the government argues it needs from the private sector for security ''. Arne Schönbohm, President of Germany 's Federal Office for Information Security (BSI), stated that "the current attacks show how vulnerable our digital society is. It 's a wake - up call for companies to finally take IT security (seriously) ''.
The effects of the attack also had political implications; in the United Kingdom, the impact on the National Health Service quickly became political, with claims that the effects were exacerbated by Government underfunding of the NHS; in particular, the NHS ceased its paid Custom Support arrangement to continue receiving support for unsupported Microsoft software used within the organization, including Windows XP. Home Secretary Amber Rudd refused to say whether patient data had been backed up, and Shadow Health Secretary Jon Ashworth accused Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt of refusing to act on a critical note from Microsoft, the National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) and the National Crime Agency that had been received two months previously. Others argued that hardware and software vendors often fail to account for future security flaws, selling systems that − due to their technical design and market incentives − eventually wo n't be able to properly receive and apply patches. The NHS denied that it was still using XP, claiming only 4.7 % of devices within the organization ran Windows XP.
The following is an alphabetical list of organisations confirmed to have been affected:
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why do they call him king on ncis new orleans | List of NCIS: New Orleans characters - wikipedia
NCIS: New Orleans is an American television series, executive produced by Gary Glasberg and Mark Harmon. The series features an extensive regular cast, including Scott Bakula as Dwayne Cassius Pride, Lucas Black as Christopher LaSalle, Zoe McLellan as Meredith Brody and Vanessa Ferlito as Tammy Gregorio... Recurring actors, including Shanley Caswell as Laurel Pride, Rocky Carroll as Leon Vance, and Derek Webster as Raymond Isler, appear intermittently.
Dwayne Cassius "King '' Pride (Scott Bakula) is a Supervisory Special Agent. He is also a New Orleans native and former Jefferson Parish deputy sheriff. He is also a long - time friend of Leroy Jethro Gibbs, the main character of NCIS; both were part of a group of NCIS agents known as the "Fed Five '' who gained fame for apprehending Spencer Hanlon, aka "The Privileged Killer ''. (For years, the Privileged Killer was erroneously believed to be Victor Lourde, who had been framed by a member of the "Fed Five, '' Dan MacClain. When MacClain is murdered, the teams discover his frame - up and the reason for it. Their investigation leads them to the Hanlon father and son.) He was initially assigned to the Marine Corps Support Facility in Algiers, Louisiana. He and his now - estranged wife Linda used to live in the Lower Garden District. His daughter, Laurel, is a music major at Louisiana State University. In "Chasing Ghosts '' and "Le Carnivale de la Mort '', it is revealed that Pride 's father, Cassius (Stacy Keach), is incarcerated in the Gretna Correctional Facility. As of the beginning of season two, Dwayne and Linda officially divorced. With the money Dwayne got from selling their home he paid for Dr. Wade 's assistant Danny 's college, Laurel 's college, a place for his father (if he makes parole), as well as buying a fixer - upper bar. Pride has the second highest arrest record in the history of Jefferson Parish 's Sheriffs Office. In season three, Pride personally recruits Agent Gregorio to his team.
Christopher LaSalle (Lucas Black) is a senior NCIS Special Agent. He is also a native of Alabama. LaSalle was first a detective out of the New Orleans Police Department 's Fifth District at the time of Hurricane Katrina and then spent seven years on the NOPD vice squad. He attended the University of Alabama, graduating magna cum laude with a 3.7 GPA. While in college he played the school mascot Big Al. He lives in the French Quarter. He has an older brother Cade who has bipolar disorder and an unnamed sister. He has received multiple commendations for his work at the New Orleans children 's hospital. During the first season, he begins a romantic relationship with his high school sweetheart Savannah, though she is later murdered. After this, LaSalle begins sleeping with numerous women, leaving the team concerned for his well - being. In season 3, LaSalle believes he has fathered a child, though the child is later revealed not to be his.
In "Ties That Bind '', LaSalle 's father Beau passed away; he made Chris, with whom he had a contentious if not estranged relationship, executor of his estate and his successor at LaSalle Enterprises.
Meredith Brody (Zoe McLellan) is a senior NCIS Special Agent. During NCIS season eleven, she transferred to Pride 's team from the Chicago field office. She has a background in interrogation and claims to have a black belt in aikido. She is a graduate of Michigan State University and had a twin sister, Emily Ann Brody, who was murdered. Brody was the youngest Special Agent in the history of NCIS Midwest. During the second season, Brody is alerted to the real circumstances behind her sister 's death, and working with Sebastian, she arrests the killer. At the end of season two, Brody begins a relationship with a Homeland Security Agent named Russo, who is revealed to be corrupt. Though Brody kills Russo, she resigns from NCIS after beginning to doubt her own abilities. Her resignation leads to an FBI investigation into the team, who are later cleared of all corruption charges at the behest of her replacement, Gregorio.
Sebastian Lund (Rob Kerkovich) is originally a Jefferson Parish forensic specialist, and Dr. Wade 's lab assistant, though he later attends FLETC and joins Pride 's team as a Forensics Agent. Sebastian is a hardened conspiracy theorist, and is somewhat socially awkward. In season one, it is revealed that he is in a relationship with a woman named Melissa. In season two, Sebastian helps Meredith Brody uncover the conspiracy surrounding her sister 's death. Though the team initially resents Sebastian for enabling Brody, he is later proved to be correct. In 2015, it is revealed that he has been working with Loretta for five years. In season three, he becomes the fifth member of Pride 's team after graduating from FLETC. Pride, similarly, contacted Director Vance to note how worried he was about Sebastian 's abilities in the field, but also added that he believed he deserved a chance to prove himself.
Loretta Wade (CCH Pounder) is the Coroner of Jefferson Parish. Wade 's office is contracted by NCIS for autopsies and forensics. She is a graduate of Harvard University and moved down to New Orleans after completing medical school. In season one, Loretta begins to foster two children who are involved in an NCIS case. Pride later starts a college fund for the children. Loretta is also Brody 's landlord during her tenure at NCIS. In season three, Loretta is hurt by Sebastian 's decision to leave the coroner 's office, though she later comes to accept his decision.
In "Second Line '', it is mentioned that Loretta has more than once been asked to join the Orleans Parish Coroner 's Office or even run for the position of Orleans Parish Coroner.
Sonja Percy (Shalita Grant) is a NCIS Special Agent and former Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) Special Agent. While an ATF agent, Percy helped Pride and the team on their pursuit for Baitfish. At the end of the season one finale "My City '', she noted a desire to join Pride 's team, a transfer that took place before season two. Despite working as an NCIS Special Agent, Sonja continues to participate in undercover operations for outside agencies, most recently the DEA. In season two, Pride tells Sonja that he will not support her if her secrecy begins to put Chris and Meredith at risk, suggesting she is somewhat expendable and that he will not hesitate to remove her from his team if the operation she 's part of endangers the team in any way. In season three, it is revealed that LaSalle was initially unsure of Percy 's addition to the team; similarly, Percy is hesitant of Gregorio 's arrival, though they come to respect each other. During season two, Percy and LaSalle begin a flirtation, and Gregorio initially believes they are in a relationship.
Patton Plame (Daryl "Chill '' Mitchell) is an NCIS investigative computer specialist. According to Brody, he was previously employed by United States Cyber Command. LaSalle refers to Plame as a "hacker ''.
Tammy Gregorio (Vanessa Ferlito) is a Washington FBI Special Agent who first appears as an investigator on a task force assigned to investigate Pride and his team. Brody 's unexpected departure increases the attention placed upon the team, and soon Gregorio is seconded to undertake a more thorough investigation. Following the completion of this, Pride requests that she stays on, replacing Brody on a semi-permanent basis. After she was dismissed from the FBI, Gregorio officially joins NCIS and is now on Pride 's team; with her former boss - Deputy Director Isler - lobbying for her approval.
Gregorio 's ex-husband Ethan McKinley disappeared after embezzling $80 million in Katrina relief funds. However, in season 3 episode "Overdrive '', it was revealed that she had a relationship with Assistant U.S. Attorney Hannah Lee, making her the first main LGBT character in the franchise (though a recurring gay character, Ned Dorneget, had been previously introduced in the main series). When her ex-husband returns in episode 18, "Slay the Dragon '', she tells him that she is a lesbian.
In season 3 episode 14 "Pandora 's Box (Part II) '' Gregorio reveals that she is a lawyer by profession, and joined the FBI after graduating from law school.
Laurel Pride (Shanley Caswell) is Pride 's daughter who is currently a music major at Louisiana State University. Like her father, she plays piano, and is expected to graduate with Honors. Despite having an affectionate relationship with her father, she feels he is too nice to her boyfriends, and as such notes a desire for him to stop developing "bromances '' with them. In season one, her boyfriend Orion is injured in an explosion meant to kill Pride. In season two, she is attacked whilst jogging, though the man suffers cardiac arrest and dies. She is taken hostage shortly after, but is able to disarm her female attacker long enough for Sonja Percy to shoot the attacker dead.
Rita Deveraux (Chelsea Field) is a New Orleans Assistant District Attorney and a Reserve Commander in the U.S. Navy 's Judge Advocate General Corps. She is a longtime friend, and occasional love interest, of Dwayne Pride. Field is Scott Bakula 's off - screen wife.
Raymond Isler (Derek Webster) is the Executive Assistant Director of the FBI National Security Branch and Agent Tammy Gregorio 's direct superior. In this capacity, he leads a Department of Justice investigation into Pride 's New Orleans team following the resignation of Agent Brody and the death of Agent Russo. Though Isler initially appears stand - offish with Pride, the two cooperate on numerous occasions in order to halt the activities of the cartel. Isler later fires Gregorio for disobeying a direct order, though he lobbies the Department of Justice to install her on Pride 's team.
After the takedown of Javier Garcia (Julian Acosta), EAD Isler was promoted to Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. However, when it is revealed that a member of his team was a double agent for the Russians, Isler was demoted to Special Agent.
Sasha Broussard (Callie Thorne) is a former member of the New Orleans Broussard crime syndicate, though she claims she is trying to disassociate herself from her family. After she gains the trust of Pride, the team discover she has been assisting Baitfish in his quest to control the entirety of NOLA 's criminal enterprises. She is arrested and presumably convicted of her crimes.
Douglas Hamilton (Steven Weber) first appeared as the New Orleans city councilman of District C. Though he shares a mutual dislike with Dwayne Pride, the two often reconcile their differences in the pursuit of safeguarding New Orleans. In season two, Hamilton ran for the office of the Mayor of New Orleans and was elected after the other candidate was arrested for funneling drugs into Hamilton 's district. He and Pride are later taken hostage after Hamilton is implicated in a Cold Case homicide, though he is later exonerated, and the real killer is arrested. In season three, a computer hacker leaks Hamilton 's sex - tape and emails to the media, jeopardizing his future as a public servant. He was arrested by Pride and removed from office at the end of season three.
Paul Jenks (John Livingston) is a former member of the Broussard Syndicate and Confidential Informant for Dwayne Pride, known as Baitfish. During season one, he teams up with Sasha Broussard to take over the criminal underground of New Orleans left by the downfall of the Syndicate, and is responsible for multiple murders. He is later arrested by Pride 's team, but not before assassinating Savannah Kelly. In "How Much Pain Can You Take? '', Jenks tells the team that there 's a huge storm coming and is killed seconds later after being shot in the head by an unknown sniper who is later revealed to be Jim Messier, Captain with the New Orleans Police Department.
Karen Izzo (Sharon Conley) is an Assistant United States Attorney assigned to investigate Pride 's team during NCIS: New Orleans 's third season.
Savannah Kelly (Gillian Alexy) is a long - time love interest of LaSalle, and his "childhood sweetheart ''. The two reunite after she is revealed to be his brother 's therapist, and she and Chris later embark on a romantic relationship. She is murdered by Baitfish in "How Much Pain Can You Take? ''. Chris takes her death particularly hard, and begins drinking more and seeking affection from multiple women, much to dismay of the team.
Agent Naomi Parsons (Kate Beahan) is an Australian ADFIS Agent seconded to New Orleans, and a romantic interest for Dwayne Pride.
Jim Messier (Dylan Walsh) is a Captain with the New Orleans Police Department. In "My City '', it is revealed that he was seduced by Sasha Broussard into becoming a mole, which led to him assassinating Baitfish once he was captured by Special Agent Pride and his team. Pride and LaSalle eventually discover a badly beaten Messier at an abandoned motel area with Pride and LaSalle managing to get Messier to safety before the bomb goes off. After being placed under custody, Messier is presumably convicted of his crimes, stripped of his rank as Captain and jailed.
Cade LaSalle (Clayne Crawford) is LaSalle 's brother who suffers from bi-polar disorder.
Danny Malloy (Christopher Meyer) is Loretta 's elder foster son and C.J. 's older brother. In Season 3, Danny enlisted in the United States Navy rather than go to college, causing some friction between him and Loretta - and also between Loretta and Pride, who refused to talk Danny out of enlisting.
C.J. Malloy (Dani Dare) is Loretta 's younger foster son and Danny 's younger brother.
Cassius Pride (Stacy Keach) is Pride 's incarcerated father.
Abigail Borin (Diane Neal) is a CGIS Special Agent in Charge based out of the capitol. Borin first works with Pride 's team when she is tasked with interrogating a smuggler whose crimes took place within Coast Guard jurisdiction. She later investigates a double homicide on - board a research vessel, during which she notes she has been temporarily assigned Agent Afloat status. Borin reunites with Pride to investigate the poisoning of a Naval Commander, and in "Rock - a-Bye Baby '', the kidnapping of a young child. Borin expresses a desire to join Pride 's team, though she had similarly inquired about the possibility of working with Leroy Jethro Gibbs, Pride 's friend who is stationed in Washington D.C.
Leon Vance (Rocky Carroll) is the Director of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, based out of Washington. Though he has little physical interaction with the New Orleans team, he often communicates with them via secure satellite conference. He regards Pride and his agents as one of NCIS ' most valuable assets (though he has previously praised both Gibbs ' NCIS team, and Callen 's Los Angeles team in the same manner). In season two, Vance orders a specialist unit to shadow Pride, who is in fear for his life.
Leroy Jethro Gibbs (Mark Harmon)
Gibbs is a Supervisory Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS.
Anthony DiNozzo (Michael Weatherly)
DiNozzo is a Senior Special Agent who was assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS.
Timothy McGee (Sean Murray)
McGee is a Senior Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS.
Eleanor Bishop (Emily Wickersham)
Bishop is a Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. She is a crossover character from NCIS.
Nicholas Torres (Wilmer Valderrama)
Torres is a Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS.
Abby Sciuto (Pauley Perrette)
Abby is a forensic specialist assigned to NCIS Headquarters. She is a crossover character from NCIS.
Donald "Ducky '' Mallard (David McCallum)
Ducky is a medical examiner assigned to NCIS Headquarters. He is a crossover character from NCIS.
Sarah Porter (Leslie Hope)
Porter is the United States Secretary of the Navy. She is a crossover character from NCIS.
Carol Wilson (Meredith Eaton)
Carol works for the CDC. She is a crossover character from NCIS.
Tobias C. Fornell (Joe Spano)
Fornell is a Senior FBI Special Agent. He is a crossover character from NCIS.
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how many jay z albums did kanye produce | Kanye West production discography - wikipedia
The following list is a discography of production by Kanye West, an American rapper and record producer. It includes all of his work, from hit singles and top albums such as "All of the Lights '' in "My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy '' to music he produced and co-produced such as "Takeover '' by Jay Z. The following page provides a list of Kanye West 's music in sequential order by release date.
Disc 1:
Disc 2:
Disc 1:
Executive Producer Of Album
21. "All For The Dough ''
Executive producer of album
Executive producer
Executive producer
Executive producer
Also executive producer
18. "Glow '' (produced with Noah "40 '' Shebib, and Noah Goldstein)
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description of the young person's guide to the orchestra | The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra - wikipedia
The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra is a 1945 musical composition by Benjamin Britten with a subtitle Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Purcell. It was based on the second movement, "Rondeau '', of the Abdelazer suite. It was originally commissioned for the British educational documentary film called Instruments of the Orchestra released on 29 November 1946, directed by Muir Mathieson and featuring the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by Malcolm Sargent; Sargent also conducted the concert première on 15 October 1946 with the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic in the Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool, England.
The work is one of the best - known pieces by the composer, and is often associated with two other works in the context of children 's music education: Saint - Saëns ' The Carnival of the Animals and Prokofiev 's Peter and the Wolf.
This work, in the composer 's own words, "is affectionately inscribed to the children of John and Jean Maud: Humphrey, Pamela, Caroline and Virginia, for their edification and entertainment ''.
The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra is scored for symphony orchestra:
The work is based on the Rondeau from Henry Purcell 's incidental music to Aphra Behn 's Abdelazer, and is structured, in accordance with the plan of the original documentary film, as a way of showing off the tone colours and capacities of the various sections of the orchestra.
In the introduction, the theme is initially played by the entire orchestra, then by each major family of instruments of the orchestra: first the woodwinds, then the brass, then the strings, and finally by the percussion. Each variation then features a particular instrument in depth, generally moving through each family from high to low (the order of the families is slightly different from the introduction). So, for example, the first variation features the piccolo and flutes; each member of the woodwind family then gets a variation, ending with the bassoon; and so on, through the strings, brass, and finally the percussion.
After the whole orchestra has been effectively taken to pieces in this way, it is reassembled using an original fugue which starts with the piccolo, followed by all the woodwinds, strings, brass and percussion in turn. Once everyone has entered, the brass are re-introduced (with a strike on the tamtam) with Purcell 's original melody.
The sections of the piece and instruments introduced by the variations are as follows.
The narration for the documentary film was written by Eric Crozier, the producer of the first production of Britten 's opera Peter Grimes, and is sometimes spoken by the conductor or a separate speaker during performance of the piece. The composer also arranged a version without narration. The one without narration is more often recorded. The commentary often alters between recordings.
A new narration was written by Simon Butteriss for the Aldeburgh Festival and broadcast live by CBBC presenter Johny Pitts with the BBC Symphony Orchestra for the Britten 100 celebrations in 2013.
Comedian and author John Hodgman wrote a new narration of The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra in 2015 for a series of performances with the Boston Pops.
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what is the half court defence rule in basketball | Defensive three - second violation - Wikipedia
A defensive three - second violation, also known as illegal defense, is a basketball rules infraction in the National Basketball Association (NBA) introduced in the 1983 - 1984 season. It is assessed when a member of the defending team spends more than three seconds in the free throw lane (as well called the 16 - foot lane, or as otherwise known - "in the paint '') while not actively guarding an opponent. To be considered actively guarding, a defender must be within arm 's length of an opponent and in a guarding position. A three - second count is suspended if:
In addition, a player guarding an opponent with the ball may be in the paint without actively guarding the opponent.
The team committing a defensive three - second violation is assessed a team technical foul. The offense receives one free throw and retains possession of the ball.
Prior to the 1983 - 1984 NBA season, any form of zone defense was considered an illegal defense violation and resulted in a warning on the first violation and then a technical foul for any subsequent violations. However, the defensive three - second violation makes it difficult for NBA defenses to play zone, since zone defenses usually position a player in the middle of the key to stop penetration. The Philippine Basketball Association used to follow the illegal defense rule until the 2003 PBA season when it was abolished. The high school game does not use this rule, nor does European basketball.
The WNBA started using it in 2013.
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how was the loss of bunker hill a victory | Battle of Bunker Hill - wikipedia
United Colonies
The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17, 1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts, which was peripherally involved in the battle. It was the original objective of both the colonial and British troops, though the majority of combat took place on the adjacent hill which later became known as Breed 's Hill.
On June 13, 1775, the leaders of the colonial forces besieging Boston learned that the British were planning to send troops out from the city to fortify the unoccupied hills surrounding the city, which would give them control of Boston Harbor. In response, 1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed 's Hill. During the night, the colonists constructed a strong redoubt on Breed 's Hill, as well as smaller fortified lines across the Charlestown Peninsula.
By daybreak of June 17, the British became aware of the presence of colonial forces on the Peninsula and mounted an attack against them that day. Two assaults on the colonial positions were repulsed with significant British casualties; the third and final attack carried the redoubt after the defenders ran out of ammunition. The colonists retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, leaving the British in control of the Peninsula.
The battle was a tactical, though somewhat Pyrrhic victory for the British, as it proved to be a sobering experience for them, involving many more casualties than the Americans had incurred, including a large number of officers. The battle had demonstrated that inexperienced militia were able to stand up to regular army troops in battle. Subsequently, the battle discouraged the British from any further frontal attacks against well defended front lines. American casualties were comparatively much fewer, although their losses included General Joseph Warren and Major Andrew McClary, the final casualty of the battle.
The battle led the British to adopt a more cautious planning and maneuver execution in future engagements, which was evident in the subsequent New York and New Jersey campaign, and arguably helped rather than hindered the American forces. Their new approach to battle was actually giving the Americans greater opportunity to retreat if defeat was imminent. The costly engagement also convinced the British of the need to hire substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries to bolster their strength in the face of the new and formidable Continental Army.
Boston, situated on a peninsula, was largely protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it, which were dominated by British warships. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the colonial militia, a force of about 15,000 men, had surrounded the town, and effectively besieged it. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the only land access to Boston itself (the Roxbury Neck), but, lacking a navy, were unable to even contest British domination of the waters of the harbor. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, and were able to be resupplied and reinforced by sea. In theory, they were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely.
However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, which could be used to advantage. If the militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city until the occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that the Knox Expedition, led by Henry Knox, later transported cannon from Fort Ticonderoga to the Boston area.
The Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus (known as the Charlestown Neck) at its northwest and extended about 1 mile (1.6 km) southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of 110 feet (34 m), lay at the northern end of the peninsula. Breed 's Hill, at a height of 62 feet (19 m), was more southerly and nearer to Boston. The town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1,000 feet (305 m) separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, where Copp 's Hill was at about the same height as Breed 's Hill. While the British retreat from Concord had ended in Charlestown, General Gage, rather than immediately fortifying the hills on the peninsula, had withdrawn those troops to Boston the day after that battle, turning the entire Charlestown Peninsula into a no man 's land.
Throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men. On May 25, three generals arrived on HMS Cerberus: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. Gage began planning with them to break out of the city, finalizing a plan on June 12. This plan began with the taking of the Dorchester Neck, fortifying the Dorchester Heights, and then marching on the colonial forces stationed in Roxbury. Once the southern flank had been secured, the Charlestown heights would be taken, and the forces in Cambridge driven away. The attack was set for June 18.
On June 13, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was notified, by express messenger from the Committee of Safety in Exeter, New Hampshire, that a New Hampshire gentleman "of undoubted veracity '' had, while visiting Boston, overheard the British commanders making plans to capture Dorchester and Charlestown. On June 15, the Massachusetts Committee of Safety decided that additional defenses needed to be erected. General Ward directed General Israel Putnam to set up defenses on the Charlestown Peninsula, specifically on Bunker Hill.
On the night of June 16, colonial Colonel William Prescott led about 1,200 men onto the peninsula in order to set up positions from which artillery fire could be directed into Boston. This force was made up of men from the regiments of Prescott, Putnam (the unit was commanded by Thomas Knowlton), James Frye, and Ebenezer Bridge. At first, Putnam, Prescott, and their engineer, Captain Richard Gridley, disagreed as to where they should locate their defense. Some work was performed on Bunker Hill, but Breed 's Hill was closer to Boston and viewed as being more defensible. Arguably against orders, they decided to build their primary redoubt there. Prescott and his men, using Gridley 's outline, began digging a square fortification about 130 feet (40 m) on a side with ditches and earthen walls. The walls of the redoubt were about 6 feet (1.8 m) high, with a wooden platform inside on which men could stand and fire over the walls.
The works on Breed 's Hill did not go unnoticed by the British. General Clinton, out on reconnaissance that night, was aware of them, and tried to convince Gage and Howe that they needed to prepare to attack the position at daylight. British sentries were also aware of the activity, but most apparently did not think it cause for alarm. Then, in the early predawn, around 4 a.m., a sentry on board HMS Lively spotted the new fortification, and notified her captain. Lively opened fire, temporarily halting the colonists ' work. Aboard his flagship HMS Somerset, Admiral Samuel Graves awoke, irritated by the gunfire that he had not ordered. He stopped it, only to have General Gage countermand his decision when he became fully aware of the situation in the morning. He ordered all 128 guns in the harbor, as well as batteries atop Copp 's Hill in Boston, to fire on the colonial position, which had relatively little effect. The rising sun also alerted Prescott to a significant problem with the location of the redoubt -- it could easily be flanked on either side. He promptly ordered his men to begin constructing a breastwork running down the hill to the east, deciding he did not have the manpower to also build additional defenses to the west of the redoubt.
When the British generals met to discuss their options, General Clinton, who had urged an attack as early as possible, preferred an attack beginning from the Charlestown Neck that would cut off the colonists ' retreat, reducing the process of capturing the new redoubt to one of starving out its occupants. However, he was outvoted by the other three generals. Howe, who was the senior officer present and would lead the assault, was of the opinion that the hill was "open and easy of ascent and in short would be easily carried. '' General Burgoyne concurred, arguing that the "untrained rabble '' would be no match for their "trained troops ''. Orders were then issued to prepare the expedition.
When General Gage surveyed the works from Boston with his staff, Loyalist Abijah Willard recognized his brother - in - law Colonel Prescott. "Will he fight? '' asked Gage. "(A) s to his men, I can not answer for them; '' replied Willard, "but Colonel Prescott will fight you to the gates of hell. '' Prescott lived up to Willard 's word, but his men were not so resolute. When the colonists suffered their first casualty, Asa Pollard of Billerica, a young private killed by cannon fire, Prescott gave orders to bury the man quickly and quietly, but a large group of men gave him a solemn funeral instead, with several deserting shortly thereafter.
It took six hours for the British to organize an infantry force and to gather up and inspect the men on parade. General Howe was to lead the major assault, drive around the colonial left flank, and take them from the rear. Brigadier General Robert Pigot on the British left flank would lead the direct assault on the redoubt, and Major John Pitcairn led the flank or reserve force. It took several trips in longboats to transport Howe 's initial forces (consisting of about 1,500 men) to the eastern corner of the peninsula, known as Moulton 's Point. By 2 p.m., Howe 's chosen force had landed. However, while crossing the river, Howe noted the large number of colonial troops on top of Bunker Hill. Believing these to be reinforcements, he immediately sent a message to Gage, requesting additional troops. He then ordered some of the light infantry to take a forward position along the eastern side of the peninsula, alerting the colonists to his intended course of action. The troops then sat down to eat while they waited for the reinforcements.
Prescott, seeing the British preparations, called for reinforcements. Among the reinforcements were Joseph Warren, the popular young leader of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety, and Seth Pomeroy, an aging Massachusetts militia leader. Both of these men held commissions of rank, but chose to serve as infantry. Prescott ordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend the left flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, and topped it with fence rails and hay. They also constructed three small v - shaped trenches between this dirt wall and Prescott 's breastwork. Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included about 200 men from the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments, under Colonels John Stark and James Reed. Stark 's men, who did not arrive until after Howe landed his forces (and thus filled a gap in the defense that Howe could have taken advantage of, had he pressed his attack sooner), took positions along the breastwork on the northern end of the colonial position. When low tide opened a gap along the Mystic River to the north, they quickly extended the fence with a short stone wall to the water 's edge. Colonel Stark placed a stake about 100 feet (30 m) in front of the fence and ordered that no one fire until the regulars passed it. Just prior to the action, further reinforcements arrived, including portions of Massachusetts regiments of Colonels Brewer, Nixon, Woodbridge, Little, and Major Moore, as well as Callender 's company of artillery.
Behind the colonial lines, confusion reigned. Many units sent toward the action stopped before crossing the Charlestown Neck from Cambridge, which was under constant fire from gun batteries to the south. Others reached Bunker Hill, but then, uncertain about where to go from there, milled around. One commentator wrote of the scene that "it appears to me there never was more confusion and less command. '' While General Putnam was on the scene attempting to direct affairs, unit commanders often misunderstood or disobeyed orders.
By 3 p.m., the British reinforcements, which included the 47th Foot and the 1st Marines, had arrived, and the British were ready to march. Brigadier General Pigot 's force, gathering just south of Charlestown village, were taking casualties from sniper fire, and Howe asked Admiral Graves for assistance in clearing out the snipers. Graves, who had planned for such a possibility, ordered incendiary shot fired into the village, and then sent a landing party to set fire to the town. The smoke billowing from Charlestown lent an almost surreal backdrop to the fighting, as the winds were such that the smoke was kept from the field of battle.
Pigot, commanding the 5th, 38th, 43rd, 47th, and 52nd regiments, as well as Major Pitcairn 's Marines, were to feint an assault on the redoubt. However, they continued to be harried by snipers in Charlestown, and Pigot, when he saw what happened to Howe 's advance, ordered a retreat.
General Howe led the light infantry companies and grenadiers in the assault on the American left flank, expecting an easy effort against Stark 's recently arrived troops. His light infantry were set along the narrow beach, in column, in order to turn the far left flank of the colonial position. The grenadiers were deployed in the middle. They lined up four deep and several hundred across. As the regulars closed, John Simpson, a New Hampshire man, prematurely fired, drawing an ineffective volley of return fire from the regulars. When the regulars finally closed within range, both sides opened fire. The colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the regulars, using the fence to steady and aim their muskets, and benefit from a modicum of cover. With this devastating barrage of musket fire, the regulars retreated in disarray, and the militia held their ground.
The regulars reformed on the field and marched out again. This time, Pigot was not to feint; he was to assault the redoubt, possibly without the assistance of Howe 's force. Howe, instead of marching against Stark 's position along the beach, marched instead against Knowlton 's position along the rail fence. The outcome of the second attack was much the same as the first. One British observer wrote, "Most of our Grenadiers and Light - infantry, the moment of presenting themselves lost three - fourths, and many nine - tenths, of their men. Some had only eight or nine men a company left... '' Pigot did not fare any better in his attack on the redoubt, and again ordered a retreat. Meanwhile, in the rear of the colonial forces, confusion continued to reign. General Putnam tried, with only limited success, to send additional troops from Bunker Hill to Breed 's Hill to support the men in the redoubt and along the defensive lines.
The British rear was also in some disarray. Wounded soldiers that were mobile had made their way to the landing areas, and were being ferried back to Boston, and the wounded lying on the field of battle were the source of moans and cries of pain. General Howe, deciding that he would try again, sent word to General Clinton in Boston for additional troops. Clinton, who had watched the first two attacks, sent about 400 men from the 2nd Marines and the 63rd Foot, and then followed himself to help rally the troops. In addition to the new reserves, he also convinced about 200 of the wounded to form up for the third attack. During the interval between the second and third assaults, General Putnam continued trying to direct troops toward the action. Some companies, and leaderless groups of men, moved toward the action; others retreated. John Chester, a Connecticut captain, seeing an entire company in retreat, ordered his company to aim muskets at that company to halt its retreat; they turned about and headed back to the battlefield.
The third assault, concentrated on the redoubt (with only a feint on the colonists ' flank), was successful, although the colonists again poured musket fire into the British ranks, and it cost the life of Major Pitcairn. The defenders had run out of ammunition, reducing the battle to close combat. The British had the advantage once they entered the redoubt, as their troops were equipped with bayonets on their muskets while most of the colonists were not. Colonel Prescott, one of the last colonists to leave the redoubt, parried bayonet thrusts with his normally ceremonial sabre. It is during the retreat from the redoubt that Joseph Warren was killed.
The retreat of much of the colonial forces from the peninsula was made possible in part by the controlled retreat of the forces along the rail fence, led by John Stark and Thomas Knowlton, which prevented the encirclement of the hill. Their disciplined retreat, described by Burgoyne as "no flight; it was even covered with bravery and military skill '', was so effective that most of the wounded were saved; most of the prisoners taken by the British were mortally wounded. General Putnam attempted to reform the troops on Bunker Hill; however the flight of the colonial forces was so rapid that artillery pieces and entrenching tools had to be abandoned. The colonists suffered most of their casualties during the retreat on Bunker Hill. By 5 p.m., the colonists had retreated over the Charlestown Neck to fortified positions in Cambridge, and the British were in control of the peninsula.
The British had taken the ground but at a great loss; they had suffered 1,054 casualties (226 dead and 828 wounded), with a disproportionate number of these officers. The casualty count was the highest suffered by the British in any single encounter during the entire war. General Clinton, echoing Pyrrhus of Epirus, remarked in his diary that "A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America. '' British dead and wounded included 100 commissioned officers, a significant portion of the British officer corps in North America. Much of General Howe 's field staff was among the casualties. Major Pitcairn had been killed, and Lieutenant Colonel James Abercrombie fatally wounded. General Gage, in his report after the battle, reported the following officer casualties (listing lieutenants and above by name):
The colonial losses were about 450, of whom 140 were killed. Most of the colonial losses came during the withdrawal. Major Andrew McClary was technically the highest ranking colonial officer to die in the battle; he was hit by cannon fire on Charlestown Neck, the last person to be killed in the battle. He was later commemorated by the dedication of Fort McClary in Kittery, Maine. A serious loss to the Patriot cause, however, was the death of Dr. Joseph Warren. He was the President of Massachusetts ' Provincial Congress, and he had been appointed a Major General on June 14. His commission had not yet taken effect when he served as a volunteer private three days later at Bunker Hill. Only thirty men were captured by the British, most of them with grievous wounds; twenty died while held prisoner. The colonials also lost numerous shovels and other entrenching tools, as well as five out of the six cannon they had brought to the peninsula.
When news of the battle spread through the colonies, it was reported as a colonial loss, as the ground had been taken by the enemy, and significant casualties were incurred. George Washington, who was on his way to Boston as the new commander of the Continental Army, received news of the battle while in New York City. The report, which included casualty figures that were somewhat inaccurate, gave Washington hope that his army might prevail in the conflict.
A British officer in Boston, after the battle
The Massachusetts Committee of Safety, seeking to repeat the sort of propaganda victory it won following the battles at Lexington and Concord, commissioned a report of the battle to send to England. Their report, however, did not reach England before Gage 's official account arrived on July 20. His report unsurprisingly caused friction and argument between the Tories and the Whigs, but the casualty counts alarmed the military establishment, and forced many to rethink their views of colonial military capability. King George 's attitude toward the colonies hardened, and the news may have contributed to his rejection of the Continental Congress ' Olive Branch Petition, the last substantive political attempt at reconciliation. Sir James Adolphus Oughton, part of the Tory majority, wrote to Lord Dartmouth of the colonies, "the sooner they are made to Taste Distress the sooner will (Crown control over them) be produced, and the Effusion of Blood be put a stop to. '' About a month after receiving Gage 's report the Proclamation of Rebellion would be issued in response; this hardening of the British position would also lead to a hardening of previously weak support for the rebellion, especially in the southern colonies, in favor of independence.
Gage 's report had a more direct effect on his own career. His dismissal from office was decided just three days after his report was received, although General Howe did not replace him until October 1775. Gage wrote another report to the British Cabinet, in which he repeated earlier warnings that "a large army must at length be employed to reduce these people '', that would require "the hiring of foreign troops ''.
Much has been written in the wake of this battle over how it was conducted. Both sides made strategic and tactical missteps which could have altered the outcome of the battle. While hindsight often gives a biased view, some things seem to be apparent after the battle that might reasonably have been within the reach of the command of the day.
Years after the battle, and after Israel Putnam was dead, General Dearborn published an account of the battle in Port Folio magazine, accusing General Putnam of inaction, cowardly leadership and failing to supply reinforcements during the battle, which subsequently sparked a long lasting and major controversy among veterans of the war, various friends, family members and historians. People were shocked by the rancor of the attack, and this prompted a forceful response from defenders of Putnam, including such notables as John and Abigail Adams. Historian Harold Murdock wrote that Dearborn 's account "abounds in absurd misstatements and amazing flights of imagination. '' The Dearborn attack received considerable attention because at the time he was in the middle of considerable controversy himself. He had been relieved of one of the top commands in the War of 1812 due to his mistakes. He had also been nominated to serve as Secretary of War by President Monroe, but was rejected by the United States Senate (which was the first time that the Senate had voted against confirming a presidential cabinet choice).
The colonial forces, while nominally under the overall command of General Ward, with General Putnam and Colonel Prescott leading in the field, often acted quite independently. This was evident in the opening stages of the battle, when a tactical decision was made that had strategic implications. After deliberating with General Putnam and Colonel Gridley, Colonel Prescott and his staff, apparently in contravention of orders, decided to fortify Breed 's Hill rather than Bunker Hill. The fortification of Breed 's Hill was more provocative; it would have put offensive artillery closer to Boston. It also exposed the forces there to the possibility of being trapped, as they probably could not properly defend against attempts by the British to land troops and take control of Charlestown Neck. If the British had taken that step, they might have had a victory with many fewer casualties.
While the front lines of the colonial forces were generally well managed, the scene behind them, especially once the action began, was significantly disorganized, due at least in part to a poor chain of command. Only some of the militias operated directly under Ward 's and Putnam 's authority, and some commanders also disobeyed orders, staying at Bunker Hill rather than joining in the defense on the third British assault. Several officers were subjected to court martial and cashiered. Colonel Prescott was of the opinion that the third assault would have been repulsed, had his forces in the redoubt been reinforced with either more men, or more supplies of ammunition and powder.
The British leadership, for its part, acted slowly once the works on Breed 's Hill were spotted. It was 2 p.m. when the troops were ready for the assault, roughly ten hours after the Lively first opened fire. This leisurely pace gave the colonial forces time to reinforce the flanking positions that had been poorly defended. Gage and Howe decided that a frontal assault on the works would be a simple matter, when an encircling move (gaining control of Charlestown Neck), would have given them a more resounding victory. (This move would not have been without risks of its own, as the colonists could have made holding the Neck expensive with fire from the high ground in Cambridge.) But the British leadership was excessively optimistic, believing that "two regiments were sufficient to beat the strength of the province ''.
Once in the field, Howe, rather than focusing on the redoubt, opted (twice) to dilute the force attacking the redoubt with a flanking maneuver against the colonial left. It was only with the third attack, when the flank attack was merely a feint, and the main force (now also reinforced with additional reserves) squarely targeted the redoubt, that the attack succeeded.
Following the taking of the peninsula, the British arguably had a tactical advantage that they could have used to press into Cambridge. General Clinton proposed this to Howe; having just led three assaults with grievous casualties, he declined the idea. The colonial military leaders eventually recognized Howe as a tentative decision - maker, to his detriment; in the aftermath of the Battle of Long Island (1776), he again had tactical advantages that might have delivered Washington 's army into his hands, but again refused to act.
Historian John Ferling maintains that had General Gage used the Royal Navy to secure the narrow neck to the Charleston peninsula, cutting the Americans off from the mainland, he could have achieved a far less costly victory, but he was motivated by revenge over patriot resistance at the Battles of Lexington and Concord and relatively heavy British losses, and also felt that the colonial militia were completely untrained and could be overtaken with little effort, opting for a frontal assault.
The famous order "Do n't fire until you see the whites of their eyes '' was popularized in stories about the battle of Bunker Hill. It is uncertain as to who said it there, since various histories, including eyewitness accounts, attribute it to Putnam, Stark, Prescott, or Gridley, and it may have been said first by one, and repeated by the others. It was also not an original statement. The idea dates originally to the general - king Gustavus Adolphus (1594 -- 1632) who gave standing orders to his musketeers: "never to give fire, till they could see their own image in the pupil of their enemy 's eye ''. Gustavus Adolphus 's military teachings were widely admired and imitated and caused this saying to be often repeated. It was used by General James Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham, when his troops defeated Montcalm 's army on September 13, 1759. The earliest similar quote came from the Battle of Dettingen on June 27, 1743, where Lieutenant - Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his Regiment, the Royal Scots Fusiliers, not to fire until they could "see the white of their e'en. '' The phrase was also used by Prince Charles of Prussia in 1745, and repeated in 1755 by Frederick the Great, and may have been mentioned in histories the colonial military leaders were familiar with. Whether or not it was actually said in this battle, it was clear that the colonial military leadership were regularly reminding their troops to hold their fire until the moment when it would have the greatest effect, especially in situations where their ammunition would be limited.
A significant number of notable people fought in this battle. Henry Dearborn and William Eustis, for example, went on to distinguished military and political careers; both served in Congress, the Cabinet, and in diplomatic posts. Others, like John Brooks, Henry Burbeck, Christian Febiger, Thomas Knowlton, and John Stark, became well known for later actions in the war. Stark became known as the "Hero of Bennington '' for his role in the 1777 Battle of Bennington. Free African - Americans also fought in the battle; notable examples include Barzillai Lew, Salem Poor, and Peter Salem. Another notable participant was Daniel Shays, who later became famous for his army of protest in Shays ' Rebellion. Israel Potter was immortalized in Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile, a novel by Herman Melville. Colonel John Paterson commanded the Massachusetts First Militia, served in Shays ' Rebellion, and became a congressman from New York. Lt. Col. Seth Read, who served under John Paterson at Bunker Hill, went on to settle Geneva, New York and Erie, Pennsylvania, and was said to have been instrumental in the phrase E pluribus unum being added to U.S. coins. George Claghorn of the Massachusetts militia was shot in the knee at Bunker Hill and went on after the war to become the master builder of the USS Constitution, a.k.a. "Old Ironsides '', which is the oldest naval vessel in the world that is still commissioned and afloat.
John Trumbull 's painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (displayed in lede), was created as an allegorical depiction of the battle and Warren 's death, not as an actual pictorial recording of the event. The painting shows a number of participants in the battle including a British officer, John Small, among those who stormed the redoubt, yet came to be the one holding the mortally wounded Warren and preventing a fellow redcoat from bayoneting him. He was friends of Putnam and Trumbull. Other central figures include Andrew McClary who was the last man to fall in the battle.
The Bunker Hill Monument is an obelisk that stands 221 feet (67 m) high on Breed 's Hill. On June 17, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, the cornerstone of the monument was laid by the Marquis de Lafayette and an address delivered by Daniel Webster. (When Lafayette died, he was buried next to his wife at the Cimetière de Picpus under soil from Bunker Hill, which his son Georges sprinkled over him.) The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge was specifically designed to evoke this monument. There is also a statue of William Prescott showing him calming his men down.
The National Park Service operates a museum dedicated to the battle near the monument, which is part of the Boston National Historical Park. A cyclorama of the battle was added in 2007 when the museum was renovated.
In nearby Cambridge, a small granite monument just north of Harvard Yard bears this inscription: "Here assembled on the night of June 16, 1775, 1200 Continental troops under command of Colonel Prescott. After prayer by President Langdon, they marched to Bunker Hill. '' See footnote for picture. (Samuel Langdon, a Congregational minister, was Harvard 's 11th president.) Another small monument nearby marks the location of the Committee of Safety, which had become the Patriots ' provisional government as Tories left Cambridge. These monuments are on the lawn to the west of Harvard 's Littaeur Center, which is itself the west of Harvard 's huge Science Center. See footnote for map.
Bunker Hill Day, observed every June 17, is a legal holiday in Suffolk County, Massachusetts (which includes the city of Boston), as well as Somerville in Middlesex County. Prospect Hill, site of colonial fortifications overlooking the Charlestown Neck, is now in Somerville, which was previously part of Charlestown. State institutions in Massachusetts (such as public institutions of higher education) in Boston also celebrate the holiday. However, the state 's FY2011 budget requires that all state and municipal offices in Suffolk County be open on Bunker Hill Day and Evacuation Day.
On June 16 and 17, 1875, the centennial of the battle was celebrated with a military parade and a reception featuring notable speakers, among them General William Tecumseh Sherman and Vice President Henry Wilson. It was attended by dignitaries from across the country. Celebratory events also marked the sesquicentennial (150th anniversary) in 1925 and the bicentennial in 1975.
Over the years the Battle of Bunker Hill has been commemorated on four U.S. Postage stamps.
Major sources Most of the information about the battle itself in this article comes from the following sources.
Minor sources Specific facts not necessarily covered by the major sources come from the following sources.
Commemorations Various commemorations of the battle are described in the following sources.
About the battle
About people in the battle
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where is the patagonia located on a map | Patagonia - wikipedia
Patagonia (Spanish pronunciation: (pataˈɣonja)) is a sparsely populated region located at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the southern section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, pampas and grasslands east of this southern portion of the Andes. Patagonia has two coasts: western facing the Pacific Ocean and eastern facing the Atlantic Ocean.
The Colorado and Barrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia. The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes included as part of Patagonia. Most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at Reloncaví Estuary.
The name Patagonia comes from the word patagón, which was used by Magellan in 1520 to describe the native people that his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed that the people he called the Patagons were Tehuelches, who tended to be taller than Europeans of the time.
The Argentine researcher Miguel Doura observed that the name Patagonia possibly derives from the ancient Greek region of modern Turkey called Paflagonia, possible home of the patagon personage in the chivalric romances Primaleon printed in 1512, ten years before Magellan arrived in these southern lands. The hypothesis was accepted and published in a 2011 New Review of Spanish Philology report.
Argentine Patagonia is for the most part a region of steppelike plains, rising in a succession of 13 abrupt terraces about 100 metres (330 feet) at a time, and covered with an enormous bed of shingle almost bare of vegetation. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water. Towards Chilean territory the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant, consisting principally of southern beech and conifers. The high rainfall against the western Andes (Wet Andes) and the low sea surface temperatures offshore give rise to cold and humid air masses, contributing to the ice - fields and glaciers, the largest ice - fields in the Southern hemisphere outside of Antarctica.
Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the principal ones are the Gualichu, south of the Río Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta (through which previously flowed the waters of Nahuel Huapi Lake, which now feed the river Limay); the Senguerr (spelled Senguer on most Argentine maps and within the corresponding region), the Deseado River. Besides these transverse depressions (some of them marking lines of ancient inter-oceanic communication), there are others which were occupied by more or less extensive lakes, such as the Yagagtoo, Musters and Colhue Huapi, and others situated to the south of Puerto Deseado, in the centre of the country.
In the central region volcanic eruptions, which have taken part in the formation of the plateau during the Cenozoic, cover a large part of the land with basaltic lava - caps; and in the western third, more recent glacial deposits appear above the lava. There, erosion which is caused principally by the sudden melting and retreat of ice aided by tectonic changes, has scooped out a deep longitudinal depression. Best in evidence where in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks which are uplifted by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera. To the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia. Lake basins along the Cordillera were also excavated by ice - streams, including Lake Argentino and Lake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such as Bahía Inútil.
The geological limit of Patagonia has been proposed to be Huincul Fault which forms a major discontinuity. The fault truncates various structures including the Pampean orogen. Ages of basement rocks changes abruptly across the fault. There have been discrepancies among geologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass. Víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an allochtonous terrane that separated from Antarctica and docked in South America 250 to 270 Ma in the Permian era. A 2014 study by Robert John Pankhurst and coworkers reject any idea of a far - travelled Patagonia claiming it is likely of parautochtonous origin (nearby origin).
The Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting vertebrate fauna. This, together with the discovery of the perfect cranium of a chelonian of the genus Myolania, which is almost identical with Myolania oweni of the Pleistocene age in Queensland, forms an evident proof of the connection between the Australian and South American continents. The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been found associated with remains of Dinosauria. Fossils of the mid-Cretaceous Argentinosaurus, which may be the largest of all dinosaurs, have been found in Patagonia, and a model of the mid-Jurassic Piatnitzkysaurus graces the concourse of the Trelew airport (the skeleton is in the Trelew paleontological museum; the museum 's staff has also announced the discovery of a species of dinosaur even bigger than Argentinosaurus). Of more than paleontological interest, the middle Jurassic Los Molles Formation and the still richer late Jurassic (Tithonian) and early Cretaceous (Berriasian) Vaca Muerta formation above it in the Neuquén basin are reported to contain huge hydrocarbon reserves (mostly gas in Los Molles, both gas and oil in Vaca Muerta) partly accessible through hydraulic fracturing. Other specimens of the interesting fauna of Patagonia, belonging to the Middle Cenozoic, are the gigantic wingless birds, exceeding in size any hitherto known, and the singular mammal Pyrotherium, also of very large dimensions. In the Cenozoic marine formation, a considerable number of cetaceans has been discovered.
During the Oligocene and Early Miocene large swathes of Patagonia were subject to a marine transgression. The transgression might have temporarily linked the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, as inferred from the findings of marine invertebrate fossils of both Atlantic and Pacific affinity in La Cascada Formation. Connection would have occurred through narrow epicontinental seaways that formed channels in a dissected topography. The Antarctic Plate started to subduct beneath South America 14 million years ago in the Miocene forming the Chile Triple Junction. At first the Antarctic Plate subducted only in the southernmost tip of Patagonia, meaning that the Chile Triple Junction was located near the Strait of Magellan. As the southern part of Nazca Plate and the Chile Rise became consumed by subduction the more northerly regions of the Antarctic Plate begun to subduct beneath Patagonia so that the Chile Triple Junction advanced to the north over time. The asthenospheric window associated to the triple junction disturbed previous patterns of mantle convection beneath Patagonia inducing an uplift of ca. 1 km that reversed the Miocene transgression.
At a state level, Patagonia lies inside two countries: 10 % in Chile and 90 % in Argentina. Both countries have organised their Patagonian territories into non-equivalent administrative subdivisions: Provinces and departments in Argentina; and regions, provinces and communes in Chile. Being parts of a unitary state, Chile 's first level administrative divisions -- the regions -- enjoy far less autonomy than Argentine provinces. Argentine provinces have elected governors and parliaments, while Chilean regions have government - appointed intendants.
The Patagonian Provinces of Argentina are Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz, and Tierra del Fuego. The southernmost part of Buenos Aires Province can also be considered part of Patagonia.
The two Chilean regions indisputedly located entirely within Patagonia are Aysén and Magallanes. Palena Province, a part of the Los Lagos Region, is also located within Patagonia. By some definitions Chiloé Archipelago, the rest of the Los Lagos Region, and part of the Los Ríos Region are also part of Patagonia.
Overall climate is cool and dry. The east coast is warmer than the west, especially in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches its shores, whereas the west coast is washed by a cold current. However, winters are colder on the inland plateaus east of the slopes and further down the coast on the south east end of the Patagonian region. For example, at Puerto Montt, on the inlet behind Chiloé Island, the mean annual temperature is 11 ° C (52 ° F) and the average extremes are 25.5 and − 1.5 ° C (77.9 and 29.3 ° F), whereas at Bahía Blanca near the Atlantic coast and just outside the northern confines of Patagonia the annual temperature is 15 ° C (59 ° F) and the range much greater, as temperatures above 35 ° C and below − 5 ° C are recorded every year. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean temperature is 6 ° C (43 ° F) and the average extremes are 24.5 and − 2 ° C (76.1 and 28.4 ° F). The prevailing winds are westerly, and the westward slope has a much heavier precipitation than the eastern in a rainshadow effect; the western islands close to Torres del Paine receive an annual precipitation of 4,000 to 7,000 mm, whilst the eastern hills are less than 800 mm and the plains may be as low as 200 mm annual precipitation.
Precipitation is highly seasonal in northwestern Patagonia. For example, Villa La Angostura in Argentina, close to the border with Chile, receives up to 434 mm of rain and snow in May, 297 mm in June, 273 in July, compared to 80 in February and 72 in March. The total for the city is 2074 mm, making it one of the rainiest in Argentina. Further west, some areas receive up to 4,000 mm and more, especially on the Chilean side. In the northeast, the seasons for rain are reversed: most rain falls from occasional summer thunderstorms, but totals barely reach 500 mm in the northeast corner, and rapidly decrease to less than 300 mm. The Patagonian west coast, which belongs exclusively to Chile, has a cool oceanic climate, with summer maximum temperatures ranging from 14 ° C in the south to 19 ° C in the north (and nights between 5 ° C and 11 ° C) and very high precipitation, from 2,000 to more than 7,000 mm in local micro-climates. Snow is uncommon at the coast in the north, but happens more often in the south, and frost is usually not very intense.
Immediately east from the coast are the Andes, cut by deep fjords in the south and by deep lakes in the north, and with varying temperatures according to the altitude. The tree line ranges from close to 2,000 m on the northern side (except for the Andes in northern Neuquén in Argentina, where sunnier and dryer conditions allow trees to grow up to close to 3,000 m), and diminishes southward to only 600 -- 800 m in Tierra del Fuego. Precipitation changes dramatically from one spot to the other, and diminishes very quickly eastward. An example of this is Laguna Frías, in Argentina, receives 4,400 mm yearly. The city of Bariloche, about 40 km further east, receives about 1,000 mm, and the airport, another 15 km east, receives less than 600 mm. The easterly slopes of the Andes are home to several Argentine cities: San Martín de los Andes, Bariloche, El Bolsón, Esquel, El Calafate. Temperatures there are milder in the summer (in the north, between 20 ° C and 24 ° C, with cold nights between 4 ° C and 9 ° C; in the south, summers are between 16 ° C and 20 ° C, at night temperatures are similar to the north) and much colder in the winter, with frequent snowfall (although snow cover rarely lasts very long). Daytime highs range from 3 ° C to 9 ° C in the north, and from 0 ° C to 7 ° C in the south, whereas nights range from − 5 ° C to 2 ° C everywhere. Cold waves can bring much colder values: - 21 ° C have been recorded in Bariloche, and most places can often see temperatures between − 12 ° C and − 15 ° C and highs staying around 0 ° C for a few days.
Directly east of these areas, the weather becomes much harsher: precipitation drops to between 150 and 300 mm, the mountains no longer protect the cities from the wind, and temperatures become more extreme. Maquinchao is a couple hundred kilometers east of Bariloche, at the same altitude on a plateau, and summer daytime temperatures are usually about 5 ° C warmer, rising up to 35 ° C sometimes, but winter temperatures are much more extreme: the record is − 35 ° C, and it is not uncommon to see some nights 10 ° C colder than Bariloche. The plateaus in Santa Cruz province and parts of Chubut usually have snow cover through the winter, and often experience very cold temperatures. In Chile, the city of Balmaceda is known for being situated in this region (which is otherwise almost exclusively in Argentina), and for being the coldest place in Chile, with temperatures below − 20 ° C every once in a while.
The northern Atlantic coast has warm summers (28 ° C to 32 ° C, but with relatively cool nights at 15 ° C) and mild winters, with highs of about 12 ° C and lows about 2 -- 3 ° C. Occasionally, temperatures reach − 10 ° C or 40 ° C, and rainfall is very scarce. It only gets a bit colder further south in Chubut, and the city of Comodoro Rivadavia has summer temperatures of 24 ° C to 28 ° C, nights of 12 ° C to 16 ° C, and winters with days around 10 ° C and nights around 3 ° C, and less than 250 mm of rain. However, there is a drastic drop as we move south to Santa Cruz: Rio Gallegos, in the south of the province, has summer temps of 17 ° C to 21 ° C, (nights between 6 ° C and 10 ° C) and winter temperatures of 2 ° C to 6 ° C, with nights between − 5 ° C and 0 ° C despite being right on the coast. Snowfall is common despite the dryness, and temperatures are known to fall to under − 18 ° C and to remain below freezing for several days in a row. Rio Gallegos is also among the windiest places on Earth, with winds reaching 100 km h occasionally.
Tierra del Fuego is extremely wet in the west, relatively damp in the south, and dry in the north and east. Summers are cool (13 ° C to 18 ° C in the north, 12 ° C to 16 ° C in the south, with nights generally between 3 ° C and 8 ° C), cloudy in the south, and very windy. Winters are dark and cold, but without extreme temperatures in the south and west (Ushuaia rarely reaches − 10 ° C, but hovers around 0 ° C for several months, and snow can be heavy). In the east and north, winters are much more severe, with cold snaps bringing temperatures down to − 20 ° C all the way to Rio Grande on the Atlantic coast. Snow can fall even in the summer in most areas as well.
The depletion of the ozone layer over the South Pole has been reported as being responsible for blindness and skin cancer in sheep in Tierra del Fuego, and concerns for human health and ecosystems.
The guanaco (Lama guanicoe), the cougar, the Patagonian fox (Lycalopex griseus), the Patagonian hog - nosed skunk (Conepatus humboldtii), and the Magellanic tuco - tuco (Ctenomys magellanicus; a subterranean rodent) are the most characteristic mammals of the Patagonian plains. The Patagonian steppe is one of the last strongholds of the guanaco and Darwin 's rheas (Rhea pennata), which had been hunted for their skins by the Tehuelches, on foot using boleadoras, before the diffusion of firearms and horses; they were formerly the chief means of subsistence for the natives, who hunted them on horseback with dogs and bolas. Vizcachas (Lagidum spp.) and the Patagonian mara (Dolichotis patagonum) are also characteristic of the steppe and the Pampas to the north.
Bird life is often abundant. The southern caracara (Caracara plancus) is one of the characteristic objects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence of austral parakeets (Enicognathus ferrugineus) as far south as the shores of the strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators; and green - backed firecrowns (Sephanoides sephaniodes), a species of hummingbird, may be seen flying amidst the falling snow. One of the largest birds in the world, the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) can be seen in Patagonia. Of the many kinds of waterfowl it is enough to mention the Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis), the upland goose (Chloephaga picta), and in the strait the remarkable steamer ducks.
Signature marine fauna include the southern right whale, the Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus), the orca and elephant seals. The Valdés Peninsula is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, designated for its global significance as a site for the conservation of marine mammals.
The Patagonian freshwater fish fauna is relatively restricted compared to other similar Southern Hemisphere regions. The Argentine part is home to a total of 29 freshwater fish species; 18 of which are native. The introduced are several species of trout, common carp and various species that originated in more northerly parts of South American. The natives are osmeriforms (Aplochiton and Galaxias), temperate perches (Percichthys), catfish (Diplomystes, Hatcheria and Trichomycterus), Neotropical silversides (Odontesthes) and characiforms (Astyanax, Cheirodon, Gymnocharacinus and Oligosarcus). Other Patagonian freshwater fauna include the highly unusual aeglid crustacean.
Human habitation of the region dates back thousands of years, with some early archaeological findings in the area dated to at least the 13th millennium BC, although later dates of around the 10th millennium BC are more securely recognized. There is evidence of human activity at Monte Verde in Llanquihue Province, Chile dated to around 12,500 BC. The glacial period ice - fields and subsequent large meltwater streams would have made settlement difficult at that time.
The region seems to have been inhabited continuously since 10,000 BC, by various cultures and alternating waves of migration, the details of which are as yet poorly understood. Several sites have been excavated, notably caves such as Cueva del Milodon in Última Esperanza in southern Patagonia, and Tres Arroyos on Tierra del Fuego, that support this date. Hearths, stone scrapers, animal remains dated to 9400 -- 9200 BC have been found east of the Andes.
The Cueva de las Manos is a famous site in Santa Cruz, Argentina. A cave at the foot of a cliff is covered in wall paintings, particularly the negative images of hundreds of hands, believed to date from around 8000 BC.
Based on artifacts found in the region, it appears that hunting of guanaco, and to a lesser extent rhea (ñandú), were the primary food sources of tribes living on the eastern plains. It is unclear whether the megafauna of Patagonia, including the ground sloth and horse, were extinct in the area before the arrival of humans, although this is now the more widely accepted account. It is also not clear if domestic dogs were part of early human activity. Bolas are commonly found and were used to catch guanaco and rhea. A maritime tradition existed along the Pacific coast; whose latest exponents were the Yámana to the south of Tierra del Fuego, the Kaweshqar between Taitao Peninsula and Tierra del Fuego and the Chono people in the Chonos Archipelago.
The indigenous peoples of the region included the Tehuelches, whose numbers and society were reduced to near extinction not long after the first contacts with Europeans. Tehuelches included the Gununa'kena to the north, Mecharnuekenk in south central Patagonia and the Aonikenk or Southern Tehuelche in the far South, north of the Magellan channel. On Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, the Selk'nam (Ona) and Haush (Mannekenk) lived in the north and south east respectively. In the archipelagos to the south of Tierra del Fuego were Yámana, with the Kawéskar (Alakaluf) in the coastal areas and islands in western Tierra del Fuego and the south west of the mainland. In the Patagonian archipelagoes north of Taitao Peninsula lived the Chonos. These groups were encountered in the first periods of European contact with different lifestyles, body decoration and language, although it is unclear when this configuration emerged.
Towards the end of the 16th century, Mapuche - speaking agriculturalists penetrated the western Andes and from there across into the eastern plains and down to the far south. Through confrontation and technological ability, they came to dominate the other peoples of the region in a short period of time, and are the principal indigenous community today. The Mapuche model of domination through technological superiority and armed confrontation was later repeated as Europeans implemented a succeeding but conceptually identical cycle, essentially replacing the position of the former dominators with a new, albeit predominately European class.
It is possible that navigators such as Gonçalo Coelho and Amerigo Vespucci had reached the area (his own account of 1502 has it that they reached the latitude 52 ° S), however Vespucci 's failure to accurately describe the main geographical features of the region such as the Río de la Plata casts serious doubt on this claim.
Possibly the first European description of a part of the Patagonian coast was in a Portuguese voyage around 1512, traditionally attributed to captain Diogo Ribeiro, who after his death was replaced by Estevão de Frois, and was guided by the pilot and cosmographer João de Lisboa). It has been claimed that the expedition, after reaching Rio de la Plata (which they would explore on the return voyage, contacting the Charrúa and other peoples) eventually reached San Matias Gulf, at 42 ° S. The expedition reported that after going south of the 40th parallel, they found a "land '' or a "point extending into the sea '', and further south, a gulf. The expedition is said to have rounded the gulf for nearly 300 km (186 mi) and sighted a continent on the southern side of the gulf.
The Atlantic coast of Patagonia was first fully explored in 1520 by the Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan, who on his passage along the coast named many of its more striking features -- San Matías Gulf, Cape of 11,000 Virgins (now simply Cape Virgenes), and others. Magellan 's fleet spent a difficult winter at what he named Puerto San Julián before resuming its voyage further south on 21 August 1520. During this time it encountered the local inhabitants, likely to be Tehuelche people, described by his reporter, Antonio Pigafetta, as giants called Patagons.
Rodrigo de Isla, sent inland in 1535 from San Matías by Simón de Alcazaba Sotomayor (on whom western Patagonia had been conferred by Charles I of Spain, is presumed to have been the first European to have traversed the great Patagonian plain. If the men under his charge had not mutinied, he might have crossed the Andes to reach the Pacific coast.
Pedro de Mendoza, on whom the country was next bestowed, founded Buenos Aires, but did not venture south. Alonzo de Camargo (1539), Juan Ladrilleros (1557) and Hurtado de Mendoza (1558) helped to make known the Pacific coasts, and while Sir Francis Drake 's voyage in 1577 down the Atlantic coast, through the Strait of Magellan and northward along the Pacific coast was memorable, yet the descriptions of the geography of Patagonia owe much more to the Spanish explorer Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa (1579 -- 1580), who, devoting himself especially to the south - west region, made careful and accurate surveys. The settlements which he founded at Nombre de Dios and San Felipe were neglected by the Spanish government, the latter being abandoned before Thomas Cavendish visited it in 1587 and so desolate that he called it Port Famine. After the discovery of the route around Cape Horn the Spanish Crown lost interest in southern Patagonia until the eighteenth century when the coastal settlements Carmen de Patagones, San José, Puerto Deseado, and Nueva Colonia Floridablanca were established, although it maintained its claim of a de jure sovereignty over area.
In 1669, the district around Puerto Deseado was explored by John Davis and was claimed in 1670 by Sir John Narborough for King Charles II of England, but the English made no attempt to establish settlements or explore the interior.
The first European explorers of Patagonia observed that the indigenous people in the region were taller than the average Europeans of the time, prompting some of them to believe that Patagonians were giants.
According to Antonio Pigafetta, one of the Magellan expedition 's few survivors and its published chronicler, Magellan bestowed the name "Patagão '' (or Patagón) on the inhabitants they encountered there, and the name "Patagonia '' for the region. Although Pigafetta 's account does not describe how this name came about, subsequent popular interpretations gave credence to a derivation meaning ' land of the big feet '. However, this etymology is questionable. The term is most likely derived from an actual character name, "Patagón '', a savage creature confronted by Primaleón of Greece, the hero in the homonymous Spanish chivalry novel (or knight - errantry tale) by Francisco Vázquez. This book, published in 1512, was the sequel of the romance "Palmerín de Oliva, '' much in fashion at the time, and a favourite reading of Magellan. Magellan 's perception of the natives, dressed in skins, and eating raw meat, clearly recalled the uncivilized Patagón in Vázquez 's book. Novelist and travel writer Bruce Chatwin suggests etymological roots of both Patagon and Patagonia in his book, In Patagonia, noting the similarity between "Patagon '' and the Greek word παταγος, which means "a roaring '' or "gnashing of teeth '' (in his chronicle, Pigafetta describes the Patagonians as "roaring like bulls '').
The main interest in the region sparked by Pigafetta 's account came from his reports of their meeting with the local inhabitants, whom they claimed to measure some nine to twelve feet in height -- "... so tall that we reached only to his waist '' --, and hence the later idea that Patagonia meant "big feet ''. This supposed race of Patagonian giants or Patagones entered into the common European perception of this little - known and distant area, to be further fuelled by subsequent reports of other expeditions and famous - name travellers like Sir Francis Drake, which seemed to confirm these accounts. Early charts of the New World sometimes added the legend regio gigantum ("region of the giants '') to the Patagonian area. By 1611 the Patagonian god Setebos (Settaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the hearers of The Tempest.
The concept and general belief persisted for a further 250 years, and was to be sensationally re-ignited in 1767 when an "official '' (but anonymous) account was published of Commodore John Byron 's recent voyage of global circumnavigation in HMS Dolphin. Byron and crew had spent some time along the coast, and the publication (Voyage Round the World in His Majesty 's Ship the Dolphin) seemed to give proof positive of their existence; the publication became an overnight best - seller, thousands of extra copies were to be sold to a willing public, and other prior accounts of the region were hastily re-published (even those in which giant - like folk were not mentioned at all).
However, the Patagonian giant frenzy was to die down substantially only a few years later, when some more sober and analytical accounts were published. In 1773 John Hawkesworth published on behalf of the Admiralty a compendium of noted English southern - hemisphere explorers ' journals, including that of James Cook and John Byron. In this publication, drawn from their official logs, it became clear that the people Byron 's expedition had encountered were no taller than 6 - foot - 6 - inch (1.98 m), very tall but by no means giants. Interest soon subsided, although awareness of and belief in the myth persisted in some quarters even up into the 20th century.
In the second half of the 18th century, European knowledge of Patagonia was further augmented by the voyages of the previously mentioned John Byron (1764 -- 1765), Samuel Wallis (1766, in the same HMS Dolphin which Byron had earlier sailed in) and Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1766). Thomas Falkner, a Jesuit who resided near forty years in those parts, published his Description of Patagonia (Hereford, 1774); Francisco Viedma founded El Carmen, nowadays Carmen de Patagones and Antonio settled the area of San Julian Bay, where he founded the colony of Floridablanca and advanced inland to the Andes (1782). Basilio Villarino ascended the Rio Negro (1782).
Two hydrographic surveys of the coasts were of first - rate importance: the first expedition (1826 -- 1830) including HMS Adventure and HMS Beagle under Phillip Parker King, and the second (1832 -- 1836) being the voyage of the Beagle under Robert FitzRoy. The latter expedition is particularly noted for the participation of Charles Darwin who spent considerable time investigating various areas of Patagonia onshore, including long rides with gauchos in Río Negro, and who joined FitzRoy in a 200 miles (320 kilometres) expedition taking ships boats up the course of the Santa Cruz river.
In the early 19th century, the araucanization of the natives of northern Patagonia intensified and a lot of Mapuches migrated to Patagonia to live as nomads raising cattle or pillaging the Argentine countryside. The cattle stolen in the incursions (malones) would later be taken to Chile through the mountain passes and traded for goods, especially alcoholic beverages. The main trail for this trade was called Camino de los chilenos and run a length of about 1000 km from the Buenos Aires Province to the mountain passes of Neuquén Province. The lonco Calfucurá crossed the Andes from Chile to the Pampas around 1830, after a call from the governor of Buenos Aires, Juan Manuel de Rosas, to fight the Boroano people. In 1859, he attacked Bahía Blanca in Argentina with 3,000 warriors. As in the case of Calfucura, many other bands of Mapuches got involved in the internal conflicts of Argentina until Conquest of the Desert. To counter the cattle raids, a trench called Zanja de Alsina was built by Argentina in the pampas in the 1870s.
In the mid-19th century, the newly independent nations of Argentina and Chile began an aggressive phase of expansion into the south, increasing confrontation with the indigenous populations. In 1860, a French adventurer Orelie - Antoine de Tounens proclaimed himself king of the Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia of the Mapuche.
Following the last instructions of Bernardo O'Higgins, the Chilean president Manuel Bulnes sent an expedition to the Strait of Magellan and founded Fuerte Bulnes in 1843. Five years later, the Chilean government moved the main settlement to the current location of Punta Arenas, the oldest permanent settlement in Southern Patagonia. The creation of Punta Arenas was instrumental in making Chile 's claim of the Strait of Magellan permanent. In the 1860s sheep from the Falkland Islands were introduced to the lands around the Straits of Magellan, and throughout the 19th century the sheepfarming grew to be the most important economic sector in southern Patagonia.
George Chaworth Musters in 1869 wandered in company with a band of Tehuelches through the whole length of the country from the strait to the Manzaneros in the north - west, and collected a great deal of information about the people and their mode of life.
Argentine authorities worried that the strong connections araucanized tribes had with Chile would allegedly give Chile certain influence over the pampas. Argentine authorities feared an eventual war with Chile over Patagonia where the natives would side with the Chileans and that it would therefore be fought in the vicinities of Buenos Aires.
The decision of planning and executing the Conquest of the Desert was probably triggered by the 1872 attack of Cufulcurá and his 6,000 followers on the cities of General Alvear, Veinticinco de Mayo and Nueve de Julio, where 300 criollos were killed, and 200,000 heads of cattle taken.
In the 1870s, the Conquest of the Desert was a controversial campaign by the Argentine government, executed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca, to subdue or, some claim, to exterminate the native peoples of the South.
In 1885, a mining expeditionary party under the Romanian adventurer Julius Popper landed in southern Patagonia in search of gold, which they found after travelling southwards towards the lands of Tierra del Fuego. This further opened up some of the area to prospectors. European missionaries and settlers arrived through the 19th and 20th centuries, notably the Welsh settlement of the Chubut Valley.
During the first years of the 20th century, the border between the two nations in Patagonia was established by the mediation of the British crown. But it has undergone a lot of modifications since then, being the last conflict solved in 1994 by an arbitral tribunal constituted in Rio de Janeiro, granting Argentina sovereignty over the Southern Patagonia Icefield, Cerro Fitz Roy and Laguna del Desierto.
Until 1902, a large proportion of Patagonia 's population were natives of Chiloé Archipelago (Chilotes) who worked as peons in large livestock farming estancias. As manual labour they had status below the gauchos and the Argentine, Chilean and European landowners and administrators.
Before and after 1902, when the boundaries were drawn, a lot of Chilotes were expelled from the Argentine side due to fear of what having a large Chilean population in Argentina could lead into in the future. These workers founded the first inland Chilean settlement in what is now the Aysén Region; Balmaceda. Lacking good grasslands on the forest - covered Chilean side, the immigrants burned down the forest, setting fires that could last more than two years.
The area 's principal economic activities have been mining, whaling, livestock (notably sheep throughout) agriculture (wheat and fruit production near the Andes towards the north), and oil after its discovery near Comodoro Rivadavia in 1907.
Energy production is also a crucial part of the local economy. Railways were planned to cover continental Argentine Patagonia to serve the oil, mining, agricultural and energy industries, and a line was built connecting San Carlos de Bariloche to Buenos Aires. Portions of other lines were built to the south, but the only lines still in use are La Trochita in Esquel, the ' Train of the End of the World ' in Ushuaia, both heritage lines, and a short run Tren Histórico de Bariloche to Perito Moreno.
In the western forest covered Patagonian Andes and archipelagoes wood lodging has historically been an important part of the economy, and was driving force behind the colonization of the areas of Nahuel Huapi and Lácar lakes in Argentina and Guaitecas Archipelago in Chile.
Sheep farming introduced in the late 19th century has been a principal economic activity. After reaching its heights during the First World War, the decline in world wool prices affected sheep farming in Argentina. Nowadays about half of Argentina 's 15 million sheep are in Patagonia, a percentage that is growing as sheep farming disappears in the Pampa (to the North). Chubut (mainly Merino) is the top wool producer with Santa Cruz (Corriedale and some Merino) second. Sheep farming revived in 2002 with the devaluation of the peso and firmer global demand for wool (led by China and the EU). Still there is little investment in new abbatoirs (mainly in Comodoro Rivadavia, Trelew and Rio Gallegos), and often there are phytosanitary restrictions to the export of sheep meat. Extensive valleys in the Cordilleran range have provided sufficient grazing lands, and the low humidity and weather of the southern region make raising Merino and Corriedale sheep common.
Livestock also includes small numbers of cattle, and in lesser numbers pigs and horses. Sheep farming provides small but important jobs located in rural areas where there is little else.
In the second half of the 20th century, tourism became an ever more important part of Patagonia 's economy. Originally a remote backpacking destination, the region has attracted increasing numbers of upmarket visitors, cruise passengers rounding Cape Horn or visiting Antarctica, and adventure and activity holiday - makers. Principal tourist attractions include the Perito Moreno glacier, the Valdés Peninsula, the Argentine Lake District and Ushuaia and Tierra del Fuego (the city is also a jumping off place for travel to Antarctica, bringing in still more visitors). Tourism has created new markets locally and for export for traditional crafts such as Mapuche handicrafts, guanaco textiles, and confectionery and preserves.
A spin - off from increased tourism has been the buying of often enormous tracts of land by foreigners, often as a prestige purchase rather than for agriculture. Buyers have included Sylvester Stallone, Ted Turner and Christopher Lambert, and most notably Luciano Benetton, Patagonia 's largest landowner. His Compañia de Tierras Sud has brought new techniques to the ailing sheep - rearing industry and sponsored museums and community facilities, but has been controversial particularly for its treatment of local Mapuche communities.
At the urging of the Chilean government, the Spanish company Endesa hopes to build a number of large hydro - electric dams in the Chilean Patagonia, which has raised environmental concerns from a large number of local and international NGOs. The first dams proposed would be built on the Baker and Pascua rivers, but dams have also been proposed on others, including the famed Futaleufú River in Chile and Santa Cruz river in Argentina. The dams would affect the minimum ecological flows and threaten the fishing, wilderness - tourism and agricultural interests along the river. The electricity would be fed into high - voltage lines (to be built by a Canadian company) and taken 1,200 miles (1,900 km) north to the industry and mining hub around Santiago. The lines would cut through a number of previously pristine national parks and protected areas. The rightist Piñera government considered the power to be essential for economic growth, while opponents claimed it would destroy Patagonia 's growing tourism industry. On June 11, 2014, the new leftist Bachelet government rejected the dam project, estimated to be worth about 8 billion dollars, after years of pressure from environmental groups.
Due to its sparse rainfall in agricultural areas, Argentine Patagonia already has numerous dams for irrigation, some of which are also used for hydropower. The Limay River is used to generate hydroelectricity at five dams built on its course: Alicurá, Piedra del Águila, Pichi Picún Leufú, El Chocón, and Arroyito; together with the Cerros Colorados Complex on the Neuquén River they contribute with more than one quarter of the total hydroelectric generation in the country. Coal is mined in the Rio Turbio area and used for electrical generation. Patagonia 's notorious winds have already made the area Argentina 's main source of wind power, and there are plans for major increases in wind power generation. Patagonia has always been Argentina 's main area, and Chile 's only area, of conventional oil and gas production. Oil and gas have played an important role in the rise of Neuquén - Cipolleti as Patagonia 's most populous urban area, and in the growth of Comodoro Rivadavia, Punta Arenas, and Rio Grande as well. The development of the Neuquén basin 's enormous unconventional oil and gas reserves through hydraulic fracturing has just begun, but the YPF - Chevron Loma Campana field in the Vaca Muerta formation is already the world 's largest producing shale oil field outside North America according to YPF CEO Miguel Gallucio.
Argentine Patagonian cuisine is largely the same as the cuisine of Buenos Aires -- grilled meats and pasta -- with extensive use of local ingredients and less use of those products which have to be imported into the region. Lamb is considered the traditional Patagonian meat, grilled for several hours over an open fire. Some guide books have reported that game, especially guanaco and introduced deer and boar, are popular in restaurant cuisine. However, since the guanaco is a protected animal in both Chile and Argentina, it is unlikely to appear commonly as restaurant fare. Trout and centolla (king crab) are also common, though over-fishing of centolla has made it increasingly scarce. In the area around Bariloche, there is a noted Alpine cuisine tradition, with chocolate bars and even fondue restaurants, and tea rooms are a feature of the Welsh communities in Gaiman and Trevelin as well as in the mountains. Since the mid-1990s there has been some success with winemaking in Argentine Patagonia, especially in Neuquén.
Foreign investors, including Italian multinational Benetton Group, Ted Turner, Joseph Lewis and the environmentalist Douglas Tompkins, own major land areas. This situation has caused several conflicts with local inhabitants and the governments of Chile and Argentina; for example the opposition by Douglas Tompkins to the planned route for Carretera Austral in Pumalín Park. A scandal is also brewing about two properties owned by Ted Turner: the estancia La Primavera, located inside Nahuel Huapi National Park; and the estancia Collón Cura. Benetton has faced criticism from Mapuche organizations, including Mapuche International Link, over its purchase of traditional Mapuche lands in Patagonia. The Curiñanco - Nahuelquir family was evicted from their land in 2002 following Benetton 's claim to it, but the land was restored in 2007.
Nahuel Huapi Lake, near Bariloche, Argentina Chaitén volcano stretching across Patagonia into San Jorge Basin in the Atlantic Ocean
Satellite view of the Perito Moreno Glacier (Santa Cruz Province) and the Andean ice - sheet
Road Y - 50 towards Estancia Rio Verde, Magallanes, Chile
Laguna Cabeza de Mar, 50 km north of Punta Arenas, Magallanes, Chile
Perito Moreno Glacier, Santa Cruz Province, Argentina
Monte Fitz Roy, Santa Cruz Province, Argentina
The city of Trelew, Chubut Province, Argentina
Guanacos.
Welsh settlement in Patagonia. (Chubut Province, Argentina)
Southern right whale in Península Valdés, Chubut Province, Argentina.
Torres del Paine, Chile
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Patagonia ''. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Coordinates: 41 ° 48 ′ 37 '' S 68 ° 54 ′ 23 '' W / 41.81015 ° S 68.90627 ° W / - 41.81015; - 68.90627
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where does it say not to wear the flag | United States flag Code - wikipedia
The United States Flag Code establishes advisory rules for display and care of the national flag of the United States of America. It is Chapter 1 of Title 4 of the United States Code (4 U.S.C. § 1 et seq). This is a U.S. federal law, but the penalty described in Title 18 of the United States Code (18 U.S.C. § 700) for failure to comply with it is not enforced. In 1990, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Eichman that prohibiting burning of the U.S. flag conflicts with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech and is therefore unconstitutional.
This etiquette is as applied within U.S. jurisdiction. In other countries and places, local etiquette applies.
Prior to Flag Day, June 14, 1923, neither the federal government nor the states had official guidelines governing the display of the United States ' flag. On that date, the National Flag Code was constructed by representatives of over 68 organizations, under the auspices of the National Americanism Commission of the American Legion. The code drafted by that conference was printed by the national organization of the American Legion and given nationwide distribution.
On June 22, 1942, the Code became Public Law 77 - 623; chapter 435. Little had changed in the code since the Flag Day 1923 Conference. The most notable change was the removal of the Bellamy salute due to its similarities to the Hitler salute.
The Freedom to Display the American Flag Act of 2005 prohibits real estate management organizations from restricting homeowners from displaying the Flag of the United States on their own property.
The Army Specialist Joseph P. Micks Federal Flag Code Amendment Act of 2007 added a provision to fly the flag at half - staff upon the death of a member of the Armed Forces from any State, territory, or possession who died while serving on active duty. It also gave the mayor of the District of Columbia the authority to direct that the flag be flown at half - staff. Federal facilities in the area covered by the governor or mayor of the District of Columbia will also fly the flag at half - staff as directed.
The Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2009 (Sec. 595.) allows the military salute for the flag during the national anthem by members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and by veterans.
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all praise is due to allah in arabic | Alḥamdulillāh - wikipedia
Al - ḥamdu lillāh (Arabic: الحَمْد لله ) or alḥamdulillāh, also known as Tahmid is an Arabic phrase meaning "Praise be to God '', sometimes translated as "Thank God! '' It is frequently used by Muslims of every background, due to its centrality to the texts of the Quran and the words of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, but also spoken by some Arabic - speaking Christians and Jews.
The meaning and in - depth explanation of the phrase have been the subject of much exegesis.
The phrase has three basic parts:
The word "Allah '' means "God. '' It is a contraction of the definite article al - and the word ʾilāh (a god, deity). Like in English, the article is used here to single out the noun as being the only one of its kind, "the god '' (the one and only) or "God ''. Therefore, "Allah '' is the Arabic word for "God ''. "ʾilāh '' is the Arabic cognate of the ancient Semitic name for God, El.
The phrase is first found in the first verse of the first sura of the Qur'an (Al - Fatiha). So frequently do Muslims and Arabic - speaking Jews and Christians invoke this phrase that the quadriliteral verb hamdala (حمدل), "to say al - ḥamdu li - llāh '' was coined, and the derived noun ḥamdala (حمدلة) is used as a name for this phrase.
The triconsonantal root Ḥ - M-D (ح م د), meaning "praise, '' can also be found in the names Muhammad, Mahmud, Hamid and Ahmad.
English translations of "Alhamdulillah '' include:
Jabir ibn Abd - Allah wrote in a hadith that Muhammad, said: "The best remembrance of God is to repeat lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh and the best prayer (du'a) is al - ḥamdu lillāh. '' (Narrated by Nasa'i, Ibn Majah, and Hakim who declared its chain ' sound '.)
Abu Huraira wrote that Muhammad said: "Any matter of importance which is not begun with al - ḥamdu lillāh remains defective. '' From Abu Dawood
Anas bin Malik wrote that Muhammad said: "God is pleased with his slave who says, al - ḥamdu lillāh when he takes a morsel of food and drinks a draught of water. ''
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what are all the tributes names in hunger games | List of the Hunger Games characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters in The Hunger Games trilogy, a series of young adult science fiction novels by Suzanne Collins that were later adapted into a series of four feature films. The actors who portray these characters are given in List of The Hunger Games cast members.
In the second installment Catching Fire, she is forced to fight in the next year 's Hunger Games, an especially brutal edition known as the Quarter Quell which occurs every 25 years. She destroys the force field containing the Games arena, and is rescued along with a few surviving tributes by members of an underground rebellion organized by the supposedly destroyed District 13.
In the third installment, she becomes the Mockingjay, an inspirational symbol of a second civil war against the Capitol. Despite the intent of her limited role as a propagandist, she is drawn into combat by her obsession to kill Snow. As the war progresses, she comes to realize the rebel leader, President Alma Coin, is no less ruthless and power - driven than Snow. Katniss learns that Coin considers her expendable, staged a supposed Capitol atrocity which kills Prim, and after the war, calls for a final Hunger Games using the children of the Capitol war criminals. When finally given the chance to execute Snow, Katniss kills Coin instead. She is deemed not mentally responsible and returns to District 12, suffering trauma and suicidal depression. Peeta 's return draws her out of the depression, and she finally realizes she is in love with him. She marries him, but it is fifteen years until she is ready to have children.
Peeta is captured by the Capitol at the end of the Quarter Quell and submitted to "hijacking '', a process of torture and brainwashing which gives him an instinctual fear of Katniss and effectively turns him into an assassination weapon against her. During the civil war, he is rescued and eventually rehabilitated by the rebels. After the Capitol is defeated, he returns to District 12 with Katniss and marries her. Twenty years after the war, they have two children.
In the second book, Catching Fire, Katniss returns to District 12, but their relationship can not continue as it was, since Katniss and Peeta must play the part of lovers due to threats from the Capitol. Gale confesses his love for Katniss after she asks him to run away with her. Soon afterward, he is brutally whipped in public for hunting on Capitol land. He and Katniss prepare to fight as it becomes clear that a rebellion is about to begin. However, Katniss, along with Peeta, is selected for the Third Quarter Quell and must leave District 12 to return to the Games. Once again, Gale is forced to say goodbye to Katniss as she prepares for a fight to the death.
In Mockingjay, Gale fights in the rebellion in an epic war. District 12 is destroyed, and Gale leads approximately 10 % of the population to safety. The survivors are forced to move to what is left of District 13. Once the people of District 13 are aware of Gale 's heroism, they reward him with a higher ranking and a communicuff (which is later taken from him as punishment for helping Katniss in the war). Towards the end of the book, his relationship with Katniss deteriorates because he feels responsible for the death of Prim, Katniss ' sister (caused by a bomb he had constructed). He mentions that he would always remind Katniss of Prim 's death, which Katniss silently agrees with. Afterwards, Gale decides to remain in District 2.
After his victory, he became an alcoholic and has spent almost all of the next 24 years intoxicated. As the only surviving victor from District 12 (one of only two in the history of the Games), Haymitch has been forced to mentor all of its tributes, which consumed him with guilt by being obligated to participate in the Games that he hated. He stumbled through drunken fatalism and bemused curiosity all while teaching his new pupils his tricks. He dealt with these feelings with alcohol and by openly flouting the dignity of the games. He treats Peeta and Katniss with contempt, and initially is sarcastic, expending no effort to help them. However, when Katniss confronts him, he is stirred from his stupor and emerges as the pair 's greatest advocate, impressed by her determination and Peeta 's patience. Haymitch shows himself to be highly canny as he guides his protégés in a cleverly designed, highly unorthodox strategy aimed at ensuring the survival of both tributes.
In the book Catching Fire, the liquor supply in District 12 runs out. As a result, Haymitch suffers from alcohol withdrawal. It is left to Katniss and Peeta to coax him back to health and get him more liquor. After this incident, Katniss begins to develop a true affection and respect for him. When Katniss discovers that Haymitch and his allies from District 13 and the Capitol failed to save Peeta from the arena as they did her, she claws him in the face. In Mockingjay, Haymitch is forced to go through detox in District 13, as they do not permit the consumption of alcohol. During the voting to decide whether the final Hunger Games will use the Capitol children, Haymitch votes yes, understanding Katniss 's decision to make President Coin think she is on her side. After this, he continues to serve as a mentor to Katniss and Peeta; however, he never truly repairs his relationship with either of them and resumes his drinking after the war ends. Haymitch and Katniss, despite nearly always working towards the same goals, are usually hostile towards each other because they have similarly prickly personalities; also, Katniss and Peeta both resent Haymitch for keeping information from both of them, sometimes at the request of the other.
At the "reaping '' for the 74th Hunger Games, Prim is chosen by lottery as the female "tribute '' from District 12. Katniss volunteers to take her place. Before Katniss leaves for the Capitol, Prim makes her promise to try hard to win the Games. This promise guides many of Katniss 's actions in the game, and Katniss 's sacrifice for Prim makes her a popular symbol in the Capitol, prompting Johanna to note that the Capitol can not afford to threaten Prim to get to Katniss because of the potential outcry. In Mockingjay, rebel President Alma Coin sends Prim as a casualty nurse into the final battle against the Capitol. Prim is killed in a bombing, sending Katniss into a deep depression. President Snow later tells Katniss that the rebels did the bombing and made it look like the work of the Capitol, and timed a second explosion to kill the medical corps assisting survivors of the first. This leads Katniss to kill Coin instead of Snow.
In Mockingjay, it is revealed that the smell of blood is due to oral sores he got from one of the poisons that he used to kill people in his megalomaniacal efforts to control Panem. He drank the poison in order to allay suspicions, then took the antidote, but it could not cure his sores. He also smells strongly of genetically enhanced roses, as he always wears a white rose in his lapel to cover the scent of blood. The strong smell invariably makes Katniss gag. He is said to have prostituted winning tributes, like Finnick Odair, forcing them to have sex with wealthy Capitol citizens, under threat of killing their loved ones if they refused. Snow claims he only kills for a purpose, and he promises Katniss he will always tell her the truth. Whether these assertions are true or not is left up to interpretation by Katniss. He dies at the end of Mockingjay, after Katniss shoots President Coin instead of him at his own public execution, as he laughs maniacally at the irony of said assassination. The rebels are unable to determine whether the cause of death was by choking on his own blood from his untreated mouth sores or because he was trampled by the mob in the panic following President Coin 's assassination.
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who played mr. furley on three's company | List of Three 's Company characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of major characters in the American television sitcom Three 's Company (1977 -- 84).
Jack E. Tripper, Jr. is portrayed by John Ritter. The character is based on the character Robin Tripp of the British sitcom Man About the House and Robin 's Nest. Jack is the main character on Three 's Company and its spinoff Three 's a Crowd.
Jack E. Tripper is a San Diego native who is a veteran of the United States Navy, where he was a member of a boxing team. He is discovered in the bathroom of Janet Wood and Chrissy Snow 's apartment in Santa Monica on the morning after a going - away party they threw for their departing roommate Eleanor, explaining, "I came with a friend who knew one of the gatecrashers. '' He previously lived at the YMCA and needed a place to stay, and the girls needed a new roommate to replace Eleanor. Janet reasoned with their landlord, Stanley Roper, who lived straight downstairs from the girls ' apartment, and he agreed that Jack could stay because Janet told Mr. Roper that Jack is gay, without Jack 's knowledge. Jack was, of course, straight (the comedy stemming from having to "play gay '' provided much of the story for the sitcom), but to bypass Mr. Roper 's policy against single men sharing an apartment with single women, Jack had to pose as a homosexual to Mr. Roper (and later to Mr. Furley, as well).
Jack attended LA Tech on the G.I. Bill to follow his dreams of running a small French restaurant one day. He pursues a degree in culinary arts and works odd jobs from time to time. After completion of his schooling, he finds full - time employment as a chef, working for a popular restaurant owner named Frank Angelino (Jordan Charney). He worked his way up to head chef, and, around season seven, finally opened his own French restaurant called Jack 's Bistro.
Jack has an older brother named Lee, who once cames to town for a visit (in the episode "Lee Ai n't Heavy, He 's My Brother ''), and Jack displays his feelings of inferiority when compared to Lee (Jack felt perpetually in Lee 's shadow since they were children, because Lee was always more successful). Jack and Lee 's father, Jack Tripper, Sr. (played by comedian Dick Shawn), appeared in the episode "Like Father, Like Son ''. In the season - 7 episode "Extra, Extra '', Jack 's mother was played by actress Georgann Johnson.
Jack is known for being a klutz. Much of the character 's humor is derived from slapstick comedy. He is extremely clumsy and accident - prone, and is well known for his comic pratfalls. Jack is somewhat of a ladies ' man and a playboy, but is also kind, loyal - and protective of his roommates, family, and friends. Despite having been a boxer in the Navy, he often cowered and allowed other men to bully him (mainly because of their larger size). Also, Jack is plagued by a fear of flying, as revealed in the episodes "Up in the Air '' and "Cupid Works Overtime. '' Jack has his own bedroom, while Janet and Chrissy share a second bedroom. A poster of The Beatles as they appeared late in their career can be seen hanging on the wall above Jack 's bed. (The Beatles poster actually belonged to Ritter, an avid Beatles fan, and he lent it to the producers to hang on Jack 's bedroom wall.)
When Janet marries Phillip Dawson in the series finale "Friends and Lovers '', Jack proposes to flight attendant Vicky Bradford. Though she loves him, Vicky turns Jack down since she does not want to marry and prefers that they live together instead. Jack refuses at first, but then he changes his mind and they move into the apartment above his bistro. Three 's Company then ends its series run and the spin - off series Three 's a Crowd begins, with Vicky and Jack living above the bistro and Vicky 's father having purchased the restaurant from Mr. Angelino.
Janet Wood was portrayed by Joyce DeWitt.
Janet and her roommate Chrissy Snow (and later roommates Cindy Snow and Terri Alden) share an apartment in Santa Monica, California, and need a third roommate to help pay the rent after their old roommate, Eleanor, just had her baby, married, and moved out. On the morning after a going - away party they threw for Eleanor, Janet and Chrissy find Jack Tripper sleeping in their bathtub. Upon getting to know Jack, who at the time is staying at the local YMCA, Janet and Chrissy suggest that he move in as their new roommate (primarily because he is skilled in cooking, a skill that both girls lack). Their old - fashioned and curmudgeonly landlord, Stanley Roper, is opposed to the idea of a young man sharing an apartment with two young attractive women. However, Janet convinces Roper that Jack is gay to alleviate the landlord 's concern about the living arrangement. Thus, Jack is allowed to move in under this guise.
Janet worked in and ultimately manages the Arcade Flower Shop. She is very fond of plants, which are seen throughout the apartment.
Janet is from Speedway, Indiana. She has a sister named Jenny (who came for a visit in the episode "My Sister 's Keeper ''), and a brother whose name is never mentioned. She graduated from college, but her major is never revealed. She is the daughter of Ruth and Roland Wood. In the episode "Chrissy Come Home '', Janet states that her father is of Italian descent. She speaks Italian, although not fluently (as displayed in the episode "Loan Shark ''). (Like her character, DeWitt is from Speedway and her father is of Italian descent.)
Janet was portrayed as the intelligent, responsible, and "reliable '' roommate as opposed to her more ditzy blonde counterparts Chrissy, Cindy, and Terri, with early episodes focusing on her self - consciousness over being less endowed than her female roommates, or at being perceived as less spontaneous. Perhaps because of her above - mentioned responsibility, Janet is the one who often reprimands Jack over his mischief.
In the episode leading to the series finale of Three 's Company, she meets Phillip Dawson at a reading of a will. In the series finale "Friends and Lovers '', Janet and Phillip marry in the apartment with the rest of the gang in attendance. After Janet returns from her honeymoon, Phillip and she settle in their newly married life in another part of town.
Christmas Noelle "Chrissy '' Snow was portrayed by Suzanne Somers.
In the original unaired pilot of Three 's Company; Samantha, the character who would become Chrissy, was portrayed by Susanne Zenor. Zenor was not picked for the second filming of the pilot, so actress Susan Lanier took over the role of Chrissy. Somers ultimately won the permanent role in the third and final pilot.
Chrissy was born in Fresno, the eldest child of Reverend Luther Snow (Peter Mark Richman) and his wife (Priscilla Morrill). In one episode, she explains that she was named "Christmas '' because her father was a big fan of Bing Crosby (whose song "White Christmas '' became a signature song of his). In another episode, she states that her name is Christmas due to having been born in December. However, in the episode "Roper 's Niece '', Janet states that Chrissy 's birth was "not until January. '' Yet, in the season - four episode "Chrissy 's Hospitality '', Chrissy falls and hits her head, ending up in the hospital as a result. She explains to the nurse that her father named her Christmas because "she was the best present he ever got. ''
Chrissy was born into a religious family and always loved her family traditions, such as Christmas with the family. Every Sunday, the Snow family would go to church to hear her father preach. She always loved her family and friends, and upon moving to Santa Monica, she assured them that she would eventually return home to Fresno.
In her early 20s, Chrissy moved to Santa Monica, where she found a job as a typist. She found an apartment, owned and operated by Stanley and Helen Roper, which she shared with two other women, Janet Wood and Eleanor Garvey.
In the pilot, a pregnant Eleanor got married in a reception in the apartment, but went into labor just as she was cutting the cake. After Eleanor had her baby and moved away, Janet and Chrissy were left needing a new roommate to help with living expenses. On the morning after a going - away party the girls threw for Eleanor, they find a man in their bathtub who had passed out and, after waking up, claimed that he was a friend of one of the party crashers. The girls suggested that the man, Jack Tripper, move in as their new roommate instead of other, less desirable candidates (one of them being a pompous, nasal - voiced woman named Patricia, nicknamed "Pattikins '').
Chrissy 's personality was an exaggerated characterization of the "dumb blonde '' stereotype, as evidenced by her repeated confusion and misunderstandings, malapropisms, and girlish behavior. Chrissy is depicted as being quick to laugh at her own jokes, and quick to cry in an exaggerated, whining fashion (as a young child would do). Chrissy 's behavior was reflected somewhat by her cousin, and eventual replacement, Cindy Snow, although Cindy was more klutzy, and less dim.
Chrissy is modeled as an ingenue, a minister 's daughter who seeks her fortune in the big city. As the naif, she frequently and unknowingly makes suggestive double entendres and is often oblivious to the attention she receives from ill - intentioned men. Her roommate Janet remarked that Chrissy totally fell apart at the littlest hint of "sweet talk. '' In one episode, Chrissy was picked up by a police officer who assumed she was a prostitute, despite her innocence and good intentions.
Regarding the character 's look, for season three the makeup artist said that Chrissy should have snow - white hair, pink cheeks and dark eyes, and Somers suggested the hairstyle of an Afghan hound, and her signature side ponytail was created to hide an over-bleaching mishap.
Somers had emerged as a breakout character in the show. In 1978, she appeared on 50 magazine covers. Also, best - selling Chrissy Snow posters were produced and ABC even launched a doll which portrayed Somers as Chrissy. Somers was promoted as a rival to Farrah Fawcett by her manager, Jay Bernstein, who also managed Fawcett and other actresses of the day, such as Cheryl Ladd. After marrying former game show host Alan Hamel (whom Somers met for the first time while modeling prizes on a game show he hosted), Somers made him her manager. Somers was eventually axed from the series in the fifth season after a bitter and highly publicized salary dispute with the producers. On the series, her character of Chrissy was written out as having moved back home to Fresno to care for her ill mother. However, for a brief time (and to finish Somers ' contract), Chrissy continued to appear briefly on the show in the episode 's closing tag wherein she would call Janet or Jack from home and speak to one of them over the telephone, and more often than not Jack or Janet would fill Chrissy in on what happened on that episode. A couple episodes after Chrissy left, her cousin Cindy moved into the apartment with Jack and Janet for the remainder of the season. Upon the arrival of Terri Alden in season six; references to Chrissy vanished, only to be referred to once when the trio was being interviewed and Chrissy was mentioned as "the other girl '' with whom Janet was living when she met Jack. From what is implied, especially by the time of Terri 's arrival, Chrissy simply decided to stay home in Fresno and never kept in contact with her old roommates again.
Cindy Snow was portrayed by Jenilee Harrison during the show 's fifth and sixth seasons (1980 -- 82). The cousin of the character Chrissy Snow, Cindy was phased out to make way for Chrissy 's permanent replacement Terri Alden. Ironically, Priscilla Barnes, who landed the role of Terri, had auditioned for the role of Cindy, but was turned down.
Cindy hails from Fresno, the daughter of Mr. Snow (Alan Manson), niece of Reverend Luther Snow and first cousin of Chrissy Snow. Raised on a farm, she grew to have a great love of animals, and enjoyed helping her father and mother out on the farm. Although Cindy is a very pretty girl, she claims she always "played second fiddle to Chrissy, because she was so beautiful. '' She was raised to enjoy the Snows ' many wonderful traditions, such as going to church on Sundays to hear Reverend Snow preach, and being together for lavish, old - fashioned Christmas celebrations.
One day when Cindy was a young woman, Mrs. Snow found her daughter 's diary and read it from start to finish, and subsequently fell asleep! She said it was the most boring thing she had ever read and told Cindy that it would be a good idea if she did more with her life and got out of Fresno. When Chrissy went back to Fresno to care for her mother, Cindy took the opportunity to move out and into the apartment, taking Chrissy 's place as the third member of the trio.
Cindy debuted on the show in 1980 after producers needed a replacement for Chrissy after Suzanne Somers was fired over her salary dispute.
At first, Jack Tripper and Janet Wood, Chrissy 's roommates, worried about what it would be like to live with the klutzy farm girl, but they soon adjusted and became close friends with Cindy. When Chrissy declines to return (and Somers ' contract expired), Cindy 's temporary stay became permanent. She also takes Chrissy 's old office job, working for Mr. Charles Hadley.
Although she shares some of her cousin Chrissy 's dim - witted and naive attitude, Cindy 's trademark was that she was highly clumsy and accident - prone, often bumping into things or spilling things (with Jack more often than not bearing the brunt).
In the season - six premiere, "Jack Bares All '', Cindy announced that she was moving out of the apartment to attend UCLA. Her replacement would be Terri Alden, a nurse. Producers of the show were seeking a permanent third roommate and were not confident with Jenilee Harrison in that role. Cindy did, however, continue to make appearances on the show during the sixth season, and was retained as a supporting character (and given cast billing credit). She has many pivotal appearances through midseason, and becomes the trio 's part - time housekeeper in the episode "Maid to Order '', but still hung out with the trio.
Her last appearance is in the episode "Janet Wigs Out '' near the end of season six. Cindy and Janet have a falling out when Janet buys a blonde wig and develops a condescending attitude toward her friends. When Janet wants to keep her wig a secret from her date, Cindy tries to prevent herself from revealing the truth.
Terri Alden was portrayed by Priscilla Barnes.
Terri was born in Longmeadow, Massachusetts, works as a registered nurse, and is portrayed as far less "ditzy '' than her predecessors. She is written into the story as being Janet and Jack 's new (and final) roommate.
Although Jack originally disliked Terri, owing to a disastrous first meeting at the hospital when she administered a tetanus injection for a stubbed finger into his behind, he forgave her and warmed up to her eventually. Terri, in fact, convinced Jack to move in with Victoria Bradford, thus paving the way for the spinoff series Three 's a Crowd.
In response to complaints about the characterization of blondes on the show, the writers portrayed Terri as a "smart blonde '', and a "woman with brains '', electing to steer away from the ditziness of Chrissy Snow and the clumsiness of Cindy Snow, Terri 's blonde roommate predecessors. A dedicated professional at work, Terri is more relaxed when off duty and out of uniform.
Stanley Roper was portrayed by Norman Fell.
Stanley owns and manages the apartment building in Santa Monica that is home to Jack Tripper, Janet Wood and Chrissy Snow. He has a love - hate relationship with his wife, Helen. Although they care deeply for each other, Helen and Stanley regularly bicker and engage in one - upmanship, with Helen usually the intellectual victor. A significant amount of their tension is due to Helen 's ongoing desire for romance with Stanley, while Stanley is either clueless or uninterested. During the character 's time on the series, he was known for breaking the fourth wall by smiling and snickering at the camera after telling a one - liner joke, often at his wife 's expense. One of his catchphrases is "Not tonight, Helen; I got a headache. '' Although seemingly impotent, Stanley is sometimes known for spying on young women in bathing suits on the beach through his binoculars.
Stanley is generally friendly toward the trio, but can be very angry if the rent is late. He is also not above exploiting his tenants ' fear of raised rents to get chores and favors done. He is told that Jack is homosexual to bypass any objections he might have to a man living with two women. He does not appear to dislike Jack or homosexuals in general, but he does keep his distance whenever Jack gets "too close '' to him and sees Jack 's supposed homosexuality as a source of amusement and makes several jokes at his expense, often calling Jack "Tinkerbell ''.
Stanley is extremely cheap (as revealed in the episode "Stanley 's Hotline '', in which the trio calls him "the cheapest man alive '' and very much penny wise, pound foolish). Stanley drives a run - down 1958 Chevrolet Bel Air, which he attempted to sell to the trio, but reneged when he learned he could get a lot more money for it from another buyer (who thought it was the classic and far more valuable 1957 model). After the intended buyer learned it was actually a 1958 model, he added insult to injury by offering to tow it away if Stanley paid him $25.
After Stanley sold the building to Bart Furley, Bart 's brother Ralph took over as landlord.
In the Three 's Company spinoff series The Ropers, Stanley and Helen move to Cheviot Hills, California and live next door to snobby real estate agent Jeffrey P. Brookes III (who eventually sells them their house).
Stanley intensely disliked Jeffrey, and the feeling is mutual. When Stanley and Helen were investigating buying the house, Jeffrey 's son David explained to Stanley that if his father did not like Stanley and Helen, he would never let them move in. When Jeffrey arrived for the showing, Stanley began telling a false story that the house was perfect for his "drums '' and "wild parties. '' Very quickly, Stanley and Helen were thrown out of the building by Jeffrey, but with much prompting from Helen, soon came back to get another look at it. Jeffrey then posted a phony "sold '' sign in front of the house to deter them. Stanley concealed his joy, but for Helen 's sake he feigned sadness, saying, "I would buy it in an instant if it was n't sold! '' David reveals that the house was not sold and Stanley is stuck with buying it.
Helen Roper was portrayed by Audra Lindley and appeared on both Three 's Company and The Ropers.
The character was based on the character Mildred Roper on the series Man About the House and its spinoff George & Mildred (the British shows on which Three 's Company and The Ropers were respectively based), which was played by Yootha Joyce.
Helen always yearns for romance and sex with her uninterested husband, Stanley, and he almost never delivers, which frustrates her.
Helen enjoys a friendship with the three tenants who live above her, to whom she affectionately refers as "the kids ''. Helen, unlike her husband, knows that Jack is not gay, but out of fondness for the trio, plays along with the charade. Contrary to her tightfisted and very suspicious husband, Helen does not mind that Jack lives with Janet and Chrissy, and is very understanding of their situation. She frequently tries to defuse tense situations between her husband and the trio.
Eventually, Stanley and she move to Cheviot Hills, an affluent neighborhood of Los Angeles, where her natural snobbishness asserts itself, often aided and abetted by her sister, Ethel Armbruster, who clearly despises Stanley.
Despite her attempts at adopting the behavior of her more affluent neighbors, she still retains her kindness. She befriends Anne Brookes, the wife of Jeffrey Brookes III, a real estate agent who lives next door, and enjoys the company of their son, David.
Helen and Stanley returned to the trio 's apartment in a special guest appearance. Helen was frustrated with Stanley because he forgot their anniversary. She went downstairs to Ralph Furley 's apartment to get some sleep (Mr. Furley was out of town at the time). A very tired Mr. Furley returned home early and went straight to bed, unaware that he was not alone. Soon, Mr. Roper came in the bedroom and said, "Helen, if this (a supposed affair with Mr. Furley) is what you want, so be it. '' Helen was upset and still angry. "Are n't you gon na fight for me? '' she asked Stanley. Later, Stanley came back and started fighting for Helen against Mr. Furley, which made Helen happy. Soon, the two went to sleep in Mr. Furley 's bed, which could have been the answer to Helen 's wishes.
Ralph Furley was portrayed by Don Knotts.
Ralph Furley is the landlord and manager of a Santa Monica apartment building that is now owned by his brother, Bart, who acquired it from Stanley Roper. It is the home to Jack Tripper, Larry Dallas, Janet Wood, and Chrissy Snow (later to Cindy Snow, then Terri Alden). Mr. Furley fancies himself a playboy, a "ladies ' man '' and a "macho man '', despite the fact he has not had a date in years and not appealing to women at all.
Mr. Furley is very subservient and seems to fear his brother Bart. Like Stanley Roper before him, he was also tricked into believing that Jack was gay for him to continue living with Janet and Chrissy (in fact, Mr. Roper was the one who told Mr. Furley about this when he sold the building). Because of his own playboy lifestyle, Mr. Furley probably would have approved of the situation himself; but he knew his brother Bart would never tolerate a straight man living with two women. Also, like Mr. Roper before him, Mr. Furley liked to occasionally crack gay jokes about Jack at his expense (calling Jack "Tippy Toes '' as opposed to Mr. Roper 's "Tinkerbell '').
Mr. Furley often wears outlandish leisure suits in very loud colors with ascots, and has his apartment decorated like a playboy 's pad. Usually, his shirts are very brightly colored. For his role of Mr. Furley, Knotts donned a toupee. Although Mr. Furley 's brother Bart is frequently mentioned by him, the character only appears in one episode, played by Hamilton Camp. Mr. Furley defends his decisions as apartment manager by stating that his brother Bart, being the owner of the building, would (or would not) also approve of a decision. Many of the characteristics and mannerisms of Mr. Furley are comparable to Knotts ' most famous character, Barney Fife from The Andy Griffith Show.
Larry Dallas was portrayed by Richard Kline.
The character is based on Larry Simmonds from Man About the House. He lives upstairs from the trio, and is Jack 's best friend. He is also a womanizing playboy who often lies about his occupation to impress girls, claiming to be "Playboy 's best photographer, '' a doctor, an airline pilot, etc.; his actual profession is a used car salesman. He habitually uses false names, including Jack 's, when picking up women for one - night stands so that he might better forestall any attempts by such women to pursue a relationship, although the tactic backfired in "Will the Real Jack Tripper... '' when a woman whom Larry impregnated was able to locate him because Jack 's address and phone number were in the phone book (Larry 's initial reaction was disgust at Jack for being "dumb '' enough to allow such information to be available to the public). Larry is also constantly in debt, often owing Jack money. In one episode, when being questioned by his landlord Mr. Roper, Larry claimed to have served four years in the United States Marine Corps. Larry is of Greek descent, though this fact and his original last name are mentioned only in the episode where Jack opens Jack 's Bistro, in which Larry explains that he shortened it to "Dallas '' because he "could never spell ' Dalliapoulos ' ".
Larry has the distinction of being the only other character besides Jack Tripper to appear on Three 's Company and both of its spin - offs, The Ropers and Three 's a Crowd. When appearing on Three 's a Crowd near the end of its single season, he states that he had moved to Bakersfield due to downturns in the used car business.
Lana Shields was portrayed by Ann Wedgeworth.
Lana Shields is a bosomy, amorous, three - time older divorcee who had an unrequited crush on Jack. She is constantly flirting with Jack and tries to seduce him every time she is in his presence, while Jack, though, tries his best to avoid Lana at all costs, especially around new landlord Ralph Furley, who, like Mr. Roper before him, is deceived into believing Jack is a homosexual in order to allow Jack to continue living with Chrissy and Janet. Unlike Jack, though, Mr. Furley is attracted to Lana and regularly tries to "put the moves on her, '' but she dislikes him, which he never comes to realize.
Lana 's first appearance was in the episode "Love Thy Neighbor '' from season four, in which Jack takes a job as a male escort, which is how he first meets Lana, to make some quick cash. He soon learns that Lana wants to do much more with him than just have a casual dinner out on the town.
In the next episode "The New Landlord '' (which introduces Mr. Furley), the trio accidentally sells all of Mr. Furley 's furniture to a junk dealer, thinking it was furniture Mr. Roper left behind and not realizing it belongs to their new landlord (who has not met anyone in the building yet). Mr. Furley becomes angry and gives the trio an eviction notice, but upon meeting Lana, he immediately becomes smitten. Mr. Furley and the trio then make a deal: Mr. Furley gets a date with Lana, and the trio will not have to move.
Though she does not like Mr. Furley, Lana does seduce him on several occasions, to use him to get what she wants. For example, in one episode, she uses this tactic to convince Mr. Furley to accept the trio 's rent money a few days late. In the episode "A-Camping We Will Go '', Lana tricks Mr. Furley into going on a camping trip so she can be near Jack, who was talked into going by Larry Dallas, for the weekend. However, not long after this now - legendary episode, Lana disappears from the show without any explanation. Her final appearance was in the episode "A Black Letter Day ''. In the episode, Lana reads a newspaper advice column about a man living with two female roommates and the man is having an affair with one of them, and she assumes the column was about the trio.
According to the book Come and Knock on Our Door: A Hers and Hers and His Guide to Three 's Company, the addition of Lana to the cast caused tension between John Ritter and the show 's writers. Ritter believed it would be out of character for the sex - crazed Jack to inexplicably turn down the advances of a sexually voracious, attractive older woman. The writers reasoned that because Lana was older than Jack, he would be turned off. Ritter did not believe that the middle - aged Lana, only meant to be in her 40s (whereas Jack was in his late 20s / early 30s), would repel Jack. Ann Wedgeworth, in the same book, claimed that she asked to be released from her contract because of Lana 's dwindling role in the show.
Frank Angelino was played by Jordan Charney. A restaurateur, he is Jack 's short - tempered boss at Angelino 's Restaurant and landlord / partner at Jack 's Bistro. This character appeared in 13 episodes.
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what is the current political situation in north korea | Politics of North Korea - wikipedia
The politics of North Korea (officially the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea) takes place within the framework of the official state philosophy, Juche, a concept created by Hwang Jang - yop and later attributed to Kim Il - sung. The Juche theory is the belief that through self - reliance and a strong independent state, true socialism can be achieved.
North Korea 's political system is built upon the principle of centralization. While the North Korean constitution formally guarantees protection of human rights, in practice there are severe limits on freedom of expression, and the government closely supervises the lives of North Korean citizens. The constitution defines North Korea as "a dictatorship of people 's democracy '' under the leadership of the Workers ' Party of Korea (WPK), which is given legal supremacy over other political parties.
The WPK is the ruling party of North Korea. It has been in power since its creation in 1948. Two minor political parties also exist, but are legally bound to accept the ruling role of the WPK. They, with the WPK, comprise the popular front Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland (DFRF). Elections occur only in single - candidate races where the candidate is effectively selected beforehand by the WPK.
In addition to the parties, there are over 100 mass organizations controlled by the WPK. Those who are not WPK members are required to join one of these organizations. Of these, the most important ones are the Kimilsungist - Kimjongilist Youth League, Korean Democratic Women 's League, General Federation of Trade Unions of Korea, and Union of Agricultural Workers of Korea. These four organizations are also DFRF members.
Kim Il - sung ruled the country from 1948 until his death in July 1994, holding the offices of General Secretary of the WPK from 1949 to 1994 (titled as Chairman from 1949 to 1972), Premier of North Korea from 1948 to 1972 and President from 1972 to 1994. He was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong - il. While the younger Kim had been his father 's designated successor since the 1980s, it took him three years to consolidate his power. He was named to his father 's old post of General Secretary in 1997, and in 1998 became chairman of the National Defence Commission (NDC), which gave him command of the armed forces. The constitution was amended to make the NDC chairmanship "the highest post in the state. '' At the same time, the presidential post was written out of the constitution, and Kim Il - sung was designated "Eternal President of the Republic '' in order to honor his memory forever. Most analysts believe the title to be a product of the cult of personality he cultivated during his life.
The Western world generally views North Korea as a totalitarian dictatorship and a rogue nation; the government has formally replaced all references to Marxism -- Leninism in its constitution with the locally developed concept of Juche, or self - reliance. In recent years, there has been great emphasis on the Songun or "military - first '' philosophy. All references to communism were removed from the North Korean constitution in 2009.
The status of the military has been enhanced, and it appears to occupy the center of the North Korean political system; all the social sectors are forced to follow the military spirit and adopt military methods. Kim Jong - il 's public activity focused heavily on "on - the - spot guidance '' of places and events related to the military. The enhanced status of the military and military - centered political system was confirmed at the first session of the 10th Supreme People 's Assembly (SPA) by the promotion of NDC members into the official power hierarchy. All ten NDC members were ranked within the top twenty on 5 September, and all but one occupied the top twenty at the fiftieth anniversary of the Day of the Foundation of the Republic on 9 September.
According to the Constitution of North Korea, the country is a democratic republic and the Supreme People 's Assembly (SPA) and Provincial People 's Assemblies (PPA) are elected by direct universal suffrage and secret ballot. Suffrage is guaranteed to all citizens aged 17 and over. In reality, elections in North Korea are non-competitive and feature single - candidate races only. Those who want to vote against the sole candidate on the ballot must go to a special booth - without secrecy - to cross out the candidate 's name before dropping it into the ballot box -- an act which, according to many North Korean defectors, is far too risky to even contemplate.
All elected candidates are members of the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland (DFRF), a popular front dominated by the ruling Workers ' Party of Korea (WPK). The two minor parties in the coalition are the Chondoist Chongu Party and the Korean Social Democratic Party; they also have a few elected officials. The WPK exercises direct control over the candidates selected for election by members of the other two parties. In the past, elections were contested by other minor parties as well, including the Buddhist Alliance, Democratic Independent Party, Dongro People 's Party, Gonmin People 's Alliance, and People 's Republic Party.
Originally a close ally of Joseph Stalin 's Soviet Union, North Korea has increasingly emphasized Juche, an adoption of socialist self - reliance, which roots from Marxism -- Leninism, it 's adoption of a certain ideological form of Marxism - Leninism is specific to the conditions of North Korea. Juche was enshrined as the official ideology when the country adopted a new constitution in 1972. In 2009, the constitution was amended again, quietly removing the brief references to communism (Chosŏn'gŭl: 공산주의). However, North Korea continues to see itself as part of a worldwide leftist movement. The Workers ' Party maintains a relationship with other leftist parties, sending a delegation to the International Meeting of Communist and Workers ' Parties. North Korea has a strong relationship with Cuba; in 2016, the North Korean government declared three days of mourning period for Fidel Castro 's death.
For much of its history, North Korean politics have been dominated by its adversarial relationship with South Korea. During the Cold War, North Korea aligned with the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China. The North Korean government invested heavily in its military, hoping to develop the capability to reunify Korea by force if possible and also preparing to repel any attack by South Korea or the United States. Following the doctrine of Juche, North Korea aimed for a high degree of economic independence and the mobilization of all the resources of the nation to defend Korean sovereignty against foreign powers.
In the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the loss of Soviet aid, North Korea faced a long period of economic crisis, including severe agricultural and industrial shortages. North Korea 's main political issue has been to find a way to sustain its economy without compromising the internal stability of its government or its ability to respond to perceived external threats. Recently, North Korean efforts to improve relations with South Korea to increase trade and to receive development assistance have been mildly successful. North Korea has tried to improve its relations with South Korea by participating in the Pyeongchang Olympics (North Korea at the 2018 Winter Olympics), when Kim Jong - un sent his band and a few officials to visit South Korea. But North Korea 's determination to develop nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles has prevented stable relations with both South Korea and the United States. North Korea has also experimented with market economics in some sectors of its economy, but these have had limited impact. Some outside observers have suggested that Kim Jong - il himself favored such reforms but that some parts of the party and the military resisted any changes that might threaten stability for North Korea.
Although there are occasional reports of signs of opposition to the government, these appear to be isolated, and there is no evidence of major internal threats to the current government. Some foreign analysts have pointed to widespread starvation, increased emigration through North Korea - China border, and new sources of information about the outside world for ordinary North Koreans as factors pointing to an imminent collapse of the regime. However, North Korea has remained stable in spite of more than a decade of such predictions. The Workers ' Party of Korea maintains a monopoly on political power and Kim Jong - il remained the leader of the country until 2011, ever since he first gained power following the death of his father.
According to Seong - Cheong - Chang of Sejong Institute, speaking on 25 June 2012, there is some possibility that the new leader Kim Jong - un, who has greater visible interest in the welfare of his people and engages in greater interaction with them than his father did, will consider economic reforms and normalization of international relations.
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hollywood became the center of american film production in part because | Cinema of the United States - Wikipedia
The cinema of the United States, often metonymously referred to as Hollywood, has had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early 20th century. The dominant style of American cinema is Classical Hollywood Cinema, which developed from 1917 -- 1960 and characterizes most films to this day. While Auguste and Louis Lumière are generally credited with the birth of modern cinema, it is American cinema that soon became the most dominant force in an emerging industry. Since the 1920s, the American film industry has grossed more money every year than that of any other country.. It also produces the largest number of films of any single language (English) with more than 800 movies released out every year.
Hollywood is the oldest film industry of the world, and birthplace of various genre of cinema such as comedy, drama, action, musicals, romance, horror, science fiction and war epics, which later inspired other film industries in the world. It also produced the world 's first sound as well as musical film The Jazz Singer.
In 1878, Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated the power of photography to capture motion. In 1894, the world 's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City, using Thomas Edison 's Kinetoscope. The United States was in the forefront of sound film development in the following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around the 30 Mile Zone in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California. Director D.W. Griffith was central to the development of film grammar. Orson Welles 's Citizen Kane (1941) is frequently cited in critics ' polls as the greatest film of all time.
The major film studios of Hollywood are the primary source of the most commercially successful movies, and most ticket selling movies in the world such as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), The Sound of Music (1965), Jaws (1975), Star Wars (1977), E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), Jurassic Park (1993), Titanic (1997), The Dark Knight (2008), Avatar (2009), The Avengers (2012), Frozen (2013), and Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015). Furthermore, most of its highest grossing movies have generated more box office revenues and tickets outside United States. Today, American film studios collectively generate several hundred movies every year, making the United States one of the most prolific producers of films in the world and is the foremost leader and pioneer in motion picture engineering and technology, innovation, revolutionary, methodical and successful cinema internationally.
The first recorded instance of photographs capturing and reproducing motion was a series of photographs of a running horse by Eadweard Muybridge, which he captured in Palo Alto, California, using a set of still cameras placed in a row. Muybridge 's accomplishment led inventors everywhere to attempt to make similar devices that would capture such motion. In the United States, Thomas Edison was among the first to produce such a device, the kinetoscope.
The history of cinema in the United States can trace its roots to the East Coast where, at one time, Fort Lee, New Jersey was the motion picture capital of America. The industry got its start at the end of the 19th century with the construction of Thomas Edison 's "Black Maria '', the first motion picture studio in West Orange, New Jersey. The cities and towns on the Hudson River and Hudson Palisades offered land at costs considerably less than New York City across the river and benefited greatly as a result of the phenomenal growth of the film industry at the turn of the 20th century.
Film - making began attracting both capital and an innovative workforce, and when the Kalem Company began using Fort Lee in 1907 as a location for filming in the area, other filmmakers quickly followed. In 1909, a forerunner of Universal Studios, the Champion Film Company, built the first studio. They were quickly followed by others who either built new studios or who leased facilities in Fort Lee. In the 1910s and 1920s, film companies such as the Independent Moving Pictures Company, Peerless Studios, The Solax Company, Éclair Studios, Goldwyn Picture Corporation, American Méliès (Star Films), World Film Company, Biograph Studios, Fox Film Corporation, Pathé Frères, Metro Pictures Corporation, Victor Film Company, and Selznick Pictures Corporation were all making pictures in Fort Lee. Such notables as Mary Pickford got their start at Biograph Studios.
In New York, the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens, was built during the silent film era, was used by the Marx Brothers and W.C. Fields. The Edison Studios were located in the Bronx. Chelsea, Manhattan was also frequently used. Picture City, Florida was also a planned site for a movie picture production center in the 1920s, but due to the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane, the idea collapsed and Picture City returned to its original name of Hobe Sound. Other major centers of film production also included Chicago, Texas, California, and Cuba.
The film patents wars of the early 20th century led to the spread of film companies across the U.S. Many worked with equipment for which they did not own the rights and thus filming in New York could be dangerous; it was close to Edison 's Company headquarters, and to agents the company set out to seize cameras. By 1912, most major film companies had set up production facilities in Southern California near or in Los Angeles because of the region 's favorable year - round weather.
In early 1910, director D.W. Griffith was sent by the Biograph Company to the west coast with his acting troupe, consisting of actors Blanche Sweet, Lillian Gish, Mary Pickford, Lionel Barrymore and others. They started filming on a vacant lot near Georgia Street in downtown Los Angeles. While there, the company decided to explore new territories, traveling several miles north to Hollywood, a little village that was friendly and enjoyed the movie company filming there. Griffith then filmed the first movie ever shot in Hollywood, In Old California, a Biograph melodrama about California in the 19th century, when it belonged to Mexico. Griffith stayed there for months and made several films before returning to New York. After hearing about Griffith 's success in Hollywood, in 1913, many movie - makers headed west to avoid the fees imposed by Thomas Edison, who owned patents on the movie - making process. Nestor Studios of Bayonne, New Jersey, built the first studio in Hollywood in 1911. Nestor Studios, owned by David and William Horsley, later merged with Universal Studios; and William Horsley 's other company, Hollywood Film Laboratory, is now the oldest existing company in Hollywood, now called the Hollywood Digital Laboratory. California 's more hospitable and cost - effective climate led to the eventual shift of virtually all filmmaking to the West Coast by the 1930s. At the time, Thomas Edison owned almost all the patents relevant to motion picture production and movie producers on the East Coast acting independently of Edison 's Motion Picture Patents Company were often sued or enjoined by Edison and his agents while movie makers working on the West Coast could work independently of Edison 's control.
In Los Angeles, the studios and Hollywood grew. Before World War I, movies were made in several U.S. cities, but filmmakers tended to gravitate towards southern California as the industry developed. They were attracted by the warm climate and reliable sunlight, which made it possible to film movies outdoors year - round and by the varied scenery that was available. There are several starting points for cinema (particularly American cinema), but it was Griffith 's controversial 1915 epic Birth of a Nation that pioneered the worldwide filming vocabulary that still dominates celluloid to this day.
In the early 20th century, when the medium was new, many Jewish immigrants found employment in the U.S. film industry. They were able to make their mark in a brand - new business: the exhibition of short films in storefront theaters called nickelodeons, after their admission price of a nickel (five cents). Within a few years, ambitious men like Samuel Goldwyn, William Fox, Carl Laemmle, Adolph Zukor, Louis B. Mayer, and the Warner Brothers (Harry, Albert, Samuel, and Jack) had switched to the production side of the business. Soon they were the heads of a new kind of enterprise: the movie studio. (It is worth noting that the U.S. had at least one female director, producer and studio head in these early years: French - born director Alice Guy - Blaché.) They also set the stage for the industry 's internationalism; the industry is often accused of Amero - centric provincialism.
Other moviemakers arrived from Europe after World War I: directors like Ernst Lubitsch, Alfred Hitchcock, Fritz Lang and Jean Renoir; and actors like Rudolph Valentino, Marlene Dietrich, Ronald Colman, and Charles Boyer. They joined a homegrown supply of actors -- lured west from the New York City stage after the introduction of sound films -- to form one of the 20th century 's most remarkable growth industries. At motion pictures ' height of popularity in the mid-1940s, the studios were cranking out a total of about 400 movies a year, seen by an audience of 90 million Americans per week.
Sound also became widely used in Hollywood in the late 1920s. After The Jazz Singer, the first film with synchronized voices was successfully released as a Vitaphone talkie in 1927, Hollywood film companies would respond to Warner Bros. and begin to use Vitaphone sound -- which Warner Bros. owned until 1928 -- in future films. By May 1928, Electrical Research Product Incorporated (ERPI), a subsidiary of the Western Electric company, gained a monopoly over film sound distribution.
A side effect of the "talkies '' was that many actors who had made their careers in silent films suddenly found themselves out of work, as they often had bad voices or could not remember their lines. Meanwhile, in 1922, US politician Will H. Hays left politics and formed the movie studio boss organization known as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA). The organization became the Motion Picture Association of America after Hays retired in 1945.
In the early times of talkies, American studios found that their sound productions were rejected in foreign - language markets and even among speakers of other dialects of English. The synchronization technology was still too primitive for dubbing. One of the solutions was creating parallel foreign - language versions of Hollywood films. Around 1930, the American companies opened a studio in Joinville - le - Pont, France, where the same sets and wardrobe and even mass scenes were used for different time - sharing crews.
Also, foreign unemployed actors, playwrights, and winners of photogenia contests were chosen and brought to Hollywood, where they shot parallel versions of the English - language films. These parallel versions had a lower budget, were shot at night and were directed by second - line American directors who did not speak the foreign language. The Spanish - language crews included people like Luis Buñuel, Enrique Jardiel Poncela, Xavier Cugat, and Edgar Neville. The productions were not very successful in their intended markets, due to the following reasons:
In spite of this, some productions like the Spanish version of Dracula compare favorably with the original. By the mid-1930s, synchronization had advanced enough for dubbing to become usual.
Classical Hollywood Cinema is defined as a technical and narrative style characteristic of film from 1917 to 1960. During the Golden Age of Hollywood, which lasted from the end of the silent era in American cinema in the late 1920s to the early 1960s, thousands of movies were issued from the Hollywood studios. The start of the Golden Age was arguably when The Jazz Singer was released in 1927, ending the silent era and increasing box - office profits for films as sound was introduced to feature films.
Most Hollywood pictures adhered closely to a formula -- Western, slapstick comedy, musical, animated cartoon, biographical film (biographical picture) -- and the same creative teams often worked on films made by the same studio. For example, Cedric Gibbons and Herbert Stothart always worked on MGM films, Alfred Newman worked at 20th Century Fox for twenty years, Cecil B. De Mille 's films were almost all made at Paramount, and director Henry King 's films were mostly made for 20th Century Fox.
At the same time, one could usually guess which studio made which film, largely because of the actors who appeared in it; MGM, for example, claimed it had contracted "more stars than there are in heaven. '' Each studio had its own style and characteristic touches which made it possible to know this -- a trait that does not exist today.
For example, To Have and Have Not (1944) is famous not only for the first pairing of actors Humphrey Bogart (1899 -- 1957) and Lauren Bacall (1924 -- 2014), but also for being written by two future winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature: Ernest Hemingway (1899 -- 1961), the author of the novel on which the script was nominally based, and William Faulkner (1897 -- 1962), who worked on the screen adaptation.
After The Jazz Singer was released in 1927, Warner Bros. gained huge success and were able to acquire their own string of movie theaters, after purchasing Stanley Theaters and First National Productions in 1928. MGM had also owned the Loews string of theaters since forming in 1924, and the Fox Film Corporation owned the Fox Theatre strings as well. Also, RKO (a 1928 merger between Keith - Orpheum Theaters and the Radio Corporation of America) responded to the Western Electric / ERPI monopoly over sound in films, and developed their own method, known as Photophone, to put sound in films.
Paramount, which already acquired Balaban and Katz in 1926, would answer to the success of Warner Bros. and RKO, and buy a number of theaters in the late 1920s as well, and would hold a monopoly on theaters in Detroit, Michigan. By the 1930s, almost all of the first - run metropolitan theaters in the United States were owned by the Big Five studios -- MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO, Warner Bros., and 20th Century Fox.
Movie - making was still a business, however, and motion picture companies made money by operating under the studio system. The major studios kept thousands of people on salary -- actors, producers, directors, writers, stunt men, craftspersons, and technicians. They owned or leased Movie Ranches in rural Southern California for location shooting of westerns and other large - scale genre films. And they owned hundreds of theaters in cities and towns across the nation in 1920 film theaters that showed their films and that were always in need of fresh material.
In 1930, MPPDA President Will Hays created the Hays (Production) Code, which followed censorship guidelines and went into effect after government threats of censorship expanded by 1930. However, the code was never enforced until 1934, after the Catholic watchdog organization The Legion of Decency -- appalled by some of the provocative films and lurid advertising of the era later classified Pre-Code Hollywood - threatened a boycott of motion pictures if it did n't go into effect. Those films that did n't obtain a seal of approval from the Production Code Administration had to pay a $25,000 fine and could not profit in the theaters, as the MPPDA controlled every theater in the country through the Big Five studios.
Throughout the 1930s, as well as most of the golden age, MGM dominated the film screen and had the top stars in Hollywood, and was also credited for creating the Hollywood star system altogether. Some MGM stars included "King of Hollywood '' Clark Gable, Lionel Barrymore, Jean Harlow, Norma Shearer, Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford, Jeanette MacDonald and husband Gene Raymond, Spencer Tracy, Judy Garland, and Gene Kelly. But MGM did not stand alone. Another great achievement of US cinema during this era came through Walt Disney 's animation company. In 1937, Disney created the most successful film of its time, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. This distinction was promptly topped in 1939 when Selznick International created what is still when adjusted for inflation, the most successful film of all time, Gone with the Wind.
Many film historians have remarked upon the many great works of cinema that emerged from this period of highly regimented film - making. One reason this was possible is that, with so many movies being made, not everyone had to be a big hit. A studio could gamble on a medium - budget feature with a good script and relatively unknown actors: Citizen Kane, directed by Orson Welles (1915 -- 1985) and often regarded as the greatest film of all time, fits that description. In other cases, strong - willed directors like Howard Hawks (1896 -- 1977), Alfred Hitchcock (1899 -- 1980), and Frank Capra (1897 -- 1991) battled the studios in order to achieve their artistic visions.
The apogee of the studio system may have been the year 1939, which saw the release of such classics as The Wizard of Oz, Gone with the Wind, Stagecoach, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, Wuthering Heights, Only Angels Have Wings, Ninotchka and Midnight. Among the other films from the Golden Age period that are now considered to be classics: Casablanca, It 's a Wonderful Life, It Happened One Night, the original King Kong, Mutiny on the Bounty, Top Hat, City Lights, Red River, The Lady from Shanghai, Rear Window, On the Waterfront, Rebel Without a Cause, Some Like It Hot, and The Manchurian Candidate.
The studio system and the Golden Age of Hollywood succumbed to two forces that developed in the late 1940s:
In 1938, Walt Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released during a run of lackluster films from the major studios, and quickly became the highest grossing film released to that point. Embarrassingly for the studios, it was an independently produced animated film that did not feature any studio - employed stars. This stoked already widespread frustration at the practice of block - booking, in which studios would only sell an entire year 's schedule of films at a time to theaters and use the lock - in to cover for releases of mediocre quality.
Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold -- a noted "trust buster '' of the Roosevelt administration -- took this opportunity to initiate proceedings against the eight largest Hollywood studios in July 1938 for violations of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The federal suit resulted in five of the eight studios (the "Big Five '': Warner Bros., MGM, Fox, RKO and Paramount) reaching a compromise with Arnold in October 1940 and signing a consent decree agreeing to, within three years:
The "Little Three '' (Universal Studios, United Artists, and Columbia Pictures), who did not own any theaters, refused to participate in the consent decree. A number of independent film producers were also unhappy with the compromise and formed a union known as the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers and sued Paramount for the monopoly they still had over the Detroit Theaters -- as Paramount was also gaining dominance through actors like Bob Hope, Paulette Goddard, Veronica Lake, Betty Hutton, crooner Bing Crosby, Alan Ladd, and longtime actor for studio Gary Cooper too - by 1942. The Big Five studios did n't meet the requirements of the Consent of Decree during WWII, without major consequence, but after the war ended they joined Paramount as defendants in the Hollywood anti-trust case, as did the Little Three studios.
The Supreme Court eventually ruled that the major studios ownership of theaters and film distribution was a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. As a result, the studios began to release actors and technical staff from their contracts with the studios. This changed the paradigm of film making by the major Hollywood studios, as each could have an entirely different cast and creative team.
The decision resulted in the gradual loss of the characteristics which made Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer, Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios, Columbia Pictures, RKO Pictures, and 20th Century Fox films immediately identifiable. Certain movie people, such as Cecil B. DeMille, either remained contract artists till the end of their careers or used the same creative teams on their films so that a DeMille film still looked like one whether it was made in 1932 or 1956.
Also, the number of movies being produced annually dropped as the average budget soared, marking a major change in strategy for the industry. Studios now aimed to produce entertainment that could not be offered by television: spectacular, larger - than - life productions. Studios also began to sell portions of their theatrical film libraries to other companies to sell to television. By 1949, all major film studios had given up ownership of their theaters.
Television was also instrumental in the decline of Hollywood 's Golden Age as it broke the movie industry 's hegemony in American entertainment. Despite this, the film industry was also able to gain some leverage for future films as longtime government censorship faded in the 1950s. After the Paramount anti-trust case ended, Hollywood movie studios no longer owned theaters and thus made it so foreign films could be released in American theaters without censorship.
This was complemented with the 1952 Miracle Decision in the Joseph Burstyn Inc. v Wilson case, in which the Supreme Court of the United States reversed its earlier position, from 1915 's Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio case, and stated that motion pictures were a form of art and were entitled to the protection of the First amendment; US laws could no longer censor films. By 1968, with film studios becoming increasingly defiant to its censorship function, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) had replaced the Hays Code -- which was now greatly violated after the government threat of censorship that justified the origin of the code had ended -- with the film rating system.
Post-classical cinema is the term used to describe the changing methods of storytelling in the New Hollywood. It has been argued that new approaches to drama and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired in the classical period: chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature "twist endings '', and lines between the antagonist and protagonist may be blurred. The roots of post-classical storytelling may be seen in film noir, in Rebel Without a Cause (1955), and in Hitchcock 's storyline - shattering Psycho.
The New Hollywood describes the emergence of a new generation of film school - trained directors who had absorbed the techniques developed in Europe in the 1960s; The 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde marked the beginning of American cinema rebounding as well, as a new generation of films would afterwards gain success at the box offices as well. Filmmakers like Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, Brian De Palma, Stanley Kubrick, Martin Scorsese, Roman Polanski, and William Friedkin came to produce fare that paid homage to the history of film and developed upon existing genres and techniques. Inaugurated by the 1969 release of Andy Warhol 's Blue Movie, the phenomenon of adult erotic films being publicly discussed by celebrities (like Johnny Carson and Bob Hope), and taken seriously by critics (like Roger Ebert), a development referred to, by Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times, as "porno chic '', and later known as the Golden Age of Porn, began, for the first time, in modern American culture. According to award - winning author Toni Bentley, Radley Metzger 's 1976 film The Opening of Misty Beethoven, based on the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw (and its derivative, My Fair Lady), and due to attaining a mainstream level in storyline and sets, is considered the "crown jewel '' of this ' Golden Age '.
In the 1970s, the films of New Hollywood filmmakers were often both critically acclaimed and commercially successful. While the early New Hollywood films like Bonnie and Clyde and Easy Rider had been relatively low - budget affairs with amoral heroes and increased sexuality and violence, the enormous success enjoyed by Friedkin with The Exorcist, Spielberg with Jaws and Jurassic Park, Coppola with The Godfather and Apocalypse Now, Scorsese with Taxi Driver, Kubrick with 2001: A Space Odyssey, Polanski with Chinatown, and Lucas with American Graffiti and Star Wars, respectively helped to give rise to the modern "blockbuster '', and induced studios to focus ever more heavily on trying to produce enormous hits.
The increasing indulgence of these young directors did not help. Often, they 'd go overschedule, and overbudget, thus bankrupting themselves or the studio. The three most famous examples of this are Coppola 's Apocalypse Now and One From The Heart and particularly Michael Cimino 's Heaven 's Gate, which single - handedly bankrupted United Artists. However, Apocalypse Now eventually made its money back and gained widespread recognition as a masterpiece, winning the Palme d'Or at Cannes.
The 1980s and 1990s saw another significant development. The full acceptance of home video by studios opened a vast new business to exploit. Films such as Showgirls, The Secret of NIMH, and The Shawshank Redemption, which may have performed poorly in their theatrical run, were now able to find success in the video market. It also saw the first generation of filmmakers with access to videotapes emerge. Directors such as Quentin Tarantino and Paul Thomas Anderson had been able to view thousands of films and produced films with vast numbers of references and connections to previous works. Tarantino has had a number of collaborations with director Robert Rodriguez. Rodriguez directed the 1992 action film El Mariachi, which was a commercial success after grossing $2 million against a budget of $7,000.
This, along with the explosion of independent film and ever - decreasing costs for filmmaking, changed the landscape of American movie - making once again and led a renaissance of filmmaking among Hollywood 's lower and middle - classes -- those without access to studio financial resources. With the rise of the DVD in the 21st century, DVDs have quickly become even more profitable to studios and have led to an explosion of packaging extra scenes, extended versions, and commentary tracks with the films.
The drive to produce a spectacle on the movie screen has largely shaped American cinema ever since. Spectacular epics which took advantage of new widescreen processes had been increasingly popular from the 1950s onwards. Since then, American films have become increasingly divided into two categories: Blockbusters and independent films.
Studios have focused on relying on a handful of extremely expensive releases every year in order to remain profitable. Such blockbusters emphasize spectacle, star power, and high production value, all of which entail an enormous budget. Blockbusters typically rely upon star power and massive advertising to attract a huge audience. A successful blockbuster will attract an audience large enough to offset production costs and reap considerable profits.
Such productions carry a substantial risk of failure, and most studios release blockbusters that both over - and underperform in a year. Classic blockbusters from this period include Raiders of the Lost Ark, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Blade Runner, Ghostbusters, The Terminator, Back to the Future, Beverly Hills Cop, Top Gun, Aliens, Lethal Weapon, Fatal Attraction, Wall Street, Rain Man, Die Hard, Driving Miss Daisy, Dances with Wolves, Goodfellas, Thelma & Louise, The Silence of the Lambs, Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Unforgiven, The Bodyguard, The Fugitive, Jurassic Park, Schindler 's List, Forrest Gump, Pulp Fiction, Seven, Braveheart, Austin Powers, Titanic, Saving Private Ryan, American History X, Fight Club, The Matrix, The Green Mile, The Sixth Sense, American Beauty, Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, Gladiator, Gangs of New York, Lord of the Rings, Pirates of the Caribbean, The Notebook, Million Dollar Baby, Little Miss Sunshine, The Departed and The Bourne Identity.
Studios supplement these movies with independent productions, made with small budgets and often independently of the studio corporation. Movies made in this manner typically emphasize high professional quality in terms of acting, directing, screenwriting, and other elements associated with production, and also upon creativity and innovation. These movies usually rely upon critical praise or niche marketing to garner an audience. Because of an independent film 's low budget, a successful independent film can have a high profit - to - cost ratio while a failure will incur minimal losses, allowing for studios to sponsor dozens of such productions in addition to their high - stakes releases.
American independent cinema was revitalized in the late 1980s and early 1990s when another new generation of moviemakers, including Spike Lee, Steven Soderbergh, Kevin Smith and Quentin Tarantino made movies like, respectively: Do the Right Thing, Sex, Lies, and Videotape, Clerks and Reservoir Dogs. In terms of directing, screenwriting, editing, and other elements, these movies were innovative and often irreverent, playing with and contradicting the conventions of Hollywood movies. Furthermore, their considerable financial successes and crossover into popular culture reestablished the commercial viability of independent film. Since then, the independent film industry has become more clearly defined and more influential in American cinema. Many of the major studios have capitalised on this by developing subsidiaries to produce similar films; for example, Fox Searchlight Pictures.
To a lesser degree in the early 21st century, film types that were previously considered to have only a minor presence in the mainstream movie market began to arise as more potent American box office draws. These include foreign - language films such as Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and Hero and documentary films such as Super Size Me, March of the Penguins, and Michael Moore 's Bowling for Columbine and Fahrenheit 9 / 11.
In the 1930s, the Democrats and the Republicans saw money in Hollywood. President Franklin Roosevelt saw a huge partnership with Hollywood. He used the first real potential of Hollywood 's stars in a national campaign. Melvyn Douglas toured Washington in 1939 and met the key New Dealers.
Endorsements letters from leading actors were signed, radio appearances and printed advertising were made. Movie stars were used to draw a large audience into the political view of the party. By the 1960s, John F. Kennedy was a new, young face for Washington, and his strong friendship with Frank Sinatra exemplified this new era of glamor. The last moguls of Hollywood were gone and younger, newer executives and producers began generating more liberal ideas.
Celebrities and money attracted politicians into the high - class, glittering Hollywood lifestyle. As Ronald Brownstein wrote in his book "The Power and the Glitter '', television in the 1970s and 1980s was an enormously important new media in politics and Hollywood helped in that media with actors making speeches on their political beliefs, like Jane Fonda against the Vietnam War. This era saw former actor Ronald Reagan become Governor of California and subsequently become the 40th President of the United States. It continued with Arnold Schwarzenegger as California 's Governor in 2003, and former reality star Donald Trump as the 45th President of the United States.
Today, Washington 's interest is in Hollywood donations. On February 20, 2007, for example, Barack Obama had a $2300 - a-plate Hollywood gala, being hosted by DreamWorks founders David Geffen, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and Steven Spielberg at the Beverly Hilton.
In 1912, American film companies were largely immersed in the competition for the domestic market. It was difficult to satisfy the huge demand for films created by the nickelodeon boom. Motion Picture Patents Company members such as Edison Studios, also sought to limit competition from French, Italian, and other imported films. Exporting films, then, became lucrative to these companies. Vitagraph Studios was the first American company to open its own distribution offices in Europe, establishing a branch in London in 1906, and a second branch in Paris shortly after.
Other American companies were moving into foreign markets as well, and American distribution abroad continued to expand until the mid-1920s. Originally, a majority of companies sold their films indirectly. However, since they were inexperienced in overseas trading, they simply sold the foreign rights to their films to foreign distribution firms or export agents. Gradually, London became a center for the international circulation of U.S. films.
Many British companies made a profit by acting as the agents for this business, and by doing so, they weakened British production by turning over a large share of the UK market to American films. By 1911, approximately 60 to 70 percent of films imported into Great Britain were American. The United States was also doing well in Germany, Australia, and New Zealand.
More recently, as globalization has started to intensify, and the United States government has been actively promoting free trade agendas and trade on cultural products, Hollywood has become a worldwide cultural source. The success on Hollywood export markets can be known not only from the boom of American multinational media corporations across the globe but also from the unique ability to make big - budget films that appeal powerfully to popular tastes in many different cultures.
With globalization, movie production has been clustered in Hollywood for several reasons: the United States has the largest single home market in dollar terms, entertaining and highly visible Hollywood movies have global appeal, and the role of English as a universal language contributes to compensating for higher fixed costs of production.
In the meantime, Hollywood has moved more deeply into Chinese markets, although influenced by China 's censorship. Films made in China are censored, strictly avoiding themes like "ghosts, violence, murder, horror, and demons. '' Such plot elements risk being cut. Hollywood has had to make "approved '' films, corresponding to official Chinese standards, but with aesthetic standards sacrificed to box office profits. Even Chinese audiences found it boring to wait for the release of great American movies dubbed in their native language.
Women are statistically underrepresented in creative positions in the center of the US film industry, Hollywood. This underrepresentation has been called the "celluloid ceiling '', a variant on the employment discrimination term "glass ceiling ''. In 2013, the "... top - paid actors... made 21⁄2 times as much money as the top - paid actresses. '' "(O) lder (male) actors make more than their female equals '' in age, with "female movie stars mak (ing) the most money on average per film at age 34 while male stars earn the most at 51. ''
The 2013 Celluloid Ceiling Report conducted by the Center for the Study of Women in Television and Film at San Diego State University collected a list of statistics gathered from "2,813 individuals employed by the 250 top domestic grossing films of 2012. ''
Women accounted for...
A New York Times article stated that only 15 % of the top films in 2013 had women for a lead acting role. The author of the study noted that "The percentage of female speaking roles has not increased much since the 1940s when they hovered around 25 percent to 28 percent. '' "Since 1998, women 's representation in behind - the - scenes roles other than directing has gone up just 1 percent. '' Women "... directed the same percent of the 250 top - grossing films in 2012 (9 percent) as they did in 1998. ''
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what demographic factors are related tobacco usages in the united states | Tobacco - wikipedia
Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family. While more than 70 species of tobacco are known, the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world.
Tobacco contains the alkaloid nicotine, which is a stimulant. Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for smoking in cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, and flavored shisha tobacco. They can also be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco and snus.
Tobacco use is a risk factor for many diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver, and lungs, as well as many cancers. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco as the world 's single greatest preventable cause of death.
The English word "tobacco '' originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word "tabaco ''. The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taino, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas, 1552) or to tabago, a kind of Y - shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo; with the leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba).
However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 to define medicinal herbs believed to have originated from the Arabic طُبّاق ṭubbāq (also طُباق ṭubāq), a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as a name for various herbs.
Tobacco has long been used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400 -- 1000 BC. Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco. Eastern North American tribes historically carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item, as well as smoking it, both socially and ceremonially, such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement. In some populations, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one 's thoughts and prayers to the Creator.
Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales '' named after the continuous plagues of cicadas (cigarras in Spanish). Before the development of lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah (see thuốc lào for a modern continuance of this practice).
The alleged benefits of tobacco also account for its considerable success. The astronomer Thomas Harriot, who accompanied Sir Richard Grenville on his 1585 expedition to Roanoke Island, explains that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of the body '' so that the natives ' "bodies are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithall we in England are often times afflicted. ''
Tobacco smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700.
Tobacco has been a major cash crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world - famous.
In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular. James Bonsack created a machine that automated cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until the health revelations of the late - 20th century.
Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco became condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became encompassed as a cause for cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States, this led to the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, which settled the lawsuit in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products.
In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1. This strain of tobacco contained an unusually high amount of nicotine, nearly doubling its content from 3.2 - 3.5 % to 6.5 %. In the 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug Administration to use this strain as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.
In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco. This led to the development of tobacco cessation products.
Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the South Pacific.
Most nightshades contain varying amounts of nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin to insects. However, tobaccos tend to contain a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.
Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores, a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species, and accordingly some tobacco plants (chiefly N. glauca) have become established as invasive weeds in some places.
The types of tobacco include:
Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles (Epitrix cucumeris or E. pubescens), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Today, tobacco is sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination is activated by light.
In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite, which partially starves the plant of nitrogen, to produce a more desired flavor.
After the plants are about 8 inches (20 cm) tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either a curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his / her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in -- all in one motion.
Tobacco is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method still used today, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife. It is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner involves the serial harvest of a number of "primings '', beginning with the volado leaves near the ground, working to the seco leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ligero leaves at the top. Before this, the crop must be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically removed, and eventually, entirely harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, harvesting wagons used to transport leaves were equipped with man - powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand. Most tobacco in the U.S. is grown in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Virginia.
Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves, and gives a sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness '' of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, and is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer. Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used.
Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including:
Some tobaccos go through a second stage of curing, known as fermenting or sweating. Cavendish undergoes fermentation pressed in a casing solution containing sugar and / or flavoring.
Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40 % between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture organization of the UN, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record - high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128 %. During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased. China 's increase in tobacco production was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China 's share of the world market increased from 17 % in 1971 to 47 % in 1997. This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a high import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff has been reduced from 64 % in 1999 to 10 % in 2004, it still has led to local, Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost.
Every year, about 6.7 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout the world. The top producers of tobacco are China (39.6 %), India (8.3 %), Brazil (7.0 %) and the United States (4.6 %).
Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12 % to the nation 's national income. As noted above, despite the income generated for the state by profits from state - owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China 's government has acted to reduce tobacco use.
India 's Tobacco Board is headquartered in Guntur in the state of Andhra Pradesh. India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India. Around 0.25 % of India 's cultivated land is used for tobacco production.
Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Mysore, West Bengal, and Rajamundry. Rajahmundry houses the core research institute.
In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7 % of the country 's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue - cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air - cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air - and sun - cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes. Brazil 's government has made attempts to reduce the production of tobacco, but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil 's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar.
The International Labour Office reported that the most child - laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children is widespread on farms in Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small, family - owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009, reports were released by the London - based human - rights group Plan International, claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8 % of the world 's tobacco) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full - time on farms during the 2007 - 8 growing season. The child - laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported suffering from Green tobacco sickness, a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to 50 - cigarettes - worth of nicotine through direct contact with tobacco leaves. This level of nicotine in children can permanently alter brain structure and function.
Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris, British American Tobacco, and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco - manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to a glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small - scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation - adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37 %. Tobacco is the most widely smuggled legal product.
Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of pesticides. Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in the period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in the soil, waterways, and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child 's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm his or her nervous and immune systems.
Tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium) from soil, decreasing its fertility.
Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and the United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process. Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes.
In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco.
Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics. Tobacco BY - 2 cells, derived from N. tabacum cultivar ' Bright Yellow - 2 ', are among the most important research tools in plant cytology. Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to create an antibiotic - resistant tobacco plant. This research laid the groundwork for all genetically modified crops.
Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first GM crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco.
Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation, have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco.
Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco. The Chinese virus - resistant tobacco was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997. In the US, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content are available under the market name Quest.
Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Some examples are:
Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and when done by women was sometimes associated with promiscuity; in Japan, during the Edo period, prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th - century Europe.
Following the American Civil War, the use of tobacco, primarily in cigars, became associated with masculinity and power. Today, tobacco use is often stigmatized; this has spawned quitting associations and antismoking campaigns. Bhutan is the only country in the world where tobacco sales are illegal.
Research on tobacco use is limited mainly to smoking, which has been studied more extensively than any other form of consumption. An estimated 1.1 billion people, and up to one - third of the adult population, use tobacco in some form. Smoking is more prevalent among men (however, the gender gap declines with age), the poor, and in transitional or developing countries
Rates of smoking continue to rise in developing countries, but have leveled off or declined in developed countries. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42 % to 20.8 % in adults. In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4 % per year.
Tobacco smoking poses a risk to health due to the inhalation of poisonous chemicals in tobacco smoke such as Carbon Monoxide, Cyanide, and Carcinogens which have been proven to cause heart and lung diseases and Cancer. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally. The WHO estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004 and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century. Similarly, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describe tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide. ''
The harms caused by inhalation of poisonous chemicals such as Carbon Monoxide in tobacco smoke include diseases affecting the heart and lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (emphysema), and cancer (particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and mouth, and pancreatic cancers). Cancer is caused by inhaling carcinogenic substances present in tobacco smoke.
Inhaling secondhand tobacco smoke can cause lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. In the United States, about 3,000 adults die each year due to lung cancer from secondhand smoke exposure. Heart disease caused by secondhand smoke kills around 46,000 nonsmokers every year.
The addictive alkaloid nicotine is a stimulant, and popularly known as the most characteristic constituent of tobacco. Nicotine is known to produce conditioned place preference, a sign of enforcement value. Nicotine scores almost as highly as opioids on drug effect questionnaire liking scales, which are a rough indicator of addictive potential. Users may develop tolerance and dependence. Thousands of different substances in cigarette smoke, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzopyrene), formaldehyde, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, tobacco - specific nitrosamines, and phenols contribute to the harmful effects of smoking. Tobacco 's overall harm to user and self score as determined by a multi-criteria decision analysis was determined at 3 percent below cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamines, ranking 6th most harmful of the 20 drugs assessed.
Polonium 210 is a natural contaminant of tobacco, providing additional evidence for the link between smoking and bronchial cancer. It is also extremely toxic, with one microgram being enough to kill the average adult (250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide by weight).
"Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor '', and of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies.
Smoking of tobacco is practised worldwide by over one thousand million people. However, while smoking prevalence has declined in many developed countries, it remains high in others and is increasing among women and in developing countries. Between one - fifth and two - thirds of men in most populations smoke. Women 's smoking rates vary more widely but rarely equal male rates.
In Indonesia, the lowest income group spends 15 % of its total expenditures on tobacco. In Egypt, more than 10 % of households ' expenditure in low - income homes is on tobacco. The poorest 20 % of households in Mexico spend 11 % of their income on tobacco.
Tobacco advertising of tobacco products by the tobacco industry is through a variety of media, including sponsorship, particularly of sporting events. It is now one of the most highly regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of tobacco advertising are banned in many countries.
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when do you play taps at a funeral | Taps - wikipedia
"Taps '' is a bugle call played at dusk, during flag ceremonies, and at military funerals by the United States armed forces. The official military version is played by a single bugle or trumpet, although other versions of the tune may be played in other contexts (e.g., the U.S. Marine Corps Ceremonial Music site has recordings of two bugle and one band version). It is also performed often at Boy Scout, Girl Scout, and Girl Guide meetings and camps. The tune is also sometimes known as "Butterfield 's Lullaby '', or by the first line of the lyric, "Day Is Done ''. The duration may vary to some extent; the typical recording below is 59 seconds long.
"Taps '' is derived from the same source as "Tattoo ''.
"Taps '' originates from the Dutch taptoe, meaning "close the (beer) taps (and send the troops back to camp) ''. An alternative explanation, however, is that it carried over from a term already in use before the American Civil War. Three single, slow drum beats were struck after the sounding of the Tattoo or "Extinguish Lights ''. This signal was known as the "Drum Taps '', "The Taps '', or simply as "Taps '' in soldier 's slang.
The tune is a variation of an earlier bugle call known as the "Scott Tattoo '', which was used in the U.S. from 1835 until 1860, and was arranged in its present form by the Union Army Brigadier General Daniel Butterfield, an American Civil War general and Medal of Honor recipient who commanded the 3rd Brigade of the 1st Division in the V Army Corps of the Army of the Potomac while at Harrison 's Landing, Virginia, in July 1862 to replace a previous French bugle call used to signal "lights out ''. Butterfield 's bugler, Oliver Wilcox Norton, of East Springfield, Pennsylvania, was the first to sound the new call. Within months "Taps '' was used by both Union and Confederate forces. It was officially recognized by the United States Army in 1874.
"Taps '' concludes many military funerals conducted with honors at Arlington National Cemetery and elsewhere in the United States. The tune is also sounded at many memorial services in Arlington 's Memorial Amphitheater and at grave sites throughout the cemetery.
Captain John Francis Tidball, West Point Class of 1848, started the custom of playing "Taps '' at military funerals. In early July 1862 at Harrison 's Landing, a corporal of Tidball 's Battery A, 2nd U.S.. Artillery, died. He was, Tidball recalled later, "a most excellent man ''. Tidball wished to bury him with full military honors, but, for military reasons, he was refused permission to fire 7 rifles three times (21 - shot salute) over the grave. Tidball later wrote, "The thought suggested itself to me to sound taps instead, which I did. The idea was taken up by others, until in a short time it was adopted by the entire army and is now looked upon as the most appropriate and touching part of a military funeral. '' As Tidball proudly proclaimed, "Battery A has the honor of having introduced this custom into the service, and it is worthy of historical note. ''
It became a standard component to U.S. military funerals in 1891.
"Taps '' is sounded during each of the military wreath ceremonies conducted at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier every year, including the ones held on Memorial Day. The ceremonies are viewed by many people, including veterans, school groups, and foreign officials. "Taps '' also is sounded nightly in military installations at non-deployed locations to indicate that it is "lights out '', and often by Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts and Girl Guides to mark the end of an evening event such as a campfire.
The melody of "Taps '' is composed entirely from the written notes of the C major triad (i.e., C, E, and G, with the G used in the lower and higher octaves). This is because the bugle, for which it is written, can play only the notes in the harmonic series of the instrument 's fundamental tone; a B - flat bugle thus plays the notes B - flat, D, and F. "Taps '' uses the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth partials.
"Taps '' is a bugle call - a signal, not a song. As such, there is no associated lyric. Many bugle calls had words associated with them as a mnemonic device but these are not lyrics. A Horace Lorenzo Trim wrote a set of words intended to accompany the music:
Day is done, gone the sun, From the lake, from the hills, from the sky; All is well, safely rest, God is nigh. Fading light, dims the sight, And a star gems the sky, gleaming bright. From afar, drawing nigh, falls the night. Thanks and praise, for our days, ' Neath the sun, ' neath the stars, neath the sky; As we go, this we know, God is nigh. Sun has set, shadows come, Time has fled, Scouts must go to their beds Always true to the promise that they made. While the light fades from sight, And the stars gleaming rays softly send, To thy hands we our souls, Lord, commend.
Several later lyrical adaptations have been created.
There are several legends concerning the origin of "Taps ''. The most widely circulated one states that a Union Army infantry officer, whose name often is given as Captain Robert Ellicombe, first ordered "Taps '' performed at the funeral of his son, a Confederate soldier killed during the Peninsula Campaign. This apocryphal story claims that Ellicombe found the tune in the pocket of his son 's clothing and performed it to honor his memory, but there is no record of any man named Robert Ellicombe holding a commission as captain in the Army of the Potomac during the Peninsula Campaign.
That Daniel Butterfield composed "Taps '' has been sworn to by numerous reputable witnesses including his bugler Norton, who first performed the tune. While scholars continue to debate whether or not the tune was original or based on an earlier melody, few researchers doubt that Butterfield is responsible for the current tune.
Another, perhaps more historically verifiable, account of "Taps '' first being used in the context of a military funeral involves John C. Tidball, a Union artillery captain who during a break in fighting ordered the tune sounded for a deceased soldier in lieu of the more traditional -- and much less discreet -- three volley tribute. Army Col. James A. Moss, in an Officer 's Manual initially published in 1911, reports the following:
During the Peninsula Campaign in 1862, a soldier of Tidball 's Battery A of the 2nd Artillery was buried at a time when the battery occupied an advanced position concealed in the woods. It was not safe to fire the customary three volleys over the grave, on account of the proximity of the enemy, and it occurred to Capt. Tidball that the sounding of Taps would be the most appropriate ceremony that could be substituted.
While not necessarily addressing the origin of the "Taps '', this does represent the first recorded instance of "Taps '' being sounded as part of a military funeral. Until then, while the tune had meant that the soldiers ' day of work was finished, it had little to none of the connotation or overtone of death, with which it so often is associated today.
Another lesser - known legend is that of Lieutenant William Waid paying saloon - keepers to shut off the taps to the kegs when the song was played in a neighboring army camp. Lt. Waid 's name has not been found in Union or Confederate records.
Although primarily used within the military, several local or special variations of the tune are performed, primarily by organizations such as the Boy Scouts of America or American military schools. It is also played all over the world in remembrance of the dead.
Echo Taps or Silver Taps is a tradition in which "Taps '' is played at U.S. military schools -- such as Norwich University, Texas A&M University, New Mexico Military Institute, The Citadel, and Virginia Tech -- when a member or former member of a school 's corps of cadets is killed in action. Echo Taps ceremonies involve some arrangement of "Taps '' for two buglers, playing antiphonally to represent both the cadet 's branch of service and their college. Silver Taps ceremonies may use such an arrangement, or some other version for two or more instruments.
At Norwich University, the ceremony is held on the Upper Parade Ground, where the Corps of Cadets forms up silently at 2145 (9: 45 p.m.) for tattoo, and then stands in silence until 2200 (10: 00 p.m.) when "Echo Taps '' is sounded, at which time unit commanders tacitly will give the commands of attention and present arms. The regimental bugler stands either near the flagpole in front of Jackman Hall or on Jackman 's balcony and plays the main tune of "Taps ''. The echoing bugler will stand on the steps of Dewey Hall facing the Parade Ground and echo each series of notes. Following the sounding of "Taps '', the Corps of Cadets dismisses in silence.
At Texas A&M, Echo Taps is held on the Corps of Cadets Quad at 10: 30p. m. For the ceremony, the Corps falls out and both students and cadets gather to form around the Quad. A bugler is posted at the megaphone on the south end and another is at the arches on the north end. Cadets salute and the bugler on the south end plays the first three notes of Silver Taps, the bugler on the north end echoes, the bugler on the south end plays the next three notes and is echoed for the rest of the song. Cadets and students then return to their dorms.
By far, one of Texas A&M 's most honored traditions is Silver Taps. Silver Taps is the student body 's final tribute paid to an Aggie who, at the time of their death, was enrolled in undergraduate or graduate studies. This final tribute is held the first Tuesday of the month when a student has died the previous month. The first Silver Taps was held in 1898 and honored Lawrence Sullivan Ross, the former governor of Texas and president of A&M College. Silver Taps is currently held in the Academic Plaza. On the day of Silver Taps, a small card with the deceased student 's name, class, major, and date of birth is placed as a notice at the base of the academic flagpole, in addition to the memorial located behind the flagpole. The A&M student newspaper, The Battalion, dedicates their Tuesday issue on a Silver Taps day to sharing stories of who the deceased students were. Around 10: 15 that night, the lights are extinguished and hymns chime from Albritton Tower. Students silently gather at the statue of Lawrence Sullivan Ross. At 10: 30p. m., the Ross Volunteer Firing Squad marches into the plaza and fires three rifle volleys totaling 21 shots fired. Six buglers then play a special rendition of Silver Taps by Colonel Richard Dunn (Aggie Band Director, 1924 - 1946). Taps is played three times from the dome of the Academic Building: once to the North, South, and West. It is not played to the East because the sun will never rise on that Aggie again. After the buglers play, the students silently return to their homes. Students return to their dorms, and lights remain extinguished until Reveille the next morning.
At New Mexico Military Institute, "Echo Taps '' (otherwise known as "Silver Taps '') is played by three trumpets on a night designated by the alumni association. This ceremony is held in the Hagerman Barracks to remember all the alumni who had died of normal causes or killed in action that year. This ceremony also includes the lighting and extinguishing of a candle for every alumni of the year. One bugler is posted at the north, south, and west side of the barracks and the candles at the east. After this early "Taps '', complete silence marks the rest of the night.
Army Regulation 220 - 90, Army Bands dated December 2007, Paragraph 2 - 5h (1) states the following: "' Echo Taps ' or ' Silver Taps ', the practice of performing ' Taps ' with multiple buglers, is not authorized. ' Echo Taps ' is not a part of Army tradition and improperly uses bugler assets. ''
Army Regulation 600 - 25, Salutes, Honors, and Visits of Courtesy, dated September 2004, Glossary, Section two states the following: "Taps The traditional ' lights out ' musical composition played at military funerals and memorials. The official version of ' Taps ' is played by a single bugle. In accordance with AR 220 -- 90, ' Echo or Silver Taps ', which is performed by two buglers, is not authorized. ''
Field Manual 12 - 50, U.S. Army Bands, dated October 1999, Appendix A, Official And Ceremonial Music, Appendix A, Section 1 -- Ceremonial Music, Paragraph A-35 "A-35. Signals that unauthorized lights are to be extinguished. This is the last call of the day. The call is also sounded at the completion of a military funeral ceremony. Taps is to be performed by a single bugler only. Performance of ' Silver Taps ' or ' Echo Taps ' is not consistent with Army traditions, and is an improper use of bugler assets. ''
Many Scouting and Guiding groups around the world sing the first verse of "Taps '' ("Day is Done... '') at the close of a camp or campfire. Scouts in encampment may also have the unit 's bugler sound taps once the rest of the unit has turned in, to signify that the day 's activities have concluded and that silence is expected in the camp.
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has there ever been a tornado in vermont | Tornadoes in New England - wikipedia
Tornadoes are fairly uncommon in the US region of New England. Fewer tornadoes are recorded here than anywhere else east of the Rocky Mountains. However, these deadly and destructive storms do occur; on average, about eight tornadoes are reported in the region each year. Almost 200 people have been killed by these storms in recorded history, and two of the ten most destructive tornadoes in US history occurred in this region.
Tornadoes are a violent weather phenomenon that occur most often in the United States, to the east of the Rocky Mountains. However, they most often occur in the Southern and Central United States, and are comparatively rare in New England. However, no region is immune to tornadoes if the weather conditions are right.
While tornadoes have been recorded in almost every county in New England, there is a region just east of The Berkshires with a much higher concentration of tornado occurrences. This area is analogous to the Tornado Alley of the Great Plains, but on a much smaller scale.
On average (1950 -- 2008), more than two tornadoes per year strike the state of Massachusetts alone, with New England as a whole recording more than 8. Most tornadoes reported in the region are "weak '', rated EF0 or EF1 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale (the Fujita scale prior to 2007). Around 30 % are "significant '' tornadoes (rated EF2 or greater), and only 1 % are violent (rated EF4 or EF5, the highest damage rating). Weak tornadoes occur in all areas of New England, but EF3 or greater tornadoes have been reported only in New England 's practical "Tornado Alley '' of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and southern New Hampshire.
Peak tornado activity in New England occurs during the summer months of June, July and August. Tornadoes typically strike between 3 and 9 pm local time, and move at a forward speed of around 30 miles per hour (48 km / h).
There have been 34 killer tornadoes in New England 's recorded history. Several of these tornadoes have killed multiple people:
Only two tornadoes in the history of New England have killed more than 10 people: the 1953 Worcester Tornado and the 1878 Wallingford tornado. The Worcester Tornado killed as many as 94 people in Worcester, Massachusetts, on June 9, 1953, and the Wallingford Tornado killed as many as 34 in Wallingford, Connecticut, on August 8, 1878. These two tornadoes, both estimated to be of F4 intensity on the Fujita scale, killed more people than the rest of the tornadoes in the region 's recorded history combined. Since most New England tornadoes are weak and short - lived, it is understandable why tornadoes causing multiple fatalities are a rare occurrence.
Of the costliest tornadoes in US history (adjusted for inflation), two occurred in New England: The 1979 Windsor Locks, Connecticut tornado, which caused $200 million in damage ($674 million in 2018 USD), and the 1953 Worcester tornado, which caused $52 million in damage ($476 million in 2018 USD). The Worcester tornado damaged or destroyed thousands of homes over a wide swath of central Massachusetts; the Windsor Locks tornado by contrast had a relatively small damage path, but it caused significant damage to parts of Bradley International Airport, including the New England Air Museum, where dozens of expensive and historic aircraft were damaged or destroyed, leading to the large damage figure.
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meaning of three colours of indian national flag in english | Flag of India - wikipedia
The National Flag of India is a horizontal rectangular tricolour of India saffron, white and India green; with the Ashoka Chakra, a 24 - spoke wheel, in navy blue at its centre. It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July 1947, and it became the official flag of the Dominion of India on 15 August 1947. The flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India. In India, the term "tricolour '' (Hindi: तिरंगा, translit. Tiraṅgā) almost always refers to the Indian national flag. The flag is based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya.
By law, the flag is to be made of khadi, a special type of hand - spun cloth or silk, made popular by Mahatma Gandhi. The manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, who allocates it to regional groups. As of 2009, the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha has been the sole manufacturer of the flag.
Usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India and other laws relating to the national emblems. The original code prohibited use of the flag by private citizens except on national days such as the Independence day and the Republic Day. In 2002, on hearing an appeal from a private citizen, Naveen Jindal, the Supreme Court of India directed the Government of India to amend the code to allow flag usage by private citizens. Subsequently, the Union Cabinet of India amended the code to allow limited usage. The code was amended once more in 2005 to allow some additional use including adaptations on certain forms of clothing. The flag code also governs the protocol of flying the flag and its use in conjunction with other national and non-national flags.
According to the Flag code of India, the Indian flag has a ratio of two by three (where the length of the flag is 1.5 times that of the width). All three stripes of the flag (saffron, white and green) are to be equal in width and length. The size of the Ashoka Chakra is not specified in the Flag code, but it has twenty - four spokes that are evenly spaced. In section 4.3. 1 of "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '', there is a chart that details the size of the Ashoka Chakra on the nine specific sizes of the national flag. In both the Flag code and IS1, they call for the Ashoka Chakra to be printed or painted on both sides of the flag in navy blue. Below is the list of specified shades for all colours used on the national flag, with the exception of Navy Blue, from "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '' as defined in the 1931 CIE Colour Specifications with illuminant C. The navy blue colour can be found in the standard IS: 1803 - 1973.
Note that the values given in the table correspond to CIE 1931 color space. Approximate RGB values for use may be taken to be: India saffron # FF9933, white # FFFFFF, India green # 138808, navy blue # 000080. Pantone values closest to this are 130 U, White, 2258 C and 2735 C.
Gandhi first proposed a flag to the Indian National Congress in 1921. The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya. In the centre was a traditional spinning wheel, symbolising Gandhi 's goal of making Indians self - reliant by fabricating their own clothing. The design was then modified to include a white stripe in the centre for other religious communities, and provide a background for the spinning wheel. Subsequently, to avoid sectarian associations with the colour scheme, saffron, white and green were chosen for the three bands, representing courage and sacrifice, peace and truth, and faith and chivalry respectively.
A few days before India became independent on 15 August 1947, the specially constituted Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A modified version of the Swaraj flag was chosen; the tricolour remained the same saffron, white and green. However, the charkha was replaced by the Ashoka Chakra representing the eternal wheel of law. The philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who later became India 's first Vice President and second President, clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows:
A number of flags with varying designs were used in the period preceding the Indian Independence Movement by the rulers of different princely states; the idea of a single Indian flag was first raised by the British rulers of India after the rebellion of 1857, which resulted in the establishment of direct imperial rule. The first flag, whose design was based on western heraldic standards, were similar to the flags of other British colonies, including Canada and Australia; its blue field included the Union Flag in the upper - left quadrant and a Star of India capped by the royal crown in the middle of the right half. To address the question of how the star conveyed "Indianness '', Queen Victoria created the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India to honour services to the empire by her Indian subjects. Subsequently, all the Indian princely states received flags with symbols based on the heraldic criteria of Europe including the right to fly defaced British red ensigns.
In the early twentieth century, around the coronation of Edward VII, a discussion started on the need for a heraldic symbol that was representative of the Indian empire. William Coldstream, a British member of the Indian Civil Service, campaigned the government to change the heraldic symbol from a star, which he considered to be a common choice, to something more appropriate. His proposal was not well received by the government; Lord Curzon rejected it for practical reasons including the multiplication of flags. Around this time, nationalist opinion within the realm was leading to a representation through religious tradition. The symbols that were in vogue included the Ganesha, advocated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Kali, advocated by Aurobindo Ghosh and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Another symbol was the cow, or Gau Mata (cow mother). However, all these symbols were Hindu - centric and did not suggest unity with India 's Muslim population.
The partition of Bengal (1905) resulted in the introduction of a new flag representing the Indian independence movement that sought to unite the multitude of castes and races within the country. The Vande Mataram flag, part of the Swadeshi movement against the British, comprised Indian religious symbols represented in western heraldic fashion. The tricolour flag included eight white lotuses on the upper green band representing the eight provinces, a sun and a crescent on the bottom red band, and the Vande Mataram slogan in Hindi on the central yellow band. The flag was launched in Calcutta bereft of any ceremony and the launch was only briefly covered by newspapers. The flag was not covered in contemporary governmental or political reports either, but was used at the annual session of the Indian National Congress. A slightly modified version was subsequently used by Madam Bhikaji Cama at the second International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart in 1907. Despite the multiple uses of the flag, it failed to generate enthusiasm amongst Indian nationalists.
Around the same time, another proposal for the flag was initiated by Sister Nivedita, a Hindu reformist and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. The flag consisted of a thunderbolt in the centre and a hundred and eight oil lamps for the border, with the Vande Mataram caption split around the thunderbolt. It was also presented at the Indian National Congress meeting in 1906. Soon, many other proposals were initiated, but none of them gained attention from the nationalist movement.
In 1909, Lord Ampthill, former Governor of the Madras Presidency, wrote to The Times of London in the run up to Empire Day pointing out that there existed "no flag representative of India as a whole or any Indian province... Surely this is strange, seeing that but for India there would be no Empire. ''
In 1916, Pingali Venkayya submitted thirty new designs, in the form of a booklet funded by members of the High Court of Madras. These many proposals and recommendations did little more than keep the flag movement alive. The same year, Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement. The flag included the Union Jack in the upper left corner, a star and crescent in the upper right, and seven stars displayed diagonally from the lower right, on a background of five red and four green alternating bands. The flag resulted in the first governmental initiative against any nationalistic flag, as a magistrate in Coimbatore banned its use. The ban was followed by a public debate on the function and importance of a national flag.
In the early 1920s, national flag discussions gained prominence across most British dominions following the peace treaty between Britain and Ireland. In November 1920, the Indian delegation to the League of Nations wanted to use an Indian flag, and this prompted the British Indian government to place renewed emphasis on the flag as a national symbol.
In April 1921, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi wrote in his journal Young India about the need for an Indian flag, proposing a flag with the charkha or spinning wheel at the centre. The idea of the spinning wheel was put forth by Lala Hansraj, and Gandhi commissioned Pingali Venkayya to design a flag with the spinning wheel on a red and green banner, the red colour signifying Hindus and the green standing for Muslims. Gandhi wanted the flag to be presented at the Congress session of 1921, but it was not delivered on time, and another flag was proposed at the session. Gandhi later wrote that the delay was fortuitous since it allowed him to realise that other religions were not represented; he then added white to the banner colours, to represent all the other religions. Finally, owing to the religious - political sensibilities, in 1929, Gandhi moved towards a more secular interpretation of the flag colours, stating that red stood for the sacrifices of the people, white for purity, and green for hope.
On 13 April 1923, during a procession by local Congress volunteers in Nagpur commemorating the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, the Swaraj flag with the spinning wheel, designed by Pingali Venkayya, was hoisted. This event resulted in a confrontation between the Congressmen and the police, after which five people were imprisoned. Over a hundred other protesters continued the flag procession after a meeting. Subsequently, on the first of May, Jamnalal Bajaj, the secretary of the Nagpur Congress Committee, started the Flag Satyagraha, gaining national attention and marking a significant point in the flag movement. The satyagraha, promoted nationally by the Congress, started creating cracks within the organisation in which the Gandhians were highly enthused while the other group, the Swarajists, called it inconsequential.
Finally, at the All India Congress Committee meeting in July, 1923, at the insistence of Jawaharlal Nehru and Sarojini Naidu, Congress closed ranks and the flag movement was endorsed. The flag movement was managed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel with the idea of public processions and flag displays by common people. By the end of the movement, over 1500 people had been arrested across all of British India. The Bombay Chronicle reported that the movement drew from diverse groups of society including farmers, students, merchants, labourers and "national servants ''. While Muslim participation was moderate, the movement enthused women, who had hitherto rarely participated in the independence movement.
While the flag agitation got its impetus from Gandhi 's writings and discourses, the movement received political acceptance following the Nagpur incident. News reports, editorials and letters to editors published in various journals and newspapers of the time attest to the subsequent development of a bond between the flag and the nation. Soon, the concept of preserving the honour of the national flag became an integral component of the independence struggle. While Muslims were still wary of the Swaraj flag, it gained acceptance among Muslim leaders of the Congress and the Khilafat Movement as the national flag.
Detractors of the flag movement, including Motilal Nehru, soon hailed the Swaraj flag as a symbol of national unity. Thus, the flag became a significant structural component of the institution of India. In contrast to the subdued responses of the past, the British Indian government took greater cognisance of the new flag, and began to define a policy of response. The British parliament discussed public use of the flag, and based on directives from England, the British Indian government threatened to withdraw funds from municipalities and local governments that did not prevent the display of the Swaraj flag. The Swaraj flag became the official flag of Congress at the 1931 meeting. However, by then, the flag had already become the symbol of the independence movement.
A few days before India gained its independence in August 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed. To select a flag for independent India, on 23 June 1947, the assembly set up an ad hoc committee headed by Rajendra Prasad and including Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Sarojini Naidu, C. Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi and B.R. Ambedkar as its members.
On 14 July 1947, the committee recommended that the flag of the Indian National Congress be adopted as the National Flag of India with suitable modifications, so as to make it acceptable to all parties and communities. It was also resolved that the flag should not have any communal undertones. The spinning wheel of the Congress flag was replaced by the Chakra (wheel) from the Lion Capital of Ashoka. According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the chakra was chosen as it was representative of dharma and law. However, Jawaharlal Nehru explained that the change was more practical in nature, as unlike the flag with the spinning wheel, this design would appear symmetrical. Gandhi was not very pleased by the change, but eventually came around to accepting it.
The flag was proposed by Nehru at the Constituent Assembly on 22 July 1947 as a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron, white and dark green in equal proportions, with the Ashoka wheel in blue in the centre of the white band. Nehru also presented two flags, one in Khadi - silk and the other in Khadi - cotton, to the assembly. The resolution was approved unanimously. It served as the national flag of the Dominion of India between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950, and has served as the flag of the Republic of India since then.
The design and manufacturing process for the national flag is regulated by three documents issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). All of the flags are made out of khadi cloth of silk or cotton. The standards were created in 1968 and were updated in 2008. Nine standard sizes of the flag are specified by law.
In 1951, after India became a republic, the Indian Standards Institute (now the BIS) brought out the first official specifications for the flag. These were revised in 1964 to conform to the metric system which was adopted in India. The specifications were further amended on 17 August 1968. The specifications cover all the essential requirements of the manufacture of the Indian flag including sizes, dye colour, chromatic values, brightness, thread count and hemp cordage. The guidelines are covered under civil and criminal laws and defects in the manufacturing process can result in punishments that include fines or jail terms.
Khadi or hand - spun cloth is the only material allowed to be used for the flag, and flying a flag made of any other material is punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, besides a fine. Raw materials for khadi are restricted to cotton, silk and wool. There are two kinds of khadi used: The first is the khadi - bunting which makes up the body of the flag, and the second is the khadi - duck, which is a beige - coloured cloth that holds the flag to the pole. The khadi - duck is an unconventional type of weave that meshes three threads into a weave, compared to the two threads used in conventional weaving. This type of weaving is extremely rare, and there are fewer than twenty weavers in India professing this skill. The guidelines also state that there should be exactly 150 threads per square centimetre, four threads per stitch, and one square foot should weigh exactly 205 grams (7.2 oz).
There are four places in the country licensed to make the cloth for the national flag, they are in Karnataka, Marathwada, Barabanki in UP, and Banetha in Rajasthan. The woven khadi is obtained from two handloom units in the Dharwad and Bagalkot districts of northern Karnataka. Currently, Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha based in Hubli is the only licensed flag production and supply unit in India. Permission for setting up flag manufacturing units in India is allotted by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, though the BIS has the power to cancel the licences of units that flout guidelines. The hand - woven khadi for the National Flag was initially manufactured at Garag, a small village in the Dharwad district. A Centre was established at Garag in 1954 by a few freedom fighters under the banner of Dharwad Taluk Kshetriya Seva Sangh and obtained the Centre 's licence to make flags.
Once woven, the material is sent to the BIS laboratories for testing. After quality testing, the material, if approved, is returned to the factory. It is then separated into three lots which are dyed saffron, white and green. The Ashoka Chakra is screen printed, stencilled or suitably embroidered onto each side of the white cloth. Care also has to be taken that the chakra is completely visible and synchronised on both sides. Three pieces of the required dimension, one of each colour, are then stitched together according to specifications and the final product is ironed and packed. The BIS then checks the colours and only then can the flag be sold.
Display and usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India, 2002 (successor to the Flag Code -- India, the original flag code); the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950; and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971. Insults to the national flag, including gross affronts or indignities to it, as well as using it in a manner so as to violate the provisions of the Flag Code, are punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, or a fine, or both.
Official regulation states that the flag must never touch the ground or water, or be used as a drapery in any form. The flag may not be intentionally placed upside down, dipped in anything, or hold any objects other than flower petals before unfurling. No sort of lettering may be inscribed on the flag. When out in the open, the flag should always be flown between sunrise and sunset, irrespective of the weather conditions. Prior to 2009, the flag could be flown on a public building at night under special circumstances; currently, Indian citizens can fly the flag even at night, subject to the restriction that the flag should be hoisted on a tall flagpole and be well - illuminated.
The flag should never be depicted, displayed or flown upside down. Tradition also states that when draped vertically, the flag should not merely be rotated 90degrees, but also reversed. One "reads '' a flag like the pages of a book, from top to bottom and from left to right, and after rotation the results should be the same. It is considered insulting to display the flag in a frayed or dirty state, and the same rule applies to the flagpoles and halyards used to hoist the flag, which should always be in a proper state of maintenance.
The original flag code of India did not allow private citizens to fly the national flag except on national days such as Independence Day or Republic Day. In 2001, Naveen Jindal, an industrialist used to the more egalitarian use of the flag in the United States where he studied, flew the Indian flag on his office building. The flag was confiscated and he was warned of prosecution. Jindal filed a public interest litigation petition in the High Court of Delhi; he sought to strike down the restriction on the use of the flag by private citizens, arguing that hoisting the national flag with due decorum and honour was his right as a citizen, and a way of expressing his love for the country.
At the end of the appeals process, the case was heard by the Supreme Court of India; the court ruled in Jindal 's favour, asking the Government of India to consider the matter. The Union Cabinet of India then amended the Indian Flag Code with effect from 26 January 2002, allowing private citizens to hoist the flag on any day of the year, subject to their safeguarding the dignity, honour and respect of the flag. It is also held that the code was not a statute and restrictions under the code ought to be followed; also, the right to fly the flag is a qualified right, unlike the absolute rights guaranteed to citizens, and should be interpreted in the context of Article 19 of the Constitution of India.
The original flag code also forbade use of the flag on uniforms, costumes and other clothing. In July 2005, the Government of India amended the code to allow some forms of usage. The amended code forbids usage in clothing below the waist and on undergarments, and forbids embroidering onto pillowcases, handkerchiefs or other dress material.
Disposal of damaged flags is also covered by the flag code. Damaged or soiled flags may not be cast aside or disrespectfully destroyed; they have to be destroyed as a whole in private, preferably by burning or by any other method consistent with the dignity of the flag.
The rules regarding the correct methods to display the flag state that when two flags are fully spread out horizontally on a wall behind a podium, their hoists should be towards each other with the saffron stripes uppermost. If the flag is displayed on a short flagpole, this should be mounted at an angle to the wall with the flag draped tastefully from it. If two national flags are displayed on crossed staffs, the hoists must be towards each other and the flags must be fully spread out. The flag should never be used as a cloth to cover tables, lecterns, podiums or buildings, or be draped from railings.
Whenever the flag is displayed indoors in halls at public meetings or gatherings of any kind, it should always be on the right (observers ' left), as this is the position of authority. So when the flag is displayed next to a speaker in the hall or other meeting place, it must be placed on the speaker 's right hand. When it is displayed elsewhere in the hall, it should be to the right of the audience. The flag should be displayed completely spread out with the saffron stripe on top. If hung vertically on the wall behind the podium, the saffron stripe should be to the left of the onlookers facing the flag with the hoist cord at the top.
The flag, when carried in a procession or parade or with another flag or flags, should be on the marching right or alone in the centre at the front. The flag may form a distinctive feature of the unveiling of a statue, monument, or plaque, but should never be used as the covering for the object. As a mark of respect to the flag, it should never be dipped to a person or thing, as opposed to regimental colours, organisational or institutional flags, which may be dipped as a mark of honour. During the ceremony of hoisting or lowering the flag, or when the flag is passing in a parade or in a review, all persons present should face the flag and stand at attention. Those present in uniform should render the appropriate salute. When the flag is in a moving column, persons present will stand at attention or salute as the flag passes them. A dignitary may take the salute without a head dress. The flag salutation should be followed by the playing of the national anthem.
The privilege of flying the national flag on vehicles is restricted to the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister, Governors and Lieutenant Governors of states, Chief Ministers, Union Ministers, members of the Parliament of India and state legislatures of the Indian states (Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad), judges of the Supreme Court of India and High Courts, and flag officers of the Army, Navy and Air Force. The flag has to be flown from a staff affixed firmly either on the middle front or to the front right side of the car. When a foreign dignitary travels in a car provided by government, the flag should be flown on the right side of the car while the flag of the foreign country should be flown on the left side.
The flag should be flown on the aircraft carrying the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister on a visit to a foreign country. Alongside the National Flag, the flag of the country visited should also be flown; however, when the aircraft lands in countries en route, the national flags of the respective countries would be flown instead. When carrying the president within India, aircraft display the flag on the side the president embarks or disembarks; the flag is similarly flown on trains, but only when the train is stationary or approaching a railway station.
When the Indian flag is flown on Indian territory along with other national flags, the general rule is that the Indian flag should be the starting point of all flags. When flags are placed in a straight line, the rightmost flag (leftmost to the observer facing the flag) is the Indian flag, followed by other national flags in alphabetical order. When placed in a circle, the Indian flag is the first point and is followed by other flags alphabetically. In such placement, all other flags should be of approximately the same size with no other flag being larger than the Indian flag. Each national flag should also be flown from its own pole and no flag should be placed higher than another. In addition to being the first flag, the Indian flag may also be placed within the row or circle alphabetically. When placed on crossed poles, the Indian flag should be in front of the other flag, and to the right (observer 's left) of the other flag. The only exception to the preceding rule is when it is flown along with the flag of the United Nations, which may be placed to the right of the Indian flag.
When the Indian flag is displayed with non-national flags, including corporate flags and advertising banners, the rules state that if the flags are on separate staffs, the flag of India should be in the middle, or the furthest left from the viewpoint of the onlookers, or at least one flag 's breadth higher than the other flags in the group. Its flagpole must be in front of the other poles in the group, but if they are on the same staff, it must be the uppermost flag. If the flag is carried in procession with other flags, it must be at the head of the marching procession, or if carried with a row of flags in line abreast, it must be carried to the marching right of the procession.
The flag should be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. The decision to do so lies with the President of India, who also decides the period of such mourning. When the flag is to be flown at half mast, it must first be raised to the top of the mast and then slowly lowered. Only the Indian flag is flown half mast; all other flags remain at normal height.
The flag is flown half - mast nationwide on the death of the president, Vice-president or prime minister. It is flown half - mast in New Delhi and the state of origin for the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Union Ministers. On deaths of Governors, Lt. Governors and Chief Ministers, the flag is flown at half - mast in the respective states and union territories.
The Indian flag can not be flown at half - mast on Republic Day (26 January), Independence day (15 August), Gandhi Jayanti (2 October), National Week (6 -- 13 April) or state formation anniversaries, except over buildings housing the body of the deceased dignitary. However, even in such cases, the flag must be raised to full - mast when the body is moved from the building.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag at half - mast.
On occasions of state, military, central para-military forces funerals, the flag shall be draped over the bier or coffin with the saffron towards the head of the bier or coffin. The flag should not be lowered into the grave or burnt in the pyre.
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what are the two factors that affect atomic radius | Atomic radius - wikipedia
The atomic radius of a chemical element is a measure of the size of its atoms, usually the mean or typical distance from the center of the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding cloud of electrons. Since the boundary is not a well - defined physical entity, there are various non-equivalent definitions of atomic radius. Three widely used definitions of atomic radius are: Van der Waals radius, ionic radius, and covalent radius.
Depending on the definition, the term may apply only to isolated atoms, or also to atoms in condensed matter, covalently bound in molecules, or in ionized and excited states; and its value may be obtained through experimental measurements, or computed from theoretical models. The value of the radius may depend on the atom 's state and context.
Electrons do not have definite orbits, or sharply defined ranges. Rather, their positions must be described as probability distributions that taper off gradually as one moves away from the nucleus, without a sharp cutoff. Moreover, in condensed matter and molecules, the electron clouds of the atoms usually overlap to some extent, and some of the electrons may roam over a large region encompassing two or more atoms.
Under most definitions the radii of isolated neutral atoms range between 30 and 300 pm (trillionths of a meter), or between 0.3 and 3 ångströms. Therefore, the radius of an atom is more than 10,000 times the radius of its nucleus (1 -- 10 fm), and less than 1 / 1000 of the wavelength of visible light (400 -- 700 nm).
For many purposes, atoms can be modeled as spheres. This is only a crude approximation, but it can provide quantitative explanations and predictions for many phenomena, such as the density of liquids and solids, the diffusion of fluids through molecular sieves, the arrangement of atoms and ions in crystals, and the size and shape of molecules.
Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explicable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease along each period (row) of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group (column). The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period. These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory. The atomic radii decrease across the Periodic Table because as the atomic number increases, the number of protons increases across the period, but the extra electrons are only added to the same quantum shell. Therefore, the effective nuclear charge towards the outermost electrons increases, drawing the outermost electrons closer. As a result, the electron cloud contracts and the atomic radius decrease.
In 1920, shortly after it had become possible to determine the sizes of atoms using X-ray crystallography, it was suggested that all atoms of the same element have the same radii. However, in 1923, when more crystal data had become available, it was found that the approximation of an atom as a sphere does not necessarily hold when comparing the same atom in different crystal structures.
Widely used definitions of atomic radius include:
The following table shows empirically measured covalent radii for the elements, as published by J.C. Slater in 1964. The values are in picometers (pm or 1 × 10 m), with an accuracy of about 5 pm. The shade of the box ranges from red to yellow as the radius increases; gray indicates lack of data.
The way the atomic radius varies with increasing atomic number can be explained by the arrangement of electrons in shells of fixed capacity. The shells are generally filled in order of increasing radius, since the negatively charged electrons are attracted by the positively charged protons in the nucleus. As the atomic number increases along each row of the periodic table, the additional electrons go into the same outermost shell; whose radius gradually contracts, due to the increasing nuclear charge. In a noble gas, the outermost shell is completely filled; therefore, the additional electron of next alkali metal will go into the next outer shell, accounting for the sudden increase in the atomic radius.
The increasing nuclear charge is partly counterbalanced by the increasing number of electrons, a phenomenon that is known as shielding; which explains why the size of atoms usually increases down each column. However, there is one notable exception, known as the lanthanide contraction: the 5d block of elements are much smaller than one would expect, due to the shielding caused by the 4f electrons.
Essentially, atomic radius decreases across the periods due to an increasing number of protons. Therefore, there is a greater attraction between the protons and electrons because opposite charges attract, and more protons creates a stronger charge. The greater attraction draws the electrons closer to the protons, decreasing the size of the particle. Therefore, atomic radius decreases. Down the groups, atomic radius increases. This is because there are more energy levels and therefore a greater distance between protons and electrons. In addition, electron shielding causes attraction to decrease, so re electrons can go farther away from the positively charged nucleus. Therefore, size (atomic radius) increases.
The following table summarizes the main phenomena that influence the atomic radius of an element:
The electrons in the 4f - subshell, which is progressively filled from cerium (Z = 58) to lutetium (Z = 71), are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells further out. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii which are smaller than would be expected and which are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements immediately above them. Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as zirconium, and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum (Z = 78), after which it is masked by a relativistic effect known as the inert pair effect.
Due to lanthanide contraction, the 5 following observations can be drawn:
The d - block contraction is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar cause. In this case, it is the poor shielding capacity of the 3d - electrons which affects the atomic radii and chemistries of the elements immediately following the first row of the transition metals, from gallium (Z = 31) to bromine (Z = 35).
The following table shows atomic radii computed from theoretical models, as published by Enrico Clementi and others in 1967. The values are in picometres (pm).
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when did gta 5 come out for ps4 | Grand Theft Auto V - wikipedia
Grand Theft Auto V is an action - adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It was released in September 2013 for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, in November 2014 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, and in April 2015 for Microsoft Windows. It is the first main entry in the Grand Theft Auto series since 2008 's Grand Theft Auto IV. Set within the fictional state of San Andreas, based on Southern California, the single - player story follows three criminals and their efforts to commit heists while under pressure from a government agency. The open world design lets players freely roam San Andreas ' open countryside and the fictional city of Los Santos, based on Los Angeles.
The game is played from either a third - person or first - person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle. Players control the three lead protagonists throughout single - player and switch between them both during and outside missions. The story is centred on the heist sequences, and many missions involve shooting and driving gameplay. A "wanted '' system governs the aggression of law enforcement response to players who commit crimes. Grand Theft Auto Online, the game 's online multiplayer mode, lets up to 30 players engage in a variety of different cooperative and competitive game modes.
Development of Grand Theft Auto V began soon after Grand Theft Auto IV 's release and was shared between many of Rockstar 's studios worldwide. The development team drew influence from many of their previous projects such as Red Dead Redemption and Max Payne 3, and designed the game around three lead protagonists to innovate on the core structure of its predecessors. Much of the development work constituted the open world 's creation, and several team members conducted field research around California to capture footage for the design team. The game 's soundtrack features an original score composed by a team of producers who collaborated over several years.
Extensively marketed and widely anticipated, the game broke industry sales records and became the fastest - selling entertainment product in history, earning US $ 800 million in its first day and US $1 billion in its first three days. It received widespread critical acclaim, with praise directed at its multiple protagonist design, open world, presentation and gameplay. However, it caused controversies related to its depiction of women and a mission featuring torture during a hostage interrogation. Considered one of seventh generation console gaming 's most significant titles and among the best games ever made, it won year - end accolades including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications. It is the third best - selling video game of all time with over 95 million copies shipped, and is the most financially successful entertainment product of all time, with over US $6 billion in worldwide revenue.
Grand Theft Auto V is an action - adventure game played from either a first - person or third - person perspective. Players complete missions -- linear scenarios with set objectives -- to progress through the story. Outside of the missions, players may freely roam the open world. Composed of the San Andreas open countryside area, including the fictional Blaine County, and the fictional city of Los Santos, the world is much larger in area than earlier entries in the series. It may be fully explored after the game 's beginning without restriction, although story progress unlocks more gameplay content.
Players use melee attacks, firearms and explosives to fight enemies, and may run, jump, swim or use vehicles to navigate the world. To accommodate the map 's size, the game introduces vehicle types absent in its predecessor Grand Theft Auto IV, such as fixed - wing aircraft. In combat, auto - aim and a cover system may be used as assistance against enemies. Should players take damage, their health meter will gradually regenerate to its halfway point. Players respawn at hospitals when their health depletes. If players commit crimes, law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a "wanted '' meter in the head - up display (HUD). Stars displayed on the meter indicate the current wanted level (for example, at the maximum five - star level, police helicopters and SWAT teams swarm to lethally dispatch players). Law enforcement officers will search for players who leave the wanted vicinity. The meter enters a cool - down mode and eventually recedes when players are hidden from the officers ' line of sight that displays on the mini-map.
The single - player mode lets players control three characters: Michael De Santa, Trevor Philips and Franklin Clinton -- criminals whose stories interconnect as they complete missions. Some missions are completed with only one character and others feature two or three. Outside the missions, players may switch between characters at will by a directional compass on the HUD. The game may switch characters automatically during missions to complete certain objectives. A character 's compass avatar will flash red if he is in danger and needs help, and flash white if he has a strategic advantage. Though players completes missions as any of the three protagonists, the more difficult heist missions require aid from AI - controlled accomplices with unique skill sets like computer hacking and driving. If an accomplice survives a successful heist, they take a cut from the cash reward and may be available for later missions with improvements to their unique skills. Some heists afford multiple strategies; in a holdup mission, players may either stealthily subdue civilians with an incapacitating agent or conspicuously storm the venue with guns drawn.
Each character has a set of eight skills that represent their ability in certain areas such as shooting and driving. Though skills improve through play, each character has a skill with expertise by default (i.e. Trevor 's flying skill). The eighth "special '' skill determines the effectiveness in performing an ability that is unique to each respective character. Michael enters bullet time in combat, Franklin slows down time while driving, and Trevor deals twice as much damage to enemies while taking half as much in combat. A meter on each character 's HUD depletes when an ability is being used and regenerates when players perform skilful actions (for example, drifting in vehicles as Franklin or performing headshots as Michael).
While free roaming the game world, players may engage in context - specific activities such as scuba diving underwater or BASE jumping via parachute. Each character has a smartphone for contacting friends, starting activities and accessing an in - game Internet. The Internet lets players trade in stocks via a stock market. Players may purchase properties such as garages and businesses, upgrade the weapons and vehicles in each character 's arsenal, and customise their appearance by purchasing outfits, haircuts and tattoos.
Michael Townley, Trevor Philips, and Brad Snider partake in a botched robbery in Ludendorff, North Yankton. Nine years later, Michael is living under witness protection with his family in Los Santos, under the alias Michael De Santa. Across town, gangbanger Franklin Clinton is working for a corrupt Armenian car salesman and meets Michael while attempting to fraudulently repossess his son 's car; the two later become friends. When Michael finds his wife Amanda sleeping with her tennis coach, he and Franklin chase the coach to a mansion, which Michael destroys in anger. The owner turns out to be the girlfriend of Martin Madrazo, a Mexican drug lord who demands compensation to avoid further violence. Michael returns to a life of crime to obtain the money, enlisting Franklin as an accomplice. With the help of Michael 's old friend Lester, a crippled hacker, they perform a jewellery shop heist to pay off the debt. Trevor, who now lives in a trailer park on the outskirts of Los Santos and believes Michael was killed in their failed robbery, hears of the heist and realises that it was Michael 's handiwork; Trevor surprises Michael and reunites with him after tracking down his home.
The personal lives of the protagonists begin to spiral out of control. Michael 's increasingly erratic behaviour prompts his family to leave him, and when he becomes a movie producer at film studio Richards Majestic, he comes into conflict with Devin Weston, a self - made billionaire venture capitalist and corporate raider who vows revenge after his attempts to shut down the studio are thwarted by Michael and his lawyer dies in an accident. Franklin rescues his friend Lamar Davis from gangster and former friend Harold "Stretch '' Joseph, who repeatedly attempts to kill Lamar to prove himself to his new brethren. Trevor 's reckless efforts to consolidate his control over various black markets in Blaine County see him waging war against The Lost outlaw motorcycle club, several Latin American street gangs, rival meth dealers, hillbillies, private security firm Merryweather, and Triad kingpin Wei Cheng.
Federal Investigation Bureau (FIB) agents Dave Norton and Steve Haines contact Michael and demand that he perform a series of operations to undermine a rival agency, the International Affairs Agency (IAA). Under Steve 's direction and with Lester 's help, they attack an armoured convoy carrying funds intended for the IAA and steal an experimental chemical weapon from an IAA - controlled lab. As Steve comes under increasing scrutiny, he forces Michael and Franklin to erase any evidence being used against him from the FIB servers. Michael takes the opportunity to wipe the data on his own activities, destroying Steve 's leverage over him. Michael, Trevor, Franklin, and Lester start planning their most daring feat ever: raiding the Union Depository 's gold bullion reserve.
Michael reconciles with his family. However, Trevor discovers that Brad was not imprisoned as led to believe, but killed during the heist and buried in the grave marked for Michael. Trevor 's feelings of betrayal cause friction within the group and threaten to undermine their Union Depository plans. When Michael and Dave are betrayed by Steve and become caught in a Mexican standoff between the FIB, IAA, and Merryweather, Trevor, feeling that he is the only one that has the right to kill Michael, comes to their aid. Despite not forgiving Michael, Trevor agrees to perform the Union Depository heist and part ways with him afterwards.
The heist is completed successfully, but Franklin is then approached separately by Steve and Dave, who contend that Trevor is a liability, and Devin, who wants retribution for Michael 's betrayal. Franklin has three choices: kill Trevor, kill Michael, or attempt to save both in a suicide mission. Should Franklin choose to kill either Michael or Trevor, he ceases contact with the man he spares and returns to his old life. Otherwise, the trio withstand an onslaught from the FIB and Merryweather before going on to kill Steve, Stretch, Wei, and Devin. Michael and Trevor reconcile, and the three cease working together but remain friends.
Rockstar North began to develop Grand Theft Auto V in 2009, following Grand Theft Auto IV 's release. Development was conducted by a team of more than 1,000 people, including Rockstar North 's core team and staff from parent company Rockstar Games ' studios around the world. The proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine (RAGE) was overhauled for the game to improve its draw distance rendering capabilities. The Euphoria and Bullet software handle additional animation and rendering tasks. Having become familiar with the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 hardware over time, Rockstar found they were able to push the consoles ' graphical capabilities further than in previous games. Analyst estimations place the game 's combined development and marketing budget at more than GB £ 170 million (US $265 million), which would make it the most expensive game ever made at that time.
The open world was modelled on Southern California and Los Angeles, and its design and in - game render constituted much of the game 's early work. Key members of the game world production team took field research trips throughout the region and documented their research with photo and video footage. Google Maps projections of Los Angeles were used by the team to help design Los Santos ' road networks. To reflect and reproduce Los Angeles ' demographic spread, the developers studied census data and watched documentaries about the city. The team considered creating the open world the most technically demanding aspect of the game 's production.
A fundamental design goal from the outset was to innovate on the series core structure by giving players control of three lead protagonists instead of one. The idea was first raised during Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas ' development, but contemporaneous hardware restrictions made it infeasible. Having developed two Grand Theft Auto IV episodic expansion packs featuring new protagonists in 2009, the team wanted to base Grand Theft Auto V around three simultaneously controlled protagonists. The team viewed it as a spiritual successor to many of their previous games (such as Grand Theft Auto IV, Red Dead Redemption and Max Payne 3), and designed it to improve upon their gameplay mechanics. They sought to improve the action gameplay by refining the shooting mechanics and cover system, and reworked the driving mechanics to correct Grand Theft Auto IV 's difficult vehicle controls.
After an audition process, Ned Luke, Shawn Fonteno and Steven Ogg were selected to portray Michael, Franklin and Trevor, respectively. Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology, but dialogue for scenes with characters seated in vehicles was recorded in studios instead. The game is the first in its series to feature an original score, composed by a team of producers collaborating with each other over several years. Licensed music provided by an in - game radio is also used. The team licensed more than 241 tracks shared between fifteen radio stations, with an additional two stations providing talk radio. Some of the tracks were written specifically for the game, such as rapper and producer Flying Lotus ' original work composed for the FlyLo FM radio station he hosts.
The game was first announced by Rockstar Games on 25 October 2011. They released its debut trailer one week later, with an official press release acknowledging its setting. Journalists noted that the announcement ignited widespread anticipation within the gaming industry, which they owed to the cultural significance of the series. The game missed its original projected Q2 2013 release date, pushed back to 17 September to allow for further polishing. To spur pre-order game sales, Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to make a special edition with extra in - game features. They ran a viral marketing strategy with a website for a fictional religious cult, "The Epsilon Program '', that offered users the chance to feature in the game as members of the cult.
A re-release of the game was announced for Microsoft Windows (PC), PlayStation 4 and Xbox One at E3 2014. This enhanced version features an increased draw distance, finer texture details, denser traffic, upgraded weather effects, and new wildlife and vegetation. It includes a new on - foot first - person view option, which required the development team to overhaul the animation system to accommodate first - person gameplay. The PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions were released on 18 November 2014. The PC version, initially scheduled for simultaneous release with the console versions, was delayed until 14 April 2015. According to Rockstar, it required extra development time for "polish ''. The PC version is capable of 60 frames per second gameplay at 4K resolution, and the Rockstar Editor lets players capture and edit gameplay videos. Design director Imran Sarwar announced in October 2017 that the game would not receive single - player downloadable content, despite Rockstar 's original plan for a 2014 release, citing the continued growth of Grand Theft Auto Online and the upcoming Red Dead Redemption 2 as reasons for the cancellation.
Grand Theft Auto V was released to critical acclaim. Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating in the 0 -- 100 range, calculated an average score of 97 out of 100 based on 50 reviews for the PlayStation 3 version and 58 reviews for the Xbox 360 version. The game is Metacritic 's fifth - highest rated, tied with a number of others. Reviewers liked the multiple lead character formula, heist mission design and presentation, but some did not agree on the quality of the story and characters. IGN 's Keza MacDonald called Grand Theft Auto V "one of the very best video games ever made '', and Play considered it "generation - defining '' and "exceptional ''. Edge wrote that it is a "remarkable achievement '' in open world design and storytelling, while The Daily Telegraph 's Tom Hoggins declared it a "colossal feat of technical engineering ''. It became only the second ever western developed game to be awarded a perfect score from the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu.
CNET 's Jeff Bakalar felt that the game encouraged players to engage with all three characters. Edge found that switching players was helpful for avoiding long travel times to mission start points. Because of the switching mechanic, Game Informer 's Matt Bertz noted that players are kept "in the thick of the action '' during shootouts. Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell wrote that switching added a tactical element to shootouts as characters set up in strategic outposts would cause fewer "shooting gallery '' situations than previous instalments. IGN 's MacDonald felt the switching feature gave players more choice in their approach and made missions less predictable.
Giant Bomb 's Jeff Gerstmann considered the heist missions a welcome deviation from series typical mission structure. Eurogamer 's Bramwell likened them to "blockbuster set - pieces '' and GameSpot 's Carolyn Petit cited the 1995 film Heat as a stylistic influence on their design. Joystiq 's Xav de Matos felt creativity and methodical approaches were encouraged. Polygon 's Chris Plante likened rapid character switching during heist missions to "film editing, with the player serving as editor, switching rapidly to the most interesting perspective for any moment ''. Computer and Video Games ' Andy Kelly felt that overall mission design was more diverse than and lacked the escort errands of its predecessors.
Edge praised the game 's graphical fidelity and absence of load screens. Play complimented the draw distances and weather and lighting systems. Eurogamer 's Bramwell considered the lighting system to be the game 's biggest advancement. Official Xbox Magazine (OXM) 's Mikel Reparaz thought that the game was "probably the Xbox 360 's greatest technical achievement '', and was surprised that the open world could render on the console. Reviewers lauded the open world 's design, some further complimenting the game for streamlining Los Angeles ' geography into a well - designed city space. GameTrailers ' Brandon Jones considered the Los Angeles emulation authentic and the open world "full of voice and personality ''. IGN and PlayStation Official Magazine (OPM) made favourable comparisons between Los Santos and Grand Theft Auto IV 's Liberty City. OXM 's Reparez felt Los Santos surpassed the "grey and gritty '' Liberty City. Reviewers praised the world 's satire of contemporary American culture -- OPM 's Joel Gregory opined that "the scathing social commentary is, of course, present and correct ''.
Destructoid 's Jim Sterling called the sound design "impeccable '' and praised the actors ' performances, original soundtrack and licensed music use. IGN and Giant Bomb commended the music selection and felt that the original score enhanced dramatic tension during missions. GameSpot 's Petit wrote that the score "lends missions more cinematic flavour ''. Edge said that the licensed music enhanced the city 's "already remarkable sense of space '' and that the original score improved the atmosphere of the gameplay. They summarised the game as "a compendium of everything Rockstar has learnt about the power of game music in the past decade ''.
Many reviewers found the land - based vehicles more responsive and easier to control than in previous games. Game Informer 's Bertz explained that "cars have a proper sense of weight, while retaining the agility necessary for navigating through traffic at high speeds ''. In addition to the vehicle handling, most reviewers noted the shooting mechanics were tighter than they had been in previous games, but Destructoid 's Sterling felt that in spite of the improvements, auto - aim was "twitchy and unreliable '' and cover mechanics "still come off as dated and unwieldy ''. Some reviewers felt the game solved a continual problem by adding mid-mission checkpoints.
The story and characters -- particularly Trevor -- polarised reviewers. Some felt that the narrative was not as well written as previous Rockstar games and cited Grand Theft Auto IV and Red Dead Redemption 's plot strengths. Others felt that the protagonists ' contrasting personalities gave the narrative tighter pacing. GamesRadar 's Hollander Cooper thought the game negated inconsistencies in the story of previous entries, whose single lead protagonists had muddled morality. GameSpot 's Petit considered Trevor in particular a "truly horrible, terrifying, psychotic human being -- and a terrific character ''. Eurogamer 's Bramwell found Trevor "shallow and unconvincing '', and felt that his eccentricities hurt the narrative and overshadowed Michael and Franklin 's character development. Joystiq 's de Matos faulted the protagonists ' lack of likability for him, and found the ambivalence between Michael and Trevor a tired plot device as their conflict grew into a "seemingly endless cycle ''. The Escapist 's Greg Tito had difficulty connecting with the characters ' emotions since they acted out of greed with no sense of morality and thus gave players little reason to support them.
Grand Theft Auto V 's re-release, similarly, received critical acclaim. Metacritic calculated an average score of 97 out of 100 based on 66 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version and 14 reviews for the Xbox One version, and 96 out of 100 based on 48 reviews for the PC version. Game Informer 's Andrew Reiner considered the addition of first - person "another significant breakthrough for the series '' in the vein of Grand Theft Auto III 's shift to third - person from Grand Theft Auto 's bird 's - eye view. GameSpot 's Mark Walton found that playing in first - person heightened the impact of Grand Theft Auto V 's violence, which made him reflect on morality and character motivation more than before. VideoGamer.com opined that players feel like inhabitants of the world, rather than "guns attached to a floating camera ''. IGN 's Dan Stapleton found the game more immersive in first - person, creating a "surprisingly different experience ''. VideoGamer.com praised the "finer details '' in first - person animations like camera lean when players take corners on motorcycles, or the navigational instruments in plane cockpits. Reviewers found playing the game more difficult in first - person, but Game Informer 's Reiner preferred the challenge.
GameSpot 's Walton thought the graphics improvements made the open world "even more spectacular '', especially because of improved spatial anti-aliasing. Of the first - person view, he said that "at ground level everything looks bigger and more imposing '' because of the improved graphics. IGN 's Stapleton favoured the PlayStation 4 version 's graphics over the Xbox One, but thought both consoles rendered the game well and maintained mostly consistent frame rates. He praised the increased frame rate and graphics options offered in the PC version. VideoGamer.com called the console version 's frame rate so consistent it was "scarcely believable '', although GameSpot 's Walton cited occasional frame rate dips. GameSpot 's Peter Brown opined that the PC version let players "witness the full extent of Rockstar 's admirable handiwork '', but noted that it "retains evidence of its last - gen roots... with simple geometry ''. VideoGamer.com praised the Rockstar Editor 's accessibility on PC but criticised some of its limitations, such as camera angle restrictions. IGN 's Stapleton appreciated the PC version 's customisable controls, and GameSpot 's Brown felt that constant switching between the mouse and keyboard and a gamepad was necessary for "the best experience ''. PC Gamer 's Chris Thursten called the game "the most beautiful, expansive and generous '' of the series.
On the game 's multiplayer, IGN 's Stapleton reported low player counts in matches, long wait times in lobbies, server disconnection and occasional crashes. "Because of that, '' he wrote, "I ca n't strongly recommend... the multiplayer experience alone ''. VideoGamer.com found online character progression streamlined by comparison with the original version. According to them, the "grind of just doing PvP until co-op Jobs arrive with regularity '' was lost, and newcomers would likely find multiplayer enjoyable and balanced. However, they wrote of frequent server disconnection, especially during load screens. GameSpot 's Walton thought that Grand Theft Auto Online "still suffers from a lack of direction '' for its open - ended and frenetic gameplay, but still is fun. Game Informer 's Reiner reported "minimal lag or issues in the expanded firefights and races ''.
Grand Theft Auto V received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications. Prior to its release, it received Most Anticipated Game at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards. The game was review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings ' highest rated for the year 2013. The game appeared on several year - end lists of 2013 's best games, receiving wins from independent journalist Tom Chick, CNET, Edge, the 31st Golden Joystick Awards, the 5th Annual Inside Gaming Awards the Spike VGX 2013 Awards, Slant Magazine and Time. It was named the Best Xbox Game by Canada.com, GameSpot, and IGN, and the Best Multiplatform Game by Destructoid. Rockstar Games and Rockstar North won Best Studio and Best Developer from Edge, and the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award at the 10th British Academy Video Games Awards.
Various in - game elements were recognised with awards. Two characters, Trevor Philips and Lamar Davis, received numerous nominations for Best Character, and Lamar won the award from Giant Bomb. The music received awards from Spike VGX, Hardcore Gamer and The Daily Telegraph. Grand Theft Auto Online won Best Multiplayer from GameTrailers and BAFTA, and Best Xbox 360 Multiplayer from IGN. Online was also nominated for Biggest Disappointment by Game Revolution and Hardcore Gamer. Grand Theft Auto V won Best Technical Achievement in the Telegraph Video Game Awards, and Best Technology at the 14th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards. The graphical and artistic design received awards from IGN, The Daily Telegraph and BAFTA, and a nomination at the Game Developers Choice Awards.
The game received numerous other awards. It was awarded the title of Most Immersive Game at the Inside Gaming Awards. The general public voted for the game to receive the User Choice Award at the PlayStation Awards 2013 and the Community Choice award from Destructoid. The game received the Platinum Award at the PlayStation Awards, and was named the Best British Game from BAFTA. At IGN 's Best of 2013 Awards, it received multiple wins, including Best Xbox 360 Graphics, Best Xbox 360 Sound, and Best Action Game on Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and overall.
Within 24 hours of its release, Grand Theft Auto V generated more than US $800 million in worldwide revenue, equating to approximately 11.21 million copies sold for Take - Two Interactive. The numbers nearly doubled analysts ' expectations for the title. Three days after release, the game had surpassed one billion dollars in sales, making it the fastest selling entertainment product in history. Six weeks after its release, Rockstar had shipped nearly 29 million copies of the game to retailers, exceeding the lifetime figures of Grand Theft Auto IV. On 7 October 2013, the game became the best - selling digital release on PlayStation Store for PlayStation 3, breaking the previous record set by The Last of Us, though numerical sales figures were not disclosed. It broke seven Guinness World Records on 8 October: best - selling video game in 24 hours, best - selling action - adventure video game in 24 hours, highest grossing video game in 24 hours, fastest entertainment property to gross US $1 billion, fastest video game to gross US $1 billion, highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours, and most viewed trailer for an action - adventure video game. A digital version was released on 18 October for the Xbox 360, which went on to become the highest grossing day - one and week - one release on Xbox Live. As of May 2014, the game has generated over US $1.98 billion in revenue. As of August 2014, the game has sold - in over 34 million units to retailers for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. By December 2014, the game had shipped 45 million copies, including 10 million copies of the re-released version. As of May 2018, the game has shipped over 95 million copies worldwide across all platforms, and generated over US $6 billion by April 2018, making it the most profitable entertainment product of all time.
In the United Kingdom, the game became the all time fastest - selling, selling more than 2.25 million copies in five days. This broke the record set by Call of Duty: Black Ops at two million copies over the same period. It broke the day one record by selling 1.57 million copies and generating £ 65 million. In two weeks, the game sold more than 2.6 million copies and generated £ 90 million, which accounted for 52 % of games sold September 2013. After three weeks on sale, it beat Grand Theft Auto IV 's lifetime sales in the United Kingdom. In its fourth week, it became the fastest - selling title to break the three million barrier in the UK, thus overtaking Black Ops II 's lifetime sales. In November 2014, the game became the best - selling game of all time in the UK, overtaking Black Ops. The game was similarly successful in North America: it was the best selling game in September, representing over 50 % of software sales and boosting overall software sales by 52 % compared to September 2012.
Developed in tandem with the single - player mode, the online multiplayer mode Grand Theft Auto Online was conceived as a separate experience to be played in a continually evolving world. Up to 30 players freely roam across the game world and enter lobbies to complete jobs (story - driven competitive and cooperative modes). The Content Creator toolset lets players create their own parameters for custom jobs, like racetracks and deathmatch weapon spawn points. Players may band together in organised player teams called crews to complete jobs together. Rockstar Games Social Club extends crews formed in Max Payne 3 's multiplayer mode to those of Grand Theft Auto Online. Players may create their own crews and join up to five total. Crews win multiplayer matches to earn experience points and climb online leaderboards.
Grand Theft Auto Online launched on 1 October 2013, two weeks after Grand Theft Auto V 's release. Many players reported connection difficulties and game freezes during load screens. Rockstar released a technical patch on 5 October in an effort to resolve the issues, but problems persisted the second week following launch as some players reported their character progress as having disappeared. Another technical patch was released on 10 October combating the issues and Rockstar offered a GTA $500,000 (in - game currency) stimulus to the accounts of all players connected to Online since launch as recompense. Because of the widespread technical issues present at launch, many reviewers bemoaned their Grand Theft Auto Online experience, but generally recognised its open - ended exploration and dynamic content as strengths.
Post-release content is continually added to Grand Theft Auto Online through free title updates. Some updates add new game modes and features, and others feature themed gameplay content, such as the Independence Day Special update that added patriotic - themed content on 1 July 2014. The widely anticipated Online Heists update launched on 10 March 2015 and suffered some initial technical difficulties due to the increased user load. Shortly after the game 's PC release, some players reported being banned from Grand Theft Auto Online for using field of view and cosmetic mods in single - player. Rockstar stated in their official blog that nobody had been banned from Online for using single - players mods, but that recent updates to the PC version had the "unintentional effect '' of making such mods unplayable. They stated that mods are unauthorised and may cause unforeseen technical problems and instabilities.
The game has generated several controversies related to its violence and depiction of women. A mission that requires players to use torture equipment in a hostage interrogation polarised reviewers, who noted its political commentary but felt that the torture sequence was in poor taste. The mission also received criticism from politicians and anti-torture charity groups. The game became subject to widespread online debate over its portrayal of women, particularly in the wake of backlash against GameSpot journalist Carolyn Petit when she claimed the game was misogynistic in her review. After Petit 's review webpage received more than 20,000 largely negative comments, many journalists defended her right to an opinion and lamented the gaming community 's defensiveness towards criticism. Television personality Karen Gravano and actress Lindsay Lohan both filed lawsuits against Rockstar in allegation that characters in the game were based on their likenesses. Their lawsuits were later dismissed. Australian department store Target pulled the game from their 300 stores following a Change.org petition against depictions of violence towards women in the game.
Critics concurred that Grand Theft Auto V was among seventh generation console gaming 's best and a great closing title before the eighth generation 's emergence. Polygon 's Plante observed that the game would "bridge between games ' present and the future '', and declared it "the closure of this generation, and the benchmark for the next ''. VideoGamer. com 's Simon Miller considered it "the ultimate swansong for this console cycle '' that would "cast a long shadow over the next ''. Three days after its release, the game ranked second on IGN 's "Top 25 Xbox 360 Games '' list. Editor Ryan McCaffrey considered that the open world 's scale and detail succeeded the majority of other Xbox 360 games. He called the game "a triumph both for gamers and for the medium itself, and it deserves its runaway success ''. In November 2013, Hardcore Gamer placed the game third on their "Top 100 Games of the Generation '' list. They cited its improved shooting and driving mechanics over its predecessors, and considered the multiple protagonist design "a welcome change of pace '' that could become an eighth generation gaming benchmark. In December, The Daily Telegraph listed the game among their "50 best games of the console generation ''. They called it a "cultural behemoth '' that "will be Rockstar 's lasting legacy ''.
In January 2014, Computer and Video Games ranked the game fourth on their "Games of the Generation 20 -- 1 '' list. Editor Rob Crossley said that for the first time, Rockstar created an "utterly beautiful '' open world. He found that the game did away with Grand Theft Auto IV 's repetitive mission design and focused instead on fun gameplay. In May, IGN ranked it eighth on their "Top 100 Games of a Generation '' list and called it a "huge, raucous, and wildly ambitious bridge towards the (eighth) generation of console gaming ''. The next month, it placed third on IGN 's "Games of a Generation: Your Top 100 '' list as voted by the site 's readers. In August, Game Informer ranked it third on their "Top 10 Action Games Of The Generation '' list. They compared the game 's quality to that of its predecessor, but thought that its ensemble character set - up, varied missions and multiplayer superseded Grand Theft Auto IV 's placement on the list. They wrote of the story 's absurd drama and the open world 's vastness, and did not "regret a single second '' spent playing the game. In November, Edge named it the fifth best game of its generation and commented that "no other game studio is even daring to attempt an open world game in its tradition because there is simply no possibility of measuring up to (its) standards. '' In 2015, the publication rated it the second greatest video game of all time. The game ranked high on several best game lists determined by the public; it featured eighth on Empire 's "100 Greatest Video Games Of All Time '' list, and fifth on Good Game 's "Top 100 Games '' list, as voted by the magazine and programme 's respective audiences. It was the most tweeted game of 2015, despite being released over a year earlier.
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simple aag ond love story kannada full movie | Simple Agi Ondh Love Story - wikipedia
Simple Agi Ondh Love Story (Kannada: ಸಿಂಪಲ್ಲಾಗ್ ಒಂದ್ ಲವ್ ಸ್ಟೋರಿ) is a 2013 Indian Kannada romance comedy film written and directed by Suni, and stars Rakshit Shetty and Shwetha Srivatsav in the lead roles. The film is being remade in Telugu as Idi Naa Love Story starring Tarun & Oviya.
Kushal (Rakshit Shetty) is sent by his radio jockey sister Rachana to Kodagu to meet her boyfriend 's sister, Ithihasini, in the hope that the two will take a liking to each other, leading to marriage, and thus paving the way for her own marriage. Kushal meets a bubbly girl (Shwetha Srivatsav) who claims to be Ithihasini, and says the rest of the family is out of town. The two share their past romantic liaisons. Ithihasini 's actions seem a little odd and her responses to Kushal 's questions all avoid direct answers so it 's not really a surprise when Kushal 's sister calls to tell him that the girl he has been spending time with is not Ithihasini at all. When confronted the fake Ithihasini comes up with a number of different stories, but Kushal finds her even more intriguing as a result and declares his love for her despite not knowing who she actually is, although he does finally discover her real name is Khushi. And the story takes a drastic leap from here.
Simple Agi Ondh Love Story created a lot of buzz by its trailer where it had crossed more than a 100 thousand views in just 3 days. The trailer generated a lot of hype and curiosity among Kannada cine goers wherein the dialogues had become the talk of the town.
The film revolves only around two characters mainly the hero and the heroine and hence not much characters can be seen in the movie. The film was extensively shot in Pollibetta in Kodagu district of Karnataka and surrounding places near Madikeri and Chikmagalur during rainy season and had used a special camera to capture the nature lavishly.
Released with much hype and anticipation, the film received tremendous response from both the critics and audience. The movie justified the hype from its trailer with a good a story line, noteworthy camera work and memorable dialogues. The songs also created a lot of impact among music enthusiasts, particularly the song "Baanali badalago '' was noted for its lavish picturization and melody. Rediff gave the movie a 4 / 5 and concluded "Simple Agi Ondh Love Story is a must - see film for all those in love, for the freshness in narration and dialogues. '' The movie has set new standards in the Kannada Film Industry where witty dialogues take center stage and carry the film forward. It is one of the milestones of changes in Kannada film industry, be in its making, narration or the technical aspects.
Simple Agi Ondh Love Story collected more than 100 million at box - office and its TV rights sold for ₹ 20 million (US $310,000).
B.J. Bharath composed the music for the film and the soundtracks. The album has 9 soundtracks.
Won
Nominated
The Film had a sequel under the same theme. Director Sunil tentatively named the sequel "Simpllag innodu love story ''. The movie was released in March 2016, Exactly 3 years after the first film. And the sequel movie was also considered as one of the hits.
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when were manatees put on the endangered list | Manatee conservation - wikipedia
Manatees are large marine mammals that inhabit slow rivers, canals, saltwater bays, estuaries, and coastal areas. They are a migratory species, inhabiting the Florida waters during the winter and moving as far north as Virginia and as far west as Texas in the warmer summer months. Manatees are calm herbivores that spend most of their time eating, sleeping, and traveling. They have a lifespan of about 60 years with no known natural enemies. Some of their deaths are the result of human activity. In the past, manatees were exploited for their meat, fat, and hides.
Various human activities threaten manatee populations. Fishing nets and lines can cause injuries to manatees that can lead to serious infections. Some manatee deaths are the result of collisions with boats. Additionally, coastal development can affect manatee habitats, both positively and negatively. Manatees tend to gather in the warm water outflows of power plants and springs during cold weather.
Starting in the 18th century when the English declared Florida a manatee sanctuary and made manatee hunting illegal, people have worked to protect this species. In 1893, manatees first received protection under Florida law, and in 1907 this law was revised to impose a fine of $500 and / or six months of jail time for molesting or killing a manatee. In accordance with the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966, an act of Congress designed to list endangered animal species and offer them limited protection, the manatee became one of 78 original species listed as being threatened with extinction. There are currently more than 1300 species on this list. On March 11, 1967 federal efforts to protect the manatee began when the United States Fish and Wildlife Service listed the manatee as endangered.
In 1972, the manatee was designated a marine mammal protected under the Federal Marine Mammal Protection Act. This act prohibited the removal of any marine mammal and imposed a fine of up to $2000 and / or one year in jail for doing so. The Endangered Species Act of 1966 was revised in 1973 and increased federal protection of manatees. The "act made it a violation to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, capture, or collect an endangered species... authorized cooperative agreements between states and the federal government with funding management, research and law enforcement. ''
In 1974 the Sirenia Project was established in Gainesville, Florida to provide manatee documentation and rescue programs. In 1976, Sea World of Florida began a Manatee Rescue and Rehabilitation Program. The Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act passed in 1978, amending the 1907 state law. Florida became an official refuge and sanctuary for the marine mammals, and the regulation of boat speeds in areas of manatee inhabitation became allowed. In that same year, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Florida Audubon Society, and Sea World also sponsored the "West Indian Manatee Workshop '' in which six management recommendations were proposed: regulations to control boaters and divers, land acquisition for refuges, study of potential artificial refuges, explore technological control mechanisms to protect manatees, develop oil spill contingency plans, and increase public education.
In 1979, Florida Governor Bob Graham made November Manatee Awareness Month, and the first state - designated protection zones were established. The year 1980 saw Congress allocate $100, 000 to the Marine Mammal Commission and the development of the initial Federal Manatee Recovery Plan by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In 1981 Bob Graham and Jimmy Buffett formed the Save the Manatee Committee, the precursor of the Save the Manatee Club, which sought to protect manatees and their habitats. Both the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Endangered Species Act were reauthorized in 1988 as various new groups, companies, and organizations began to invest time and resources in the protection of the manatee. The early 1990s saw more government money being allocated to the cause, more research being conducted, and more protection plans being implemented.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service revised the Manatee Recovery Plan Objectives in 1996 to include the following: assess and minimize causes of manatee mortality and injury, protect essential habitat, determine and monitor the status of the manatee population and essential habitat, coordinate and oversee cooperative recovery work. Throughout the early 2000s (decade), various counties in Florida continued to revise and / or create specific conservation plans in conjunction with federal and statewide efforts.
As of January 7, 2016, as a result of significant improvements in its population and habitat conditions, and reductions in direct threats, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service announced that the West Indian manatee is proposed to be downlisted from endangered to threatened status under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). The proposal to downlist the manatee to threatened will not affect federal protections currently afforded by the ESA, and the Service remains committed to conservation actions to fully recover manatee populations. The range - wide minimum known population is estimated to be at least 13,000 manatees, with more than 6,300 in Florida. When aerial surveys began in 1991, there were only an estimated 1,267 manatees in Florida, meaning that the last 25 years has seen a 400 percent increase in the species population in that state.
Many institutes help promote awareness of the threats faced by manatees, raise money for manatee research, and generally work to ensure the survival of this endangered species. One of the largest and most influential organizations is the Save the Manatee Club. This non-profit organization was created by Bob Graham and Jimmy Buffett as a means of including the public in manatee conservation. The club sponsors an Adopt - A-Manatee program that uses it funds for "public awareness and education projects; manatee research; rescue and rehabilitation efforts; and advocacy and legal action in order to ensure better protection for manatees and their habitat. '' It also sponsors various public awareness, education, and volunteer activities.
Sirenian International is one and conservation of manatees. The group considers itself a "partnership of scientists, students, educators, conservationists, and the public '' that sponsors various projects throughout the world. Membership is divided into three groups based upon financial contributions and active service to the organization: participating member, supporting member, and contributing member.
SeaWorld of Florida has played a major role in the efforts to protect and conserve the manatees. Sea World has the authority to rescue and rehabilitate manatees, and has had a great deal of success doing so. Evidence of this is shown by the fact that eight manatees were rescued and five were returned to their natural environments by Sea World of Florida 's rescue team in 2007. Additionally, the theme park has an exhibit titled "Manatees: The Last Generation? '' aimed at educating guests about the importance of protecting this endangered species.
One of the most popular efforts to raise money for manatee research and conservation is the sale of license plates by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. The proceeds of these sales make up a large percentage of the funds dedicated to this cause, having raised $34,000,000 since 1990. Money collected from decal sales, boat registration fees, and voluntary donations also contribute to the Save the Manatee Trust Fund. A newly redesigned license plate was released in December 2007.
Manatee Appreciation Day is celebrated on the last Wednesday of March in the United States. Florida celebrates Manatee Awareness Month during November, which has been endorsed by comedian Alec Baldwin.
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you are the apple of my eye (2011 taiwan) | You Are the Apple of My Eye - wikipedia
You Are the Apple of My Eye (Chinese: 那些 年, 我們 一起 追 的 女孩, literally "Those Years, The Girl We Went After Together '') is a 2011 Taiwanese romance film. It is based on the semi-autobiographical novel of the same name by Taiwanese author Giddens Ko, who also made his directorial debut with the film. The film stars Ko Chen - tung as Ko Ching - teng, a prankster and a mischievous student who eventually becomes a writer. Michelle Chen stars as Shen Chia - yi, an honor student who is very popular amongst the boys in her class.
You Are the Apple of My Eye was filmed almost entirely on location in Changhua County, including at the high school which Giddens attended. The lyrics of "Those Years '', the film 's main theme, were written by Giddens. The song, which was well received by the public, was nominated for Best Original Film Song at the 48th Golden Horse Awards.
The film 's world premiere was at the 13th Taipei Film Festival on 25 June 2011, and it was subsequently released in Taiwanese cinemas on 19 August. Well received by film critics, the movie set box - office records in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Ko Chen - tung won the Best New Performer award at the Golden Horse Awards for his role in the film.
The story begins in 1994. An outstanding student, Shen Chia - yi, is popular among her teachers and classmates. Ko Ching - teng, a mischievous and poor student, claims that he has no interest in her, despite being her classmate since junior high school. One day, Ching - teng is caught masturbating during class, and the principal reseats him, placing him in front of Chia - yi.
One day, Chia - yi forgets her English textbook. Ching - teng slips her his own book and tells their teacher he forgot his own textbook; he then endures a long lecture and is punished. Chia - yi, touched by Ching - teng 's generosity, prepares a practice exam for him in return, to encourage him to study. She also convinces him to stay after school to study with her. Their relationship grows, and Ching - teng 's grades gradually improve.
On graduation, Ching - teng enrolls at the National Chiao Tung University. Chia - Yi, who did not do well on the admission exam because she was ill on that day, only manages to enter the National Taipei University of Education with her mediocre test results. Depressed and upset, she is consoled by Ching - teng, who calls her long - distance almost every night from the university. During the winter holiday season that year, the two go on their first "date '', during which Ching - teng asks Chia - yi if she loves him. However, fearing she would say no, he decides that he would rather not hear her answer (it is revealed later that her reply would have been "yes ''). Ching - teng later organizes a fight night and invites Chia - yi to watch, hoping to impress her with his "strength ''. On the contrary, Chia - yi finds it childish for Ching - teng to injure himself for no reason. This upsets Ching - teng, sparking a quarrel that causes the two to break up.
During the two years after their breakup, Ching - teng has no contact with Chia - yi. He qualifies for a graduate research course at Tunghai University, where he begins writing stories online. Ching - teng only regains contact with Chia - yi after the 921 earthquake, when he calls to see if she is okay. During their long conversation with each other, they both lament the fact that they were not fated to become a couple.
Years later, in 2005, Chia - yi suddenly calls Ching - teng to tell him that she is getting married. All of her old friends gather at the wedding, making jokes and trying to embarrass her somewhat - older husband. They are surprised that their past emotions have transformed into deep friendship and serenity. Ching - teng begins to work on a web novel about his experiences with Chia - yi.
Later, when they gather to congratulate the bride and groom, the friends joke that they should be able to kiss the bride. The husband says that anybody who wants to kiss the bride has to kiss him like that first. Ching - teng grabs the groom and pushes him onto the table, kissing him like he would kiss Chia - yi. During their kiss, he remembers how he regrets their fight from years ago, and what could have happened had he apologized for being childish.
You Are the Apple of My Eye is based on Giddens ' semi-autobiographical novel of the same name. He changed some details of the story to make the film more dramatic; for example, Ching - teng and Chia - yi 's fight actually took place over the phone, not in the rain as depicted. Giddens said, "although some of the reasons for the events in the film were changed, the main storyline remained unchanged ''. Asked if he was pressured by the recent success of Taiwanese films at the box office, he replied "No, I am more pressured by whether the film is nice to watch, whether it will succeed in the box office, and whether it will become an embarrassment for me. Also, if the film is not nice, it will be a letdown to Chen - tung and Michelle, who have been working so hard ''.
At first, the film was on a tight budget; Giddens used his entire savings and mortgaged his house to raise money, saying that he did it to impress ex-girlfriend, who provided the inspiration for this film 's female protagonist, Shen Chia - yi. Executive producer Angie Chai also played a key role in raising money for the film.
Michelle Chen was the first cast member confirmed by the director. Mypaper reported that Giddens was attracted to her during their first meeting, saying that she resembled the real Shen Chia - yi. Chen had previously starred in Taiwanese television drama series such as Why Why Love and Miss No Good, although she was better known for her 2009 film Hear Me. Chen went on a diet to lose weight for the role, saying she wished to "not disappoint the director ''. Giddens later used her as a basis to select the other cast members. The selection process for the male lead was the longest, and a series of auditions attracted several celebrities. Giddens chose first - time actor Ko Chen - tung because he felt he showed great improvement in his acting skills in each successive audition. Giddens liked his attitude, having seen Ko Chen - tung hiding in a corner, frantically studying the script just before his audition.
The director chose Ao - chuan, Yen Sheng - yu, Hao Shao - wen, and Tsai Chang - hsien to play the roles of his high school friends. He described Hao Shao - wen as being a persuasive speaker, Tsai Chang - hsien as being a very good prankster, and Ao - chuan as self - confident. Hu Chia - wei played herself as a teenager. Giddens describes the two of them as "the Jay Chou and Jolin Tsai of the (Chinese) publishing world ''.
Giddens ' mother told him that she would like either Lotus Wang or Phoebe Huang to play her in the film. In the end, Giddens settled on Lotus Wang, because she did not have any other work commitments at that time. Ko Chen - tung 's real father plays the father in the film.
You Are the Apple of My Eye was primarily filmed at Ching Cheng High School (精誠 中學), the school Giddens and Shen Chia - yi attended. The director said he chose the school because "he wanted so badly to see Ko Chen - tung and Michelle Chen in the school uniform that he remembered vividly ''. The filming of the school scenes could only be done during the Taiwanese school holidays. Because the main location was at the school, it was decided to film the remainder of the film on location throughout Changhua County. The filming had a reported budget of NT $50 million (approx. US $1.67 M in January 2012).
"Childish '' (孩子氣), a song from the film, was written and sung by Michelle Chen. Giddens was so touched by the song that he shed tears "on the spot '' after first hearing it; in particular, he liked the song 's lyrics. He also praised Michelle 's dedication to her role, saying "I believe that the reason that she managed to get inspiration to write this song is because she likes her role (in this film) ''.
Giddens was also involved in some of this film 's theme songs, including "Those Years '' (那些 年). At first Giddens could not decide on the closing theme for this film; however, after hearing one of Japanese composer Mitsutoshi Kimura 's new compositions he chose it and added lyrics. "The Lonely Caffeine '' (寂寞 的 咖啡 因) had been composed by Giddens for Shen Chia - Yi when the two were in a relationship. He asked the male lead actor to sing the song in the film, because he felt this would convey the song 's original meaning.
"Those Years '' was an instant hit. The music video on YouTube logged its ten millionth viewer on 11 November 2011, leading Giddens to note that the song "broke every notable viewership record set by a Chinese - language video on Youtube ''. In the Taiwanese KKBOX singles daily charts, "Those Years '' remained at the top for 64 consecutive days, from 22 August to 22 October 2011, breaking the previous record of 45 consecutive days. The song was nominated for the Best Original Film Soundtrack award at the 48th Golden Horse Awards.
You Are the Apple of My Eye was edited over for its various releases due to its controversial content. In Taiwan, the film was initially given a "Restricted '' film classification. Giddens was extremely upset by this, and even personally went to Government Information Office to appeal. The film had to be edited 4 times in order to lower its classification. In the end, the film received a "Guidance '' classification, meaning that children above 12 are able to watch it. In Malaysia, the scene where the students masturbated in the classroom was deleted. In Singapore, the film remained unedited, but it received a NC - 16 rating, thus restricting the film to viewers above 16.
The film was heavily edited for its Mainland China release. The scene where a flag - raising ceremony was taking place was edited away, as were the scenes involving masturbation. In total, six scenes involving "negative sexual and pro-Taiwan content '' were either edited away or changed. The director also had to add new scenes in order to make the story flow more smoothly after editing.
The original soundtrack album for You Are the Apple of My Eye was released by Sony Music Entertainment Taiwan on 5 August 2011. It contains six songs with vocals and nine instrumental pieces that were used in this film.
You Are the Apple of My Eye made its debut in competition at the 13th Taipei Film Festival on 25 June 2011. The film made its international debut as the opening film for the sixth Summer International Film Festival in Hong Kong. It then had its general release in Taiwan on 19 August 2011.
The film was screened at the 24th Tokyo International Film Festival on 24 October 2011, where the director and cast were present. It was well - received, with audiences reportedly squeezing into the cinema to the extent that people had to sit in the aisles. Internationally, the film was released in Hong Kong and Macau on 20 October and in Singapore and Malaysia on 10 November 2011.
On 21 December, Giddens announced on his blog that the film passed the censorship board in China and would debut in that country on 6 January 2012. Giddens had previously expressed a wish for the film to be screened in China so Shen Chia - Yi, for whom he had made the film, could see it and comment. Giddens was unhappy when Chinese censors cut much of the film 's "negative sexual and pro-Taiwan content ''. He apologized to viewers in China for being unable to deliver on his promise to show the full story, saying that he "blamed only himself ''. He added that he "did not think that the China 's version was better (than the other overseas versions). ''
Giddens revealed that negotiations were ongoing for the film 's release in Europe and the United States. The film subsequently made its North American debut at the New York Asian Film Festival on 2 July 2012. It was later screened at the 2012 Fantasia Film Festival in Montreal. Giddens also announced that a sequel will be produced; it will begin production in 2013, and is expected to be released in cinemas in 2014.
You Are the Apple of My Eye was first aired on television on 24 March 2012 on the STAR Chinese Movies network. It became the most - watched film on television in Taiwan, having attracted an audience of almost 3 million people. In the 15 to 44 years old audience, it had an average rating of 7.14, with the rating peaking at 9.27 during the screening. It was also the most - watched television program on both cable and free - to - air networks in Taiwan. STAR Chinese Movies reportedly purchased the rights to this film at a hefty price of NT $2 million (approx. US $69,000).
You Are the Apple of My Eye grossed more than NT $ $20 million at the Taiwanese box office during its soft launch. This makes it the first Taiwanese film to gross over NT $ $20 million before its official release date. The film crossed the NT $200 million mark ten days after its official opening. In total, the film earned over NT $420 million at the Taiwanese box office, making it the third - highest - grossing film of 2011 in Taiwan.
In Hong Kong, You Are the Apple of My Eye grossed a total of HK $ 1,397,571 during its premiere (representing 50.6 percent of Hong Kong box - office earnings) on 20 October 2011. Four days after its release the film had earned a total of HK $11,525,621, breaking the record for the highest - grossing film debuting in the month of October. It also set a record for the highest - grossing opening weekend for a Taiwanese film at the Hong Kong box office, previously held by Lust, Caution in 2007 with a gross of $11,441,946. The film recorded the highest Hong Kong opening - four - day attendance in 2011 with 211,163 attending, breaking 3D Sex and Zen: Extreme Ecstasy 's previous record of 143,222. The film also has the highest four - day gross of a 2D film in 2011, and remained the highest - grossing film in Hong Kong cinemas for four consecutive weekends. During the final hours of 2011, it was announced that You Are the Apple of My Eye had grossed over HK $61.28 million, making it the all - time highest - grossing Taiwanese film at the Hong Kong box office. At the Macau box office, You Are the Apple of My Eye earned more than HK $100,000 in its opening weekend, with nearly 100 - percent attendance.
In Singapore You Are the Apple of My Eye earned a total of SGD $675,000, making it the second - highest - grossing film in Singapore that weekend despite the film 's NC - 16 rating (which meant that only viewers over age 16 were admitted); this surprised the film 's distributor, 20th Century Fox. The film broke the record for highest opening weekend for a Taiwanese film in Singapore, previously held by the 2007 film Secret. It surpassed the performance of other Taiwanese films such as Monga, Cape No. 7 and Lust, Caution. You Are the Apple of My Eye was the highest - grossing Asian film of 2011 at the Singapore box office, with earnings of SGD $2.93 million.
At China box office, You Are the Apple of My Eye became the most popular Taiwanese film, surpassing the previous record set by Cape No. 7 in 2008. It was the third - highest - earning film on its debut weekend, grossing about 27 million yuan. The film subsequently crossed the 50 - million - yuan - gross mark on 13 January 2012.
Maggie Lee of The Hollywood Reporter described the film as a "larky retro coming - of - age confection ''. She praised the film, saying that it "injects a fresh, tart edge to the genre with a constantly self - mocking boys ' angle '', which she described as an "alternative to Asian teen movies that tend to be syrupy ''. She said that "the youthful cast has a limited register but offer enough self - conscious blasé posing. '' She described the film 's texture as "slightly over-bright ''. Russell Edwards, reviewing for Variety, criticized the second part of this film, which he says is "unable to maintain the outlandish phallocentric humor of its first hour ''. He further criticized the last quarter of the film, which Edwards says "sees Giddens overestimating the charm of his own story ''. Edwards praised the film 's cast which, he said, were the film 's "greatest asset ''. He also praised the film as "a much more robust production than many similar youth - skewing Taiwanese romancers over the past decade ''.
Serene Lim, a reviewer for Today, labelled the film a "gentle tale of a teenage romance ''. She said that "Ko 's talents as a novelist are evident '', although his "attention to detail can get indulgently long - winded at times ''. Lim singled out Ko Chen - tung for praise, saying that "(he) thoroughly deserves his Golden Horse nomination for Best Newcomer, given his turn as the impetuous rebel made good ''; overall, she gave the film a rating of 3.5 out of 5. Yong Shu Hoong, writing for Singapore - based Mypaper, said that the "flashback sequences can reek of oversentimentality '', although the reviewer added that "the thrills, rivalries and heartbreak associated with high school romance are well depicted with nostalgia and humour '' and gave it a rating of 3 out of 5. The film was rated by Mtimes Movies as the "2nd Best Chinese Film of 2011 ''.
Film Business Asia gave the film a rating of 7 / 10, with Derek Elley describing it as "a confident feature '' and "slickly packaged in every department '', the latter making it "easy to miss the fact there 's nothing at all original here ''. He praised the cast as "well - chosen individually and relaxed as an ensemble ''. He added, "apart from a slightly draggy second half, the material sustains itself at almost two hours, with generally trim editing by co-executive director Liao. '' He concluded by summarizing the film 's plot as a "simple teenage rom - com, a will - they / wo n't - they between two opposites, but capped by a neat finale that does deliver some real emotion ''.
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which of the following is not a mental change that takes place during young adulthood | Emerging adulthood and early adulthood - wikipedia
Emerging adulthood is a phase of the life span between adolescence and full - fledged adulthood which encompasses late adolescence and early adulthood, proposed by Jeffrey Arnett in a 2000 article in the American Psychologist. It primarily describes people living in developed countries, but it is also experienced by young people in urban wealthy families in the Global South. The term describes young adults who do not have children, do not live in their own home, or do not have sufficient income to become fully independent in their early to late 20s. Arnett suggests emerging adulthood is the distinct period between 18 and 25 years of age where adolescents become more independent and explore various life possibilities. Arnett argues that this developmental period can be isolated from adolescence and young adulthood. Emerging adulthood is a new demographic, is contentiously changing, and some believe that twenty - somethings have always struggled with "identity exploration, instability, self - focus, and feeling in - between ''. Arnett called this period "roleless role '' because emerging adults do a wide variety of activities and not constrained by any sort of "role requirements ''. The developmental theory is highly controversial within the developmental field, with developmental psychologists contested over the legitimacy of Arnett 's theories and methods.
Coined by psychology professor Jeffrey Arnett, emerging adulthood has been known variously as "transition age youth '', "delayed adulthood '', "extended adolescence '', "youthhood '', "adultolescence '', and "the twixter years ''. Of the various terms, "emerging adulthood '' has become popular among sociologists, psychologists, and government agencies as a way to describe this period of life in between adolescence and young adulthood.
Compared to other terms that have been used which give the impression that this stage is just a "last hurrah '' of adolescence, "emerging adulthood '' recognizes the uniqueness of this period of life. Currently, it is appropriate to define adolescence as the period spanning ages 12 to 18. This is because people in this age group in the United States typically live at home with their parents, are undergoing pubertal changes, attend middle schools and high schools and are involved in a "school - based peer culture ''. All of these characteristics are no longer normative after the age of 18, and it is, therefore, considered inappropriate to call young adults "adolescence '' or "late adolescence ''. Furthermore, in the United States, the age of 18 is the age at which people are able to legally vote and citizens are granted full rights upon turning 21 years of age.
According to Arnett, the term "young adulthood '' suggests that adulthood has already been reached, but most people in the emerging adulthood stage no longer consider themselves adolescents, but do not see themselves entirely as adults either. In the past, milestones such as finishing secondary school, finding a job, and getting married clearly marked the entrance to adulthood, but in modern, post-industrialized nations, as positions requiring a college degree have become more common and the average age of marriage has become older the length of time between leaving adolescence and reaching these milestones has been extended, delaying the age at which many young people fully enter adulthood. If the years 18 -- 25 are classified as "young adulthood '', Arnett believes it is then difficult to find an appropriate term for the thirties. Emerging adults are still in the process of obtaining an education, are unmarried, and are childless. By age thirty, most of these individuals do see themselves as adults, based on the belief that they have more fully formed "individualistic qualities of character '' such as self - responsibility, financial independence, and independence in decision - making. Arnett suggests that many of the individualistic characteristics associated with adult status correlate to, but are not dependent upon, the role responsibilities associated with a career, marriage, and / or parenthood.
One of the most important features of emerging adulthood is that this age period allows for exploration in love, work, and worldviews more than any other age period. The process of identity formation emerges in adolescence but mostly takes place in emerging adulthood. Regarding love, although adolescents in the United States usually begin dating between ages 12 and 14, they usually view this dating as recreational. It is not until emerging adulthood that identity formation in love becomes more serious. Emerging adults are considering their own developing identities as a reference point for a lifetime relationship partner, so they explore romantically and sexually as there is less parental control. While in the United States during adolescence dating usually occurs in groups and in situations such as parties and dances, in emerging adulthood, relationships last longer and often include sexual relations as well as cohabitation.
As far as work, the majority of working adolescents in the United States tend to see their jobs as a way to make money for recreational activities rather than preparing them for a future career. In contrast, 18 - to 25 - year - olds in emerging adulthood view their jobs as a way to obtain the knowledge and skills that will prepare them for their future adulthood careers. Because emerging adults have the possibility of having numerous work experiences, they are able to figure out what type of work they are good at as well find what type of work they want to pursue for the rest of their life. Undergoing changes in worldviews is a main division of cognitive development during emerging adulthood.
People in emerging adulthood that choose to attend college often begin college or university with the worldview they were raised with and learned in childhood and adolescence. However, emerging adults who have attended college or university have been exposed to and have considered different worldviews, and eventually commit to a worldview that is distinct from the worldview with which they were raised by the end of their college or university career.
When Americans between the ages of 18 and 25 are asked whether they believe they have reached adulthood, most do not answer with a "no '' or a "yes '', but answer with "In some respects yes, in some respects no ''. It is clear from this ambiguity that most emerging adults in the United States feel they have completed adolescence but not yet entered adulthood.
A number of studies have shown that regarding people in their late teens and early twenties in the United States, demographic qualities such as completing their education, finding a career, getting married, and becoming parents are not the criteria used in determining whether they have reached adulthood. Rather, the criteria that determine whether adulthood has been reached are character qualities, such as being able to make independent decisions and taking responsibility for one 's self. In America, these character qualities are usually experienced in the mid to late twenties, thus confirming that emerging adulthood is distinct subjectively.
Emerging adulthood is the sole age period where there is nothing that is demographically consistent. At this time, adolescents in the United States up to age 20, over 95 % live at home with at least one parent, 98 % are not married, under 10 % have become parents, and more than 95 % attend school. Similarly, people in their thirties are also demographically normative: 75 % are married, 75 % are parents, and under 10 % attend school. Residential status and school attendance are two reasons that the period of emerging adulthood is incredibly distinct demographically. Regarding residential status, emerging adults in the United States have very diverse living situations. About one third of emerging adults attend college and spend a few years living independently while partially relying on adults.
Contrastingly, 40 % of emerging adults do not attend college but live independently and work full - time. Finally, around two - thirds of emerging adults in the United States cohabitate with a romantic partner. Regarding school attendance, emerging adults are extremely diverse in their educational paths (Arnett, 2000, p. 470 - 471). Over 60 % of emerging adults in the United States enter college or university the year after they graduate from high school. However, the years that follow college are extremely diverse -- only about 32 % of 25 - to 29 - year - olds have finished four or more years of college.
This is because higher education is usually pursued non-continuously, where some pursue education while they also work, and some do not attend school for periods of time. Further contributing to the variance, about one third of emerging adults with bachelor 's degrees pursue a postgraduate education within a year of earning their bachelor 's degree. Thus, because there is so much demographic instability, especially in residential status and school attendance, it is clear that emerging adulthood is a distinct entity based on its demographically non-normative qualities, at least in the United States. Some emerging adults end up moving back home after college graduation, which tests the demographic of dependency. During college, they may be completely independent, but that could quickly change afterwards when they are trying to find a full - time job with little direction on where to start their career.
Emerging adulthood and adolescence differ significantly with regards to puberty and hormonal development. While there is considerable overlap between the onset of physical puberty (typically between the ages of 10 and 11 in girls and 11 and 12 in boys) and the developmental stage referred to as adolescence, there are considerably fewer hormonal and physical changes taking place in individuals between the ages of 18 -- 25. As most girls finish physical puberty between the ages of 15 and 17, and most boys finish by the time they are 16 -- 17 years of age, emerging adults have reached a stage of full hormonal maturity and are now fully, physically equipped for sexual reproduction. Ironically, while "emerging adults '' might not feel ready for parenthood, women reach levels of peak fertility throughout this period of time (usually at some point in their early 20s).
Emerging adulthood is usually thought of as a time of peak physical health and performance as individuals are usually less susceptible to disease and more physically agile during this period than later stages of adulthood. However, emerging adults are generally more likely to contract sexually transmitted infections, as well as to adopt unhealthy behavioral patterns and lifestyle choices.
While many people believe that the brains of emerging adults are fully developed, they are in fact still developing into their adult forms. Many connections within the brain are strengthened and those that are unused are pruned away. Several brain structures develop that allow for greater processing of emotions and social information. Areas of the brain used for planning and for processing risk and rewards also undergo important developments during this stage. These developments in brain structure and the resulting implications are one factor that leads emerging adults to be considered more mature than adolescents. This is due to the fact that they make fewer impulsive decisions and rely more on planning and evaluating of situations.
While brain structures continue to develop during emerging adulthood, the cognition of emerging adults is an area that receives the majority of attention. Arnett explains, "Emerging adulthood is a critical stage for the emergence of complex forms of thinking required in complex societies. '' Crucial changes take place in their sense of self and capacity for self - reflection. At this stage, emerging adults often decide on a particular worldview and are able to recognize that other perspectives exist and are valid as well. While cognition generally becomes more complex, education level plays an important role in this development. Not all emerging adults reach the same advanced level in cognition because of the variety of education received during this age period.
Much research has been directed at studying the onset of lifetime DSM disorders to dispel the common thought that most disorders begin earlier in life. Because of this reasoning, many people that show signs of disorders do not seek help due to its stigmatization. The research shows that those with various disorders will not feel symptoms until emerging adulthood. Kessler and Merikangas reported that "50 % of emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 25 experience at least one psychiatric disorder. '' Not only is the emergence of various disorders prevalent in emerging adulthood, but the chance of developing a disorder drastically decreases at age 28.
Seventy - five percent of any lifetime DSM - IV anxiety, mood, impulse - control and substance abuse disorder begins before age 24. Most onsets at this age will not be, or become, comorbid. The median onset interquartile range of substance use disorders is 18 -- 27, while the median onset age is 20. The median onset age of mood disorders is 25.
Even disorders that begin earlier, like schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses, can reveal themselves within the age range of emerging adulthood. Often, patients will not seek help until several years of symptoms have passed, if at all. For example, those diagnosed with social anxiety disorder will rarely seek treatment until age 27 or later. Typically, symptoms of more severe disorders, such as major depression, begin at age 25 as well.
With the exception of some phobias, symptoms of many disorders begin to appear and are diagnosable during emerging adulthood. Major efforts have been taken to educate the public and influence those with symptoms to seek treatment past adolescence. There is minimal but intriguing evidence that those who attend college appear to have less of a chance of showing symptoms of DSM - IV disorders. In one study, "they were significantly less likely to have a diagnosis of drug use disorder or nicotine dependence ''. In addition, "bipolar disorder was less common in individuals attending college ''. However, other research reports that chance of alcohol abuse and addiction is increased with college student status.
Emerging adulthood is characterized by a reevaluation of the parent - child relationship, primarily in regard to autonomy. As a child switches from the role of a dependent to the role of a fellow adult, the family dynamic changes significantly. At this stage, it is important that parents acknowledge and accept their child 's status as an adult. This process may include gestures such as allowing increased amounts of privacy and extending trust. Granting this recognition assists the increasingly independent offspring in forming a strong sense of identity and exploration at a time when it is most crucial.
There is varied evidence regarding the continuity of emerging adults ' relationships with parents, although most of the research supports the fact that there is moderate stability. A parent - child relationship of higher quality often results in greater affection and contact in emerging adulthood. Attachment styles tend to remain stable from infancy to adulthood. An initial secure attachment assists in healthy separation from parents while still retaining intimacy, resulting in adaptive psychological function. Changes in attachment are often associated with negative life events, as described below.
Divorce and remarriage of parents often result in a weaker parent - child relationship, even if no adverse effects were apparent during childhood. When parental divorce occurs in early adulthood, it has a strong, negative impact on the child 's relationship with their father.
However, if parents and children maintain a good relationship throughout the divorce process, it could act as a buffer and reduce the negative effects of the experience. A positive parent - child relationship after parental divorce may also be facilitated by the child 's understanding of divorce. Understanding the complexity of the situation and not dwelling on the negative aspects may actually assist a young adult 's adjustment, as well as their success in their own romantic relationships.
Despite the increasing need for autonomy that emerging adults experience, there is also a continuing need for support from parents, although this need is often different and less dependent than that of children and earlier adolescents. Many people over the age of 18 still require financial support in order to further their education and career, despite an otherwise independent lifestyle. Furthermore, emotional support remains important during this transition period. Parental engagement with low marital conflict results in better adjustment for college students. This balance of autonomy and dependency may seem contradictory, but relinquishing control while providing necessary support may strengthen the bond between parents and offspring and may even provide space for children to be viewed as sources of support.
Parental support may come in the form of co-residence, which has varied effects on an emerging adult 's adjustment. The proportion of young adults living with their parents has steadily increased in recent years, largely due to financial strain, difficulty finding employment, and the necessity of higher education in the job field. The economic benefit of a period of co-residence may assist an emerging adult in exploration of career options. In households with lower socioeconomic status, this arrangement may have the added benefit of the young adult providing support for the family, both financial and otherwise.
Co-residence can also have negative effects on an emerging adult 's adjustment and autonomy. This may hinder parents ' ability to acknowledge their child as an adult, while home - leaving promotes psychological growth and satisfying adult - to - adult relationships with parents characterized by less confrontation. Living in physically separate households can help both a young adult and a parent acknowledge the changing nature of their relationship.
There are a wide variety of factors that influence sexual relationships during emerging adulthood; this includes beliefs about certain sexual behaviors and marriage. For example, among emerging adults in the United States, it is common for oral sex to not be considered "real sex ''. In the 1950s and 1960s, about 75 % of people between the ages of 20 -- 24 engaged in premarital sex. Today, that number is 90 %. Unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections and diseases (STIs / STDs) are a central issue. As individuals move through emerging adulthood, they are more likely to engage in monogamous sexual relationships and practice safe sex.
Across most OECD countries, marriage rates are falling, the age at first marriage is rising, and cohabitation among unmarried couples is increasing. The Western European marriage pattern has traditionally been characterised by marriage in the mid twenties, especially for women, with a generally small age difference between the spouses, a significant proportion of women who remain unmarried, and the establishment of a neolocal household after the couple has married.
Housing affordability has been linked to home ownership rates, and demographic researchers have argued for a link between the rising age at first marriage and the rising age of first home ownership.
Demographers distinguish between developing countries, which constitute more than 80 % of the world 's population, and the economically advanced, industrialized nations that form the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD). This includes countries like the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Japan, South Korea, and Australia, all of which have significantly higher median incomes and educational attainment and significantly lower rates of illness, disease, and early death.
The theory of emerging adulthood is specifically applicable to cultures within these OECD nations, and as a stage of development has only emerged over the past half century. It is specific to "certain cultural - demographic conditions, specifically widespread education and training beyond secondary school and entry into marriage and parenthood in the late twenties or beyond ''.
Furthermore, emerging adulthood occurs only within societies that allow for occupational shifts, with emerging adults often experiencing frequent job changes before settling on particular job by the age of 30. Arnett also argues that emerging adulthood happens in cultures that allow for a period of time between adolescence and marriage, the marker of adulthood. Such marital and occupational instability found among emerging adults can be attributed to the strong sense of individualization found in cultures that allow for this stage of development; in individualized cultures, traditional familial and institutional constraints have become less pronounced than in previous times or in unindustrialized / developing cultures, allowing for more personal freedom in life decisions. However, emerging adulthood even occurs in industrialized nations that do not value individualization, as is the case in some Asian countries discussed below.
Up until the latter portion of the 20th century in OECD countries, and contemporarily in developing countries around the word, young people made the transition from adolescence to young adulthood around or by the age of 22, when they settled into long - lasting, obligation - filled familial and occupational roles. Therefore, in societies where this trend still prevails, emerging adulthood does not exist as a widespread stage of development.
Among OECD countries, there is a general "one size fits all '' model in regards to emerging adulthood, having all undergone the same demographic changes that resulted in this new stage of development between adolescence and young adulthood. However, the shape emerging adulthood takes can even vary between different OECD countries, and researchers have only recently begun exploring such cross-national differences. For instance, researchers have determined that Europe is the area where emerging adulthood lasts the longest, with high levels of government assistance and median marriage ages nearing 30, compared to the U.S. where the median marriage age is 27.
Emerging adult communities in East Asia may be most dissimilar from their European and American counterparts, for while they share the benefits of affluent societies with strong education and welfare systems, they do not share as strong a sense of individualization. Historically and currently, East Asian cultures have emphasized collectivism more so than those in the West. For instance, while Asian emerging adults similarly engage in individualistic identity exploration and personal development, they do so within more constrictive boundaries set by familial obligation. For example, European and American emerging adults consistently list financial independence as a key marker of adulthood, while Asian emerging adults consistently list capable of supporting parents financially as a marker with equal weight. Furthermore, while casual dating and premarital sex has become normative in the West, in Asia parents still discourage such practices, where they remain "rare and forbidden ''. In fact, about 75 % of emerging adults in the U.S. and Europe report having had premarital sexual relations by the age of 20, whereas less than 20 % in Japan and South Korea reported the same.
While emerging adulthood exemplars are found mainly within the middle and upper classes of OECD countries, the stage of development still seems to occur across classes, with the main difference between different ones being length -- on average, young people in lower social classes tend to enter adulthood two years before those in upper classes.
While emerging adulthood occurs on a wide scale only in OECD countries, developing countries may also exhibit similar phenomena in certain population subgroups. In contrast to those in poor or rural parts of developing nations, who have no emerging adulthood and sometimes no adolescence due to comparatively early entry into marriage and adult - like work, young people in wealthier urban classes have begun to enter stages of development that resemble emerging adulthood, and the amount to do so is rising. Such individuals may develop a bicultural or hybrid identity, with part of themselves identifying with local culture and another part participating in the professional culture of the global economy. One finds examples of such a situation among the middle class young people in India, who lead the globalized economic sector while still, for the most part, preferring to have arranged marriages and taking care of their parents in old age. While it is more common for emerging adulthood to occur in OECD countries, it is not always true that all young people of those societies have the opportunity to experience these years of change and exploration.
Emerging adulthood is not just an idea being talked about by psychologists, the media has propagated the concept as well. Hollywood has produced multiple movies where the main conflict seems to be a "grown '' adult 's reluctance to actually "grow '' up and take on responsibility. Failure to Launch and Step Brothers are extreme examples of this concept. While most takes on emerging adulthood (and the problems that it can cause) are shown in a light - humored attempt to poke fun at the idea, a few films have taken a more serious approach to the plight. Adventureland, Take Me Home Tonight, Cyrus and Jeff, Who Lives at Home are comedy - dramas that exhibit the plight of today 's emerging adult. Television also is capitalizing on the concept of emerging adulthood with sitcoms such as $ h *! My Dad Says and Big Lake.
However, it is not just on television where society sees the world becoming aware of this trend. In spring 2010, The New Yorker magazine showcased a picture of a post-grad hanging his PhD on the wall of his bedroom as his parents stood in the doorway. People do not have to seek out these media sources to find documentation of the emerging adulthood phenomenon. News sources about the topic are abundant. Nationwide, it is being found that people entering their 20s are faced with multitudes of living problems creating problems that this age group has received a lot of attention for. The Occupy movement is an example of what has happened to the youth of today and exhibits the frustration of today 's emerging adults. Other television shows and films showcasing emerging / early adulthood are Girls, How I Met Your Mother, and Less Than Zero.
The concept of emerging adulthood has not been without its criticisms. Sociologists have pinpointed that it neglects class differences. While it might be true that middle class children in Western societies are spoiled for choice and can afford to postpone life decisions, there are other young people who have no choices at all, and stay in the parental home not because they want to, but because they can not afford a life of their own: They experience a period of "arrested adulthood ''.
A more theoretical criticism comes from developmental psychologists, who regard all stage theories as outdated. They argue that development is a dynamic interactive process, which is different for every individual, because every individual has their own experiences. Inventing a stage that only describes (not explains) a time period in the life of a few individuals (mostly white middle class young people living in Western societies within this decade), and has nothing to say about people living in different conditions or different points in history is not a scientific approach.
Arnett has taken up some of these critical points in public discussion.
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englands new system of justice included which of the following | Norman conquest of England - wikipedia
The Norman conquest of England (in Britain, often called the Norman Conquest or the Conquest) was the 11th - century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman, Breton, Flemish and French soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.
William 's claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo - Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged William 's hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother - in - law Harold Godwinson. The Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the Battle of Fulford, but Harold defeated and killed him at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north. Harold 's army confronted William 's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings; William 's force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement.
Although William 's main rivals were gone, he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated; some of the elite fled into exile. To control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. Other effects of the conquest included the court and government, the introduction of the Norman language as the language of the elites, and changes in the composition of the upper classes, as William enfeoffed lands to be held directly from the king. More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life: the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery, which may or may not have been linked to the invasion. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo - Saxon government.
In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint - Clair - sur - Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders. Their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the "Northmen '' from which "Normandy '' and "Normans '' are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the indigenous culture as they became assimilated by the French, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue d'oïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, transforming it into the Norman language. They intermarried with the local population and used the territory granted to them as a base to extend the frontiers of the duchy westward, annexing territory including the Bessin, the Cotentin Peninsula and Avranches.
In 1002 English king Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042. This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy 's ambitions for the English throne.
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edward 's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats. Harold was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by the Archbishop of York, Ealdred, although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by Stigand, the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury. Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this; King Harald III of Norway, commonly known as Harald Hardrada, also contested the succession. His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor, Magnus the Good, and the earlier English king, Harthacnut, whereby if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England.
In early 1066, Harold 's exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harold 's fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria. Deserted by most of his followers, Tostig withdrew to Scotland, where he spent the summer recruiting fresh forces. King Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade, but the bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops, so on 8 September Harold dismissed them.
King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Harald 's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian king 's bid for the throne. Advancing on York, the Norwegians defeated a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford. The two earls had rushed to engage the Norwegian forces before King Harold could arrive from the south. Although Harold Godwinson had married Edwin and Morcar 's sister Ealdgyth, the two earls may have distrusted Harold and feared that the king would replace Morcar with Tostig. The end result was that their forces were devastated and unable to participate in the rest of the campaigns of 1066, although the two earls survived the battle.
Hardrada moved on to York, which surrendered to him. After taking hostages from the leading men of the city, on 24 September the Norwegians moved east to the tiny village of Stamford Bridge. King Harold probably learned of the Norwegian invasion in mid-September and rushed north, gathering forces as he went. The royal forces probably took nine days to cover the distance from London to York, averaging almost 25 miles (40 kilometres) per day. At dawn on 25 September Harold 's forces reached York, where he learned the location of the Norwegians. The English then marched on the invaders and took them by surprise, defeating them in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory was costly, however, as Harold 's army was left in a battered and weakened state, and far from the English Channel.
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and all over France, including large contingents from Brittany and Flanders. He mustered his forces at Saint - Valery - sur - Somme and was ready to cross the Channel by about 12 August. The exact numbers and composition of William 's force are unknown. A contemporary document claims that William had 726 ships, but this may be an inflated figure. Figures given by contemporary writers are highly exaggerated, varying from 14,000 to 150,000 men. Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William 's forces: 7000 -- 8000 men, 1000 -- 2000 of them cavalry; 10,000 -- 12,000 men; 10,000 men, 3000 of them cavalry; or 7500 men. The army would have consisted of a mix of cavalry, infantry, and archers or crossbowmen, with about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types combined. Although later lists of companions of William the Conqueror are extant, most are padded with extra names; only about 35 individuals can be reliably claimed to have been with William at Hastings.
William of Poitiers states that William obtained Pope Alexander II 's consent for the invasion, signified by a papal banner, along with diplomatic support from other European rulers. Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support before the invasion. William 's army assembled during the summer while an invasion fleet in Normandy was constructed. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William 's delay, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold 's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.
The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold 's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September, following the dispersal of Harold 's naval force. They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding area. This ensured supplies for the army, and as Harold and his family held many of the lands in the area, it weakened William 's opponent and made him more likely to attack to put an end to the raiding.
Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, left much of his force there, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion. It is unclear when Harold learned of William 's landing, but it was probably while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about a week before reaching Hastings, so it is likely that he took a second week to march south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day, for the nearly 200 miles (320 kilometres) to London. Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William 's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle remain obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy. Harold had taken up a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present - day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 miles (10 kilometres) from William 's castle at Hastings.
Contemporary sources do not give reliable data on the size and composition of Harold 's army, although two Norman sources give figures of 1.2 million or 400,000 men. Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5000 and 13,000 for Harold 's army at Hastings, but most agree on a range of between 7000 and 8000 English troops. These men would have comprised a mix of the fyrd (militia mainly composed of foot soldiers) and the housecarls, or nobleman 's personal troops, who usually also fought on foot. The main difference between the two types was in their armour; the housecarls used better protecting armour than that of the fyrd. The English army does not appear to have had many archers, although some were present. The identities of few of the Englishmen at Hastings are known; the most important were Harold 's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine. About 18 other named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at Hastings, including two other relatives.
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources. Although the numbers on each side were probably about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few archers. The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge, and were at first so effective that William 's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William 's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons. Norman cavalry then attacked and killed the pursuing troops. While the Bretons were fleeing, rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William rallied his troops. Twice more the Normans made feigned withdrawals, tempting the English into pursuit, and allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly. The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold, about which differing stories are told. William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold 's death by an arrow to the eye, but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th - century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head. Other sources stated that no one knew how Harold died because the press of battle was so tight around the king that the soldiers could not see who struck the fatal blow. William of Poitiers gives no details at all about Harold 's death.
The day after the battle, Harold 's body was identified, either by his armour or marks on his body. The bodies of the English dead, who included some of Harold 's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield, although some were removed by relatives later. Gytha, Harold 's mother, offered the victorious duke the weight of her son 's body in gold for its custody, but her offer was refused. William ordered that Harold 's body be thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear. Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a cliff. Waltham Abbey, which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had been buried there secretly. Later legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings, but escaped and became a hermit at Chester.
After his victory at Hastings, William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead Edgar the Ætheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdred, the Archbishop of York. William therefore advanced, marching around the coast of Kent to London. He defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark, but being unable to storm London Bridge he sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.
William moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford, Berkshire; while there he received the submission of Stigand. He then travelled north - east along the Chilterns, before advancing towards London from the north - west, fighting further engagements against forces from the city. Having failed to muster an effective military response, Edgar 's leading supporters lost their nerve, and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066, in Westminster Abbey. The new king attempted to conciliate the remaining English nobility by confirming Morcar, Edwin and Waltheof, the Earl of Northumbria, in their lands as well as giving some land to Edgar the Ætheling. William remained in England until March 1067, when he returned to Normandy with English prisoners, including Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar the Ætheling, and Waltheof.
Despite the submission of the English nobles, resistance continued for several years. William left control of England in the hands of his half - brother Odo and one of his closest supporters, William fitzOsbern. In 1067 rebels in Kent launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle in combination with Eustace II of Boulogne. The Shropshire landowner Eadric the Wild, in alliance with the Welsh rulers of Gwynedd and Powys, raised a revolt in western Mercia, fighting Norman forces based in Hereford. These events forced William to return to England at the end of 1067. In 1068 William besieged rebels in Exeter, including Harold 's mother Gytha, and after suffering heavy losses managed to negotiate the town 's surrender. In May, William 's wife Matilda was crowned queen at Westminster, an important symbol of William 's growing international stature. Later in the year Edwin and Morcar raised a revolt in Mercia with Welsh assistance, while Gospatric, the newly appointed Earl of Northumbria, led a rising in Northumbria, which had not yet been occupied by the Normans. These rebellions rapidly collapsed as William moved against them, building castles and installing garrisons as he had already done in the south. Edwin and Morcar again submitted, while Gospatric fled to Scotland, as did Edgar the Ætheling and his family, who may have been involved in these revolts. Meanwhile, Harold 's sons, who had taken refuge in Ireland, raided Somerset, Devon and Cornwall from the sea.
Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines, and several hundred soldiers accompanying him were massacred at Durham; the Northumbrian rebellion was joined by Edgar, Gospatric, Siward Barn and other rebels who had taken refuge in Scotland. The castellan of York, Robert fitzRichard, was defeated and killed, and the rebels besieged the Norman castle at York. William hurried north with an army, defeated the rebels outside York and pursued them into the city, massacring the inhabitants and bringing the revolt to an end. He built a second castle at York, strengthened Norman forces in Northumbria and then returned south. A subsequent local uprising was crushed by the garrison of York. Harold 's sons launched a second raid from Ireland and were defeated in Devon by Norman forces under Count Brian, a son of Eudes, Count of Penthièvre. In August or September 1069 a large fleet sent by Sweyn II of Denmark arrived off the coast of England, sparking a new wave of rebellions across the country. After abortive raids in the south, the Danes joined forces with a new Northumbrian uprising, which was also joined by Edgar, Gospatric and the other exiles from Scotland as well as Waltheof. The combined Danish and English forces defeated the Norman garrison at York, seized the castles and took control of Northumbria, although a raid into Lincolnshire led by Edgar was defeated by the Norman garrison of Lincoln.
At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia, where the forces of Eadric the Wild, together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from Cheshire and Shropshire, attacked the castle at Shrewsbury. In the south - west, rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman garrison at Exeter, but were repulsed by the defenders and scattered by a Norman relief force under Count Brian. Other rebels from Dorset, Somerset and neighbouring areas besieged Montacute Castle but were defeated by a Norman army gathered from London, Winchester and Salisbury under Geoffrey of Coutances. Meanwhile, William attacked the Danes, who had moored for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire, and drove them back to the north bank. Leaving Robert of Mortain in charge of Lincolnshire, he turned west and defeated the Mercian rebels in battle at Stafford. When the Danes attempted to return to Lincolnshire, the Norman forces there again drove them back across the Humber. William advanced into Northumbria, defeating an attempt to block his crossing of the swollen River Aire at Pontefract. The Danes fled at his approach, and he occupied York. He bought off the Danes, who agreed to leave England in the spring, and during the winter of 1069 -- 70 his forces systematically devastated Northumbria in the Harrying of the North, subduing all resistance. As a symbol of his renewed authority over the north, William ceremonially wore his crown at York on Christmas Day 1069.
In early 1070, having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric, and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland, William returned to Mercia, where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south. Papal legates arrived and at Easter re-crowned William, which would have symbolically reasserted his right to the kingdom. William also oversaw a purge of prelates from the Church, most notably Stigand, who was deposed from Canterbury. The papal legates also imposed penances on William and those of his supporters who had taken part in Hastings and the subsequent campaigns. As well as Canterbury, the see of York had become vacant following the death of Ealdred in September 1069. Both sees were filled by men loyal to William: Lanfranc, abbot of William 's foundation at Caen, received Canterbury while Thomas of Bayeux, one of William 's chaplains, was installed at York. Some other bishoprics and abbeys also received new bishops and abbots and William confiscated some of the wealth of the English monasteries, which had served as repositories for the assets of the native nobles.
In 1070 Sweyn II of Denmark arrived to take personal command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw, sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward the Wake, at that time based on the Isle of Ely. Sweyn soon accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William, and returned home. After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large, protected by the marshes, and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area. Edwin and Morcar again turned against William, and although Edwin was quickly betrayed and killed, Morcar reached Ely, where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland. William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance. After some costly failures the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely, defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island, marking the effective end of English resistance. Morcar was imprisoned for the rest of his life; Hereward was pardoned and had his lands returned to him.
William faced difficulties in his continental possessions in 1071, but in 1072 he returned to England and marched north to confront King Malcolm III of Scotland. This campaign, which included a land army supported by a fleet, resulted in the Treaty of Abernethy in which Malcolm expelled Edgar the Ætheling from Scotland and agreed to some degree of subordination to William. The exact status of this subordination was unclear -- the treaty merely stated that Malcolm became William 's man. Whether this meant only for Cumbria and Lothian or for the whole Scottish kingdom was left ambiguous.
In 1075, during William 's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk, and Roger de Breteuil the Earl of Hereford, conspired to overthrow him in the Revolt of the Earls. The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear, but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger 's, held at Exning. Another earl, Waltheof, despite being one of William 's favourites, was also involved, and some Breton lords were ready to offer support. Ralph also requested Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey of Coutances, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, and Ralph went into exile. Meanwhile, the Danish king 's brother, Cnut, had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home. William did not return to England until later in 1075, to deal with the Danish threat and the aftermath of the rebellion, celebrating Christmas at Winchester. Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. By that time William had returned to the continent, where Ralph was continuing the rebellion from Brittany.
Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control. They were few in number compared to the native English population; including those from other parts of France, historians estimate the number of Norman landholders at around 8000. William 's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion, but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given him de facto control, and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit. Henceforth, all land was "held '' directly from the king in feudal tenure in return for military service. A Norman lord typically had properties located in a piecemeal fashion throughout England and Normandy, and not in a single geographic block.
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers, William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands. These confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more confiscations, a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings. To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers, initially mostly on the motte - and - bailey pattern. Historian Robert Liddiard remarks that "to glance at the urban landscape of Norwich, Durham or Lincoln is to be forcibly reminded of the impact of the Norman invasion ''. William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing marriages to Normans.
A measure of William 's success in taking control is that, from 1072 until the Capetian conquest of Normandy in 1204, William and his successors were largely absentee rulers. For example, after 1072, William spent more than 75 per cent of his time in France rather than England. While he needed to be personally present in Normandy to defend the realm from foreign invasion and put down internal revolts, he set up royal administrative structures that enabled him to rule England from a distance.
A direct consequence of the invasion was the almost total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England. William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers. The Domesday Book meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation, revealing that by 1086 only about 5 per cent of land in England south of the Tees was left in English hands. Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed, the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country.
Natives were also removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical office. After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans, and Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs. Likewise in the Church, senior English office - holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes and replaced by foreigners when they died. By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman, and English abbots became uncommon, especially in the larger monasteries.
Following the conquest, many Anglo - Saxons, including groups of nobles, fled the country for Scotland, Ireland, or Scandinavia. Members of King Harold Godwinson 's family sought refuge in Ireland and used their bases in that country for unsuccessful invasions of England. The largest single exodus occurred in the 1070s, when a group of Anglo - Saxons in a fleet of 235 ships sailed for the Byzantine Empire. The empire became a popular destination for many English nobles and soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries. The English became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, until then a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor 's bodyguard was drawn. Some of the English migrants were settled in Byzantine frontier regions on the Black Sea coast, and established towns with names such as New London and New York.
Before the Normans arrived, Anglo - Saxon governmental systems were more sophisticated than their counterparts in Normandy. All of England was divided into administrative units called shires, with subdivisions; the royal court was the centre of government, and a justice system based on local and regional tribunals existed to secure the rights of free men. Shires were run by officials known as shire reeves or sheriffs. Most medieval governments were always on the move, holding court wherever the weather and food or other matters were best at the moment; England had a permanent treasury at Winchester before William 's conquest. One major reason for the strength of the English monarchy was the wealth of the kingdom, built on the English system of taxation that included a land tax, or the geld. English coinage was also superior to most of the other currency in use in northwestern Europe, and the ability to mint coins was a royal monopoly. The English kings had also developed the system of issuing writs to their officials, in addition to the normal medieval practice of issuing charters. Writs were either instructions to an official or group of officials, or notifications of royal actions such as appointments to office or a grant of some sort.
This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and was the foundation of further developments. They kept the framework of government but made changes in the personnel, although at first the new king attempted to keep some natives in office. By the end of William 's reign most of the officials of government and the royal household were Normans. The language of official documents also changed, from Old English to Latin. The forest laws were introduced, leading to the setting aside of large sections of England as royal forest. The Domesday survey was an administrative catalogue of the landholdings of the kingdom, and was unique to medieval Europe. It was divided into sections based on the shires, and listed all the landholdings of each tenant - in - chief of the king as well as who had held the land before the conquest.
One of the most obvious effects of the conquest was the introduction of Anglo - Norman, a northern Old Norse - influenced dialect of Old French, as the language of the ruling classes in England, displacing Old English. Norman French words entered the English language, and a further sign of the shift was the usage of names common in France instead of Anglo - Saxon names. Male names such as William, Robert and Richard soon became common; female names changed more slowly. The Norman invasion had little impact on placenames, which had changed significantly after earlier Scandinavian invasions. It is not known precisely how much English the Norman invaders learned, nor how much the knowledge of Norman French spread among the lower classes, but the demands of trade and basic communication probably meant that at least some of the Normans and native English were bilingual. Nevertheless, William the Conqueror never developed a working knowledge of English and for centuries afterwards English was not well understood by the nobility.
An estimated 8000 Normans and other continentals settled in England as a result of the conquest, although exact figures can not be established. Some of these new residents intermarried with the native English, but the extent of this practice in the years immediately after Hastings is unclear. Several marriages are attested between Norman men and English women during the years before 1100, but such marriages were uncommon. Most Normans continued to contract marriages with other Normans or other continental families rather than with the English. Within a century of the invasion, intermarriage between the native English and the Norman immigrants had become common. By the early 1160s, Ailred of Rievaulx was writing that intermarriage was common in all levels of society.
The impact of the conquest on the lower levels of English society is difficult to assess. The major change was the elimination of slavery in England, which had disappeared by the middle of the 12th century. There were about 28,000 slaves listed in Domesday Book in 1086, fewer than had been enumerated for 1066. In some places, such as Essex, the decline in slaves was 20 per cent for the 20 years. The main reasons for the decline in slaveholding appear to have been the disapproval of the Church and the cost of supporting slaves, who unlike serfs, had to be maintained entirely by their owners. The practice of slavery was not outlawed, and the Leges Henrici Primi from the reign of King Henry I continue to mention slaveholding as legal.
Many of the free peasants of Anglo - Saxon society appear to have lost status and become indistinguishable from the non-free serfs. Whether this change was due entirely to the conquest is unclear, but the invasion and its after - effects probably accelerated a process already under way. The spread of towns and increase in nucleated settlements in the countryside, rather than scattered farms, was probably accelerated by the coming of the Normans to England. The lifestyle of the peasantry probably did not greatly change in the decades after 1066. Although earlier historians argued that women became less free and lost rights with the conquest, current scholarship has mostly rejected this view. Little is known about women other than those in the landholding class, so no conclusions can be drawn about peasant women 's status after 1066. Noblewomen appear to have continued to influence political life mainly through their kinship relationships. Both before and after 1066 aristocratic women could own land, and some women continued to have the ability to dispose of their property as they wished.
Debate over the conquest started almost immediately. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, when discussing the death of William the Conqueror, denounced him and the conquest in verse, but the king 's obituary notice from William of Poitiers, a Frenchman, was full of praise. Historians since then have argued over the facts of the matter and how to interpret them, with little agreement. The theory or myth of the "Norman yoke '' arose in the 17th century, the idea that Anglo - Saxon society had been freer and more equal than the society that emerged after the conquest. This theory owes more to the period it was developed in than to historical facts, but it continues to be used in both political and popular thought to the present day.
In the 20th and 21st centuries historians have focused less on the rightness or wrongness of the conquest itself, instead concentrating on the effects of the invasion. Some, such as Richard Southern, have seen the conquest as a critical turning point in history. Southern stated that "no country in Europe, between the rise of the barbarian kingdoms and the 20th century, has undergone so radical a change in so short a time as England experienced after 1066 ''. Other historians, such as H.G. Richardson and G.O. Sayles, believe that the transformation was less radical. In more general terms, Singman has called the conquest "the last echo of the national migrations that characterized the early Middle Ages ''. The debate over the impact of the conquest depends on how change after 1066 is measured. If Anglo - Saxon England was already evolving before the invasion, with the introduction of feudalism, castles or other changes in society, then the conquest, while important, did not represent radical reform. But the change was dramatic if measured by the elimination of the English nobility or the loss of Old English as a literary language. Nationalistic arguments have been made on both sides of the debate, with the Normans cast as either the persecutors of the English or the rescuers of the country from a decadent Anglo - Saxon nobility.
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where was the movie the christmas list filmed | Christmas list (film) - Wikipedia
Christmas List is a 2016 romance film directed by Paul A. Kaufman and starring Alicia Witt and Gabriel Hogan. Written by Duane Poole, the film is about Isobel plans a storybook Christmas with her boyfriend, including a snow - covered cottage in the Northwest, and a carefully composed bucket list of classic holiday traditions. But when the boyfriend goes AWOL, the list proves challenging and a tempting new romance turns her life upside down. The movie is based on the novel ' ' The Christmas Bucket List ' ' by Ella Fairlie.
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how many days does it take the earth to orbit the sun | Earth 's orbit - wikipedia
Earth 's orbit is the trajectory along which Earth travels around the Sun. The average distance between the Earth and the Sun is 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi), and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi). Earth 's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
As seen from Earth, the planet 's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1 ° (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward per solar day. Earth 's orbital speed averages about 30 km / s (108,000 km / h; 67,000 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet 's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.
From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counter clockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.
Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the 3rd century BC. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus ' De revolutionibus presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. This "Copernican revolution '' resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus 's groundbreaking book... had been (printed) over a century earlier, (the Dutch mapmaker) Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world. ''
Because of Earth 's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun 's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth 's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no daylight at all for part of the year. This is called a polar night. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth 's axial tilt) results in the seasons.
By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices -- the two points in the Earth 's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth 's axis, towards the Sun or away from the Sun -- and the equinoxes -- the two points in the Earth 's orbit where the Earth 's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another. The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23. The effect of the Earth 's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).
In modern times, Earth 's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth -- Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9 % in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.
The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately 4 times the average distance to the moon. This is the maximal distance at which the Earth 's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth 's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis -- nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis -- farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23. The diagram shows an exaggerated shape of Earth 's orbit; the actual orbit is less eccentric than pictured.
Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).
Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs '' of stability for the Solar System. By most predictions, Earth 's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.
In 1989, Jacques Laskar 's work indicated that the Earth 's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years ' time. Modeling the Solar System is subject to the n - body problem.
Media related to Earth 's orbit at Wikimedia Commons
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who plays andy in the original child's play | Alex Vincent (actor) - Wikipedia
Alexander Vincent LoScialpo (born April 29, 1981) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Andy Barclay in the Child 's Play franchise. He has appeared in Child 's Play (1988), Child 's Play 2 (1990), Curse of Chucky (2013), and Cult of Chucky (2017).
Vincent was born in Wayne, New Jersey and raised in Newark, New Jersey. He grew up in Maywood, New Jersey and graduated from Hackensack High School in 1999.
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is there another movie after wrath of the titans | Clash of the Titans (franchise) - wikipedia
Clash of the Titans is a British -- American fantasy action media franchise based on characters and myths of Ancient Greek mythology. The first film, Clash of the Titans, was released in 1981 with a remake made in 2010. The remake spawned a sequel, Wrath of the Titans, in 2012.
The series began with Clash of the Titans in 1981. It was followed by a remake of the same name in 2010, and a sequel Wrath of the Titans in 2012.
In 1984, a concept for a sequel for the original 1981 film was proposed to MGM, but was never made. The film would have been called Force of the Trojans.
In November 2011, Warner Bros. hired Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson to develop and write a treatment for a third installment, Revenge of the Titans. The pair had previously written Wrath of the Titans, which was still in post-production at the time. In the spring of 2013, Sam Worthington said he did not think a third film would be made.
In 2010, a video game based on the 2010 film was released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 on July 27, 2010. The video game received negative reviews.
In 2007, Bluewater Productions started the four - part spin - off comic book series, Wrath of the Titans. The story took place five years after the events of the 1981 film, as Calibos escaped the underworld to take revenge against Perseus. In 2009, a one - shot sequel titled Wrath of the Titans: Cyclops was released. In 2011, Revenge of the Medusa, was released as a four - part series. The 2012 film of the same name is not based on the comics.
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who got voted off the bachelorette june 19 | The Bachelorette (season 13) - wikipedia
The thirteenth season of The Bachelorette premiered on May 22, 2017. This season featured Rachel Lindsay, a 32 - year - old attorney from Dallas, Texas. The season concluded on August 7, 2017.
Lindsay attended the University of Texas at Austin where she graduated with a bachelor 's degree in 2007 and Marquette University Law School where she graduated with a Juris Doctor in 2011. Lindsay was the second runner - up on the 21st season of The Bachelor featuring Nick Viall. Lindsay is the first African - American in the lead role on The Bachelor franchise.
Season 4
DeMario Jackson was set to appear in the fourth season of Bachelor in Paradise. When production re-started after the misconduct allegations had halted production, Jackson did not return for filming. After Dean Unglert was eliminated during hometowns, it was announced that he would appear in season 4. Diggy Moreland, Matt Munson, Iggy Rodriguez, Jack Stone, Jonathan Treece, Fred Johnson, Blake Elarbee, and Adam Gottschalk would also appear on season 4. When production restarted, Rodriguez was eliminated in week one. Munson quit in week two. Elarbee and Johnson were eliminated in week three.
As the cocktail party continues, Lee stirs up more drama with the other contestants. During Rachel and Kenny 's one - on - one time, Lee interrupts twice, angering Kenny. Kenny and Lee later get into a loud argument, which Rachel overhears. Rachel becomes frustrated by the drama overshadowing her time with the guys, but continues to the rose ceremony where Brady, Bryce, and Diggy are eliminated. The remaining contestants go to Hilton Head Island, where Dean is selected for a one - on - one date. Rachel and Dean enjoy a picnic and take a ride on a blimp. At dinner, Dean opens up about his family and receives a rose from Rachel. For the group date, Rachel and the contestants go on a booze cruise and the contestants later participate in a spelling bee, with Josiah emerging as the winner. Later that evening, Iggy warns Rachel about Josiah. Lee tells Rachel about the fight with Kenny and she later confronts Kenny about Lee 's words. After his time with Rachel, Kenny pulls Lee aside to speak.
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what did us gain from treaty of paris | Treaty of Paris (1783) - wikipedia
The Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris by representatives of King George III of Great Britain and representatives of the United States of America on September 3, 1783, ended the American Revolutionary War. The treaty set the boundaries between the British Empire in North America and the United States, on lines "exceedingly generous '' to the latter. Details included fishing rights and restoration of property and prisoners of war.
This treaty and the separate peace treaties between Great Britain and the nations that supported the American cause -- France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic -- are known collectively as the Peace of Paris. Only Article 1 of the treaty, which acknowledges the United States ' existence as free sovereign and independent states, remains in force.
Peace negotiations began in April 1782, and continued through the summer. Representing the United States were Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and John Adams. David Hartley and Richard Oswald represented Great Britain. The treaty was signed at the Hotel d'York (presently 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris on September 3, 1783, by Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Hartley.
Regarding the American Treaty, the key episodes came in September, 1782, when the French Foreign Minister Vergennes proposed a solution that was strongly opposed by his ally the United States. France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it could capture Gibraltar from the British. Vergennes came up with the deal that Spain would accept instead of Gibraltar. The United States would gain its independence but be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain would take the area north of the Ohio River. In the area south of that would be set up an independent Indian state under Spanish control. It would be an Indian barrier state.
However, the Americans realized that they could get a better deal directly from London. John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain. The British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne agreed. He was in full charge of the British negotiations (some of which took place in his study at Lansdowne House, now a bar in the Lansdowne Club) and he now saw a chance to split the United States away from France and make the new country a valuable economic partner. The western terms were that the United States would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Canada. The northern boundary would be almost the same as today. The United States would gain fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their property. It was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two - way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as indeed came to pass.
Great Britain also signed separate agreements with France and Spain, and (provisionally) with the Netherlands. In the treaty with Spain, the territories of East and West Florida were ceded to Spain (without a clear northern boundary, resulting in a territorial dispute resolved by the Treaty of Madrid in 1795). Spain also received the island of Menorca; the Bahama Islands, Grenada, and Montserrat, captured by the French and Spanish, were returned to Britain. The treaty with France was mostly about exchanges of captured territory (France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago, and Senegal in Africa), but also reinforced earlier treaties, guaranteeing fishing rights off Newfoundland. Dutch possessions in the East Indies, captured in 1781, were returned by Britain to the Netherlands in exchange for trading privileges in the Dutch East Indies, by a treaty which was not finalized until 1784.
The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784.
Preamble. Declares the treaty to be "in the name of the most holy and undivided Trinity '', states the bona fides of the signatories, and declares the intention of both parties to "forget all past misunderstandings and differences '' and "secure to both perpetual peace and harmony ''.
Eschatocol. "Done at Paris, this third day of September in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and eighty - three. ''
Historians have often commented that the treaty was very generous to the United States in terms of greatly enlarged boundaries. Historians such as Alvord, Harlow, and Ritcheson have emphasized that British generosity was based on a statesmanlike vision of close economic ties between Britain and the United States. The concession of the vast trans - Appalachian region was designed to facilitate the growth of the American population and create lucrative markets for British merchants, without any military or administrative costs to Britain. The point was the United States would become a major trading partner. As the French foreign minister Vergennes later put it, "The English buy peace rather than make it ''. Vermont was included within the boundaries because the state of New York insisted that Vermont was a part of New York, although Vermont was then under a government that considered Vermont not to be a part of the United States.
Privileges that the Americans had received from Britain automatically when they had colonial status (including protection from pirates in the Mediterranean Sea; see: the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War) were withdrawn. Individual states ignored federal recommendations, under Article 5, to restore confiscated Loyalist property, and also ignored Article 6 (e.g., by confiscating Loyalist property for "unpaid debts ''). Some, notably Virginia, also defied Article 4 and maintained laws against payment of debts to British creditors. The British often ignored the provision of Article 7 about removal of slaves.
The actual geography of North America turned out not to match the details used in the treaty. The Treaty specified a southern boundary for the United States, but the separate Anglo - Spanish agreement did not specify a northern boundary for Florida, and the Spanish government assumed that the boundary was the same as in the 1763 agreement by which they had first given their territory in Florida to Britain. While that West Florida Controversy continued, Spain used its new control of Florida to block American access to the Mississippi, in defiance of Article 8. The treaty stated that the boundary of the United States extended from the "most northwesternmost point '' of the Lake of the Woods (now partly in Minnesota, partly in Manitoba, and partly in Ontario) directly westward until it reached the Mississippi River. But in fact that Mississippi does not extend that far northward; the line going west from the Lake of the Woods never intersects the river.
Great Britain violated the treaty stipulation that they should relinquish control of forts in United States territory "with all convenient speed. '' British troops remained stationed at six forts in the Great Lakes region, plus two at the north end of Lake Champlain. The British also built an additional fort in present day Ohio in 1794, during the Northwest Indian War. They found justification for these actions in the unstable and extremely tense situation that existed in the area following the war, in the failure of the United States government to fulfill commitments made to compensate loyalists for their losses, and in the British need for time to liquidate various assets in the region. All posts were relinquished peacefully through diplomatic means as a result of the 1794 Jay Treaty. They were:
President of Pennsylvania (1785 -- 1788), Ambassador to France (1779 -- 1785)
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when was the last time a woman won the boston marathon | List of winners of the Boston Marathon - wikipedia
The Boston Marathon is an annual marathon held in the Greater Boston area in Massachusetts. The event is held on Patriots Day, the third Monday of April. The Boston Marathon has been held annually since 1897 and is the oldest annual marathon in the world.
The first Boston Marathon included only 15 runners, all of whom were men. Women were only officially allowed to run the race beginning in 1972, though female runners had unofficially participated beginning in 1966 despite the opposition of the Boston Athletic Association, the race sponsor. The Boston Marathon became the first major marathon to include a wheelchair division, in 1975. Subsequently, in 1977, the Wheelchair division was bifurcated to allow for both a Men 's and a Women 's division.
Many marathon champions have repeated their feats in following years. The record for most repeated championships stands at 10, held by Ernst van Dyk in the Men 's Wheelchair division. In the Men 's Open division, Clarence DeMar holds the distinction of most wins with seven, and Catherine Ndereba tops the Women 's Open division with four. The United States has had more winners than any other country, followed by Kenya and Canada. The United States and Canada dominated the early years of the race, and it was not until the 36th race, in 1932, that someone from outside North America, Paul de Bruyn of Germany, won the race. During the period from World War II through the 1980s, there was much more national diversity among Boston Marathon champions, but the last two decades have seen Kenya emerge as the dominant nationality, especially in the Men 's Open division, which (as of 2015) has been won by Kenyans in 19 of the past 25 years.
The 42.195 kilometres (26.219 mi) length of the marathon was not fixed before the 1924 Paris Olympics, and the Boston course varied as well. Prior to 1924 the course distance was approximately 24.5 miles (39.4 km). Even after the standardization of marathon lengths, the Boston course was off by nearly 200 yards from the correct distance until the mistake was discovered and corrected in 1927. The course grew gradually shorter in the 1950s as road reconstruction straightened curves. This time, upon remeasurement, the course was found to lack nearly 1200 yards, and this was corrected beginning with the 1957 race. Due to these changes, the marathon recognizes several course records that are slower than previous records due to being run on longer courses. 26 world records have been set on the Boston Marathon course, one in the Men 's Open Division, two in the Women 's Open, 13 in the Men 's Wheelchair, and 10 in the Women 's Wheelchair.
On April 18, 2011, Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya ran the fastest marathon ever run up to that point, in a time of 2: 03: 02.
Tom Longboat, winner of the 1907 Boston Marathon and a member of the Onondaga tribe of Native Americans / First Nations
Fred Cameron crossing the finish line at the 1910 Boston Marathon
Franz Nietlispach, five - time winner of the men 's wheelchair division
Rodgers Rop, winner of the 2002 Boston Marathon, at the time the 12th Kenyan victory in 15 years
Robert Kipkoech Cheruiyot in the 2006 Boston Marathon, where he set a new course record
Masazumi Soejima, winner of the 2007 wheelchair race
Robert Kipkoech Cheruiyot in the 2008 Boston Marathon, where he won for the fourth time
Deriba Merga in the 2009 Boston Marathon near halfway point in Wellesley
Robert Kiprono Cheruiyot (not to be confused with previous winner Robert Kipkoech Cheruiyot) in the 2010 Boston Marathon, near halfway point in Wellesley
Geoffrey Mutai in the Wellesley College "scream tunnel '' (background), approaching the halfway point in the 2011 race
Masazumi Soejima, winner of the 2011 Boston Marathon (Men 's wheelchair), near halfway point in Wellesley Square
Wesley Korir in 2012 Boston Marathon approaching halfway point in Wellesley College scream tunnel
Lelisa Desisa Benti, male winner of 2013 Boston Marathon approaching halfway point
Ernst Van Dyk 10 time men 's wheelchair winner in the 2014 Boston Marathon near halfway point in Wellesley Square
Meb Keflezighi in 2014 Boston Marathon near halfway point in Wellesley Square
Berhanu Lemi, male winner of 2016 Boston Marathon approaching halfway point
Yuki Kawauchi near halfway point of Boston Marathon 2018 in which he got first place.
Marcel Hug near halfway point of Boston Marathon 2018 in which he got first place.
Russian Lidiya Grigoryeva on her way to winning the 2007 Boston Marathon
Kenyan Rita Jeptoo, winner of the 2006 Boston Marathon, in her unsuccessful attempt for a repeat win in the 2007 race
Dire Tune on the way to winning the 2008 Boston Marathon
Salina Kosgei on the way to winning the 2009 Boston Marathon, near halfway point in Wellesley
Teyba Erkesso on the way to winning the 2010 Boston Marathon, near halfway point in Wellesley
Caroline Kilel on the way to winning the 2011 Boston Marathon, near halfway point in Wellesley
Sharon Cherop on way to winning 2012 Boston Marathon near halfway point in Wellesley College scream tunnel
Rita Jeptoo, female winner of 2013 Boston Marathon approaching halfway point
Women 's wheelchair winner, Tatyana McFadden in the 2014 Boston Marathon near halfway point in Wellesley
Caroline Rotich, female winner of 2015 Boston Marathon approaching halfway point
Atsede Baysa, female winner of 2016 Boston Marathon approaching halfway point
Edna Kiplagat, female winner of 2017 Boston Marathon approaching halfway point
Tatyana McFadden near halfway point of Boston Marathon 2018 in which she got first place.
Desiree Linden near halfway point of Boston Marathon 2018 in which she got first place.
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a christmas duel cyndi lauper and the hives | A Christmas Duel - wikipedia
"A Christmas Duel '' is a special Christmas duet recorded by the Swedish rock band The Hives and American singer - songwriter Cyndi Lauper. It was available as a single on November 19, 2008. It debuted at # 6 on the Swedish Singles Charts published on December 28, and has since reached a peak at # 4. It was released as a vinyl one - sided 7 ", a CD 5 '' single, and as download (all in Sweden only).
The song juxtaposes "really sweet music and nasty lyrics ''. As for how the collaboration took place, The Hives ' lead singer Pelle Almqvist stated: "We came up with the song and we figured it was a duet, and we 'd always hoped to do a duet with Cyndi Lauper. ''
"A Christmas Duel '' also appears on NO HO HO: Alternative Christmas Holiday Anthems, released on November 10, 2009.
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when is season 4 of the night shift coming out | The Night Shift (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth and final season of the Medical drama series The Night Shift began on June 22, 2017 on NBC in the United States with a timeslot change from Wednesday at 10: 00 PM to Thursday at 10: 00 PM. It is produced by Sachs / Judah Productions, and Sony Pictures Television with series creators Gabe Sachs and Jeff Judah serving as executive producers. The season concluded on August 31, 2017 and contained 10 episodes.
The series follows the overnight shift at San Antonio Medical Center, where after briefly quitting, the staff adjusts without former administrator and close friend, Dr. Topher Zia. Head of the night shift, Dr. Jordan Alexander (Jill Flint), works out a deal with new hospital owner, renowned neurosurgeon Dr. Julian Cummings, to rehire most of the staff. Meanwhile, Dr. Drew Alister (Brendan Fehr), struggles to find a balance between work and his new role as a father, while Dr. TC Callahan (Eoin Macken) spends time overseas at the Turkey - Syria border dealing with the humanitarian crisis. Also, Dr. Shannon Rivera (Tanaya Beatty) and Dr. Paul Cummings (Robert Bailey Jr.) deal with their feelings for each other.
Following a protest at Mac 's funeral, a fight breaks out outside and injures several veterans, sending them to San Antonio Memorial. TC, Scott and Drew disagree on how to treat a U.S. Senator who is also an Army Veteran. TC and Drew later discover that the Senator has not been entirely truthful. Meanwhile, Shannon and Paul deal with a patient struggling with PTSD and later, Jordan confronts TC about whether or not he is back for good.
Production and filming for the fourth season began in April 2017.
On November 22, 2016, Ken Leung (who played Dr. Topher Zia) announced that he would not be returning the series after three seasons citing not to renew his contract and to pursue other career opportunities.
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who is saved in big boss tamil today | Bigg Boss Tamil 2 - Wikipedia
Bigg Boss Tamil 2 was the second season of the reality TV game show Bigg Boss Tamil, hosted by Kamal Haasan. This season had 17 housemates (inclusive of wildcard entries) with 60 cameras. The season commenced on 17 June 2018 and ended on 30 September 2018 after 105 days. The show aired on Star Vijay from 9 - 10: 30 PM on weekdays and 9 - 11 PM on weekends. From Season 2, Hotstar also provided content not aired on television, through segments such as Morning Masala, Midnight Masala, Unseen on TV and What 's Cooking and also a parallel weekly programme Fun Unlimited hosted by actor Rio Raj, which described the events in the Bigg Boss house in a humourous manner.
A lavish house set, which was used in the first season was renovated just prior to the commencement of the programme. The set is located on the outskirts of the Chennai city in the EVP Film City at Chembarambakkam. The renovated house for the second season included special features including a jail room to increase the level of punishments to the contestants who commits mistakes.
The winner of the second season of Bigg Boss Tamil was character actress Riythvika, who took home a trophy and a cash prize of ₹ 50, 00,000 for her victory. Actress Aishwarya Dutta was the runner - up, while the other finalists included actresses Vijayalakshmi Feroz and Janani Iyer.
The housemates, in order of their entry to the house, are as follows:
During the final week the public vote for who they want to win Bigg Boss. The finalists for the title are as following:
̈ * Bigg Boss Tamil season 2 (Star Vijay)
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where is the lighthouse from pete's dragon located | Pete 's Dragon (1977 film) - wikipedia
Pete 's Dragon is a 1977 American live - action / animated musical fantasy comedy film directed by Don Chaffey, produced by Jerome Courtland and Ron Miller, and written by Malcolm Marmorstein. It is based on an unpublished short story of the same name, written by Seton I. Miller and S.S. Field. It stars Sean Marshall, Helen Reddy, Jim Dale, Mickey Rooney, Red Buttons, Jeff Conaway, Shelley Winters, and Charlie Callas. It revolves around an orphaned boy raised by an abusive hillbilly family who is friends with a dragon named Elliott.
In 1957, the project was initially conceived as a two - part episode for the Disneyland television series, but it was shelved. It was later revived as a musical film in 1975. The film was released on November 3, 1977 to mixed reviews from critics though some praised the animation. The film was a moderate success, grossing $18 million over a $10 million budget. The song "Candle on the Water '' received an Academy Award nomination, but lost to "You Light Up My Life '' from the film of the same name. Reddy 's recording (with a different arrangement than the one her character sings in the film) was released as a single by Capitol Records, reaching # 27 on the Adult Contemporary charts. The film also received a nomination for Original Song Score and Its Adaptation or Adaptation Score, losing to A Little Night Music.
In the early 1900s, Pete flees the Gogans, his abusive hillbilly foster family, with help from Elliott, a fire - breathing dragon who can make himself invisible.
Pete and Elliott visit Passamaquoddy, where the unseen Elliott 's clumsiness causes Pete to be labeled a source of bad luck.
Lampie, the lighthouse keeper, stumbles out of a tavern and encounters Pete. Elliott makes himself visible and a terrified Lampie runs into the saloon to warn the townsfolk. In a seaside cave, Pete scolds Elliott for causing trouble. Just as they make up, Lampie 's daughter, Nora, appears saying due to the ongoing tides from the sea, it is unsafe for Pete to stay in there, then offers him food and shelter at the lighthouse, which he accepts.
Pete tells Nora of the abuse he suffered at the hands of the Gogans, and as she offers to let him spend the night at the lighthouse, they strike up a friendship. He learns the story of her fiance, Paul, whose ship was reported lost at sea the year before. He promises to ask Elliott about Paul, and she accepts, believing Elliott to be his imaginary friend.
The next morning, Dr. Terminus and his assistant, Hoagy, arrive and win over the gullible townspeople who are initially angered by their return. The day after, the local fishermen complain about the scarcity of fish and believe Pete is the cause. Nora tells them that the fishing grounds shift from time to time and Pete should be welcomed into town. She takes him to start school, where he is punished unfairly by the teacher, Miss Taylor, as a result of Elliott 's antics. An enraged Elliott smashes into the schoolhouse, leaving his shape in the wall, as Pete runs off.
Dr. Terminus makes Pete an offer for Elliott, which he turns down. Believing he needs to stop running from the Gogans, Nora and Lampie offer to let him live with them permanently, which he accepts. When the Gogans arrive in town and demand him back, Nora refuses to hand him over. As the Gogans attempt to chase them in a small boat, Elliott "torpedoes '' it, saving Pete.
Dr. Terminus teams up with the Gogans to capture both Pete and Elliott. He also convinces the superstitious locals that helping him capture Elliott will solve their problems. That evening, a storm begins to blow.
At sea, a ship is approaching Passamaquoddy with Paul on board. Dr. Terminus lures Pete to the boathouse, while Hoagy does the same to Elliott. Once there, the invisible Elliott is caught in a net trap, but he frees himself, saves Pete, and confronts the Gogans. Lena yells at him, claiming Pete is their property and waves her bill of sale at him, which he torches. Now completely defenseless, they flee after he frightens them away. Just as he and Pete laugh, Dr. Terminus makes one more effort to harpoon him, but his leg is caught in the rope and he is sent catapulting through the ceiling and screams as he goes through it, ending up dangling upside down near a utility pole. In a last - ditch effort, he tries to offer buying Elliott 's "spare parts '', to which he declines and proceeds to destroy Dr. Terminus ' traveling wagon, ending his scamming business.
Elliott then saves the Mayor, Miss Taylor, and the members of the Town Board from a falling utility pole, revealing himself to them. Back at the lighthouse, the lamp has been extinguished by a storm - driven rogue wave. Elliott returns and tries to light it with his own fire. As he does so, Nora sees that he is real. The light is ignited and the ship is saved.
The next morning, the Mayor and the townsfolk praise Elliott for his help, and Nora is reunited with Paul, who was the sole survivor of a shipwreck at Cape Hatteras and suffered amnesia. Now that Pete has a loving family, Elliott tells him he must move on to help another kid in trouble, and is sad that they must part. Pete comforts Elliott by telling him if that anyone can help that kid, he can. He flies away as Pete and his new family wave good - bye to him. The film ends with Pete reminding him once again he is supposed to be invisible.
Al Checco, Henry Slate, and Jack Collins appear in the film as local fishermen. Robert Easton plays a store proprietor, and Roger Price is seen as a man with a visor. Robert Foulk plays an old sea captain. Ben Wrigley is the egg vendor that Elliott accidentally knocks into the Mayor and Joe Ross plays the cement man whose cement was stepped in by Elliott. Dinah Anne Rogers has an uncredited role as one of the townsfolk, as does Dennis Stewart, who plays a fisherman, and Debbie Fresh is also uncredited as a "Child / Dancer / Singer ''.
In December 1957, Walt Disney Productions optioned the film rights to the short story titled Pete 's Dragon and the U.S.A. (Forever After) that was written by Seton I. Miller and S.S. Field, in which Miller was hired to write the script. Impressed with his performance in Old Yeller, Walt Disney had child actor Kevin Corcoran in mind to star in the project as a feature - length film. However, Disney considered the project to be more appropriate for his Disneyland anthology program, by which it was slated to be filmed as a two - part episode in the following year. In February 1958, Variety reported that filming was scheduled to begin in October. By the following spring, veteran screenwriter Noel Langley had completed his draft of the script. However, Disney was still unsure of how to approach the project, and the project was placed in turnaround.
In 1968, writers Bill Raynor and Myles Wilder were hired to write the script, and completed their outline in October. They submitted their outline to the studio for review, but the project continued to languish in development. In 1975, producer Jerome Courtland re-discovered the project and hired writer Malcolm Marmorstein to write the script. For his script, Marmorstein revised the story from being in contemporary time into a period setting, and had the dragon changed from being wholly imaginary into a real one. In earlier drafts, Elliott was mostly invisible aside from one animated sequence, in which Dr. Terminus would chop up the dragon for his get - rich scheme. However, veteran Disney artist Ken Anderson felt the audience would "lose patience '' with the idea and lobbied for Elliott to be seen more in his visible form during the film. In retrospect, Marmorstein conceded that "We tried a completely invisible dragon, but it was no fun. It was lacking. It 's a visual medium, and you 're making a film for kids. '' He also named the dragon "Elliott '' after actor Elliott Gould (who was a friend from his theater days), and named the town "Passamaquoddy '' after the real Native American tribe in Maine.
In October 1975, the songwriting duo of Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn were assigned to compose the musical score. The production was directed by British filmmaker Don Chaffey, who had made two smaller films for Disney in the early 1960s between directing larger fantasy adventures (Jason and the Argonauts, One Million Years B.C.) for others.
The lighthouse for the film was built on Point Buchon Trail located south of Los Osos, California, substituting for Maine. It was equipped with such a large beacon that Disney had to get special permission from the Coast Guard to operate it, since doing so during filming would have confused passing ships. Pacific Gas and Electric opened the Point Buchon Trail and allows hikers access to where filming took place (35 ° 14 ′ 49.08 '' N 120 ° 53 ′ 50.63 '' W / 35.2469667 ° N 120.8973972 ° W / 35.2469667; - 120.8973972).
The animators of the film opted to make Elliott look more like an oriental, rather than occidental, dragon because oriental dragons are usually associated with good. The film is the first involving animation in which none of the Nine Old Men -- Disney 's original team of animators -- were involved. One technique used in the movie involved compositing with a yellowscreen that was originally used in Mary Poppins and similar to today 's greenscreen compositing, whereby up to three scenes might be overlaid together -- for example, a live foreground, a live background, and an animated middle ground containing Elliott. Ken Anderson, who created Elliott, explained that he thought it would be appropriate to make him "a little paunchy '' and not always particularly graceful when it comes to flying. Don Hahn, who was an assistant director to Don Bluth on Pete 's Dragon, gained some experience working with a combination of live - action and animation before later going on to work on Who Framed Roger Rabbit.
Pete 's Dragon premiered on November 3, 1977 at the Radio City Music Hall for its intended roadshow theatrical release, in which the film ran 134 minutes. For its general release, it was edited down to 121 minutes. It was later re-released on March 9, 1984 where it was shortened from 121 minutes to 104 minutes.
The film was released on VHS in early 1980. It was re-released on VHS on October 28, 1994 as a part of Masterpiece Collection. It was originally slated to be released in the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection line - up on December 5, 2000, but it was pushed back to January 16, 2001. The DVD includes bonus features such as two animated shorts Lighthouse Keeping and Man, Monsters and Mysteries, two vintage excerpts from the Disney Family Album episode on Ken Anderson and "The Plausible Impossible '' from Disneyland, and both theatrical trailers for the film.
The film was re-released in a "High - Flying Edition '' DVD on August 18, 2009. The DVD includes a half - hour documentary feature, a deleted storyboard sequence, original demo recordings of the songs, and several bonus features transferred from the Gold Classic Collection release. It was released on the 35th - anniversary edition Blu - ray on October 16, 2012.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the film declaring it "the most energetic and enjoyable Disney movie in a long while. '' She was also complimentary of Helen Reddy 's performance noting "Sean Marshall does n't sing well, but Helen Reddy does, so she often accompanies his vocals. Miss Reddy is serviceable but undistinguished as an actress -- she has a tendency to behave as if she were a very bright light bulb in a very small lamp -- but she so often finds herself in the company of Messrs. Rooney, Dale or Buttons that her scenes work well. '' However, she was critical the film 's length and the excessive alcohol consumption. Variety wrote the film was "an enchanting and humane fable which introduces a most lovable animal star (albeit an animated one). '' They praised the combination of live - action and animation as "never before more effectively realized '' and commented that the film suffered "whenever Elliott is off screen. '' John Skow of Time wrote the film was "likeable fantasy '', but dismissed the musical numbers as "a good opportunity to line up for more popcorn. ''
Critic Leonard Maltin observed that Disney made several attempts to recreate the appeal and success of Mary Poppins (1964), and that Pete 's Dragon did not come close on that score. However, he added that it might please children, and that "the animated title character is so endearing that it almost compensates for the live actors ' tiresome mugging. '' Thomas J. Harris, in his book Children 's Live - Action Musical Films: A Critical Survey and Filmography, heavily criticized the story as well as the compositing of the animated Elliott; he also found the "Mary Poppinsish ending '' to be "thoroughly unmotivated '', because Pete 's life before meeting Elliott is never fleshed out. In 2006, Elliott was ranked fifth on a top 10 list of movie dragons by Karl Heitmueller for MTV Movie News.
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 50 % based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 4.8 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "Boring and slow, this is a lesser Disney work, though the animation is n't without its charms. ''
During its initial release, the film grossed $18 million in domestic grosses, which was ranked at seventeen on Variety 's hit list. However, the returns were considered disappointing for Disney who were hoping for a Mary Poppins - sized blockbuster. The film has a lifetime domestic gross ranging from $36 to 39.6 million.
The film was nominated for two Academy Awards:
The film was nominated for four Saturn Awards:
The Hollywood Foreign Press Association nominated the film for one Golden Globe Award:
In March 2013, Disney announced a remake of the film, written by David Lowery and Toby Halbrooks, the director / writer and co-producer (respectively) of the Sundance hit Ai n't Them Bodies Saints (2013). It re-imagines a venerable Disney family and is presented as a straightforward drama as opposed to a musical. It is a live - action remake instead of an animated remake by Disney. Principal photography commenced in January 2015 in New Zealand, with Lowery directing. It was released on 12 August 2016.
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what happened to the president of chile in 1970 | Salvador Allende - Wikipedia
Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens (American Spanish: (salβaˈðoɾ aˈʝende ˈɣosens); 26 June 1908 -- 11 September 1973) was a Chilean physician and politician, known as the first Marxist to become president of a Latin American country through open elections.
Allende 's involvement in Chilean political life spanned a period of nearly forty years. As a member of the Socialist Party, he was a senator, deputy and cabinet minister. He unsuccessfully ran for the presidency in the 1952, 1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency in a close three - way race. He was elected in a run - off by Congress as no candidate had gained a majority.
As president, Allende adopted a policy of nationalization of industries and collectivisation; due to these and other factors, increasingly strained relations between him and the legislative and judicial branches of the Chilean government culminated in a declaration by Congress of a "constitutional breakdown ''. A centre - right majority including the Christian Democrats, whose support had enabled Allende 's election, denounced his rule as unconstitutional and called for his overthrow by force. On 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup d'état supported by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, he gave his last speech vowing not to resign. Later that day, Allende committed suicide with an assault rifle, according to an investigation conducted by a Chilean court with the assistance of international experts in 2011.
Following Allende 's death, General Augusto Pinochet refused to return authority to a civilian government, and Chile was later ruled by a military junta that was in power up until 1990, ending almost four decades of uninterrupted democratic rule. The military junta that took over dissolved the Congress of Chile, suspended the Constitution, and began a persecution of alleged dissidents, in which thousands of Allende 's supporters were kidnapped, tortured, and murdered.
Allende was born on 26 June 1908 in Santiago. He was the son of Salvador Allende Castro and Laura Gossens Uribe. Allende 's family belonged to the Chilean upper middle class and had a long tradition of political involvement in progressive and liberal causes. His grandfather was a prominent physician and a social reformist who founded one of the first secular schools in Chile. Salvador Allende was of Basque and Belgian descent.
Allende attended high school at the Liceo Eduardo de la Barra in Valparaíso. As a teenager, his main intellectual and political influence came from the shoe - maker Juan De Marchi, an Italian - born anarchist. Allende was a talented athlete in his youth, being a member of the Everton de Viña del Mar sports club (named after the more famous English football club of the same name), where he is said to have excelled at the long jump. Allende then graduated with a medical degree in 1933 from the University of Chile. During his time at medical school Allende was influenced by Professor Max Westenhofer, a German pathologist who emphasized the social determinants of disease and social medicine.
Allende co-founded a section of the Socialist Party of Chile (founded in 1933 with Marmaduque Grove and others) in Valparaíso and became its chairman. He married Hortensia Bussi with whom he had three daughters. He was a Freemason, a member of the Lodge Progreso No. 4 in Valparaíso. In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis Higiene Mental y Delincuencia (Crime and Mental Hygiene) in which he criticized Cesare Lombroso 's proposals.
In 1938, Allende was in charge of the electoral campaign of the Popular Front headed by Pedro Aguirre Cerda. The Popular Front 's slogan was "Bread, a Roof and Work! '' After its electoral victory, he became Minister of Health in the Reformist Popular Front government which was dominated by the Radicals. While serving in this position, Allende was responsible for the passage of a wide range of progressive social reforms, including safety laws protecting workers in the factories, higher pensions for widows, maternity care, and free lunch programmes for schoolchildren.
Upon entering the government, Allende relinquished his congressional seat for Valparaíso, which he had won in 1937. Around that time, he wrote La Realidad Médico Social de Chile (The social and medical reality of Chile). After the Kristallnacht in Nazi Germany, Allende was one of 76 members of the Congress who sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews. Following President Aguirre Cerda 's death in 1941, he was again elected deputy while the Popular Front was renamed Democratic Alliance.
In 1945, Allende became senator for the Valdivia, Llanquihue, Chiloé, Aisén and Magallanes provinces; then for Tarapacá and Antofagasta in 1953; for Aconcagua and Valparaíso in 1961; and once more for Chiloé, Aisén and Magallanes in 1969. He became president of the Chilean Senate in 1966. During the Fifties, Allende introduced legislation that established the Chilean national health service, the first program in the Americas to guarantee universal health care.
His three unsuccessful bids for the presidency (in the 1952, 1958 and 1964 elections) prompted Allende to joke that his epitaph would be "Here lies the next President of Chile. '' In 1952, as candidate for the Frente de Acción Popular (Popular Action Front, FRAP), he obtained only 5.4 % of the votes, partly due to a division within socialist ranks over support for Carlos Ibáñez. In 1958, again as the FRAP candidate, Allende obtained 28.5 % of the vote. This time, his defeat was attributed to votes lost to the populist Antonio Zamorano.
Declassified documents show that from 1962 through 1964, the CIA spent a total of $2.6 million to finance the campaign of Eduardo Frei and spent $3 million in anti-Allende propaganda "to scare voters away from Allende 's FRAP coalition ''. The CIA considered its role in the victory of Frei a great success. They argued that "the financial and organizational assistance given to Frei, the effort to keep Durán in the race, the propaganda campaign to denigrate Allende -- were ' indispensable ingredients of Frei 's success ' '', and they thought that his chances of winning and the good progress of his campaign would have been doubtful without the covert support of the Government of the United States. Thus, in 1964 Allende lost once more as the FRAP candidate, polling 38.6 % of the votes against 55.6 % for Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei. As it became clear that the election would be a race between Allende and Frei, the political right -- which initially had backed Radical Julio Durán -- settled for Frei as "the lesser evil ''.
Allende had a close relationship with the Chilean Communist Party from the beginning of his political career. On his fourth (and successful) bid for the presidency, the Communist Party supported him as the alternate for its own candidate, the world - renowned poet Pablo Neruda.
During his presidential term, Allende shared positions held by the Communists, in opposition to the views of the socialists. Some argue, however, that this was reversed at the end of his period in office.
Allende won the 1970 Chilean presidential election as leader of the Unidad Popular ("Popular Unity '') coalition. On 4 September 1970, he obtained a narrow plurality of 36.2 % to 34.9 % over Jorge Alessandri, a former president, with 27.8 % going to a third candidate (Radomiro Tomic) of the Christian Democratic Party (PDC), whose electoral platform was similar to Allende 's. According to the Chilean Constitution of the time, if no presidential candidate obtained a majority of the popular vote, Congress would choose one of the two candidates with the highest number of votes as the winner. Tradition was for Congress to vote for the candidate with the highest popular vote, regardless of margin. Indeed, former president Jorge Alessandri had been elected in 1958 with only 31.6 % of the popular vote, defeating Allende.
One month after the election, on 20 October, while the Senate had still to reach a decision and negotiations were actively in place between the Christian Democrats and the Popular Unity, General René Schneider, Commander in Chief of the Chilean Army, was shot resisting a kidnap attempt by a group led by General Roberto Viaux. Hospitalized, he died of his wounds three days later, on 23 October. Schneider was a defender of the "constitutionalist '' doctrine that the army 's role is exclusively professional, its mission being to protect the country 's sovereignty and not to interfere in politics.
General Schneider 's death was widely disapproved of and, for the time, ended military opposition to Allende, whom the congress finally chose on 24 October. On 26 October, President Eduardo Frei named General Carlos Prats as commander in chief of the army to replace René Schneider.
Allende assumed the Presidency on 3 November 1970 after signing a Statute of Constitutional Guarantees proposed by the Christian Democrats in return for their support in Congress. In an extensive interview with Régis Debray in 1972, Allende explained his reasons for agreeing to the guarantees. Some critics have interpreted Allende 's responses as an admission that signing the Statute was only a tactical move.
Upon assuming power, Allende began to carry out his platform of implementing a socialist programme called La vía chilena al socialismo ("the Chilean Path to Socialism ''). This included nationalization of large - scale industries (notably copper mining and banking), and government administration of the health care system, educational system (with the help of a United States educator, Jane A. Hobson - Gonzalez from Kokomo, Indiana), a programme of free milk for children in the schools and shanty towns of Chile, and an expansion of the land seizure and redistribution already begun under his predecessor Eduardo Frei Montalva, who had nationalized between one - fifth and one - quarter of all the properties listed for takeover. Allende also intended to improve the socio - economic welfare of Chile 's poorest citizens; a key element was to provide employment, either in the new nationalized enterprises or on public work projects.
In November 1970, 3,000 scholarships were allocated to Mapuche children in an effort to integrate the Indian minority into the educational system, payment of pensions and grants was resumed, an emergency plan providing for the construction of 120,000 residential buildings was launched, all part - time workers were granted rights to social security, a proposed electricity price increase was withdrawn, diplomatic relations were restored with Cuba, and political prisoners were granted an amnesty. In December that same year, bread prices were fixed, 55,000 volunteers were sent to the south of the country to teach writing and reading skills and provide medical attention to a sector of the population that had previously been ignored, a central commission was established to oversee a tri-partite payment plan in which equal place was given to government, employees and employers, and a protocol agreement was signed with the United Centre of Workers which granted workers representational rights on the funding board of the Social Planning Ministry. An obligatory minimum wage for workers of all ages (including apprentices) was established, free milk was introduced for expectant and nursing mothers and for children between the ages of 7 and 14, free school meals were established, rent reductions were carried out, and the construction of the Santiago subway was rescheduled so as to serve working - class neighbourhoods first. Workers benefited from increases in social security payments, an expanded public works program, and a modification of the wage and salary adjustment mechanism (which had originally been introduced in the Forties to cope with the country 's permanent inflation), while middle - class Chileans benefited from the elimination of taxes on modest incomes and property. In addition, state - sponsored programs distributed free food to the country 's neediest citizens, and in the countryside, peasant councils were established to mobilise agrarian workers and small proprietors. In the government 's first budget (presented to the Chilean congress in November 1970), the minimum taxable income level was raised, removing from the tax pool 35 % of those who had paid taxes on earnings in the previous year. In addition, the exemption from general taxation was raised to a level equivalent to twice the minimum wage. Exemptions from capital taxes were also extended, which benefitted 330,000 small proprietors. The extra increases that Frei promised to the armed forces were also fully paid. According to one estimate, purchasing power went up by 28 % between October 1970 and July 1971.
The rate of inflation fell from 36.1 % in 1970 to 22.1 % in 1971, while average real wages rose by 22.3 % during 1971. Minimum real wages for blue - collar workers were increased by 56 % during the first quarter of 1971, while in the same period real minimum wages for white - collar workers were increased by 23 %, a development that decreased the differential ratio between blue - and white - collar workers ' minimum wage from 49 % (1970) to 35 % (1971). Central government expenditures went up by 36 % in real terms, raising the share of fiscal spending in GDP from 21 % (1970) to 27 % (1971), and as part of this expansion, the public sector engaged in a huge housing program, starting to build 76,000 houses in 1971, compared to 24,000 for 1970. During a 1971 emergency program, over 89,000 houses were built, and during Allende 's three years as president an average of 52,000 houses were constructed annually. Although the acceleration of inflation in 1972 and 1973 eroded part of the initial increase in wages, they still rose (on average) in real terms during the 1971 -- 73 period.
Allende 's first step in early 1971 was to raise minimum wages (in real terms) for blue - collar workers by 37 % -- 41 % and 8 % -- 10 % for white - collar workers. Educational, food, and housing assistance was significantly expanded, with public - housing starts going up twelvefold and eligibility for free milk extended from age 6 to age 15. A year later, blue - collar wages were raised by 27 % in real terms and white - collar wages became fully indexed. Price controls were also set up, while the Allende Government introduced a system of distribution networks through various agencies (including local committees on supply and prices) to ensure that the new rules were adhered to by shopkeepers.
The new Minister of Agriculture, Jacques Chonchol, promised to expropriate all estates which were larger than eighty "basic '' hectares. This promise was kept, with no farm in Chile exceeding this limit by the end of 1972. Within eighteen months, the Latifundia (extensive agricultural estates) had been abolished. The agrarian reform had involved the expropriation of 3,479 properties which, added to the 1,408 properties incorporated under the Frei Government, made up some 40 % of the total agricultural land area in the country.
Particularly in rural areas, the Allende Government launched a campaign against illiteracy, while adult education programs expanded, together with educational opportunities for workers. From 1971 through to 1973, enrollments in kindergarten, primary, secondary, and postsecondary schools all increased. The Allende Government encouraged more doctors to begin their practices in rural and low - income urban areas, and built additional hospitals, maternity clinics, and especially neighborhood health centers that remained open longer hours to serve the poor. Improved sanitation and housing facilities for low - income neighborhoods also equalized health care benefits, while hospital councils and local health councils were established in neighborhood health centers as a means of democratizing the administration of health policies. These councils gave central government civil servants, local government officials, health service employees, and community workers the right to review budgetary decisions.
The Allende government also sought to bring the arts (both serious and popular) to the mass of the Chilean population by funding a number of cultural endeavours. With eighteen - year - olds and illiterates now granted the right to vote, mass participation in decision - making was encouraged by the Allende government, with traditional hierarchical structures now challenged by socialist egalitarianism. The Allende Government was able to draw upon the idealism of its supporters, with teams of "Allendistas '' travelling into the countryside and shanty towns to perform volunteer work. The Allende Government also worked to transform Chilean popular culture through formal changes to school curriculum and through broader cultural education initiatives, such as state - sponsored music festivals and tours of Chilean folklorists and nueva canción musicians. In 1971, the purchase of a private publishing house by the state gave rise to "Editorial Quimantu '', which became the center of the Allende Government 's cultural activities. In the space of 2 years, 12 million copies of books, magazines, and documents (8 million of which were books) specializing in social analysis, were published. Cheap editions of great literary works were produced on a weekly basis, and in most cases were sold out within a day. Culture came into the reach of the masses for the first time, who responded enthusiastically. "Editorial Quimantu '' encouraged the establishment of libraries in community organizations and trade unions. Through the supply of cheap textbooks, it enabled the Left to progress through the ideological content of the literature made available to workers.
To improve social and economic conditions for women, the Women 's Secretariat was established in 1971, which took on issues such as public laundry facilities, public food programs, day - care centers, and women 's health care (especially prenatal care). The duration of maternity leave was extended from 6 to 12 weeks, while the Allende Government veered the educational system towards poorer Chileans by expanding enrollments through government subsidies. A "democratisation '' of university education was carried out, making the system tuition - free. This led to an 89 % rise in university enrollments between 1970 and 1973. The Allende Government also increased enrollment in secondary education from 38 % in 1970 to 51 % in 1974. Enrollment in education reached record levels, including 3.6 million young people, and 8 million school textbooks were distributed among 2.6 million pupils in primary education. An unprecedented 130,000 students were enrolled by the universities, which became accessible to peasants and workers. The illiteracy rate was reduced from 12 % in 1970 to 10.8 % in 1972, while the growth in primary school enrollment increased from an annual average of 3.4 % in the period 1966 -- 70 to 6.5 % in 1971 -- 1972. Secondary education grew at a rate of 18.2 % in 1971 -- 1972, and the average school enrollment of children between the ages of 6 and 14 rose from 91 % (1966 -- 70) to 99 %.
Social spending was dramatically increased, particularly for housing, education, and health, while a major effort was made to redistribute wealth to poorer Chileans. As a result of new initiatives in nutrition and health, together with higher wages, many poorer Chileans were able to feed themselves and clothe themselves better than they had been able to before. Public access to the social security system was increased, while state benefits such as family allowances were raised significantly. The redistribution of income enabled wage and salary earners to increase their share of national income from 51.6 % (the annual average between 1965 and 1970) to 65 % while family consumption increased by 12.9 % in the first year of the Allende Government. In addition, while the average annual increase in personal spending had been 4.8 % in the period 1965 -- 70, it reached 11.9 % in 1971. During the first two years of Allende 's presidency, state expenditure on health rose from around 2 % to nearly 3.5 % of GDP. According to Jennifer E. Pribble, this new spending "was reflected not only in public health campaigns, but also in the construction of health infrastructure ''. Small programs targeted at women were also experimented with, such as cooperative laundries and communal food preparation, together with an expansion of child - care facilities.
The National Supplementary Food Program was extended to all primary school and to all pregnant women, regardless of their employment or income condition. Complementary nutritional schemes were applied to malnourished children, while antenatal care was emphasized. Under Allende, the proportion of children under the age of 6 with some form of malnutrition fell by 17 %. Apart from the existing Supply and Prices councils (community - based bodies which controlled the distribution of essential groups in working - class districts, and were a popular, not government, initiative), community - based distribution centers and shops were developed, which sold directly in working - class neighborhoods. The Allende Government felt obliged to increase its intervention in marketing activities, and state involvement in grocery distribution reached 33 %. The CUT (central labor confederation) was accorded legal recognition, and its membership grew from 700,000 to almost 1 million. In enterprises in the Area of Social Ownership, an assembly of the workers elected half of the members of the management council for each company. These bodies replaced the former board of directors.
Minimum pensions were increased by amounts equal to two or three times the inflation rate, and between 1970 and 1972, such pensions increased by a total of 550 %. The incomes of 300,000 retirement pensioners were increased by the government from one - third of the minimum salary to the full amount. Labor insurance cover was extended to 200,000 market traders, 130,000 small shop proprietors, 30,000 small industrialists, small owners, transport workers, clergy, professional sportsmen, and artesans. The public health service was improved, with the establishment of a system of clinics in working - class neighborhoods on the peripheries of the major cities, providing a health center for every 40,000 inhabitants. Statistics for construction in general, and house - building in particular, reached some of the highest levels in the history of Chile. Four million square metres were completed in 1971 -- 72, compared to an annual average of two - and - a-half million between 1965 and 1970. Workers were able to acquire goods which had previously been beyond their reach, such as heaters, refrigerators, and television sets. As further noted by Ricardo Israel Zipper,
"By now meat was no longer a luxury, and the children of working people were adequately supplied with shoes and clothing. The popular living standards were improved in terms of the employment situation, social services, consumption levels, and income distribution. ''
Chilean presidents were allowed a maximum term of six years, which may explain Allende 's haste to restructure the economy. Not only was a major restructuring program organized (the Vuskovic Plan), he had to make it a success if a socialist successor to Allende was going to be elected. In the first year of Allende 's term, the short - term economic results of Minister of the Economy Pedro Vuskovic 's expansive monetary policy were highly favorable: 12 % industrial growth and an 8.6 % increase in GDP, accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9 % to 22.1 %) and unemployment (down to 3.8 %). However, by 1972, the Chilean escudo had an inflation rate of 140 %. The average Real GDP contracted between 1971 and 1973 at an annual rate of 5.6 % ("negative growth ''); and the government 's fiscal deficit soared while foreign reserves declined. The combination of inflation and government - mandated price - fixing, together with the "disappearance '' of basic commodities from supermarket shelves, led to the rise of black markets in rice, beans, sugar, and flour. The Chilean economy also suffered as a result of a US campaign against the Allende government. The Allende government announced it would default on debts owed to international creditors and foreign governments. Allende also froze all prices while raising salaries. His implementation of these policies was strongly opposed by landowners, employers, businessmen and transporters associations, and some civil servants and professional unions. The rightist opposition was led by the National Party, the Roman Catholic Church (which in 1973 was displeased with the direction of educational policy), and eventually the Christian Democrats. There were growing tensions with foreign multinational corporations and the government of the United States.
Allende also undertook Project Cybersyn, a system of networked telex machines and computers. Cybersyn was developed by British cybernetics expert Stafford Beer. The network was supposed to transmit data from factories to the government in Santiago, allowing for economic planning in real time.
In 1971, Chile re-established diplomatic relations with Cuba, joining Mexico and Canada in rejecting a previously established Organization of American States convention prohibiting governments in the Western Hemisphere from establishing diplomatic relations with Cuba. Shortly afterward, Cuban president Fidel Castro made a month - long visit to Chile. Originally the visit was supposed to be one week; however, Castro enjoyed Chile and one week led to another.
In October 1972, the first of what were to be a wave of strikes was led first by truckers, and later by small businessmen, some (mostly professional) unions and some student groups. Other than the inevitable damage to the economy, the chief effect of the 24 - day strike was to induce Allende to bring the head of the army, general Carlos Prats, into the government as Interior Minister. Allende also instructed the government to begin requisitioning trucks in order to keep the nation from coming to a halt. Government supporters also helped to mobilize trucks and buses but violence served as a deterrent to full mobilization, even with police protection for the strike - breakers. Allende 's actions were eventually declared unlawful by the Chilean appeals court and the government was ordered to return trucks to their owners.
Throughout this presidency racial tensions between the poor descendants of indigenous people, who supported Allende 's reforms, and the white elite increased.
Allende raised wages on a number of occasions throughout 1970 and 1971, but these wage hikes were negated by the in - tandem inflation of Chile 's fiat currency. Although price rises had also been high under Frei (27 % a year between 1967 and 1970), a basic basket of consumer goods rose by 120 % from 190 to 421 escudos in one month alone, August 1972. In the period 1970 -- 72, while Allende was in government, exports fell 24 % and imports rose 26 %, with imports of food rising an estimated 149 %.
Export income fell due to a hard - hit copper industry: the price of copper on international markets fell by almost a third, and post-nationalization copper production fell as well. Copper is Chile 's single most important export (more than half of Chile 's export receipts were from this sole commodity). The price of copper fell from a peak of $66 per ton in 1970 to only $48 -- 9 in 1971 and 1972. Chile was already dependent on food imports, and this decline in export earnings coincided with declines in domestic food production following Allende 's agrarian reforms.
Throughout his presidency, Allende remained at odds with the Chilean Congress, which was dominated by the Christian Democratic Party. The Christian Democrats (who had campaigned on a socialist platform in the 1970 elections, but drifted away from those positions during Allende 's presidency, eventually forming a coalition with the National Party), continued to accuse Allende of leading Chile toward a Cuban - style dictatorship, and sought to overturn many of his more radical policies. Allende and his opponents in Congress repeatedly accused each other of undermining the Chilean Constitution and acting undemocratically.
Allende 's increasingly bold socialist policies (partly in response to pressure from some of the more radical members within his coalition), combined with his close contacts with Cuba, heightened fears in Washington. The Nixon administration continued exerting economic pressure on Chile via multilateral organizations, and continued to back Allende 's opponents in the Chilean Congress. Almost immediately after his election, Nixon directed CIA and U.S. State Department officials to "put pressure '' on the Allende government. His economic policies were used by economists Rudi Dornbusch and Sebastian Edwards to coin the term macroeconomic populism.
Allende 's Popular Unity government tried to maintain normal relations with the United States. But when Chile nationalized its copper industry, Washington cut off United States credits and increased its support to opposition. Forced to seek alternative sources of trade and finance, Chile gained commitments from the Soviet Union to invest some $400 million in Chile in the next six years. Allende 's government was disappointed that it received far less economic assistance from the USSR than it hoped for. Trade between the two countries did not significantly increase and the credits were mainly linked to the purchase of Soviet equipment. Moreover, credits from the Soviet Union were much less than those provided to the People 's Republic of China and countries of Eastern Europe. When Allende visited the USSR in late 1972 in search of more aid and additional lines of credit, after 3 years, he was turned down.
The United States opposition to Allende started several years before he was elected President of Chile. Declassified documents show that from 1962 through 1964, the CIA spent $3 million in anti-Allende propaganda "to scare voters away from Allende 's FRAP coalition '', and spent a total of $2.6 million to finance the presidential campaign of Eduardo Frei.
The possibility of Allende winning Chile 's 1970 election was deemed a disaster by a US administration that wanted to protect US geopolitical interests by preventing the spread of Communism during the Cold War. In September 1970, President Nixon informed the CIA that an Allende government in Chile would not be acceptable and authorized $10 million to stop Allende from coming to power or unseat him. Henry Kissinger 's 40 Committee and the CIA planned to impede Allende 's investiture as President of Chile with covert efforts known as "Track I '' and "Track II ''; Track I sought to prevent Allende from assuming power via so - called "parliamentary trickery '', while under the Track II initiative, the CIA tried to convince key Chilean military officers to carry out a coup.
Additionally, some point to the involvement of the Defense Intelligence Agency agents that allegedly secured the missiles used to bombard La Moneda Palace. In fact, open US military aid to Chile continued during the Allende administration, and the national government was very much aware of this, although there is no record that Allende himself believed that such assistance was anything but beneficial to Chile.
During Nixon 's presidency, United States officials attempted to prevent Allende 's election by financing political parties aligned with opposition candidate Jorge Alessandri and supporting strikes in the mining and transportation sectors. After the 1970 election, the Track I operation attempted to incite Chile 's outgoing president, Eduardo Frei Montalva, to persuade his party (PDC) to vote in Congress for Alessandri. Under the plan, Alessandri would resign his office immediately after assuming it and call new elections. Eduardo Frei would then be constitutionally able to run again (since the Chilean Constitution did not allow a president to hold two consecutive terms, but allowed multiple non-consecutive ones), and presumably easily defeat Allende. The Chilean Congress instead chose Allende as President, on the condition that he would sign a "Statute of Constitutional Guarantees '' affirming that he would respect and obey the Chilean Constitution and that his reforms would not undermine any of its elements.
Track II was aborted, as parallel initiatives already underway within the Chilean military rendered it moot.
During the second term of office of Democratic President Bill Clinton, the CIA acknowledged having played a role in Chilean politics before the coup, but its degree of involvement is debated. The CIA was notified by its Chilean contacts of the impending coup two days in advance but contends it "played no direct role in '' the coup.
Much of the internal opposition to Allende 's policies came from the business sector, and recently released United States government documents confirm that the United States indirectly funded the truck drivers ' strike, which exacerbated the already chaotic economic situation before the coup.
The most prominent United States corporations in Chile before Allende 's presidency were the Anaconda and Kennecott copper companies and ITT Corporation, International Telephone and Telegraph. Both copper corporations aimed to expand privatized copper production in the city of Sewell in the Chilean Andes, where the world 's largest underground copper mine "El Teniente '', was located. At the end of 1968, according to US Department of Commerce data, United States corporate holdings in Chile amounted to $964 million. Anaconda and Kennecott accounted for 28 % of United States holdings, but ITT had by far the largest holding of any single corporation, with an investment of $200 million in Chile. In 1970, before Allende was elected, ITT owned 70 % of Chitelco, the Chilean Telephone Company and funded El Mercurio, a Chilean right - wing newspaper. Documents released in 2000 by the CIA confirmed that before the elections of 1970, ITT gave $700,000 to Allende 's conservative opponent, Jorge Alessandri, with help from the CIA on how to channel the money safely. ITT president Harold Geneen also offered $1 million to the CIA to help defeat Allende in the elections.
After General Pinochet assumed power, United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger told President Richard Nixon that the United States "did n't do it '', but "we helped them... created the conditions as great as possible ''. (referring to the coup itself). Recent documents declassified under the Clinton administration 's Chile Declassification Project show that the United States government and the CIA sought to overthrow Allende in 1970 immediately before he took office ("Project FUBELT ''). Many documents regarding the United States intervention in Chile remain classified.
Salvador Allende is mentioned in a book written by the official historian of the British Intelligence MI5 Christopher Andrew. According to SIS and Andrew, the book is based on the handwritten notes of KGB archivist defector Vasili Mitrokhin. The book also named several Italians of the left as informants or KGB agents, and the right wing Prime Minister of the time, Silvio Berlusconi, opened an investigation to target his opponents. As Mitrokhin 's information was very old, and most of the people in his files were dead or retired, he failed to find any evidence that any of the accused by the book were KGB agents or informants. Some Italian Ministers dismissed the archive as "not a dossier from the KGB but one about the KGB constructed by British counter-espionage agents based on the confession of an ex-agent, if there is one, and ' Mitrokhin ' is just a codename for an MI5 operation ''. The Indian Congress party referred to the book as "pure sensationalism not even remotely based on facts or records '' and pointed out that the book is not based on any official documents from the Soviet Union.
Christopher Andrew alleges that the KGB said that Allende "was made to understand the necessity of reorganizing Chile 's army and intelligence services, and of setting up a relationship between Chile 's and the USSR 's intelligence services ''. But that claim is not accurate, because once Allende was elected President via the electoral ballot it became a new historical precedent. The Soviet Union observed closely whether this alternative form of socialism could work, and they did not interfere with the Chileans ' decisions. Nikolai Leonov affirms that whenever he tried to give advice to Latin American leaders he was usually turned down by them, and he was told that they had their own understanding on how to conduct political business in their countries. Leonov adds that the relationships of KGB agents with Latin American leaders did not involve intelligence, because their intelligence target was the United States. Since many North Americans were living in the region, they were focusing in recruiting agents from the United States. Latin America was also a good region for KGB agents to get in touch with their informants from the CIA or other contacts from the United States than inside that country. Additionally, many scholars or experts in the field are skeptical about the reliability of Vasili Mitrokhin 's claims, and believe that the origin of the source is doubtful or mysterious.
Political and moral support came mostly through the Communist Party and unions of the Soviet Union. For instance, Allende received the Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union in 1972. However, there were some fundamental differences between Allende and Soviet political analysts, who believed that some violence -- or measures that those analysts "theoretically considered to be just '' -- should have been used. Declarations from KGB General Nikolai Leonov, former Deputy Chief of the First Chief Directorate of the KGB, confirmed that the Soviet Union supported Allende 's government economically, politically and militarily. Leonov stated in an interview at the Chilean Center of Public Studies (CEP) that the Soviet economic support included over $100 million in credit, three fishing ships (that distributed 17,000 tons of frozen fish to the population), factories (as help after the 1971 earthquake), 3,100 tractors, 74,000 tons of wheat and more than a million tins of condensed milk.
In mid-1973 the USSR had approved the delivery of weapons (artillery, tanks) to the Chilean Army. However, when news of an attempt from the Army to depose Allende through a coup d'état reached Soviet officials, the shipment was redirected to another country.
On 29 June 1973, Colonel Roberto Souper surrounded the presidential palace, La Moneda, with his tank regiment but failed to depose the government. That failed coup d'état -- known as the Tanquetazo ("tank putsch '') -- organised by the nationalist Patria y Libertad paramilitary group, was followed by a general strike at the end of July that included the copper miners of El Teniente.
In August 1973, a constitutional crisis occurred, and the Supreme Court of Chile publicly complained about the inability of the Allende government to enforce the law of the land. On 22 August, the Chamber of Deputies (with the Christian Democrats uniting with the National Party) accused the government of unconstitutional acts through Allende 's refusal to promulgate constitutional amendments, already approved by the Chamber, which would have prevented his government from continuing his massive nationalization plan and called upon the military to enforce constitutional order.
For months, Allende had feared calling upon the Carabineros ("Carabineers '', the national police force), suspecting them of disloyalty to his government. On 9 August, President Allende appointed General Carlos Prats as Minister of Defence. On 24 August 1973, General Prats was forced to resign both as defense minister and as the commander - in - chief of the army, embarrassed by both the Alejandrina Cox incident and a public protest in front of his house by the wives of his generals. General Augusto Pinochet replaced him as Army commander - in - chief the same day.
According to Chilean political scientist Arturo Valenzuela (later becoming a United States citizen and Assistant Secretary of State for Hemispheric Affairs in the Obama administration), a greater share of the blame for the breakdown in Chilean democracy lay with the leftist Allende government. While each side increasingly distrusted the other, the extreme leftists accelerated the process and left less room for political moderation than the extreme rightists. He writes "By its actions, the revolutionary Left, which had always ridiculed the possibility of a socialist transformation through peaceful means, was engaged in a self - fulfilling prophecy. ''
On 26 May 1973, the Supreme Court of Chile unanimously denounced the Allende government 's disruption of the legality of the nation in its failure to uphold judicial decisions, because of its continual refusal to permit police execution of judicial decisions contrary to the government 's own measures.
On 22 August 1973, the Christian Democrats and the National Party members of the Chamber of Deputies joined together to vote 81 to 47 in favor of a resolution that asked the authorities to "put an immediate end '' to "breach (es of) the Constitution... with the goal of redirecting government activity toward the path of law and ensuring the Constitutional order of our Nation, and the essential underpinnings of democratic co-existence among Chileans. ''
The resolution declared that Allende 's government sought "to conquer absolute power with the obvious purpose of subjecting all citizens to the strictest political and economic control by the State... (with) the goal of establishing... a totalitarian system '' and claimed that the government had made "violations of the Constitution... a permanent system of conduct. '' Essentially, most of the accusations were about disregard by the Socialist government of the separation of powers, and arrogating legislative and judicial prerogatives to the executive branch of government.
Specifically, the Socialist government of President Allende was accused of:
Finally, the resolution condemned the creation and development of government - protected (socialist) armed groups, which were said to be "headed towards a confrontation with the armed forces ''. President Allende 's efforts to re-organize the military and the police forces were characterized as "notorious attempts to use the armed and police forces for partisan ends, destroy their institutional hierarchy, and politically infiltrate their ranks ''.
Two days later, on 24 August 1973, President Allende responded, characterising the Congress 's declaration as "destined to damage the country 's prestige abroad and create internal confusion '', predicting "It will facilitate the seditious intention of certain sectors. '' He noted that the declaration (passed 81 -- 47 in the Chamber of Deputies) had not obtained the two - thirds Senate majority "constitutionally required '' to convict the president of abuse of power: essentially, the Congress were "invoking the intervention of the armed forces and of Order against a democratically - elected government '' and "subordinat (ing) political representation of national sovereignty to the armed institutions, which neither can nor ought to assume either political functions or the representation of the popular will. ''
Allende argued he had obeyed constitutional means for including military men to the cabinet at the service of civic peace and national security, defending republican institutions against insurrection and terrorism. In contrast, he said that Congress was promoting a coup d'état or a civil war with a declaration full of affirmations that had already been refuted beforehand and which, in substance and process (directly handing it to the ministers rather than directly handing it to the President) violated a dozen articles of the (then - current) Constitution. He further argued that the legislature was usurping the government 's executive function.
President Allende wrote: "Chilean democracy is a conquest by all of the people. It is neither the work nor the gift of the exploiting classes, and it will be defended by those who, with sacrifices accumulated over generations, have imposed it... With a tranquil conscience... I sustain that never before has Chile had a more democratic government than that over which I have the honor to preside... I solemnly reiterate my decision to develop democracy and a state of law to their ultimate consequences... Congress has made itself a bastion against the transformations... and has done everything it can to perturb the functioning of the finances and of the institutions, sterilizing all creative initiatives. ''
Adding that economic and political means would be needed to relieve the country 's current crisis, and that the Congress were obstructing said means; having already paralyzed the State, they sought to destroy it. He concluded by calling upon the workers, all democrats and patriots to join him in defending the Chilean Constitution and the revolutionary process.
In early September 1973, Allende floated the idea of resolving the constitutional crisis with a plebiscite. His speech outlining such a solution was scheduled for 11 September, but he was never able to deliver it. On 11 September 1973, the Chilean military, aided by the United States and its CIA, staged a coup against Allende.
Just before the capture of La Moneda (the Presidential Palace), with gunfire and explosions clearly audible in the background, Allende gave his farewell speech to Chileans on live radio, speaking of himself in the past tense, of his love for Chile and of his deep faith in its future. He stated that his commitment to Chile did not allow him to take an easy way out, and he would not be used as a propaganda tool by those he called "traitors '' (he refused an offer of safe passage), clearly implying he intended to fight to the end.
Shortly afterwards, the coup plotters announced that Allende had committed suicide. An official announcement declared that the weapon he had used was an automatic rifle. Before his death he had been photographed several times holding an AK - 47, a gift from Fidel Castro. He was found dead with this gun, according to contemporaneous statements made by officials in the Pinochet regime.
Lingering doubts regarding the manner of Allende 's death persisted throughout the period of the Pinochet regime. Many Chileans and independent observers refused to accept on faith the government 's version of events amid speculation that Allende had been murdered by government agents. When in 2011 a Chilean court opened a criminal investigation into the circumstances of Allende 's death, Pinochet had long since left power and Chile had meanwhile become one of the most stable democracies in the Americas according to The Economist magazine 's democracy index.
The ongoing criminal investigation led to a May 2011 court order that Allende 's remains be exhumed and autopsied by an international team of experts. Results of the autopsy were officially released in mid-July 2011. The team of experts concluded that the former president had shot himself with an AK - 47 assault rifle. In December 2011 the judge in charge of the investigation affirmed the experts ' findings and ruled Allende 's death a suicide. On 11 September 2012, the 39th anniversary of Allende 's death, a Chilean appeals court unanimously upheld the trial court 's ruling, officially closing the case.
The Guardian, a leading UK newspaper, reported that a scientific autopsy of the remains had confirmed that "Salvador Allende committed suicide during the 1973 coup that toppled his socialist government. '' The Guardian went on to say that:
According to Isabel Allende Bussi -- the daughter of Salvador Allende and currently a member of the Chilean Senate -- the Allende family has long accepted that the former President shot himself, telling the BBC that: "The report conclusions are consistent with what we already believed. When faced with extreme circumstances, he made the decision of taking his own life, instead of being humiliated. ''
The definitive and unanimous results produced by the 2011 Chilean judicial investigation appear to have laid to rest decades of nagging suspicions that Allende might have been assassinated by the Chilean Armed Forces. But public acceptance of the suicide theory had already been growing for much of the previous decade. In a post-junta Chile where restrictions on free speech were steadily eroding, independent and seemingly reliable witnesses at last began to tell their stories to the news media and to human rights researchers. The cumulative weight of the facts reported by these witnesses provided factual support for many previously unconfirmed details relating to Allende 's death.
The widespread acceptance of suicide as the cause Salvador Allende 's death was, however, preceded by decades of speculation and controversializing about the circumstances surrounding his death. Several examples of pre-2011 speculation are shown below or on the Wikipedia page regarding the Death of Salvador Allende.
Alternate views regarding the death of Salvador Allende:
Well - known relatives of Salvador Allende include his daughter Isabel Allende (a politician) and his second niece Isabel Allende (a writer) and other grandsons and daughter out of the close family as Jurado Allende. other grand son born on Cuba with last names Fernandez Allende.
Memorials to Allende include a statue in front of the Palacio de la Moneda. The placement of the statue was not without controversy, as it is located facing the eastern edge of the Plaza de la Ciudadanía, this plaza containing memorials to a number of Chilean statesmen. However, the statue is not located in the plaza, but rather on a surrounding sidewalk and facing an entrance to the plaza.
Allende is buried in the general cemetery of Santiago. His tomb is constantly visited both by foreigners and locals alike.
In Nicaragua the tourist port of the capital of Managua is named after him, the first socialist president of Latin America. The Salvador Allende Port is located near Downtown Managua.
The broken glasses of Allende were given to the Chilean National History Museum in 1996 by a woman who had found them in La Moneda in 1973.
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what does phantom power do on a mixer | Phantom power - wikipedia
Phantom power, in the context of professional audio equipment, is DC electric power transmitted through microphone cables to operate microphones that contain active electronic circuitry. It is best known as a convenient power source for condenser microphones, though many active direct boxes also use it. The technique is also used in other applications where power supply and signal communication take place over the same wires.
Phantom power supplies are often built into mixing consoles, microphone preamplifiers and similar equipment. In addition to powering the circuitry of a microphone, traditional condenser microphones also use phantom power for polarizing the microphone 's transducer element.
Phantom powering was used in telephone systems since the introduction of the rotary - dial telephone in 1919 before it was applied to condenser microphones. One such application in the telephone system was to provide a DC signaling path around transformer connected amplifiers in analogue line transmission systems. The first known commercially available phantom - powered microphone was the Schoeps model CMT 20, which came out in 1964, built to the specifications of French radio with 9 -- 12 volt DC phantom power; the positive pole of this powering was grounded. Microphone preamplifiers of the Nagra IV - series tape recorders offered this type of powering as an option for many years and Schoeps continued to support "negative phantom '' until the CMT series was discontinued in the mid-1970s, but it is obsolete now.
In 1966, Neumann GmbH of Berlin, Germany, presented a new type of transistorized microphone to the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, NRK. Norwegian Radio had requested phantom - powered operation. Since NRK already had 48 V available in their studios for their emergency lighting systems, this voltage was used for powering the new microphones (model KM 84), and is the origin of 48 - V phantom power. This arrangement was later standardized in DIN 45596.
The International Electrotechnical Commission Standards Committee 's "Multimedia systems - Guide to the recommended characteristics of analogue interfaces to achieve interoperability '' (IEC 61938: 2013) specifies parameters for microphone phantom power delivery. Three variants are defined by the document: P12, P24 and P48. In addition, Two additional variants (P12L and SP48) are also mentioned for specialized applications. Most microphones now use the P48 standard (maximum available power is 240 mW). Although 12 and 48 volt systems are still in use, the standard recommends 24 volt supply for new systems.
Phantom powering consists of a phantom circuit where direct current is applied equally through the two signal lines of a balanced audio connector (in modern equipment, both pins 2 and 3 of an XLR connector). The supply voltage is referenced to the ground pin of the connector (pin 1 of an XLR), which normally is connected to the cable shield or a ground wire in the cable or both. When phantom powering was introduced, one of its advantages was that the same type of balanced, shielded microphone cable that studios were already using for dynamic microphones could be used for condenser microphones. This is in contrast to microphones with vacuum - tube circuitry, most of which require special, multi-conductor cables.
With phantom power, the supply voltage is effectively invisible to balanced microphones that do not use it, which includes most dynamic microphones. A balanced signal consists only of the differences in voltage between two signal lines; phantom powering places the same DC voltage on both signal lines of a balanced connection. This is in marked contrast to another, slightly earlier method of powering known as "parallel powering '' or "T - powering '' (from the German term Tonaderspeisung), in which DC was overlaid directly onto the signal in differential mode. Connecting a conventional microphone to an input that had parallel powering enabled could very well damage the microphone.
The IEC 61938 Standard defines 48 - volt, 24 - volt, and 12 - volt phantom powering. The signal conductors are positive, both fed through resistors of equal value (6.81 kΩ for P48, 1.2 kΩ for 24 V, and 680 Ω for 12 V), and the shield is ground. The 6.81 kΩ value is not critical, but the resistors must be matched to within 0.1 % or better to maintain good common - mode rejection in the circuit. The 24 - volt version of phantom powering, proposed quite a few years after the 12 and 48 V versions, was also included in the DIN standard and is in the IEC standard, but it was never widely adopted by equipment manufacturers.
Many mixer boards have a switch for turning phantom power on or off; in most high - end equipment this can be done individually by channel, or on smaller mixers all mic channels can be either on or off, also this can be done in groups in most mid-range boards and some smaller ones. If it is desired to disconnect phantom power from one channel only, this can be done by using a 1: 1 isolation transformer or blocking capacitors. Phantom powering can cause equipment malfunction or even damage if used with cables or adapters that connect one side of the input to ground, or if certain equipment other than microphones is connected to it.
Instrument amplifiers rarely provide phantom power. To use equipment requiring it with these amplifiers, a separate power supply must be inserted into the line. These are readily available commercially, or alternatively are one of the easier projects for the amateur electronics constructor.
Some microphones offer a choice of internal battery powering or (external) phantom powering. In some such microphones it is advisable to remove the internal batteries when phantom power is being used since batteries may corrode and leak chemicals. Other microphones are specifically designed to switch over to the internal batteries if an external supply fails, which may be useful.
Phantom powering is not always implemented correctly or adequately, even in professional - quality preamps, mixers, and recorders. In part this is because first - generation (late - 1960s through mid-1970s) 48 - volt phantom - powered condenser microphones had simple circuitry and required only small amounts of operating current (typically less than 1 mA per microphone), so the phantom supply circuits typically built into recorders, mixers, and preamps of that time were designed on the assumption that this current would be adequate. The original DIN 45596 phantom - power specification called for a maximum of 2 mA. This practice has carried forward to the present; many 48 - volt phantom power supply circuits, especially in low - cost and portable equipment, simply can not supply more than 1 or 2 mA total without breaking down. Some circuits also have significant additional resistance in series with the standard pair of supply resistors for each microphone input; this may not affect low - current microphones much, but it can disable microphones that need more current.
Mid-1970s and later condenser microphones designed for 48 - volt phantom powering often require much more current (e.g., 2 -- 4 mA for Neumann transformerless microphones, 4 -- 5 mA for the Schoeps CMC ("Colette '') series and Josephson microphones, 5 -- 6 mA for most Shure KSM - series microphones, 8 mA for CAD Equiteks and 10 mA for Earthworks). The IEC standard gives 10 mA as the maximum allowed current per microphone. If its required current is not available, a microphone may still put out a signal, but it can not deliver its intended level of performance. The specific symptoms vary somewhat, but the most common result will be reduction of the maximum sound - pressure level that the microphone can handle without overload (distortion). Some microphones will also show lower sensitivity (output level for a given sound - pressure level).
Most ground lift switches have the unwanted effect of disconnecting phantom power. There must always be a DC current path between pin 1 of the microphone and the negative side of the 48 volt supply, if power is to reach the microphone 's electronics. Lifting the ground, which is normally pin 1, breaks this path and disables the phantom power supply.
There is a common belief that connecting a dynamic or ribbon microphone to a phantom - powered input will damage it. There are three possibilities for this damage to occur. If there is a fault in the cable, phantom power may damage some mics by applying a voltage across the output of the microphone. Equipment damage is also possible if a phantom - powered input connected to an unbalanced dynamic microphone or electronic musical instruments. The transient generated when a microphone is hot - plugged into an input with active phantom power can damage the microphone and possibly the preamp circuit of the input because not all pins of the microphone connector make contact at the same time, and there is an instant when current can flow to charge the capacitance of the cable from one side of the phantom - powered input and not the other. This is particularly a problem with long microphone cables. It is considered good practice to disable phantom power to devices that do n't require it.
Digital microphones complying with the AES 42 standard may be provided with phantom power at 10 volts, impressed on both audio leads and ground. This supply can furnish up to 250 mA to digital microphones. A keyed variation of the usual XLR connector, the XLD connector, may be used to prevent accidental interchange of analog and digital devices.
T - power, also known as A-B powering or T12, described in DIN 45595, is an alternative to phantom powering that is still widely used in the world of production film sound. Many mixers and recorders intended for that market have a T - power option. Many older Sennheiser and Schoeps microphones use this powering method, although newer recorders and mixers are phasing out this option. Adapter barrels, and dedicated power supplies, are made to accommodate T powered microphones. There is often no audible difference between microphones featuring this method and microphones with P48 powering. In this scheme, 12 volts is applied through 180 ohm resistors between the microphone 's "hot '' terminal (XLR pin 2) and the microphone 's "cold '' terminal (XLR pin 3). This results in a 12 volt potential difference with significant current capability across pins 2 and 3, which would likely cause permanent damage if applied to a dynamic or ribbon microphone.
Plug - in - power (PiP), is the low - current 3 V to 5 V supply provided at the microphone jack of some consumer equipment, such as portable recorders and computer sound cards. It is also defined in IEC 61938. It is unlike phantom power since it is an unbalanced interface with a low voltage (around + 5 volts) connected to the signal conductor with return through the sleeve; the DC power is in common with the audio signal from the microphone. A Capacitor is used to block the DC from subsequent audio frequency circuits. It is often used for powering electret microphones, which will not function without power. It is suitable only for powering microphones specifically designed for use with this type of power supply. Damage may result if these microphones are connected to true (48 V) phantom power through a 3.5 mm to XLR adapter that connects the XLR shield to the 3.5 mm sleeve. Plug - in - power is covered by Japanese standard CP - 1203A: 2007 A similar line - powering scheme is found in computer sound cards. Both plug - in - power and soundcard power are defined in the second edition of IEC 61938.
These alternative powering schemes are sometimes improperly referred to as "phantom power '' and should not be confused with true 48 - volt phantom powering described above.
Some condenser microphones can be powered with a 1.5 volt cell contained in a small compartment in the microphone or in an external housing.
Phantom power is sometimes used by workers in avionics to describe the DC bias voltage used to power aviation microphones, which use a lower voltage than professional audio microphones. Phantom power used in this context is 8 to 16 volts DC in series with a 470 ohm (nominal) resistor as specified in RTCA Inc. standard DO - 214. These microphones evolved from the carbon microphones used in the early days of aviation and the telephone which relied on a DC bias voltage across the carbon microphone element.
Phantom power is also used in applications other than microphones:
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which of the following is used in italian mediterreanean and mexican dishes | Mediterranean cuisine - wikipedia
Mediterranean cuisine is the foods and methods of preparation by people of the Mediterranean Basin region. The idea of a Mediterranean cuisine originates with the cookery writer Elizabeth David 's book, A Book of Mediterranean Food (1950), though she wrote mainly about French cuisine. She and other writers including the Tunisian historian Mohamed Yassine Essid define the three core elements of the cuisine as the olive, wheat, and the grape, yielding olive oil, bread and pasta, and wine; other writers emphasize the diversity of the region 's foods and deny that it is a useful concept. The geographical area covered broadly follows the distribution of the olive tree, as noted by David and Essid.
The region spans a wide variety of cultures with distinct cuisines, in particular (going anticlockwise around the region) the Maghrebi, Egyptian, Levantine, Ottoman (Turkish), Greek, Italian, Provençal (French), and Spanish. However, the historical connections of the region, as well as the impact of the Mediterranean Sea on the region 's climate and economy, mean that these cuisines share dishes beyond the core trio of oil, bread, and wine, such as roast lamb or mutton, meat stews with vegetables and tomato (for example, Spanish andrajos and Italian ciambotta), and the salted cured fish roe, bottarga, found across the region. Spirits based on anise are drunk in many countries around the Mediterranean.
The cooking of the area is not to be confused with the Mediterranean diet, made popular because of the apparent health benefits of a diet rich in olive oil, wheat and other grains, fruits, vegetables, and a certain amount of seafood, but low in meat and dairy products. Mediterranean cuisine encompasses the ways that these and other ingredients, including meat, are dealt with in the kitchen, whether they are health - giving or not.
The cookery writer Elizabeth David 's introduction to A Book of Mediterranean Food (1950) defines her scope as "the cooking of the Mediterranean shores ''. She sketches out the geographical limits as
from Gibraltar to the Bosphorus, down the Rhone Valley, through the great seaports of Marseilles, Barcelona, and Genoa, across to Tunis and Alexandria, embracing all the Mediterranean islands, Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia, Crete, the Cyclades, Cyprus (where the Byzantine influence begins to be felt), to the mainland of Greece and the much disputed territories of Syria, the Lebanon, Constantinople, and Smyrna.
David defines the region as coextensive with the range of the olive tree: "those blessed lands of sun and sea and olive trees ''. The olive 's natural distribution is limited by frost and by availability of water. It is therefore constrained to a more or less narrow zone around the Mediterranean Sea, except in the Maghreb and in Spain, where it is distributed more widely, and on the islands of the Mediterranean, where it is widespread.
The Tunisian historian Mohamed Yassine Essid similarly defines the region by the olive 's presence, along with bread, wheat, and the grape as the "basic products of Mediterranean folk cuisine '':
Mediterranean cuisine is defined by the presence of fundamental elements which are said to play a more important role than others, reflecting a community of beliefs and practices which transcend religions, languages and even societies. The olive tree, the emblematic tree on more than one account, traces the bounds of a frontier of landscapes and lives on either side of which the Mediterranean begins or ends. Above Montelimar, nicknamed "Gates of Provence '', is the limit of the olive.
Essid, as already mentioned, identifies the "trinity '' of basic ingredients of traditional Mediterranean cuisine as the olive, wheat, and the grape, yielding oil, bread, and wine respectively. The archaeologist Colin Renfrew calls this the "Mediterranean triad ''.
The olive appears to come from the region of Persia and Mesopotamia, at least 6,000 years ago. It spread from there to nearby areas, and has been cultivated since the early Bronze Age (up to 3,150 BC) in southern Turkey, the Levant, and Crete. The ten countries with the largest harvests (in 2011) are all near the Mediterranean (Portugal being the tenth largest): together, they produce 95 % of the world 's olives.
The olive yields bitter fruits, made edible by curing and fermentation, and olive oil. Some 90 % of the fruit production (1996) goes into olive oil. The Mediterranean region accounts for the world 's highest consumption of olive oil: in 2014, the highest - consuming country, Greece, used 17 kg per head; Italy, 12 kg, Spain, 13 kg; the United States for comparison used only 1 kg per head.
Wheat was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, in and near the Levant some 10,000 years ago. Its ancestors include wild emmer wheat; this was hybridised, harvested and sown to create domestic strains with larger grains, in ears that shatter less readily than wild forms. It had been spread across the Mediterranean region as far as Spain by 5,000 BC.
Wheat is a staple food in the Mediterranean region. Wheat bread was already critically important in the empire of Ancient Rome, which included the entire region; at that time, around 2,000 years ago, North Africa was the "breadbasket '' of the empire. Other staple wheat - based Mediterranean foods include pasta and semolina (wheat middlings) products such as couscous and burgul. In turn, these are made into dishes such as the Greek dessert galaktoboureko (milk börek), consisting of filo pastry parcels around a custard made with semolina. A widespread wheat dish from Turkey and the Levant to Iran and India is halva, a dessert of sweetened semolina with butter, milk, and pine kernels.
The grape was domesticated between 7,000 and 4,000 BC between the Black Sea and Persia; archaeological evidence shows that wine was being made there by 6,000 BC, reaching Greece and Crete in the fifth millennium BC and Spain by the last millennium BC. Winemaking started in Italy in the ninth century BC, and in France around 600 BC.
Grapes are mostly grown for making wine and vinegar as basic components of the Mediterranean diet, as well for drying as raisins or for eating as table grapes. Raisins and table grape varieties are chosen for their flavour. Grape production remains important in the Mediterranean area, with Southern Europe accounting for 21 % of the world 's harvest. In 2014, Italy produced 6.9 million tonnes (mt) of grapes, Spain 6.2 mt, France 6.2 mt, Turkey 4.2 mt, and Germany 1.2 mt. Wine production for Southern Europe was 37 % of the world total in 2014, with Italy producing 4.8 mt, Spain 4.6 mt, France 4.3 mt, and Germany 0.9 mt.
The concept of a Mediterranean cuisine is very recent, probably dating from the publication of David 's A Book of Mediterranean Food (1950). David herself did not use the term, speaking instead of Mediterranean "food '', "cookery '', or "cooking ''. The usefulness of the concept is disputed. Carol Helstosky, author of the book Food Culture in the Mediterranean (2009), is among the authors who use "Mediterranean cuisine '' interchangeably with "Mediterranean food ''. In the preface to her book she writes
Mediterranean food is incredibly popular: pasta, pizza, sausage, wine, gyros, kebab, and falafel can be found just about everywhere. Food experts and cookbook authors adore Mediterranean cuisine...
Essid acknowledges that "geographical differences and the vicissitudes of history '' have affected the food of different Mediterranean lands, but nonetheless asserts that:
Rules for the preparation and consumption of food are common to the lands that border the Mediterranean. They offer both stability, continuity and reproduction of a specific pattern of eating which resists conquest, invasion, colonisation, social change, industrialisation and urbanisation. Consequently, wherever you go, in southern Europe or the lands bordering the southern Mediterranean, you will find a cuisine and gastronomic ritual which is always familiar.
On the other hand, Sami Zubaida argues in his book Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (1994) that:
The idea of the "standard Mediterranean ''... is a modern construction of food writers and publicists in Europe and North America earnestly preaching what is now thought to be a healthy diet to their audiences by invoking a stereotype of the healthy other on the shores of the Mediterranean. Their colleagues in Mediterranean countries are only too willing to perpetuate this myth. The fact of the matter is that the Mediterranean contains varied cultures.
The cookery author Clifford A. Wright wrote in 1999: "There really is no such thing as ' Mediterranean cuisine '. At the same time, we seem to know what we mean when we use the expression... '' Wright argued that David 's book itself was largely about specifically French Mediterranean food, pointing out that "only 4 percent of her recipes come from North Africa or the Levant ''.
Since David 's time, a variety of books on Mediterranean cuisine have been written, including Abu Shihab 's 2012 and J.R. Stevens ' 2015 books of that name; Helstosky 's 2009 book, already mentioned; books by other cookery writers include S. Rowe 's Purple Citrus and Sweet Perfume: Cuisine of the Eastern Mediterranean (2011); and Mari - Pierre Moine 's Mediterranean Cookbook (2014). There are many more cookbooks covering specific cuisines in the Mediterranean area, such as B. Santich 's The Original Mediterranean Cuisine: Medieval Recipes for Today (1995), on Catalan and Italian recipes; and H.F. Ullman 's (2006) on the cooking of Tunisia, Spain and Italy, each one subtitled "Mediterranean Cuisine ''.
The ingredients of Mediterranean cuisine are to an extent different from those of the cuisine of Northern Europe, with olive oil instead of butter, wine instead of beer. The list of available ingredients has changed over the centuries. One major change was the introduction of many foods by the Arabs to Portugal, Spain and Sicily in the Middle Ages. Those foods included aubergines, spinach, sugar cane, rice, apricots and citrus fruits, creating the distinctive culinary tradition of Al - Andalus.
Another major change was the arrival of foods from the Americas in Early Modern times (around the sixteenth century), notably the incorporation of the potato into Northern European cuisine, and the eager adoption of the tomato into Mediterranean cuisine. The tomato, so central now to that cuisine, was first described in print by Pietro Andrea Mattioli in 1544. Similarly, many of the species of Phaseolus beans now used around the Mediterranean, including P. vulgaris (the French or haricot bean), were brought back from the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese explorers.
David 's introduction to her 1950 book characterises the cooking of the Mediterranean countries as "conditioned naturally by variations in climate and soil and the relative industry or indolence of the inhabitants. ''
David identifies "the ever recurring elements '' in the food of this extensive region as olive oil, saffron, garlic, "pungent '' local wines, as well as the "aromatic perfume '' of herbs, especially rosemary, wild marjoram, and basil, and the bright colours of fresh foods in the markets, "pimentos, aubergines, tomatoes, olives, melons, figs '' and "shiny fish, silver, vermilion, or tiger - striped ''. She includes cheeses of "sheep 's or goat 's milk '', "figs from Smyrna on long strings '' and "sheets of apricot paste which is dissolved in water to make a cooling drink. ''
With common ingredients including the olive, wheat, and grape; a shared climate; and a long period for cultural exchange, it might be expected that a single, pan-Mediterranean cuisine would have developed. Certain items, such as olive oil, bread, wine, roast lamb or mutton (for example, Maghreb méchoui, Greek kleftiko and souvlaki, Turkish shish kebab), bottarga, and stews of meat with vegetables and tomato (such as Spanish andrajos, French estouffade à la Provençale, Italian ciambotta, Turkish buğu kebabı), are indeed found all around the Mediterranean. Despite this, however, the lands bordering the Mediterranean sea have distinct regional cuisines, from the Maghreb, Levant and Ottoman to the Italian, French, and Spanish. Each of those, in turn, has national and provincial variations.
Maghrebi cuisine includes the cuisines of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. One of the most characteristic dishes of the region is couscous, a steamed, small - grained wheat semolina, served with a stew. The dish is ancient, mentioned by the Medieval traveller Ibn Battuta, and found for example also in the Western Sicilian cuisine, especially in the province of Trapani, where it was re-introduced after 1600.
One stew that may be served with couscous is the Moroccan tagine, a hearty, somewhat dry dish of meat and vegetables, cooked slowly in a pot (called a tagine) with a tall conical lid. Dishes from the Maghreb region of North Africa are often coloured and flavoured with the hot spice mixtures harissa and ras el hanout (containing such spices as cumin, coriander, saffron, cinnamon, cloves, chillies, and paprika). Other characteristic flavourings of the region are preserved lemons and dried apricots and raisins.
Egyptian cuisine has ancient roots, with evidence that, for example, cheese has been made in Egypt since at least 3,000 BC. Falafel are small fried croquettes of bean or chickpea flour, eaten across the Levant and the West, but originating in Egypt; they are claimed as theirs by Coptic Christians. Ful medames, a stew of fava beans with oil and cumin, is popular in Egypt and has become widespread across the Arab world. Duqqa is a dip made of pounded herbs, hazelnuts and spices, eaten with bread. Kushari is a foreign - derived 19th century dish of rice, lentils and pasta, variously garnished; it began as food for the poor, but has become a national dish.
Levantine cuisine is the cooking of the Levant (including the Middle Eastern Mediterranean coast, east of Egypt). Among the most distinctive foods of this cuisine are traditional small meze dishes such as tabbouleh, hummus, and baba ghanoush. Tabbouleh is a dish of bulgur cracked wheat with tomatoes, parsley, mint and onion, dressed with olive oil and lemon juice. Baba ghanoush, sometimes called "poor man 's caviar '', is a puree of aubergine with olive oil, often mixed with chopped onion, tomato, cumin, garlic, lemon juice, and parsley. The dish is popular across the whole of the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.
Ful medames, originally from Egypt and still a national dish there, consists of fava beans with oil and cumin; it is popular throughout the Levant. The dish may be ancient: dried beans of Neolithic age have been found near Nazareth.
Ottoman cuisine has given rise to the cuisines of modern Turkey, parts of the Balkans, Cyprus, and Greece. A distinctive element is the family of small flaky pastries called börek. These are popular and widespread across the Eastern Mediterranean region, and date as far back as ancient Roman times. Börek are made of thin sheets of filo pastry, filled with mixtures such as meat, caramelised onion and sweet peppers.
Another widespread and popular dish is moussaka, a baked dish of aubergine or potato with various other ingredients: often minced meat and tomatoes, sometimes a layer of egg custard or béchamel sauce on top. In its Greek variant, well - known outside the region, it includes layers of aubergine and minced meat with custard or béchamel sauce on top, but that version is a relatively recent innovation, introduced by the chef Nikolaos Tselementes in the 1920s.
Much of Greek cuisine is part of the larger tradition of Ottoman cuisine, the names of the dishes revealing Arabic, Persian or Turkish roots: moussaka, tzatziki, yuvarlakia, keftes and so on. Many dishes ' names probably entered the Greek vocabulary during Ottoman times, or earlier in contact with the Persians and the Arabs. However, some dishes may be pre-Ottoman, only taking Turkish names later; the historians of food John Ash and Andrew Dalby, for example, speculate that grape - leaf dolmadhes were made by the early Byzantine period, while Alan Davidson traces trahana to the ancient Greek tragos and skordalia to the ancient Athenian skorothalmi. Greek cookery makes wide use of vegetables, olive oil, grains, fish, wine and meat (white and red, including lamb, poultry, rabbit and pork). Other important ingredients include olives, cheese, aubergine, courgette, lemon juice, vegetables, herbs, bread and yoghurt. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece: lentil soup, fasolada, retsina (white or rosé wine flavoured with pine resin) and pasteli (sesame seeds baked with honey); some to the Hellenistic and Roman periods: loukaniko (dried pork sausage); and Byzantium: feta cheese, avgotaraho (bottarga) and paximadhia (rusk). Lakerda, mizithra cheese and desserts like diples, koulourakia, moustokouloura and melomakarono also date back to the Byzantine period, while the variety of different pitas probably dates back to the ancient times.
Mediterranean Italian cuisine includes much of Italy outside the north and the mountainous inland regions. It is a diverse cuisine, but among its best - known and most characteristic foods are risotto, pizza in Neapolitan and Sicilian styles, and pasta dishes such as spaghetti.
Risotto is a dish made using Italian short - grain rice, which is both highly absorbent and resistant to turning into a pudding when cooked with stock and flavoured with onions and garlic, cooked in butter. Anna Gosetti della Salda 's book of Italian regional cookery lists 37 risotto recipes, 18 of them from the Veneto. Variations among Veneto risottos include additions of fish and white wine; chicken; eel; mushrooms and grated Parmesan cheese; quails; small pieces of beef; courgettes (zucchini); clams; ragù; beans; mussels; prawns; cuttlefish; and asparagus.
Pizza, or as David notes "pissaladina or pissaladière '' in Provence (the cuisines of Mediterranean France and Italy having something in common), is a piece of bread dough rolled out thin, with a topping which varies from place to place, but is generally much simpler than those in the English - speaking world. In Naples this is tomato, anchovies and buffalo mozzarella. In San Remo it is onions cooked in olive oil, with salted sardines. The Provençal variety uses onions, black olives, and anchovies.
Spaghetti dishes also vary. It may be eaten as David says "simply with olive oil and garlic '', without cheese, or with a sauce of "very red and ripe peeled tomatoes '', cooked briefly and flavoured with garlic and either basil or parsley. One Sicilian variant includes pieces of bacon, onions fried in fat, garlic, stoned olives, and anchovies, served with olive oil and grated Parmesan cheese.
Mediterranean French cuisine includes the cooking styles of Provence, Occitania, and the island of Corsica. Distinctive dishes that make use of local ingredients include bouillabaisse and salade niçoise.
Bouillabaisse is a substantial dish from the French port of Marseille, capital of Provence. It is a stew for at least eight people, because it should contain many kinds of fish such as crayfish, gurnard, weever, John Dory, monkfish, conger eel, whiting, sea bass, and crab. These are cooked with Mediterranean vegetables and herbs, namely onions, garlic, tomatoes, thyme, fennel, parsley, bay, and orange peel.
Salade niçoise is a colourful salad of tomatoes, tuna, hard - boiled eggs, Niçoise olives, and anchovies, dressed with a vinaigrette.
Spain 's varied Mediterranean cuisines includes the cooking of Andalusia, Murcia, Catalonia, Valencia, and the Balearic islands. Paella is a characteristic Spanish dish, originally from Valencia, radiating early on to Catalonia and Murcia along Spain 's Mediterranean coast. It comes in many versions, and may contain a mixture of chicken, pork, rabbit, or shellfish, sautéed in olive oil in a large shallow pan, with vegetables, and typically round - grain rice (often of the local albufera, arròs bomba, sénia varieties or similar) cooked to absorb the water and coloured with saffron. The dish may be varied with artichoke hearts, peas, sweet peppers, lima beans, string beans, or sausages.
Anise is used around the Mediterranean to flavour spirits including French pastis and absinthe; Greek ouzo; Bulgarian mastika; Italian sambuca; Spanish anísado; Turkish rakı; Lebanese, Libyan, Syrian, Jordanian, Israeli and Palestinian arak; and Algerian anisette cristal.
The Mediterranean diet, popularised in the 1970s, is inspired by the cuisine of parts of Greece and Italy in the early 1960s. The American Diabetes Association writes about "Mediterranean - Style Eating '', mentioning "the traditional Mediterranean lifestyle... of... eating healthfully... together among family and friends '', and asserting that "Mediterranean cuisine is plant - based '', citing the ingredients "whole grains, fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, beans, nuts, seeds, and olive oil '', and stating that most foods "in a Mediterranean diet come from plants ''.
The 1984 Guida all'Italia gastronomica states that "around 1975, under the impulse of one of those new nutritional directives by which good cooking is too often influenced, the Americans discovered the so - called Mediterranean diet. The name even pleased Italian government officials, who made one modification: changing from diet -- a word which has always seemed punitive and therefore unpleasant -- to Mediterranean cuisine. ''
Since David wrote about Mediterranean food in 1950, and indeed since dietary researchers showed in the 1950s that people around the Mediterranean had less coronary heart disease than the peoples of northern Europe, the traditional Mediterranean ways of life and of eating have changed. Increased wealth and busy lives have led people to eat more meat and less vegetables: their diet is becoming more northern European, with more convenience foods and with less of a preventative effect on cardiovascular disease.
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which of the following was the largest us industry in the 1920s | Chicago - Wikipedia
Chicago (/ ʃɪˈkɑːɡoʊ / (listen), locally also / - ˈkɔː - /), officially the City of Chicago, is the third most populous city in the United States, after New York City and Los Angeles. With over 2.7 million residents, it is also the most populous city in both the state of Illinois and the Midwestern United States. It is the county seat of Cook County. The Chicago metropolitan area, often referred to as Chicagoland, has nearly 10 million people and is the third - largest in the United States. It is the birthplace of the skyscraper and perhaps the most influential architectural city of the 20th century. Chicago saw the creation of the first standardized futures contracts at the Chicago Board of Trade; today its successor has evolved into the largest and most diverse derivatives market in the world, generating 20 % of all volume in commodities and financial futures.
Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837 near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed and grew rapidly in the mid-nineteenth century. After the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, which destroyed several square miles and left more than 100,000 homeless, the city made a concerted effort to rebuild. The construction boom accelerated population growth throughout the following decades, and by 1900 Chicago was one of the five largest cities in the world. During this period, Chicago made noted contributions to urban planning and zoning standards, which included creating new construction styles (including the Chicago School of architecture), the development of the City Beautiful Movement, and the steel - framed skyscraper.
Positioned along Lake Michigan, the city is an international hub for finance, commerce, industry, technology, telecommunications, and transportation. O'Hare International Airport is the one of the busiest airports in the world, and the region also has the largest number of U.S. highways and railroad freight. In 2012, Chicago was listed as an alpha global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, and it ranked seventh in the entire world in the 2017 Global Cities Index. Chicago has the fourth - largest gross metropolitan product in the world -- about $670.5 billion according to September 2017 estimates - ranking it after the metropolitan areas of Tokyo, New York City, and Los Angeles, and ranking ahead of number five London and number six Paris. Chicago is also the largest economy in the Midwestern United States. The city has one of the world 's largest and most diversified and balanced economies; not dependent on any one industry, with no single industry employing more than 14 % of the workforce.
Chicago was the second most visited city in the United States with 55 million domestic and international visitors, behind the estimated 62.8 million tourists to New York City in 2017. The city ranked first place in the 2018 Time Out City Life Index, a global quality of life survey of 15,000 people in 32 cities. Landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, the Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis (Sears) Tower, the Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicago 's culture includes the visual arts, literature, film, theater (especially improvisational comedy), food, and music, particularly jazz, blues, soul, hip - hop, gospel, and house music. There are many colleges and universities in the Chicago area, of which the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Illinois at Chicago are classified as "highest research '' doctoral universities.
Chicago has professional sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best known being the Windy City and Chi - Town.
The name "Chicago '' is derived from a French rendering of the indigenous Miami - Illinois word shikaakwa for a wild relative of the onion, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as "Checagou '' was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir. Henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the eponymous wild "garlic '' grew abundantly in the area. According to his diary of late September 1687:
when we arrived at the said place called "Chicagou '' which, according to what we were able to learn of it, has taken this name because of the quantity of garlic which grows in the forests in this region.
In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, who had taken the place of the Miami and Sauk and Fox peoples. The first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s. He is commonly known as the "Founder of Chicago ''.
In 1795, following the Northwest Indian War, an area that was to be part of Chicago was turned over to the United States for a military post by native tribes in accordance with the Treaty of Greenville. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn and later rebuilt. The Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833.
In the early 1790s Jean Baptiste Du Sable had settled at the mouth of the North Bank of the Chicago River, and is identified as a National Historic Landmark, now located in Pioneer Court. He established an extensive and prosperous trading settlement in what would become the city of Chicago. He sold his Chicago River property in 1800 and moved to St. Charles, now in Missouri, where he was licensed to run a Missouri River ferry. Point du Sable 's successful role in developing the Chicago River settlement was little recognized until the mid-20th century.
On August 12, 1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people. On June 15, 1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U.S. Receiver of Public Monies. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4, 1837, and for several decades was the world 's fastest - growing city.
As the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicago 's first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1848. The canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River.
A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad. Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade (established 1848) listed the first - ever standardized "exchange - traded '' forward contracts, which were called futures contracts.
In the 1850s, Chicago gained national political prominence as the home of Senator Stephen Douglas, the champion of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act and the "popular sovereignty '' approach to the issue of the spread of slavery. These issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage. Lincoln was nominated in Chicago for US President at the 1860 Republican National Convention, which was held in Chicago in a temporary building called the Wigwam. He defeated Douglas in the general election, and this set the stage for the American Civil War.
To accommodate rapid population growth and demand for better sanitation, the city improved its infrastructure. In February 1856, Chicago 's Common Council approved Chesbrough 's plan to build the United States ' first comprehensive sewerage system. The project raised much of central Chicago to a new grade. While elevating Chicago, and at first improving the city 's health, the untreated sewage and industrial waste now flowed into the Chicago River, and subsequently into Lake Michigan, polluting the city 's primary freshwater source.
The city responded by tunneling two miles (3.2 km) out into Lake Michigan to newly built water cribs. In 1900, the problem of sewage contamination was largely resolved when the city completed a major engineering feat. It reversed the flow of the Chicago River so that the water flowed away from Lake Michigan rather than into it. This project began with the construction and improvement of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and was completed with the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal that connects to the Illinois River, which flows into the Mississippi River.
In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed an area about 4 miles (6.4 km) long and 1 - mile (1.6 km) wide, a large section of the city at the time. Much of the city, including railroads and stockyards, survived intact, and from the ruins of the previous wooden structures arose more modern constructions of steel and stone. These set a precedent for worldwide construction. During its rebuilding period, Chicago constructed the world 's first skyscraper in 1885, using steel - skeleton construction.
The city has grown significantly in size and population by incorporating many neighboring townships between 1851 and 1920, with the largest annexation happening in 1889, with five townships joining the city, including the Hyde Park Township, which now comprises most of the South Side of Chicago and the far southeast of Chicago, and the Jefferson Township, which now makes up most of Chicago 's Northwest Side. The desire to join the city was driven by municipal services that the city could provide its residents.
Chicago 's flourishing economy attracted huge numbers of new immigrants from Europe and migrants from the Eastern United States. Of the total population in 1900, more than 77 % were either foreign - born or born in the United States of foreign parentage. Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes and Czechs made up nearly two - thirds of the foreign - born population (by 1900, whites were 98.1 % of the city 's population).
Labor conflicts followed the industrial boom and the rapid expansion of the labor pool, including the Haymarket affair on May 4, 1886, and in 1894 the Pullman Strike. Anarchist and socialist groups played prominent roles in creating very large and highly organized labor actions. Concern for social problems among Chicago 's immigrant poor led Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr to found Hull House in 1889. Programs that were developed there became a model for the new field of social work.
During the 1870s and 1880s, Chicago attained national stature as the leader in the movement to improve public health. City, and later, state laws that upgraded standards for the medical profession and fought urban epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and yellow fever were both passed and enforced. These laws became templates for public health reform in other cities and states.
The city established many large, well - landscaped municipal parks, which also included public sanitation facilities. The chief advocate for improving public health in Chicago was Dr. John H. Rauch, M.D. Rauch established a plan for Chicago 's park system in 1866. He created Lincoln Park by closing a cemetery filled with shallow graves, and in 1867, in response to an outbreak of cholera he helped establish a new Chicago Board of Health. Ten years later, he became the secretary and then the president of the first Illinois State Board of Health, which carried out most of its activities in Chicago.
In the 1800s, Chicago became the nation 's railroad center, and by 1910 over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals. In 1883, Chicago 's railway managers needed a general time convention, so they developed the standardized system of North American time zones. This system for telling time spread throughout the continent.
In 1893, Chicago hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition on former marshland at the present location of Jackson Park. The Exposition drew 27.5 million visitors, and is considered the most influential world 's fair in history. The University of Chicago, formerly at another location, moved to the same South Side location in 1892. The term "midway '' for a fair or carnival referred originally to the Midway Plaisance, a strip of park land that still runs through the University of Chicago campus and connects the Washington and Jackson Parks.
During World War I and the 1920s there was a major expansion in industry. The availability of jobs attracted African - Americans from the Southern United States. Between 1910 and 1930, the African - American population of Chicago increased dramatically, from 44,103 to 233,903. This Great Migration had an immense cultural impact, called the Chicago Black Renaissance, part of the New Negro Movement, in art, literature, and music. Continuing racial tensions and violence, such as the Chicago Race Riot of 1919, also occurred.
The ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution in 1919 made the production and sale (including exportation) of alcoholic beverages illegal in the United States. This ushered in the beginning of what is known as the Gangster Era, a time that roughly spans from 1919 until 1933 when Prohibition was repealed. The 1920s saw gangsters, including Al Capone, Dion O'Banion, Bugs Moran and Tony Accardo battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the Prohibition era. Chicago was the location of the infamous St. Valentine 's Day Massacre in 1929, when Al Capone sent men to gun down members of a rival gang, North Side, led by Bugs Moran.
Chicago was the first American city to have a homosexual - rights organization. The organization, formed in 1924, was called the Society for Human Rights. It produced the first American publication for homosexuals, Friendship and Freedom. Police and political pressure caused the organization to disband.
The Great Depression brought unprecedented suffering to Chicago, in no small part due to the city 's heavy reliance on heavy industry. Notably, industrial areas on the south side and neighborhoods lining both branches of the Chicago River were devastated; by 1933 over 50 % of industrial jobs in the city had been lost, and unemployment rates amongst blacks and Mexicans in the city were over 40 %. The Republican political machine in Chicago was utterly destroyed by the economic crisis, and every mayor since 1931 has been a Democrat. From 1928 to 1933, the city witnessed a tax revolt, and the city was unable to meet payroll or provide relief efforts. Unemployed workers, relief recipients, and unpaid schoolteachers held huge demonstrations during the early years of the Great Depression. The fiscal crisis was resolved by 1933, and at the same time, federal relief funding began to flow into Chicago and enabled the city to complete construction of Lake Shore Drive, landscape numerous parks, construct 30 new schools, and build a thoroughly modernized State Street Subway. Chicago was also a hotbed of labor activism, with Unemployed Councils contributing heavily in the early depression to create solidarity for the poor and demand relief, these organizations were created by socialist and communist groups. By 1935 the Workers Alliance of America begun organizing the poor, workers, the unemployed. In the spring of 1937 Republic Steel Works witnessed the Memorial Day massacre of 1937 in the neighborhood of East Side.
In 1933, Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak was fatally wounded in Miami, Florida, during a failed assassination attempt on President - elect Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1933 and 1934, the city celebrated its centennial by hosting the Century of Progress International Exposition Worlds Fair. The theme of the fair was technological innovation over the century since Chicago 's founding.
When general prosperity returned in 1940, Chicago had an entrenched Democratic machine, a fully solvent city government, and a population that had enthusiastically shared mass culture and mass movements. Over one - third of the workers in Chicago 's manufacturing sector were unionized. During World War II, the city of Chicago alone produced more steel than the United Kingdom every year from 1939 - 1945, and more than Nazi Germany from 1943 - 1945. The city 's diversified industrial base made it second only to Detroit in the value -- $24 billion -- of war goods produced. Over 1,400 companies produced everything from field rations to parachutes to torpedoes, while new aircraft plants employed 100,000 in the construction of engines, aluminum sheeting, bombsights, and other components. The Great Migration, which had been on pause due to the Depression, resumed at an even faster pace as the 1910 - 1930 period, as hundreds of thousands of black Americans arrived in the city to work in the steel mills, railroads, and shipping yards.
On December 2, 1942, physicist Enrico Fermi conducted the world 's first controlled nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago as part of the top - secret Manhattan Project. This led to the creation of the atomic bomb by the United States, which it used in World War II in 1945.
Mayor Richard J. Daley, a Democrat, was elected in 1955, in the era of machine politics. In 1956, the city conducted its last major expansion when it annexed the land under O'Hare airport, including a small portion of DuPage County.
By the 1960s, white residents in several neighborhoods left the city for the suburban areas -- in many American cities, a process known as white flight -- as Blacks continued to move beyond the Black Belt. While home loan discriminatory redlining against blacks continued, the real estate industry practiced what became known as blockbusting, completely changing the racial composition of whole neighborhoods. Structural changes in industry, such as globalization and job outsourcing, caused heavy job losses for lower - skilled workers. At its peak during the 1960s, some 250,000 workers were employed in the steel industry in Chicago, but the steel crisis of the 1970s and 1980s reduced this number to just 28,000 in 2015. In 1966, Martin Luther King Jr. and Albert Raby led the Chicago Freedom Movement, which culminated in agreements between Mayor Richard J. Daley and the movement leaders.
Two years later, the city hosted the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, which featured physical confrontations both inside and outside the convention hall, with anti-war protesters, journalists and bystanders being beaten by police. Major construction projects, including the Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower, which in 1974 became the world 's tallest building), University of Illinois at Chicago, McCormick Place, and O'Hare International Airport, were undertaken during Richard J. Daley 's tenure. In 1979, Jane Byrne, the city 's first female mayor, was elected. She helped reduce crime in the Cabrini - Green housing project and led Chicago 's school system out of a financial crisis.
In 1983, Harold Washington became the first black mayor of Chicago. Washington 's first term in office directed attention to poor and previously neglected minority neighborhoods. He was re ‐ elected in 1987 but died of a heart attack soon after. Washington was succeeded by 6th ward Alderman Eugene Sawyer, who was elected by the Chicago City Council and served until a special election.
Richard M. Daley, son of Richard J. Daley, was elected in 1989. His accomplishments included improvements to parks and creating incentives for sustainable development, as well as closing Meigs Field in the middle of the night and destroying the runways. After successfully running for re-election five times, and becoming Chicago 's longest - serving mayor, Richard M. Daley declined to run for a seventh term.
In 1992, a construction accident near the Kinzie Street Bridge produced a breach connecting the Chicago River to a tunnel below, which was part of an abandoned freight tunnel system extending throughout the downtown Loop district. The tunnels filled with 250 million US gallons (1,000,000 m) of water, affecting buildings throughout the district and forcing a shutdown of electrical power. The area was shut down for three days and some buildings did not reopen for weeks; losses were estimated at $1.95 billion.
On February 23, 2011, former Illinois Congressman and White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel won the mayoral election, after defeating challenges that he was not a Chicago resident and beating five rivals with 55 percent of the vote alone, and was sworn in as Mayor on May 16, 2011.
Chicago is located in northeastern Illinois on the southwestern shores of Lake Michigan. It is the principal city in the Chicago Metropolitan Area, situated in the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region. Chicago rests on a continental divide at the site of the Chicago Portage, connecting the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes watersheds. The city lies beside huge freshwater Lake Michigan, and two rivers -- the Chicago River in downtown and the Calumet River in the industrial far South Side -- flow entirely or partially through Chicago. Chicago 's history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to Lake Michigan. While the Chicago River historically handled much of the region 's waterborne cargo, today 's huge lake freighters use the city 's Lake Calumet Harbor on the South Side. The lake also provides another positive effect: moderating Chicago 's climate, making waterfront neighborhoods slightly warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
When Chicago was founded in 1837, most of the early building was around the mouth of the Chicago River, as can be seen on a map of the city 's original 58 blocks. The overall grade of the city 's central, built - up areas is relatively consistent with the natural flatness of its overall natural geography, generally exhibiting only slight differentiation otherwise. The average land elevation is 579 ft (176.5 m) above sea level. The lowest points are along the lake shore at 578 ft (176.2 m), while the highest point, at 672 ft (205 m), is the morainal ridge of Blue Island in the city 's far south side.
The Chicago Loop is the central business district, but Chicago is also a city of neighborhoods. Lake Shore Drive runs adjacent to a large portion of Chicago 's waterfront. Some of the parks along the waterfront include Lincoln Park, Grant Park, Burnham Park and Jackson Park. There are twenty - four public beaches across 26 miles (42 km) of the waterfront. Landfill extends into portions of the lake providing space for Navy Pier, Northerly Island, the Museum Campus, and large portions of the McCormick Place Convention Center. Most of the city 's high - rise commercial and residential buildings are close to the waterfront.
An informal name for the entire Chicago metropolitan area is "Chicagoland '', which generally means the city and all its suburbs. The Chicago Tribune, which coined the term, includes the city of Chicago, the rest of Cook County, eight nearby Illinois counties: Lake, McHenry, DuPage, Kane, Kendall, Grundy, Will and Kankakee, and three counties in Indiana: Lake, Porter and LaPorte. The Illinois Department of Tourism defines Chicagoland as Cook County without the city of Chicago, and only Lake, DuPage, Kane and Will counties. The Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce defines it as all of Cook and DuPage, Kane, Lake, McHenry and Will counties.
Major sections of the city include the central business district, called The Loop, and the North, the South, and West Sides. The three sides of the city are represented on the Flag of Chicago by three horizontal white stripes. The North Side is the most densely populated residential section of the city, and many high - rises are located on this side of the city along the lakefront. The South Side is the largest section of the city, encompassing roughly 60 % of the city 's land area. The South Side contains most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago.
In the late 1920s, sociologists at the University of Chicago subdivided the city into 77 distinct community areas, which can further be subdivided into over 200 informally defined neighborhoods.
Chicago 's streets were laid out in a street grid that grew from the city 's original townsite plat, which was bounded by Lake Michigan on the east, North Avenue on the north, Wood Street on the west, and 22nd Street on the south. Streets following the Public Land Survey System section lines later became arterial streets in outlying sections. As new additions to the city were platted, city ordinance required them to be laid out with eight streets to the mile in one direction and sixteen in the other direction (about one street per 200 meters in one direction and one street per 100 meters in the other direction). The grid 's regularity provided an efficient means of developing new real estate property. A scattering of diagonal streets, many of them originally Native American trails, also cross the city (Elston, Milwaukee, Ogden, Lincoln, etc.). Many additional diagonal streets were recommended in the Plan of Chicago, but only the extension of Ogden Avenue was ever constructed.
In 2016, Chicago was ranked the sixth-most walkable large city in the United States. Many of the city 's residential streets have a wide patch of grass and / or trees between the street and the sidewalk itself. This helps to keep pedestrians on the sidewalk further away from the street traffic. Chicago 's Western Avenue is the longest continuous urban street in the world. Other famous streets include Michigan Avenue, State Street, Clark Street, and Belmont Avenue. The City Beautiful movement inspired Chicago 's boulevards and parkways.
The destruction caused by the Great Chicago Fire led to the largest building boom in the history of the nation. In 1885, the first steel - framed high - rise building, the Home Insurance Building, rose in the city as Chicago ushered in the skyscraper era, which would then be followed by many other cities around the world. Today, Chicago 's skyline is among the world 's tallest and most dense.
Some of the United States ' tallest towers are located in Chicago; Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) is the second tallest building in the Western Hemisphere after One World Trade Center, and Trump International Hotel and Tower is the third tallest in the country. The Loop 's historic buildings include the Chicago Board of Trade Building, the Fine Arts Building, 35 East Wacker, and the Chicago Building, 860 - 880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments by Mies van der Rohe. Many other architects have left their impression on the Chicago skyline such as Daniel Burnham, Louis Sullivan, Charles B. Atwood, John Root, and Helmut Jahn.
The Merchandise Mart, once first on the list of largest buildings in the world, currently listed as 44th - largest (as of September 9, 2013), had its own zip code until 2008, and stands near the junction of the North and South branches of the Chicago River. Presently, the four tallest buildings in the city are Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower, also a building with its own zip code), Trump International Hotel and Tower, the Aon Center (previously the Standard Oil Building), and the John Hancock Center. Industrial districts, such as some areas on the South Side, the areas along the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, and the Northwest Indiana area are clustered.
Chicago gave its name to the Chicago School and was home to the Prairie School, two movements in architecture. Multiple kinds and scales of houses, townhouses, condominiums, and apartment buildings can be found throughout Chicago. Large swaths of the city 's residential areas away from the lake are characterized by brick bungalows built from the early 20th century through the end of World War II. Chicago is also a prominent center of the Polish Cathedral style of church architecture. The Chicago suburb of Oak Park was home to famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who had designed The Robie House located near the University of Chicago.
A popular tourist activity is to take an architecture boat tour along the Chicago River.
Chicago is famous for its outdoor public art with donors establishing funding for such art as far back as Benjamin Ferguson 's 1905 trust. A number of Chicago 's public art works are by modern figurative artists. Among these are Chagall 's Four Seasons; the Chicago Picasso; Miro 's Chicago; Calder 's Flamingo; Oldenburg 's Batcolumn; Moore 's Large Interior Form, 1953 - 54, Man Enters the Cosmos and Nuclear Energy; Dubuffet 's Monument with Standing Beast, Abakanowicz 's Agora; and, Anish Kapoor 's Cloud Gate which has become an icon of the city. Some events which shaped the city 's history have also been memorialized by art works, including the Great Northern Migration (Saar) and the centennial of statehood for Illinois. Finally, two fountains near the Loop also function as monumental works of art: Plensa 's Crown Fountain as well as Burnham and Bennett 's Buckingham Fountain.
More representational and portrait statuary includes a number of works by Lorado Taft (Fountain of Time, The Crusader, Eternal Silence, and the Heald Square Monument completed by Crunelle), French 's Statue of the Republic, Edward Kemys 's Lions, Saint - Gaudens 's Abraham Lincoln: The Man (a.k.a. Standing Lincoln) and Abraham Lincoln: The Head of State (a.k.a. Seated Lincoln), Brioschi 's Christopher Columbus, Meštrović 's The Bowman and The Spearman, Dallin 's Signal of Peace, Fairbanks 's The Chicago Lincoln, Boyle 's The Alarm, Polasek 's memorial to Masaryk, memorials along Solidarity Promenade to Kościuszko, Havliček and Copernicus by Chodzinski, Strachovský, and Thorvaldsen, a memorial to General Logan by Saint - Gaudens, and Kearney 's Moose (W - 02 - 03). A number of statues also honor recent local heroes such as Michael Jordan (by Amrany and Rotblatt - Amrany), Stan Mikita, and Bobby Hull outside of the United Center; Harry Caray (by Amrany and Cella) outside Wrigley field, Jack Brickhouse (by McKenna) next to the WGN studios, and Irv Kupcinet at the Wabash Avenue Bridge.
There are preliminary plans to erect a 1: 1 ‐ scale replica of Wacław Szymanowski 's Art Nouveau statue of Frédéric Chopin found in Warsaw 's Royal Baths along Chicago 's lakefront in addition to a different sculpture commemorating the artist in Chopin Park for the 200th anniversary of Frédéric Chopin 's birth.
The city lies within the humid continental climate zone (Köppen: Dfa), and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are warm to hot and often humid, with a July daily average of 75.8 ° F (24.3 ° C). In a normal summer, temperatures can exceed 90 ° F (32 ° C) as many as 21 days. Winters are cold and snowy, although the city typically sees less snow and rain in winter than that experienced on the East Coast. There may be quite a few sunny days through winter. The normal winter high from December through March is about 36 ° F, with January and February being the coldest months and when, on occasion, overnight temperatures can drop. Spring and autumn are mild seasons with low humidity. Dewpoint temperatures in the summer range from 55.7 ° F (13.2 ° C) in June to 61.7 ° F (16.5 ° C) in July. The city is part of the USDA Plant Hardiness zone 6a, transitioning to 5b in the suburbs.
According to the National Weather Service, Chicago 's highest official temperature reading of 105 ° F (41 ° C) was recorded on July 24, 1934, although Midway Airport reached 109 ° F (43 ° C) one day prior and recorded a heat index of 125 ° F (52 ° C) during the 1995 heatwave. The lowest official temperature of − 27 ° F (− 33 ° C) was recorded on January 20, 1985, at O'Hare Airport. Thunderstorms are common during the spring season which may sometimes produce hail. Like other major cities, Chicago also experiences urban heat island, making the city and its suburbs milder than surrounding rural areas, especially at night and in winter. Also, the proximity to Lake Michigan tends to keep lakefront Chicago cooler in summer and milder in winter than areas away from the lake.
During its first hundred years, Chicago was one of the fastest - growing cities in the world. When founded in 1833, fewer than 200 people had settled on what was then the American frontier. By the time of its first census, seven years later, the population had reached over 4,000. In the forty years from 1850 to 1890, the city 's population grew from slightly under 30,000 to over 1 million. At the end of the 19th century, Chicago was the fifth - largest city in the world, and the largest of the cities that did not exist at the dawn of the century. Within sixty years of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the population went from about 300,000 to over 3 million, and reached its highest ever recorded population of 3.6 million for the 1950 census.
From the last two decades of the 19th century, Chicago was the destination of waves of immigrants from Ireland, Southern, Central and Eastern Europe, including Italians, Jews, Poles, Lithuanians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Croatians, Serbs, Bosnians, Montenegrins and Czechs. To these ethnic groups, the basis of the city 's industrial working class, were added an additional influx of African - Americans from the American South -- with Chicago 's black population doubling between 1910 and 1920 and doubling again between 1920 and 1930.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the great majority of blacks moving to Chicago settled in a so ‐ called "Black Belt '' on the city 's South Side. Large number of blacks also settled on the West Side. By 1930, two - thirds of Chicago 's black population lived in sections of the city which were 90 % black in racial composition. Chicago 's South Side emerged as America 's second - largest urban black concentration, following New York 's Harlem. Today, Chicago 's South Side and the adjoining south suburbs constitute the largest black majority region in the entire United States.
Chicago 's population declined in the latter half of the 20th century, from over 3.6 million in 1950 down to under 2.7 million by 2010. By the time of the official census count in 1990, it was overtaken by Los Angeles as America 's second largest city.
The city has seen a rise in population for the 2000 census and is expected to have an increase for the 2020 census.
Per U.S. Census estimates as of July 2016, Chicago 's largest racial or ethnic group is non-Hispanic White at 32.6 % of the population, with the Hispanic population increasing to 29.7 % of the population and Blacks declining to 29.3 % of the population from 32.9 % in 2010.
As of the 2010 census, there were 2,695,598 people with 1,045,560 households living in Chicago. More than half the population of the state of Illinois lives in the Chicago metropolitan area. Chicago is one of the United States ' most densely populated major cities, and the largest city in the Great Lakes Megalopolis. The racial composition of the city was:
Chicago has a Hispanic or Latino population of 28.9 %. (Its members may belong to any race; 21.4 % Mexican, 3.8 % Puerto Rican, 0.7 % Guatemalan, 0.6 % Ecuadorian, 0.3 % Cuban, 0.3 % Colombian, 0.2 % Honduran, 0.2 % Salvadoran, 0.2 % Peruvian)
Chicago has the third - largest LGBT population in the United States. In 2015, roughly 4 % of the population identified as LGBT. Since the 2013 legalization of same - sex marriage in Illinois, over 10,000 same - sex couples have wed in Cook County, a majority in Chicago.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau 's American Community Survey data estimates for 2008 -- 2012, the median income for a household in the city was $47,408, and the median income for a family was $54,188. Male full - time workers had a median income of $47,074 versus $42,063 for females. About 18.3 % of families and 22.1 % of the population lived below the poverty line.
According to the 2008 -- 2012 American Community Survey, the ancestral groups having 10,000 or more persons in Chicago were:
Persons identifying themselves as "Other groups '' were classified at 1.72 million, and unclassified or not reported were approximately 153,000.
71 % of Chicagoans identify as Christians, 7 % identity with other faiths, and 22 % have no religious affiliation. Chicago also has many Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and others. Chicago is the headquarters of several religious denominations, including the Evangelical Covenant Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. It is the seat of several dioceses. The Fourth Presbyterian Church is one of the largest Presbyterian congregations in the United States based on memberships.
The first two Parliament of the World 's Religions in 1893 and 1993 were held in Chicago. Many international religious leaders have visited Chicago, including Mother Teresa, the Dalai Lama, and Pope John Paul II in 1979.
Chicago has the third - largest gross metropolitan product in the United States -- about $670.5 billion according to September 2017 estimates. The city has also been rated as having the most balanced economy in the United States, due to its high level of diversification. In 2007, Chicago was named the fourth-most important business center in the world in the MasterCard Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index. Additionally, the Chicago metropolitan area recorded the greatest number of new or expanded corporate facilities in the United States for calendar year 2014. The Chicago metropolitan area has the third - largest science and engineering work force of any metropolitan area in the nation. In 2009 Chicago placed ninth on the UBS list of the world 's richest cities. Chicago was the base of commercial operations for industrialists John Crerar, John Whitfield Bunn, Richard Teller Crane, Marshall Field, John Farwell, Julius Rosenwald and many other commercial visionaries who laid the foundation for Midwestern and global industry.
Chicago is a major world financial center, with the second - largest central business district in the United States. The city is the seat of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, the Bank 's Seventh District. The city has major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the "Merc ''), which is owned, along with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) by Chicago 's CME Group. In 2017, Chicago exchanges traded 4.7 billion derivatives with a face value of over one quadrillion dollars. Chase Bank has its commercial and retail banking headquarters in Chicago 's Chase Tower. Academically, Chicago has been influential through the Chicago school of economics, which fielded some 12 Nobel Prize winners.
The city and its surrounding metropolitan area contain the third - largest labor pool in the United States with about 4.63 million workers. Illinois is home to 66 Fortune 1000 companies, including those in Chicago. The city of Chicago also hosts 12 Fortune Global 500 companies and 17 Financial Times 500 companies. The city claims two Dow 30 companies: aerospace giant Boeing, which moved its headquarters from Seattle to the Chicago Loop in 2001, and Kraft Heinz. According to Site Selection magazine, the Chicago area has seen the most corporate headquarters relocation or expansion projects in the US for each of four consecutive years form 2013 to 2016. Caterpillar Inc. will be moving its global headquarters, with about 300 executives and staff and support personnel, to the Chicago suburb of Deerfield, Illinois, while its high - technology center is in Chicago, by the end of 2018. The headquarters of United Continental Holdings, its subsidiary United Airlines, and its operations center are in the Willis Tower in Chicago. In June 2016, McDonald 's confirmed plans to move its global headquarters to Chicago 's West Loop neighborhood by mid 2018; Chicago was the company 's headquarters between 1955 and 1971.
Manufacturing, printing, publishing and food processing also play major roles in the city 's economy. Several medical products and services companies are headquartered in the Chicago area, including Baxter International, Boeing, Abbott Laboratories, and the Healthcare division of General Electric. In addition to Boeing, which located its headquarters in Chicago in 2001, and United Airlines in 2011, GE Transportation moved its offices to the city in 2013 and GE Healthcare moved its HQ to the city in 2016, as did ThyssenKrupp North America, and agriculture giant Archer Daniels Midland. Moreover, the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, which helped move goods from the Great Lakes south on the Mississippi River, and of the railroads in the 19th century made the city a major transportation center in the United States. In the 1840s, Chicago became a major grain port, and in the 1850s and 1860s Chicago 's pork and beef industry expanded. As the major meat companies grew in Chicago many, such as Armour and Company, created global enterprises. Though the meatpacking industry currently plays a lesser role in the city 's economy, Chicago continues to be a major transportation and distribution center. Lured by a combination of large business customers, federal research dollars, and a large hiring pool fed by the area 's universities, Chicago is also the site of a growing number of web startup companies like CareerBuilder, Orbitz, Basecamp, Groupon, Feedburner, and NowSecure.
Chicago has been a hub of the Retail sector since its early development, with Montgomery Ward, Sears, and Marshall Field 's. Today the Chicago metropolitan area is the headquarters of several retailers, including Walgreens, Sears, Ace Hardware, Claire 's, ULTA Beauty and Crate & Barrel.
Late in the 19th century, Chicago was part of the bicycle craze, with the Western Wheel Company, which introduced stamping to the production process and significantly reduced costs, while early in the 20th century, the city was part of the automobile revolution, hosting the Brass Era car builder Bugmobile, which was founded there in 1907. Chicago was also the site of the Schwinn Bicycle Company.
Chicago is a major world convention destination. The city 's main convention center is McCormick Place. With its four interconnected buildings, it is the largest convention center in the nation and third - largest in the world. Chicago also ranks third in the U.S. (behind Las Vegas and Orlando) in number of conventions hosted annually.
Chicago 's minimum wage for non-tipped employees is one of the highest in the nation and will incrementally reach $13 per hour by 2019.
The city 's waterfront location and nightlife has attracted residents and tourists alike. Over a third of the city population is concentrated in the lakefront neighborhoods from Rogers Park in the north to South Shore in the south. The city has many upscale dining establishments as well as many ethnic restaurant districts. These districts include the Mexican American neighborhoods, such as Pilsen along 18th street, and La Villita along 26th Street; the Puerto Rican enclave of Paseo Boricua in the Humboldt Park neighborhood; Greektown, along South Halsted Street, immediately west of downtown; Little Italy, along Taylor Street; Chinatown in Armour Square; Polish Patches in West Town; Little Seoul in Albany Park around Lawrence Avenue; Little Vietnam near Broadway in Uptown; and the Desi area, along Devon Avenue in West Ridge.
Downtown is the center of Chicago 's financial, cultural, governmental and commercial institutions and the site of Grant Park and many of the city 's skyscrapers. Many of the city 's financial institutions, such as the CBOT and the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, are located within a section of downtown called "The Loop '', which is an eight - block by five - block area of city streets that is encircled by elevated rail tracks. The term "The Loop '' is largely used by locals to refer to the entire downtown area as well. The central area includes the Near North Side, the Near South Side, and the Near West Side, as well as the Loop. These areas contribute famous skyscrapers, abundant restaurants, shopping, museums, a stadium for the Chicago Bears, convention facilities, parkland, and beaches.
Lincoln Park contains the Lincoln Park Zoo and the Lincoln Park Conservatory. The River North Gallery District features the nation 's largest concentration of contemporary art galleries outside of New York City.
Lakeview is home to Boystown, the city 's large LGBT nightlife center. The Chicago Pride Parade, held the last Sunday in June, is one of the world 's largest with over a million people in attendance.
The South Side neighborhood of Hyde Park is the home of former US President Barack Obama. It also contains the University of Chicago, ranked one of the world 's top ten universities, and the Museum of Science and Industry. The 6 - mile (9.7 km) long Burnham Park stretches along the waterfront of the South Side. Two of the city 's largest parks are also located on this side of the city: Jackson Park, bordering the waterfront, hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1893, and is the site of the aforementioned museum; and slightly west sits Washington Park. The two parks themselves are connected by a wide strip of parkland called the Midway Plaisance, running adjacent to the University of Chicago. The South Side hosts one of the city 's largest parades, the annual African American Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic, which travels through Bronzeville to Washington Park. Ford Motor Company has an automobile assembly plant on the South Side in Hegewisch, and most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago are also on the South Side.
The West Side holds the Garfield Park Conservatory, one of the largest collections of tropical plants in any U.S. city. Prominent Latino cultural attractions found here include Humboldt Park 's Institute of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture and the annual Puerto Rican People 's Parade, as well as the National Museum of Mexican Art and St. Adalbert 's Church in Pilsen. The Near West Side holds the University of Illinois at Chicago and was once home to Oprah Winfrey 's Harpo Studios.
The city 's distinctive accent, made famous by its use in classic films like The Blues Brothers and television programs like the Saturday Night Live skit "Bill Swerski 's Superfans '', is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English. This dialect can also be found in other cities bordering the Great Lakes such as Cleveland, Milwaukee, Detroit, and Rochester, New York, and most prominently features a rearrangement of certain vowel sounds, such as the short ' a ' sound as in "cat '', which can sound more like "kyet '' to outsiders. The accent remains well associated with the city.
Renowned Chicago theater companies include the Goodman Theatre in the Loop; the Steppenwolf Theatre Company and Victory Gardens Theater in Lincoln Park; and the Chicago Shakespeare Theater at Navy Pier. Broadway In Chicago offers Broadway - style entertainment at five theaters: the Ford Center for the Performing Arts Oriental Theatre, Bank of America Theatre, Cadillac Palace Theatre, Auditorium Building of Roosevelt University, and Broadway Playhouse at Water Tower Place. Polish language productions for Chicago 's large Polish speaking population can be seen at the historic Gateway Theatre in Jefferson Park. Since 1968, the Joseph Jefferson Awards are given annually to acknowledge excellence in theater in the Chicago area. Chicago 's theater community spawned modern improvisational theater, and includes the prominent groups The Second City and I.O. (formerly ImprovOlympic).
The Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) performs at Symphony Center, and is recognized as one of the best orchestras in the world. Also performing regularly at Symphony Center is the Chicago Sinfonietta, a more diverse and multicultural counterpart to the CSO. In the summer, many outdoor concerts are given in Grant Park and Millennium Park. Ravinia Festival, located 25 miles (40 km) north of Chicago, is the summer home of the CSO, and is a favorite destination for many Chicagoans. The Civic Opera House is home to the Lyric Opera of Chicago. The Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago was founded by Lithuanian Chicagoans in 1956, and presents operas in Lithuanian.
The Joffrey Ballet and Chicago Festival Ballet perform in various venues, including the Harris Theater in Millennium Park. Chicago has several other contemporary and jazz dance troupes, such as the Hubbard Street Dance Chicago and Chicago Dance Crash.
Other live - music genre which are part of the city 's cultural heritage include Chicago blues, Chicago soul, jazz, and gospel. The city is the birthplace of house music, a very popular form of Electronic Dance Music, industrial music, and is the site of an influential hip - hop scene. In the 1980s and 90s, the city was the global center for house and industrial music, two forms of music created in Chicago, as well as being popular for alternative rock, punk, and new wave. The city has been an epicenter for rave culture, since the 1980s. A flourishing independent rock music culture brought forth Chicago indie. Annual festivals feature various acts, such as Lollapalooza and the Pitchfork Music Festival. A 2007 report on the Chicago music industry by the University of Chicago Cultural Policy Center ranked Chicago third among metropolitan U.S. areas in "size of music industry '' and fourth among all U.S. cities in "number of concerts and performances ''.
Chicago has a distinctive fine art tradition. For much of the twentieth century, it nurtured a strong style of figurative surrealism, as in the works of Ivan Albright and Ed Paschke. In 1968 and 1969, members of the Chicago Imagists, such as Roger Brown, Leon Golub, Robert Lostutter, Jim Nutt, and Barbara Rossi produced bizarre representational paintings. Henry Darger is one of the most celebrated figures of outsider art.
Chicago contains a number of large, outdoor works by well - known artists. These include the Chicago Picasso, Miró 's Chicago, Flamingo and Flying Dragon by Alexander Calder, Agora by Magdalena Abakanowicz, Monument with Standing Beast by Jean Dubuffet, Batcolumn by Claes Oldenburg, Cloud Gate by Anish Kapoor, Crown Fountain by Jaume Plensa, and the Four Seasons mosaic by Marc Chagall.
Chicago also has a nationally televised Thanksgiving parade that occurs annually. The McDonald 's Thanksgiving Parade is seen across the nation on WGN - TV and WGN America, featuring a variety of diverse acts from the community, marching bands from across the country, and is the only parade in the city to feature inflatable balloons every year.
More than 400 neighborhood festivals are celebrated annually in Chicago, most during the warm summer months. As many as 300,000 people enjoy the traditions, entertainment, and cuisines of the respected neighborhoods. Larger, city - sponsored festivals celebrating music or food are held in Grant or Millennium Parks and feature world - class artists. Some of the more famous festivals include:
All City - funded festivals are free to attend.
In 2014, Chicago attracted 50.17 million domestic leisure travelers, 11.09 million domestic business travelers and 1.308 million overseas visitors. These visitors contributed more than US $13.7 billion to Chicago 's economy. Upscale shopping along the Magnificent Mile and State Street, thousands of restaurants, as well as Chicago 's eminent architecture, continue to draw tourists. The city is the United States ' third - largest convention destination. A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Chicago the fourth-most walkable of fifty largest cities in the United States. Most conventions are held at McCormick Place, just south of Soldier Field. The historic Chicago Cultural Center (1897), originally serving as the Chicago Public Library, now houses the city 's Visitor Information Center, galleries and exhibit halls. The ceiling of its Preston Bradley Hall includes a 38 - foot (12 m) Tiffany glass dome. Grant Park holds Millennium Park, Buckingham Fountain (1927), and the Art Institute of Chicago. The park also hosts the annual Taste of Chicago festival. In Millennium Park, there is the reflective Cloud Gate sculpture. Cloud Gate, a public sculpture by Indian - born British artist Anish Kapoor, is the centerpiece of the AT&T Plaza in Millennium Park. Also, an outdoor restaurant transforms into an ice rink in the winter season. Two tall glass sculptures make up the Crown Fountain. The fountain 's two towers display visual effects from LED images of Chicagoans ' faces, along with water spouting from their lips. Frank Gehry 's detailed, stainless steel band shell, the Jay Pritzker Pavilion, hosts the classical Grant Park Music Festival concert series. Behind the pavilion 's stage is the Harris Theater for Music and Dance, an indoor venue for mid-sized performing arts companies, including the Chicago Opera Theater and Music of the Baroque.
Navy Pier, located just east of Streeterville, is 3,000 ft (910 m) long and houses retail stores, restaurants, museums, exhibition halls and auditoriums. In the summer of 2016, Navy Pier constructed their DW60 Ferris wheel. Dutch Wheels, a world renowned company that manufactures ferris wheels, was selected to design the new wheel. It features 42 navy blue gondolas that can hold up to eight adults and two kids. It also has entertainment systems inside the gondolas as well as a climate controlled environment. The DW60 stands at approximately 196 ft (60 m), which is 46 ft taller than the previous wheel. The new DW60 is the first in the United States and will be the sixth tallest in the U.S. Chicago was the first city in the world to ever erect a ferris wheel.
On June 4, 1998, the city officially opened the Museum Campus, a 10 - acre (4.0 ha) lakefront park, surrounding three of the city 's main museums, each of which is of national importance: the Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Shedd Aquarium. The Museum Campus joins the southern section of Grant Park, which includes the renowned Art Institute of Chicago. Buckingham Fountain anchors the downtown park along the lakefront. The University of Chicago Oriental Institute has an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern archaeological artifacts. Other museums and galleries in Chicago include the Chicago History Museum, the Driehaus Museum, the DuSable Museum of African American History, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, the Polish Museum of America, the Museum of Broadcast Communications, the Pritzker Military Library, the Chicago Architecture Foundation, and the Museum of Science and Industry.
With an estimated completion date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the University of Chicago in Hyde Park and include both the Obama presidential library and offices of the Obama Foundation.
The Willis Tower (formerly named Sears Tower) is a popular destination for tourists. The Willis Tower has an observation deck open to tourists year round with high up views overlooking Chicago and Lake Michigan. The observation deck includes an enclosed glass balcony that extends 10 feet out on the side of the building. Tourists are able to look straight down.
In 2013, Chicago was chosen as one of the "Top Ten Cities in the United States '' to visit for its restaurants, skyscrapers, museums, and waterfront, by the readers of Condé Nast Traveler.
Chicago lays claim to a large number of regional specialties that reflect the city 's ethnic and working - class roots. Included among these are its nationally renowned deep - dish pizza; this style is said to have originated at Pizzeria Uno. The Chicago - style thin crust is also popular in the city. Most famous for its pizza in Chicago include favorites, such as, Lou Malnati 's and Giordano 's.
The Chicago - style hot dog, typically an all - beef hot dog, is loaded with an array of toppings that often includes pickle relish, yellow mustard, pickled sport peppers, tomato wedges, dill pickle spear and topped off with celery salt on a poppy seed bun. Enthusiasts of the Chicago - style dog frown upon the use of ketchup as a garnish, but may prefer to add giardiniera.
There are several distinctly Chicago sandwiches, among them the Italian beef sandwich, which is thinly sliced beef simmered in au jus and served on an Italian roll with sweet peppers or spicy giardiniera. A popular modification is the Combo -- an Italian beef sandwich with the addition of an Italian sausage. Another is the Maxwell Street Polish, a grilled or deep - fried kielbasa -- on a hot dog roll, topped with grilled onions, yellow mustard, and hot sport peppers.
Ethnically originated creations also include chicken Vesuvio, with roasted bone - in chicken cooked in oil and garlic next to garlicky oven - roasted potato wedges and a sprinkling of green peas. Another is the Puerto Rican - influenced jibarito, a sandwich made with flattened, fried green plantains instead of bread. There is also the mother - in - law, a tamale topped with chili and served on a hot dog bun. The tradition of serving the Greek dish, saganaki while aflame, has its origins in Chicago 's Greek community. The appetizer, which consists of a square of fried cheese, is doused with Metaxa and flambéed table - side.
One the world 's most decorated restaurants and recipient of the Michelin Guide 3 Star Award, Alinea is located in Chicago. In addition, a number of well - known chefs have had restaurants in Chicago, including Charlie Trotter, Rick Tramonto, Grant Achatz, and Rick Bayless. In 2003, Robb Report named Chicago the country 's "most exceptional dining destination ''.
Chicago literature finds its roots in the city 's tradition of lucid, direct journalism, lending to a strong tradition of social realism. In the Encyclopedia of Chicago, Northwestern University Professor Bill Savage describes Chicago fiction as prose which tries to "capture the essence of the city, its spaces and its people ''. The challenge for early writers was that Chicago was a frontier outpost that transformed into a global metropolis in the span of two generations. Narrative fiction of that time, much of it in the style of "high - flown romance '' and "genteel realism '', needed a new approach to describe the urban social, political, and economic conditions of Chicago. Nonetheless, Chicagoans worked hard to create a literary tradition that would stand the test of time, and create a "city of feeling '' out of concrete, steel, vast lake, and open prairie. Much notable Chicago fiction focuses on the city itself, with social criticism keeping exultation in check.
At least, three short periods in the history of Chicago have had a lasting influence on American Literature. These include from the time of the Great Chicago Fire to about 1900, what became known as the Chicago Literary Renaissance in the 1910s and early 1920s, and the period of the Great Depression through the 1940s.
What would become the influential Poetry magazine was founded in 1912 by Harriet Monroe, who was working as an art critic for the Chicago Tribune. The magazine discovered such poets as Gwendolyn Brooks, James Merrill, and John Ashbery. T. S. Eliot 's first professionally published poem, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '', was first published by Poetry. Contributors have included Ezra Pound, William Butler Yeats, William Carlos Williams, Langston Hughes, and Carl Sandburg, among others. The magazine was instrumental in launching the Imagist and Objectivist poetic movements. From the 1950s through 1970s, American poetry continued to evolve in Chicago. In the 1980s, a modern form of poetry performance began in Chicago, the Poetry Slam.
Sporting News named Chicago the "Best Sports City '' in the United States in 1993, 2006, and 2010. Along with Boston, Chicago is the only city to continuously host major professional sports since 1871, having only taken 1872 and 1873 off due to the Great Chicago Fire. Additionally, Chicago is one of the six cities in the United States to have won championships in the four major professional leagues and, along with New York and Los Angeles, is one of three cities to have won soccer championships as well. Several major franchises have won championships within recent years -- the Bears (1985), the Bulls (91, ' 92, ' 93, ' 96, ' 97, and ' 98), the White Sox (2005), the Cubs (2016), the Blackhawks (2010, 2013, 2015), and the Fire (1998).
The city has two Major League Baseball (MLB) teams: the Chicago Cubs of the National League play in Wrigley Field on the North Side; and the Chicago White Sox of the American League play in Guaranteed Rate Field on the South Side. Chicago is the only city that has had more than one MLB franchise every year since the AL began in 1901 (New York hosted only one between 1958 and early 1962). The two teams have faced each other in a World Series only once: in 1906, when the White Sox, known as the "Hitless Wonders, '' defeated the Cubs, 4 - 2.
The Cubs are the oldest Major League Baseball team to have never changed their city; they have played in Chicago since 1871, and continuously so since 1874 due to the Great Chicago Fire. They have played more games and have more wins than any other team in Major League baseball since 1876. They have won three World Series titles, including the 2016 World Series, but had the dubious honor of having the two longest droughts in American professional sports: They had not won their sport 's title since 1908, and had not participated in a World Series since 1945, both records, until they beat the Cleveland Indians in the 2016 World Series.
The White Sox have played on the South Side continuously since 1901, with all three of their home fields throughout the years being within blocks of one another. They have won three World Series titles (1906, 1917, 2005) and six American League pennants, including the first in 1901. The Sox are fifth in the American League in all - time wins, and sixth in pennants.
The Chicago Bears, one of the last two remaining charter members of the National Football League (NFL), have won nine NFL Championships, including the 1985 Super Bowl XX. The other remaining charter franchise, the Chicago Cardinals, also started out in the city, but is now known as the Arizona Cardinals. The Bears have won more games in the history of the NFL than any other team, and only the Green Bay Packers, their longtime rivals, have won more championships. The Bears play their home games at Soldier Field. Soldier Field re-opened in 2003 after an extensive renovation.
The Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA) is one of the most recognized basketball teams in the world. During the 1990s, with Michael Jordan leading them, the Bulls won six NBA championships in eight seasons. They also boast the youngest player to win the NBA Most Valuable Player Award, Derrick Rose, who won it for the 2010 -- 11 season.
The Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL) began play in 1926, and are one of the "Original Six '' teams of the NHL. The Blackhawks have won six Stanley Cups, including in 2010, 2013, and 2015. Both the Bulls and the Blackhawks play at the United Center.
The Chicago Fire Soccer Club is a member of Major League Soccer (MLS) and plays at Toyota Park in suburban Bridgeview, after playing its first eight seasons at Soldier Field. The Fire have won one league title and four U.S. Open Cups, since their founding in 1997. In 1994, the United States hosted a successful FIFA World Cup with games played at Soldier Field. Chicago will be home to a new USL team starting in 2020. They plan to play in a 20,000 seat stadium located in Lincoln Park. The Chicago Sky is a professional basketball team based in Rosemont, Illinois, playing in the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA). They play home games at the Allstate Arena. The team was founded before the 2006 WNBA season began.
The Chicago Marathon has been held each year since 1977 except for 1987, when a half marathon was run in its place. The Chicago Marathon is one of six World Marathon Majors.
Five area colleges play in Division I conferences: two from major conferences -- the DePaul Blue Demons (Big East Conference) and the Northwestern Wildcats (Big Ten Conference) -- and three from other D1 conferences -- the Chicago State Cougars (Western Athletic Conference); the Loyola Ramblers (Missouri Valley Conference); and the UIC Flames (Horizon League).
When Chicago was incorporated in 1837, it chose the motto Urbs in Horto, a Latin phrase which means "City in a Garden ''. Today, the Chicago Park District consists of more than 570 parks with over 8,000 acres (3,200 ha) of municipal parkland. There are 31 sand beaches, a plethora of museums, two world - class conservatories, and 50 nature areas. Lincoln Park, the largest of the city 's parks, covers 1,200 acres (490 ha) and has over 20 million visitors each year, making it third in the number of visitors after Central Park in New York City, and the National Mall and Memorial Parks in Washington, D.C.
There is a historic boulevard system, a network of wide, tree - lined boulevards which connect a number of Chicago parks. The boulevards and the parks were authorized by the Illinois legislature in 1869. A number of Chicago neighborhoods emerged along these roadways in the 19th century. The building of the boulevard system continued intermittently until 1942. It includes nineteen boulevards, eight parks, and six squares, along twenty - six miles of interconnected streets. Part of the system in the Logan Square Boulevards Historic District was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.
With berths for more than 6,000 boats, the Chicago Park District operates the nation 's largest municipal harbor system. In addition to ongoing beautification and renewal projects for the existing parks, a number of new parks have been added in recent years, such as the Ping Tom Memorial Park in Chinatown, DuSable Park on the Near North Side, and most notably, Millennium Park, which is in the northwestern corner of one of Chicago 's oldest parks, Grant Park in the Chicago Loop.
The wealth of greenspace afforded by Chicago 's parks is further augmented by the Cook County Forest Preserves, a network of open spaces containing forest, prairie, wetland, streams, and lakes that are set aside as natural areas which lie along the city 's outskirts, including both the Chicago Botanic Garden in Glencoe and the Brookfield Zoo in Brookfield. Washington Park is also one of the city 's biggest parks; covering nearly 400 acres (160 ha). The park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in South Side Chicago.
The government of the City of Chicago is divided into executive and legislative branches. The Mayor of Chicago is the chief executive, elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits. The current mayor is Rahm Emanuel. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. As well as the mayor, Chicago 's clerk and treasurer are also elected citywide. The City Council is the legislative branch and is made up of 50 aldermen, one elected from each ward in the city. The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions and approves the city budget.
The Chicago Police Department provides law enforcement and the Chicago Fire Department provides fire suppression and emergency medical services for the city and its residents. Civil and criminal law cases are heard in the Cook County Circuit Court of the State of Illinois court system, or in the Northern District of Illinois, in the federal system. In the state court, the public prosecutor is the Illinois State 's Attorney; in the Federal court it is the United States Attorney.
During much of the last half of the 19th century, Chicago 's politics were dominated by a growing Democratic Party organization. During the 1880s and 1890s, Chicago had a powerful radical tradition with large and highly organized socialist, anarchist and labor organizations. For much of the 20th century, Chicago has been among the largest and most reliable Democratic strongholds in the United States; with Chicago 's Democratic vote the state of Illinois has been "solid blue '' in presidential elections since 1992. Even before then, it was not unheard of for Republican presidential candidates to win handily in downstate Illinois, only to lose statewide due to large Democratic margins in Chicago. The citizens of Chicago have not elected a Republican mayor since 1927, when William Thompson was voted into office. The strength of the party in the city is partly a consequence of Illinois state politics, where the Republicans have come to represent rural and farm concerns while the Democrats support urban issues such as Chicago 's public school funding.
Chicago contains less than 25 % of the state 's population, but it is split between eight of Illinois ' 19 districts in the United States House of Representatives. All eight of the city 's representatives are Democrats; a Republican has only represented a significant portion of the city twice since 1973, for one term each -- Robert P. Hanrahan from 1973 to 1975, and Michael Patrick Flanagan from 1995 to 1997.
Machine politics persisted in Chicago after the decline of similar machines in other large U.S. cities. During much of that time, the city administration found opposition mainly from a liberal "independent '' faction of the Democratic Party. The independents finally gained control of city government in 1983 with the election of Harold Washington (in office 1983 -- 1987). From 1989 until May 16, 2011, Chicago was under the leadership of its longest serving mayor, Richard M. Daley, the son of Richard J. Daley. On May 16, 2011, Rahm Emanuel was sworn in as the 55th mayor of Chicago. Because of the dominance of the Democratic Party in Chicago, the Democratic primary vote held in the spring is generally more significant than the general elections in November for U.S. House and Illinois State seats. The aldermanic, mayoral, and other city offices are filled through nonpartisan elections with runoffs as needed.
Formerly a state legislator representing Chicago and later a US Senator, the city is home of former United States President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama. The Obamas ' residence is located near the University of Chicago in Kenwood on the city 's south side.
Chicago had a murder rate of 18.5 per 100,000 residents in 2012, ranking 16th among US cities with 100,000 people or more. This was higher than in New York City and Los Angeles, the two largest cities in the United States, which have lower murder rates and lower total homicides. However, it was less than in many smaller American cities, including New Orleans, Newark, and Detroit, which had 53 murders per 100,000 residents in 2012. The 2015 year - end crime statistics showed there were 468 murders in Chicago in 2015 compared with 416 the year before, a 12.5 % increase, as well as 2,900 shootings -- 13 % more than the year prior, and up 29 % since 2013. Chicago had more homicides than any other city in 2015 in total but not on per capita basis, according to the Chicago Tribune. In its annual crime statistics for 2016, the Chicago Police Department reported that the city experienced a dramatic rise in gun violence, with 4,331 shooting victims. The department also reported 762 murders in Chicago for the year 2016, a total that marked a 62.79 % increase in homicides from 2015. In June 2017, the Chicago Police Department and the Federal ATF announced a new task force, similar to past task forces, to address the flow of illegal guns and repeat offenses with guns.
According to reports in 2013, "most of Chicago 's violent crime comes from gangs trying to maintain control of drug - selling territories '', and is specifically related to the activities of the Sinaloa Cartel, which by 2006 had decided to seek to control illicit drug distribution, against local street gangs. Violent crime rates vary significantly by area of the city, with more economically developed areas having low rates, but other sections have much higher rates of crime. In 2013, the violent crime rate was 910 per 100,000 people; the murder rate was 10.4 -- while high crime districts saw 38.9, low crime districts saw 2.5 murders per 100,000.
The number of murders in Chicago peaked at 970 in 1974, when the city 's population was over 3 million people (a murder rate of about 29 per 100,000), and it reached 943 murders in 1992, (a murder rate of 34 per 100,000). However, Chicago, like other major U.S. cities, experienced a significant reduction in violent crime rates through the 1990s, falling to 448 homicides in 2004, its lowest total since 1965 and only 15.65 murders per 100,000. Chicago 's homicide tally remained low during 2005 (449), 2006 (452), and 2007 (435) but rose to 510 in 2008, breaking 500 for the first time since 2003. In 2009, the murder count fell to 458 (10 % down). and in 2010 Chicago 's murder rate fell to 435 (16.14 per 100,000), a 5 % decrease from 2009 and lowest levels since 1965. In 2011, Chicago 's murders fell another 1.2 % to 431 (a rate of 15.94 per 100,000). but shot up to 506 in 2012.
In 2012, Chicago ranked 21st in the United States in numbers of homicides per person, but in the first half of 2013 there was a significant drop per - person, in all categories of violent crime, including homicide (down 26 %). Chicago ended 2013 with 415 murders, the lowest number of murders since 1965, and overall crime rates dropped by 16 percent. (In 1965, there were 397 murders.) In 2013 Chicago was falsely named the "Murder Capitol '' even through the murder rate was only slightly higher than the national average. It was also nicknamed Chiraq by Chicago drill rappers. According to police, the nickname was first heard in 2010. At that time, the murder rate was historically low for Chicago. According to FBI St. Louis, New Orleans, Detroit and Baltimore had the highest murder rate. Jens Ludwig, director of the University of Chicago Crime Lab, estimated that shootings cost the city of Chicago $2.5 billion in 2012.
In 2016, it was reported by The Better Government Association, a local watchdog group, that since 2004 Chicago has paid more than $500 million to settle police misconduct cases. The 2014 shooting of Laquan McDonald resulted in a swift $5 Million settlement from the city and a sparked a federal Department of Justice investigation into widespread police misconduct.
In September 2016, an Illinois state appellate court found that cities do not have an obligation under the Illinois Constitution to pay certain benefits if those benefits had included an expiration date under whichever negotiated agreement they were covered. The Illinois Constitution prohibits governments from doing anything that could cause retirement benefits for government workers to be "diminished or impaired. '' In this particular case, the fact that the workers ' agreements had expiration dates let the city of Chicago set an expiration date of 2013 for contribution to health benefits for workers who retired after 1989.
Chicago Public Schools (CPS) is the governing body of the school district that contains over 600 public elementary and high schools citywide, including several selective - admission magnet schools. There are eleven selective enrollment high schools in the Chicago Public Schools, designed to meet the needs of Chicago 's most academically advanced students. These schools offer a rigorous curriculum with mainly honors and Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Northside College Preparatory High School is ranked number one in the city of Chicago and the state of Illinois. Walter Payton College Prep High School is ranked second, Jones College Prep is third, and the oldest magnet school in the city, Whitney M. Young Magnet High School, which was opened in 1975, is ranked fourth. The magnet school with the largest enrollment is Lane Technical College Prep High School. Lane is one of the oldest schools in Chicago and in 2012 was designated a National Blue Ribbon School by the U.S. Department of Education.
Chicago high school rankings are determined by the average test scores on state achievement tests. The district, with an enrollment exceeding 400,545 students (2013 -- 2014 20th Day Enrollment), is the third - largest in the U.S. On September 10, 2012, teachers for the Chicago Teachers Union went on strike for the first time since 1987 over pay, resources and other issues. According to data compiled in 2014, Chicago 's "choice system '', where students who test or apply and may attend one of a number of public high schools (there are about 130), sorts students of different achievement levels into different schools (high performing, middle performing, and low performing schools).
Chicago has a network of Lutheran schools, and several private schools are run by other denominations and faiths, such as the Ida Crown Jewish Academy in West Ridge. Several private schools are completely secular, such as the Latin School of Chicago in the Near North Side neighborhood, the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools in Hyde Park, the British School of Chicago and the Francis W. Parker School in Lincoln Park, the Lycée Français de Chicago in Uptown, the Feltre School in River North and the Morgan Park Academy. There are also the private Chicago Academy for the Arts, a high school focused on six different categories of the arts and the public Chicago High School for the Arts, a high school focused on five categories (visual arts, theatre, musical theatre, dance, and music) of the arts.
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates Catholic schools, that include Jesuit preparatory schools and others including St. Rita of Cascia High School, De La Salle Institute, Josephinum Academy, DePaul College Prep, Cristo Rey Jesuit High School, Brother Rice High School, St. Ignatius College Preparatory School, Mount Carmel High School, Queen of Peace High School, Mother McAuley Liberal Arts High School, Marist High School, St. Patrick High School and Resurrection High School.
The Chicago Public Library system operates 79 public libraries, including the central library, two regional libraries, and numerous branches distributed throughout the city.
Since the 1850s, Chicago has been a world center of higher education and research with several universities that are in the city proper or in the immediate environs. These institutions consistently rank among the top "National Universities '' in the United States, as determined by U.S. News & World Report. Top universities in Chicago are: the University of Chicago; Illinois Institute of Technology; Northwestern University; Loyola University Chicago; DePaul University; Columbia College Chicago and University of Illinois at Chicago. Other notable schools include: Chicago State University; the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, the Illinois Institute of Art -- Chicago; East -- West University; National Louis University; North Park University; Northeastern Illinois University; Robert Morris University Illinois; Roosevelt University; Saint Xavier University; Rush University; and Shimer College.
William Rainey Harper, the first president of the University of Chicago, was instrumental in the creation of the junior college concept, establishing nearby Joliet Junior College as the first in the nation in 1901. His legacy continues with the multiple community colleges in the Chicago proper, including the seven City Colleges of Chicago: Richard J. Daley College, Kennedy -- King College, Malcolm X College, Olive -- Harvey College, Truman College, Harold Washington College and Wilbur Wright College, in addition to the privately held MacCormac College.
Chicago also has a high concentration of post-baccalaureate institutions, graduate schools, seminaries, and theological schools, such as the Adler School of Professional Psychology, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, the Erikson Institute, The Institute for Clinical Social Work, the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, the Catholic Theological Union, the Moody Bible Institute, the John Marshall Law School and the University of Chicago Divinity School.
The Chicago metropolitan area is the third - largest media market in North America, after New York City and Los Angeles. Each of the big four U.S. television networks, CBS, ABC, NBC and Fox, directly owns and operates a high - definition television station in Chicago (WBBM 2, WLS 7, WMAQ 5 and WFLD 32, respectively). Former CW affiliate WGN - TV 9, which is owned by the Tribune Media, is carried with some programming differences, as "WGN America '' on cable and satellite TV nationwide and in parts of the Caribbean. The city has also been the base of several talk shows, including, formerly, The Oprah Winfrey Show. Chicago Public Radio produces programs such as PRI 's This American Life and NPR 's Wait Wait... Do n't Tell Me! The city also has two PBS member stations: WTTW 11, producer of shows such as Sneak Previews, The Frugal Gourmet, Lamb Chop 's Play - Along and The McLaughlin Group, just to name a few, and WYCC 20 (permanently off - the - air as of November, 2017).
Two major daily newspapers are published in Chicago: the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun - Times, with the Tribune having the larger circulation. There are also several regional and special - interest newspapers and magazines, such as Chicago, the Dziennik Związkowy (Polish Daily News), Draugas (the Lithuanian daily newspaper), the Chicago Reader, the SouthtownStar, the Chicago Defender, the Daily Herald, Newcity, StreetWise and the Windy City Times. The entertainment and cultural magazine Time Out Chicago and GRAB magazine are also published in the city, as well as local music magazine Chicago Innerview. In addition, Chicago is the recent home of satirical national news outlet, The Onion, as well as its sister pop - culture publication, The A.V. Club.
Since the 1980s, many motion pictures have been filmed and / or set in the city such as The Blues Brothers, The Matrix, Brewster 's Millions, Ferris Bueller 's Day Off, Sixteen Candles, Home Alone, The Fugitive, I, Robot, Mean Girls, Wanted, Batman Begins, The Dark Knight, Dhoom 3, Transformers: Dark of the Moon, Transformers: Age of Extinction, Transformers: The Last Knight, Divergent, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Sinister 2, Suicide Squad, and Batman: Gotham by Gaslight.
Chicago has also been the setting for many popular television shows, including the situation comedies Perfect Strangers and its spinoff Family Matters, Married... with Children, Punky Brewster, Kenan & Kel, Still Standing, The League, The Bob Newhart Show, and Shake It Up. The city served as the venue for the medical dramas ER and Chicago Hope, as well as the fantasy drama series Early Edition and the 2005 -- 2009 drama Prison Break. Discovery Channel films two shows in Chicago: Cook County Jail and the Chicago version of Cash Cab. Chicago is currently the setting for CBS 's The Good Wife and Mike and Molly, Showtime 's Shameless, and NBC 's Chicago Fire, Chicago P.D. and Chicago Med.
Chicago has five 50,000 watt AM radio stations: the CBS Radio - owned WBBM and WSCR; the Tribune Broadcasting - owned WGN; the Cumulus Media - owned WLS; and the ESPN Radio - owned WMVP. Chicago is also home to a number of national radio shows, including Beyond the Beltway with Bruce DuMont on Sunday evenings.
Chicago is also featured in a few video games, including Watch Dogs and Midtown Madness, a real - life, car - driving simulation game. In 2005, indie rock artist Sufjan Stevens created a concept album about Illinois titled Illinois; many of its songs were about Chicago and its history.
Chicago is a major transportation hub in the United States. It is an important component in global distribution, as it is the third - largest inter-modal port in the world after Hong Kong and Singapore.
The city of Chicago has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 26.5 percent of Chicago households were without a car, and increased slightly to 27.5 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Chicago averaged 1.12 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.
Seven mainline and four auxiliary interstate highways (55, 57, 65 (only in Indiana), 80 (also in Indiana), 88, 90 (also in Indiana), 94 (also in Indiana), 190, 290, 294, and 355) run through Chicago and its suburbs. Segments that link to the city center are named after influential politicians, with three of them named after former U.S. Presidents (Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Reagan) and one named after two - time Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson.
The Kennedy and Dan Ryan Expressways are the busiest state maintained routes in the entire state of Illinois.
The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) coordinates the operation of the three service boards: CTA, Metra, and Pace.
Greyhound Lines provides inter-city bus service to and from the city, and Chicago is also the hub for the Midwest network of Megabus (North America).
Amtrak long distance and commuter rail services originate from Union Station. Chicago is one of the largest hubs of passenger rail service in the nation. The services terminate in San Francisco, Washington, D.C., New York City, Indianapolis, New Orleans, Portland, Seattle, Milwaukee, Quincy, St. Louis, Carbondale, Boston, Grand Rapids, Port Huron, Pontiac, Los Angeles, and San Antonio. An attempt was made in the early 20th century to link Chicago with New York City via the Chicago -- New York Electric Air Line Railroad. Parts of this were built, but it was never completed.
Chicago 's Department of Transportation oversees operation of Divvy, North America 's largest bicycle - sharing system (by geography), allowing residents and visitors the ability to check out public bikes from any of hundreds of automated stations located over a large area of the city, take them for short rides, and return them to any station of their choosing. Divvy was initially launched in 2013 with 750 bikes and 75 docking stations and has since expanded to 5,800 bikes and 580 stations as of December 2016.
Chicago is the largest hub in the railroad industry. Six of the seven Class I railroads meet in Chicago, with the exception being the Kansas City Southern Railway. As of 2002, severe freight train congestion caused trains to take as long to get through the Chicago region as it took to get there from the West Coast of the country (about 2 days). According to U.S. Department of Transportation, the volume of imported and exported goods transported via rail to, from, or through Chicago is forecast to increase nearly 150 percent between 2010 and 2040. CREATE, the Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program, comprises about 70 programs, including crossovers, overpasses and underpasses, that intend to significantly improve the speed of freight movements in the Chicago area.
Chicago is served by O'Hare International Airport, the world 's second - busiest airport measured by airline operations, on the far Northwest Side, and Midway International Airport on the Southwest Side. In 2005, O'Hare was the world 's busiest airport by aircraft movements and the second - busiest by total passenger traffic. Both O'Hare and Midway are owned and operated by the City of Chicago. Gary / Chicago International Airport and Chicago Rockford International Airport, located in Gary, Indiana and Rockford, Illinois, respectively, can serve as alternate Chicago area airports, however they do not offer as many commercial flights as O'Hare and Midway. In recent years the state of Illinois has been leaning towards building an entirely new airport in the Illinois suburbs of Chicago. The City of Chicago is the world headquarters for United Airlines, the world 's third - largest airline.
The Port of Chicago consists of several major port facilities within the city of Chicago operated by the Illinois International Port District (formerly known as the Chicago Regional Port District). The central element of the Port District, Calumet Harbor, is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Electricity for most of northern Illinois is provided by Commonwealth Edison, also known as ComEd. Their service territory borders Iroquois County to the south, the Wisconsin border to the north, the Iowa border to the west and the Indiana border to the east. In northern Illinois, ComEd (a division of Exelon) operates the greatest number of nuclear generating plants in any US state. Because of this, ComEd reports indicate that Chicago receives about 75 % of its electricity from nuclear power. Recently, the city began installing wind turbines on government buildings to promote renewable energy.
Natural gas is provided by Peoples Gas, a subsidiary of Integrys Energy Group, which is headquartered in Chicago.
Domestic and industrial waste was once incinerated but it is now landfilled, mainly in the Calumet area. From 1995 to 2008, the city had a blue bag program to divert recyclable refuse from landfills. Because of low participation in the blue bag programs, the city began a pilot program for blue bin recycling like other cities. This proved successful and blue bins were rolled out across the city.
The Illinois Medical District is on the Near West Side. It includes Rush University Medical Center, ranked as the second best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2014 -- 16, the University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago, Jesse Brown VA Hospital, and John H. Stroger Jr. Hospital of Cook County, one of the busiest trauma centers in the nation.
Two of the country 's premier academic medical centers reside in Chicago, including Northwestern Memorial Hospital and the University of Chicago Medical Center. The Chicago campus of Northwestern University includes the Feinberg School of Medicine; Northwestern Memorial Hospital, which is ranked as the best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2010 -- 11; the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, which is ranked the best U.S. rehabilitation hospital by U.S. News & World Report; the new Prentice Women 's Hospital; and Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children 's Hospital of Chicago.
The University of Illinois College of Medicine at UIC is the second largest medical school in the United States (2,600 students including those at campuses in Peoria, Rockford and Urbana -- Champaign).
In addition, the Chicago Medical School and Loyola University Chicago 's Stritch School of Medicine are located in the suburbs of North Chicago and Maywood, respectively. The Midwestern University Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine is in Downers Grove.
The American Medical Association, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education, American Osteopathic Association, American Dental Association, Academy of General Dentistry, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, American College of Surgeons, American Society for Clinical Pathology, American College of Healthcare Executives, the American Hospital Association and Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association are all based in Chicago.
Chicago has 28 sister cities around the world. Like Chicago, many of them are or were the second-most populous city or second-most influential city of their country, or they are the main city of a country that has had large amounts of immigrants settle in Chicago. These relationships have sought to promote economic, cultural, educational, and other ties.
To celebrate the sister cities, Chicago hosts a yearly festival in Daley Plaza, which features cultural acts and food tastings from the other cities. In addition, the Chicago Sister Cities program hosts a number of delegation and formal exchanges. In some cases, these exchanges have led to further informal collaborations, such as the academic relationship between the Buehler Center on Aging, Health & Society at the Feinberg School of Medicine of Northwestern University and the Institute of Gerontology of Ukraine (originally of the Soviet Union), that was originally established as part of the Chicago - Kiev sister cities program.
Sister cities
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once upon a time what is it about | Once Upon a Time (TV series) - Wikipedia
Once Upon a Time is an American fantasy drama television series on ABC which debuted on October 23, 2011, and concluded on May 18, 2018. The first six seasons are largely set in the fictitious seaside town of Storybrooke, Maine, with the character of Emma Swan serving as the lead, while the seventh and final season takes place in a Seattle, Washington neighborhood called Hyperion Heights, with a new main narrative led by Swan 's son, Henry Mills. The show borrows elements and characters from the Disney franchise and popular Western literature, folklore, and fairy tales.
Once Upon a Time was created by Lost and Tron: Legacy writers Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz. A spin - off series, Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, consisting of 13 episodes which followed the titular character from Alice in Wonderland, premiered on October 10, 2013 and concluded on April 3, 2014.
For the first six seasons, the series originally took place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke, Maine, in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales and other stories that were transported to the real world town and robbed of their original memories by the Evil Queen Regina (Lana Parrilla) who used a powerful curse obtained from Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle). The residents of Storybrooke, where Regina is mayor, have lived an unchanging existence for 28 years, unaware of their own lack of aging. The town 's only hope lies with a bail - bonds person named Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison), the daughter of Snow White (Ginnifer Goodwin) and Prince Charming (Josh Dallas), who was transported from the Enchanted Forest to the real world via a magic tree as an infant before she could be cursed. As such, she is the only person who can break the curse and restore the characters ' lost memories. She is aided by her son, Henry (Jared S. Gilmore), with whom she was recently reunited after giving him up for adoption upon his birth, and his Once Upon a Time book of fairy tales that holds the key to breaking the curse. Henry is also the adopted son of Regina, providing a source of both conflict and common interest between the two women.
In the seventh season reboot, an adult Henry Mills (Andrew J. West), along with Regina, Captain Hook (Colin O'Donoghue) and Rumplestiltskin, are found years later in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, where characters from a different realm were brought under a new curse. Hoping to restore her family 's memories, Lucy (Alison Fernandez) must convince her parents, Henry and Cinderella (Dania Ramirez), of the true nature of Hyperion Heights, in the midst of emerging dangers involving Lady Tremaine (Gabrielle Anwar), Mother Gothel (Emma Booth) and Dr. Facilier (Daniel Francis).
Episodes usually have one segment that details the characters ' past lives that, when serialized, adds a piece to the puzzle about the characters and their connection to the events that preceded the curse and its consequences. The other, set in the present day, follows a similar pattern with a different outcome but also offers similar insights.
The first season premiered on October 23, 2011. The Evil Queen interrupts the wedding of Snow White and Prince Charming to announce that she will cast a curse on everyone that will leave her with the only happy ending. As a result, the majority of the characters are transported to the town of Storybrooke, Maine, where they have been stripped of their original memories and identities as fairy tale characters. On her 28th birthday, Emma Swan, the daughter of Snow White and Prince Charming, is brought to Storybrooke by her biological son Henry Mills in the hopes of breaking the curse cast by his adoptive mother, the Evil Queen Regina.
The second season premiered on September 30, 2012. Despite Emma having broken the curse, the characters are not returned to the fairy tale world, and must deal with their own dual identities. With the introduction of magic into Storybrooke by Mr. Gold, the fates of the two worlds become intertwined, and new threats emerge in the form of Captain Hook (Colin O'Donoghue), Regina 's mother Cora (Barbara Hershey), also known as the Queen of Hearts, and sinister operatives from the real world with an agenda to destroy magic.
The third season premiered on September 29, 2013. It was split into two volumes, with the first eleven episodes running from September to December 2013, and the later half from March to May 2014. In the first volume, the main characters travel to Neverland to rescue Henry, who has been kidnapped by Peter Pan (Robbie Kay) as part of a plan to obtain the "Heart of the Truest Believer '' from him. Their increasing power struggle with Pan continues in Storybrooke, which ultimately results in the complete reversal of the original curse. All the characters are returned to their original worlds, leaving Emma and Henry to escape to New York City. In the second volume, the characters are mysteriously brought back to a recreated Storybrooke with their memories of the previous year removed, and the envious Wicked Witch of the West (Rebecca Mader) from the Land of Oz appears with a plan to change the past. Once again, Emma is needed to save her family.
The fourth season premiered on September 28, 2014. It was also split into two volumes, with the first eleven episodes running from September to December 2014, and the later half from March to May 2015. A new storyline incorporating elements from Frozen was revealed when the time travel events of the previous season lead to the accidental arrival of Elsa (Georgina Haig) from the Enchanted Forest of the past to present - day Storybrooke. As she searches for her sister Anna (Elizabeth Lail) with the aid of the main characters, they encounter the Snow Queen (Elizabeth Mitchell). Meanwhile, Regina seeks the Author of Henry 's Once Upon a Time book so that she can finally have her happy ending. However, Mr. Gold, with the help of Cruella De Vil (Victoria Smurfit), Maleficent (Kristin Bauer van Straten), and Ursula (Merrin Dungey), has his own plan to rewrite the rules governing the fates of all heroes and villains. Henry and Emma race to restore reality and the truth before the twisted inversion becomes permanent. However, the price leads to the ultimate sacrifice.
The fifth season was announced on May 7, 2015, and premiered on September 27, 2015. It was once again split into two volumes with the first volume ran from September to December 2015, and the second volume from March to May 2016. The characters embark on a quest to Camelot to find the Sorcerer Merlin (Elliot Knight) in order to free Emma from the powers of an ancient darkness that threatens to destroy everything. To complicate matters, King Arthur (Liam Garrigan) is determined to forever alter the balance between light and darkness using the legendary Excalibur. As history and destiny collide, unsuspected consequences lead the characters to the Underworld where they encounter souls of those with unfinished business and must face Hades (Greg Germann). In an attempt to restore order to the chaos that has culminated, the characters ' dangerous manipulations of magic lead to an exacerbation of the war between light and darkness, with the separation of Regina and her Evil Queen persona, as well as the arrival of Dr. Jekyll (Hank Harris) and Mr. Hyde (Sam Witwer).
The sixth season was announced on March 3, 2016, and premiered on September 25, 2016. The characters must defend Storybrooke from the combined threat of Mr. Hyde and an unleashed Evil Queen and the mysterious fate of saviors leads to Emma learning about Aladdin (Deniz Akdeniz). The ongoing war between light and darkness ultimately leads to the arrival of the Black Fairy (Jaime Murray) as well as the final battle that was prophesied before the casting of the original curse.
In May 2017, the series was renewed for a final seventh season consisting of 22 episodes, which marked a soft reboot. Years later, Lucy (Alison Fernandez) arrives in the fictional neighborhood of Hyperion Heights in Seattle, Washington with her Once Upon a Time book to find her father Henry Mills (Andrew J. West) who is needed by his family. Characters from the New Enchanted Forest were brought to Hyperion Heights under a new curse and are caught in a rising conflict involving Cinderella (Dania Ramirez) and Lady Tremaine (Gabrielle Anwar) whose dangerous history with Mother Gothel (Emma Booth) is revealed as well as the agendas of Dr. Facilier (Daniel Francis). Two worlds collide when the arrival of Wish Realm Rumplestiltskin and Wish Henry Mills as they plot and culminates on every characters ' happy endings by separating them in a separate realms into their own separate storybooks, leading to someone making the ultimate sacrifice.
Once Upon a Time 's first season received "generally favorable '' reviews from critics. Metacritic gave it a score of 66 out of 100 based on 26 reviews. The pilot episode was watched by 12.93 million viewers and achieved an adult 18 -- 49 rating / share of 4.0 / 10. The second season premiered on September 30, 2012, to an audience of 11.36 million viewers, while the third season began on September 29, 2013, opening to 8.52 million viewers. In May 2014, ABC renewed the show for its fourth season, premiering in September 2014 to an audience of 9.47 million viewers. The series was renewed for a fifth season in May 2015 and for a sixth season in March 2016. On May 11, 2017, ABC renewed the series for a 22 - episode seventh season. In February 2018, it was announced the seventh season would serve as the final season of the series.
Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis conceived the show in 2004 before joining the writing staff of Lost, but wanted to wait until that series was over to focus on this project.
-- Executive producer Adam Horowitz
Eight years before the Once Upon a Time pilot (the two had just completed their work on Felicity, in 2002), Kitsis and Horowitz became inspired to write fairy tales out of a love of "mystery and excitement of exploring lots of different worlds. '' They presented the premise to networks, but were refused because of its fantastic nature. From their time on Lost, the writers learned to look at the story in a different way, namely that "character has to trump mythology. ''
They explained,
"As people, you 've got to see what the void in their heart or in their lives is to care about them... For us, this was as much about the character journeys and seeing what was ripped from them in coming to Storybrooke -- going at it that way as opposed to making it the ' break - the - curse show. ' ''
Despite the comparisons and similarities to Lost, the writers intend them to be very different shows. To them, Lost concerned itself with redemption, while Once Upon a Time is about "hope ''. Lost co-creator Damon Lindelof aids in the development of the series as a consultant, but has no official credit on the show. Kitsis and Horowitz have called him a "godfather '' to the series. To differentiate the storytelling from what the audience already knew, the writing staff decided to begin the pilot with the end of the typical Snow White fairytale. Themes concerning family and motherhood were emphasized, in contrast to the focus on fatherhood in Lost. Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write strong female characters, rather than the classic damsel in distress. Horowitz stated their desire to approach each character the same way, asking themselves, "How do we make these icons real, make them relatable? ''
The pilot is meant to be the "template of the series ''. Kitsis confirmed that every week will contain flashbacks between both worlds, as they "love the idea of going back and forth and informing what the character is missing in their life. '' The writers ' desire to present a "mash up '' of many small characters can be seen in a scene of the pilot, in which there is a war council featuring Geppetto, Pinocchio, and Grumpy. Horowitz elaborated, "One of the fun things for us coming up with these stories is thinking of ways these different characters can interact in ways they never have before. '' Since then, the creators have added more elements, and given its ties to Disney, have managed to expand the universe to include more recent material, by throwing out hints that they might look ahead at incorporating characters from Brave and Frozen in future episodes, if they get the green light from Disney. The Season 3 finale introduced Elsa in the final minutes of the episode.
The general premise, importing the Snow White core characters into the "real world '', was previously seen on ABC television in the short - lived 1980s comedy The Charmings. The show also has a similar premise to Bill Willingham 's ten - year - old comic series Fables, to which ABC bought the rights in 2008 but never made it past planning stages. After Fables fans raised controversy over possible appropriation, the show writers initially denied a link, but later said they may have "read a couple issues '' of the comic book but while the two concepts are "in the same playground '', they are "telling a different story. '' Bill Willingham responded to the controversy in an interview, where he stated he did not feel the show was plagiarism and said: "Maybe they did remember reading Fables back then, but did n't want to mention it because we 've become a very litigious people. ''
Secondary character casting director, Samuel Forsyth, started the casting process in 2010. Horowitz stated that everyone they initially wanted for roles in the series accepted their roles after being sent a script. Ginnifer Goodwin was cast as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard, who appreciated that she would be playing a strong character that was fleshed out for the audience. Goodwin had stated in interviews that she would love to play Snow White, and called her acceptance of the role "a no - brainer. '' Both Kitsis and Horowitz are self - described big fans of Goodwin 's previous series, Big Love, and wrote the part of Snow White with her in mind. Josh Dallas, who portrays Prince Charming / David Nolan, was pleased the writers took "some dramatic license '' with his character, believing the prince had become more real. He explained,
"Prince Charming just happens to be a name. He 's still a man with the same emotions as any other man. He 's a Prince, but he 's a Prince of the people. He gets his hands dirty. He 's got a kingdom to run. He has a family to protect. He has an epic, epic love for Snow White. He 's like everybody else. He 's human. ''
Jennifer Morrison was hired for the part of Emma Swan. The actress explained her character as someone who "help (s) her son Henry whom she abandoned when he was a baby and who seems like he 's a little bit emotionally dysfunctional '', but noted that Emma does not start out believing in the fairytale universe. Ten - year - old Jared Gilmore, known for his work on Mad Men, took the role of her son, Henry. The role of The Evil Queen / Regina was given to Lana Parrilla.
-- Lana Parrilla
The role of Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold was given to Robert Carlyle, after having been written with him in mind, though the writers initially thought he would not accept the part. Horowitz recalled Carlyle 's prison sequence, which was the actor 's first day on the set as "mind - blowing... You could see Ginny actually jump, the first time he did that character. It was fantastic! '' Jamie Dornan portrayed the Huntsman / Sheriff Graham as a series regular before being killed off in the seventh episode, while Eion Bailey was cast as Pinocchio / August Wayne Booth in a recurring role, starting in the show 's ninth episode, "True North '', where he was credited as "Stranger '', he was promoted to series regular status for the fifteenth episode, "Red - Handed ''. Raphael Sbarge portrayed Jiminy Cricket / Dr. Archie Hopper.
For the second season, Meghan Ory and Emilie de Ravin were promoted to series regulars as Red Riding Hood / Ruby and Belle / Lacey respectively, while Bailey made guest appearances in two episodes after departing the series and Sbarge joined the recurring cast. Colin O'Donoghue was cast as Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones, and was upped to series regular for the fourteenth episode of the season.
For the third season, Michael Raymond - James was promoted to a series regular as Neal Cassidy, while Ory did not return as a series regular due to commitments to the TV series, Intelligence.
For the fourth season, Michael Socha was brought onto the show as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts from the show 's spin - off, Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, while Raymond - James was dropped from the regular cast when the writers decided to kill off his character. Bailey returned in a recurring arc towards the end of the season after being absent from the show since the second season.
For the fifth season, Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire were announced to have been promoted to series regulars as Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood respectively, while Socha was confirmed to not be returning as a series regular. Ory also returned to the series in a recurring capacity after being absent since the third - season finale.
Before the series was renewed for a seventh season, Jennifer Morrison announced that, if the series were to be renewed, she would not be returning as a series regular for that season but agreed to return for one episode to wrap up Emma Swan 's storyline. Later that week, actress Rebecca Mader announced that she would also be leaving the series after the sixth season wrapped. It was later announced that Ginnifer Goodwin, Josh Dallas, Jared S. Gilmore and Emilie de Ravin would also be leaving the show after the sixth season 's finale aired. Along with departures, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced to be joining the seventh season of the show as series regulars after guest starring in the previous season 's finale. They will portray an older Henry Mills and his daughter Lucy respectively. In July 2017, actresses Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced to be joining the cast of the seventh season as series regulars, playing new iterations of Cinderella and Lady Tremaine, respectively. In September 2017, Mekia Cox, who portrays Tiana, was promoted to a series regular.
Principal photography for the series takes place in Vancouver, British Columbia. Steveston Village in the adjacent city of Richmond doubles as Storybrooke for the series, with props and exterior sets disguising the existing businesses and buildings. During filming, all brightly colored objects (flowers, etc.) are hidden to reinforce the story village 's spell - subdued character. Certain sets are additionally filmed in separate studios, including the interior of Mr. Gold 's pawn shop and the clock tower, which are not found in Steveston.
During the first six seasons, the Enchanted Forest and Storybrooke, Maine are the main settings of the series. The Enchanted Forest is a realm within Fairy Tale Land, but the actual spread and scope of the realm is not known. However, they are later united during the Ogre Wars, which played a part in the formation of the War Council that is formed by Prince Charming and served as the catalysts in the backstories involving Rumpelstiltskin and the Evil Queen. Several independent kingdoms are implied by an array of different rulers. Most of the stories detailed their earlier lives before ascension to power and being influenced by their mentors through their upbringings. Meanwhile, Storybrooke serves as an isolated town separated from the rest of the Land Without Magic, where the cursed inhabitants are trapped by various forces.
During the seventh season, the New Enchanted Forest is shown as the main setting, alongside with Hyperion Heights, Seattle. As a realm in New Fairy Tale Land, the New Enchanted Forest is divided into several independent kingdoms with different rulers. The inhabitants are in - conflict with each other, most notably between Lady Tremaine, Cinderella, Drizella, a resistance led by Tiana, and the Coven of the Eight led by Mother Gothel. Most flashbacks shown are involving events happened before the original curse and before the latest curse that brought everyone to Hyperion Heights, where unlike Storybrooke, its cursed inhabitants are living among ordinary people.
The show, including its spin - off, have explored beyond the main settings to numerous realms, each based on fairy tales, literature, and folklore. Known realms are Fairy Tale Land, the Land Without Magic, Wonderland, the Dreamscape, Land Without Color, the Netherworld, Neverland, Victorian England, the Land of Oz, Kansas, Asgard, 1920s England, the World Within the Book, the Underworld, the Worst Place, Mount Olympus, the Land of Untold Stories, 19th Century France, the World Behind the Mirror, the Dark Realm, the Wish Realm, New Fairy Tale Land, the World Beyond the Bridge, the Mansion Realm, the Edge of Realms, New Wonderland, and the Prison Realm. All the realms are then merged via a variation of the Dark Curse, known as the United Realms.
As a nod to the ties between the production teams of Once Upon a Time and Lost, the former show contains allusions to Lost, and is expected to continue alluding to Lost throughout its run. For example, many items found in the Lost universe, such as Apollo candy bars, Oceanic Airlines, Ajira Airways, the TV series Exposé and MacCutcheon Whiskey, can be seen in Once Upon a Time.
Mark Isham composed the series ' theme and music. On February 14, 2012, an extended play album featuring four cues from the score was released by ABC Studios. On May 1, 2012, a full - length 25 - track official soundtrack album was released by Intrada Records to accompany season one. On August 13, 2013, another full - length 25 - track official soundtrack album was released by Intrada to accompany season two. Since December 2015, Mark Isham had begun to release music that was previously not released from the third, fourth and fifth seasons on his Soundcloud account.
The series has been licensed to over 190 countries. In Australia, Once Upon a Time first aired on Seven Network, starting on May 15, 2012. In Canada it airs on CTV from October 23, 2011. It premiered on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom on April 1, 2012. On December 17, 2013, it was confirmed that Channel 5 would not be picking the series up for the third season airing in the UK. On March 14, 2015, Netflix picked up the show in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, subsequently showing all seasons and premiering each new episode on Wednesdays after their initial showing on Sundays on ABC.
Critical response to the first season was generally positive. On Metacritic, it was given a score of 66 out of 100 with "generally favorable reviews ''. E! 's Kristin dos Santos cited the show as one of the five new shows of the 2011 -- 2012 season to watch. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe gave the show a "C + '' grade commenting
"From a pair of Lost producers, this is a love - or - hate proposition. The ambition is impressive, as it asks us to imagine Goodwin 's Snow White and Parrilla 's Evil Queen as moderns. But Morrison is a wooden lead, and the back stories -- a random collection of fairy tales -- do n't promise to surprise. ''
In a review from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, TV critic Gail Pennington hailed it as one of the "Most Promising Shows of The Fall '' and, unlike Gilbert, had high marks for Morrison. USA Today 's Robert Blanco placed the series on its top ten list, declaring that "There 's nothing else on the air quite like it. '' Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times preferred the series to another fairy - tale themed drama, Grimm, citing that the premise takes its time building up the charm and that the producer "has that part nailed ''. She also gave excellent reviews for Morrison 's character: "Her Emma is predictably cynical and prickly -- fairy - tale princess, my Aunt Fanny -- but she 's sharp and lively enough to keep audiences begging for ' just a few more pages ' before they go to bed. ''
Several feminist outlets were pleased with the show for its feminist twist on fairy tales. Avital Norman Nathman of Bitch stated that she liked the show for "infusing a feminist sensibility '' into the stories. Genie Leslie at Feministing commented that Emma was a "badass '', that she liked how Emma was "very adamant that women be able to make their own decisions about their lives and their children '', and how Emma was a "well - rounded '' character who was "feminine, but not ' girly ' ''. Natalie Wilson from Ms. praised the show for a strong, "kick - butt '' female lead, for including multiple strong women who take turns doing the saving with the men, for subverting the fetishization of true love, and for dealing with the idea of what makes a mother in a more nuanced fashion. Wilson went on to state of the lead: "Her pursuit of a ' happy ending ' is not about finding a man or going to a ball all gussied up, but about detective work, about building a relationship with her son Henry, and about seeking the ' truth ' as to why time stands still in the corrupt Storybrooke world. ''
The first season premiered as the top - rated drama series. The pilot episode was watched by 13 million viewers and received a 4.0 rating / share among 18 - to 49 - year - olds. It was the season 's highest - rated drama debut among the age range and ABC 's biggest debut in five years. With DVR viewers, the premiere climbed to 15.5 million viewers and a 5.2 rating / share in adults 18 -- 49. The show 's next three episodes had consistent ratings every week with over 11 million viewers. The series has become the number one non-sports program in the U.S. with viewers and young adults on Sunday nights.
Once Upon a Time was nominated for a 2012 People 's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Drama '', but lost to Person of Interest. The show was nominated at the 39th People 's Choice Awards in four categories: Favorite Network TV Drama, Favorite Sci - Fi / Fantasy Show, Favorite TV Fan Following, and Favorite TV Drama Actress (Ginnifer Goodwin); it lost to another ABC show Grey 's Anatomy in the first category, Supernatural in the second two, and Ellen Pompeo (from Grey 's Anatomy) in the last category. the show was nominated at 40th People 's Choice Awards, but lost to Beauty and the Beast and The Vampire Diaries, respectively.
The show was also nominated for "Best Genre Series '' at the 2011 Satellite Awards, but lost to American Horror Story. The show was nominated in this category again at the 2012 Satellite Awards, but lost to The Walking Dead.
The program also received three nominations at the 2012 Visual Effects Society Awards, but all lost to Boardwalk Empire, Gears of War 3, and Terra Nova.
At the 38th Saturn Awards, the series received a nomination for Best Network Television Series and Parrilla was nominated for Best Supporting Actress on Television, but lost to Fringe and Michelle Forbes, respectively.
The program was nominated for the former award again at the 39th Saturn Awards, but lost to new series Revolution.
Jared S. Gilmore was nominated for Best Performance by an Younger Actor on Television at 40th Saturn Awards, but lost to Chandler Riggs for The Walking Dead
The show received trophies for "Favorite New TV Drama '' and "Favorite Villain '' for Lana Parrilla by the TV Guide.
The show was nominated at the 2012 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries, Pretty Little Liars and Awkward and the show was also nominated at 2013 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries and Pretty Little Liars.
The show was nominated again 2014 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries and Dylan O'Brien, respectively.
It was also nominated at the 64th Creative Arts Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to Game of Thrones and The Walking Dead and the show was nominated again at 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, but lost to The Borgias and Game of Thrones.
In 2013, Disney - owned Hyperion Books published Reawakened by Odette Beane, a novelization of storylines from the first season, expanded to include new perspectives. The narrative is from the points - of - view of Emma Swan in Storybrooke and Snow White in the Enchanted Forest. The novel was published on April 28, 2013, as an ebook and May 7, 2013, in paperback form.
In 2015, production company Kingswell Teen published Red 's Untold Tale, by Wendy Toliver, a novel telling a story of Red 's past that was not seen in the show. The novel was published on September 22, 2015 and consisted of 416 pages.
In 2017, Kingswell Teen published a second novel, Regina Rising, also written by Wendy Toliver, which depicts the life of a sixteen year old Regina. The novel was published on April 25, 2017.
In 2018, Kingswell Teen published a third novel, Henry and Violet, written by Michelle Zink, which follows Henry and Violet on an adventure to New York City. The novel was published on May 8, 2018.
A comic book, titled Once Upon a Time: Shadow of the Queen, was released on September 4, 2013, in both digital and hardcover forms. The story was written by Dan Thomsen and Corinna Bechko, with art by Nimit Malavia, Vasilis Lolos, Mike Del Mundo, Stephanie Hans and Mike Henderson. Shadow of the Queen details what happens after the Evil Queen takes the Huntsman 's heart. She forces the Huntsman to commit evil, and try to capture Snow White yet again. The Huntsman faces his past, and also meets Red Riding Hood, who is trying to cope with her beastly alter ego. Together, they team up and try to save Snow White before all is too late.
On April 14, 2014, a sequel to the first comic book called Once Upon a Time: Out of the Past was released.
In February 2013, Kitsis & Horowitz, along with producers Zack Estrin and Jane Espenson, developed a spin - off focusing on Lewis Carroll 's Wonderland. The series was called Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. A "teaser presentation '' began shooting in April 2013, and the pilot was shot in late July or August. On May 10, 2013, ABC announced that it had approved the spin - off and on May 14, 2013, announced that the spin - off would air in the Thursday night 8: 00pm time slot instead of making it a fill - in for the parent series. The series premiered on October 10, 2013, but was cancelled after a single - season thirteen - episode run, and ended on April 3, 2014.
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where did the name jefferson airplane come from | Jefferson Airplane - wikipedia
Jefferson Airplane was a rock band based in San Francisco, California, who pioneered psychedelic rock. Formed in 1965, the group defined the San Francisco Sound and was the first from the Bay Area to achieve international commercial success. They were headliners at the three most famous American rock festivals of the 1960s -- Monterey (1967), Woodstock (1969) and Altamont (1969) -- and the first Isle of Wight Festival (1968) in England. Their 1967 break - out album Surrealistic Pillow ranks on the short list of the most significant recordings of the "Summer of Love ''. Two songs from that album, "Somebody to Love '' and "White Rabbit '', are among Rolling Stone 's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time. ''
The "classic '' lineup of Jefferson Airplane, from October 1966 to February 1970, was Marty Balin (vocals), Paul Kantner (guitar, vocals), Grace Slick (vocals), Jorma Kaukonen (lead guitar, vocals), Jack Casady (bass), and Spencer Dryden (drums). Marty Balin left the band in 1971. After 1972, Jefferson Airplane effectively split into two groups. Kaukonen and Casady moved on full time to their own band, Hot Tuna. Slick, Kantner, and the remaining members of Jefferson Airplane recruited new members and regrouped as Jefferson Starship in 1974, with Marty Balin eventually joining them. Jefferson Airplane was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and was presented with the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2016.
In 1962, 20 - year - old Marty Balin recorded two singles for Challenge Records, neither of which were successful. Balin then joined a folk group called the Town Criers from 1963 to 1964. After the Beatles - led British invasion of 1964, Balin was inspired by the success of the Byrds and Simon & Garfunkel in merging folk with rock to form a group in 1965 that would follow that lead. With a group of investors, Balin purchased a former pizza parlor on Fillmore Street, which he converted to a music club, the Matrix, and began searching for members for his group.
Balin met folk musician Paul Kantner at another local club, the Drinking Gourd. Kantner, a native San Franciscan, had started out performing on the Bay Area folk circuit in the early 1960s, alongside fellow folkies Jerry Garcia, David Crosby and Janis Joplin. Kantner has cited folk groups like the Kingston Trio and the Weavers as strong early influences. He briefly moved to Los Angeles, California, in 1964 to work in a folk duo with future Airplane / Starship member David Freiberg (who subsequently joined Quicksilver Messenger Service).
Balin and Kantner then recruited other musicians to form the house band at the Matrix. After hearing female vocalist Signe Toly Anderson at the Drinking Gourd, Balin invited her to be the group 's co-lead singer. Anderson sang with the band for a year and performed on their first album before departing in October 1966 after the birth of her first child.
Kantner next recruited an old friend, blues guitarist Jorma Kaukonen. Originally from Washington, D.C., Kaukonen had moved to California in the early 1960s and met Kantner while at Santa Clara University in 1962. Kaukonen was invited to jam with the new band and although initially reluctant to join he was won over after playing his guitar through a tape delay device that was part of the sound system used by Ken Kesey for his Acid Test parties. Kaukonen came up with the band 's name, based on the name of a friend 's dog. A 2007 press release quoted Kaukonen as saying:
I had this friend (Steve Talbot) in Berkeley who came up with funny names for people, '' explains Kaukonen. "His name for me was Blind Thomas Jefferson Airplane (for blues pioneer Blind Lemon Jefferson). When the guys were looking for band names and nobody could come up with something, I remember saying, ' You want a silly band name? I got a silly band name for you! '
Drummer Jerry Peloquin and acoustic bassist Bob Harvey completed the original lineup. The group made its first public appearance as Jefferson Airplane at the opening night of The Matrix on August 13, 1965. The band expanded from its folk roots, drawing inspiration from the Beatles, the Byrds and the Lovin ' Spoonful, and gradually developed a more pop - oriented electric sound.
A few weeks after the group was formed, Jerry Peloquin departed, in part because of his disdain for the others ' drug use. Although he was not a drummer, singer - guitarist Skip Spence (who later founded Moby Grape) was then invited to replace Peloquin. In October 1965, after the other members decided that Bob Harvey 's bass playing was not up to par, he was replaced by guitarist - bassist Jack Casady, an old friend of Kaukonen from Washington, D.C., Casady played his first gig with the Airplane at a college concert in Berkeley, California, two weeks after he arrived in San Francisco.
The group 's performing skills improved rapidly and they soon gained a strong following in and around San Francisco, aided by reviews from veteran music journalist Ralph J. Gleason, the jazz critic of the San Francisco Chronicle who, after seeing them at the Matrix in late 1965, proclaimed them "one of the best bands ever ''. Gleason 's support raised the band 's profile considerably, and within three months their manager Matthew Katz was fielding offers from recording companies, although they had yet to perform outside the Bay Area.
Two significant early concerts featuring the Airplane were held in late 1965. The first was the historic dance at the Longshoremen 's Hall in San Francisco on October 16, 1965, the first of many "happenings '' in the Bay Area, where Gleason first saw them perform. At this concert they were supported by a local folk - rock group, the Great Society, which featured Grace Slick as lead singer and it was here that Kantner met Slick for the first time. A few weeks later, on November 6, they headlined a benefit concert for the San Francisco Mime Troupe, the first of many promotions by rising Bay Area entrepreneur Bill Graham, who later became the band 's manager. In November 1965, Jefferson Airplane signed a recording contract with RCA Victor, which included an unheard - of advance of US $25,000. Prior to this, they had recorded a demo for Columbia Records of "The Other Side Of This Life '' with Bob Harvey on bass, which was immediately rejected by the label. On December 10, 1965, the Airplane played at the first Bill Graham - promoted show at the Fillmore Auditorium, supported by the Great Society and others. The Airplane also appeared at numerous Family Dog shows promoted by Chet Helms at the Avalon Ballroom.
The group 's first single was Balin 's "It 's No Secret '' (a tune he wrote with Otis Redding in mind); the B - side was "Runnin ' Round The World '', the song that led to the band 's first clash with RCA Victor, over the lyric "The nights I 've spent with you have been fantastic trips ''. After their debut LP was completed in March 1966, Skip Spence quit the band and he was eventually replaced by Spencer Dryden, who played his first show with the Airplane at the Berkeley Folk Festival on July 4, 1966. Dryden had previously played with a Los Angeles group called the Ashes, who later became the Peanut Butter Conspiracy.
Original manager Matthew Katz was fired in August, sparking a long - running legal battle that continued until 1987, and Balin 's friend and roommate Bill Thompson was installed as road manager and temporary band manager. It was Thompson, a friend and staunch supporter of the band and a former Chronicle staffer, who had convinced reviewers Ralph Gleason and John Wasserman to see the band at the Longshoreman 's Hall. Thanks to Gleason 's influence, Thompson was able to book the group for appearances at the Berkeley Folk Festival and at the Monterey Jazz Festival.
The group 's debut LP Jefferson Airplane Takes Off was released in September 1966. The folk - music - influenced album included John D. Loudermilk 's "Tobacco Road '' and Dino Valente 's "Let 's Get Together '', as well as original ballads "It 's No Secret '' and "Come Up the Years ''. Despite the fact that the group had neither performed outside the Bay Area nor appeared on TV, the album garnered considerable attention in the United States and sold well enough to earn a gold record award. RCA initially pressed only 15,000 copies, but it sold more than 10,000 in San Francisco alone, prompting the label to reprint it. For the re-pressing, the company deleted "Runnin ' Round This World '' (which had appeared on early mono pressings), because executives objected to the word "trip '' in the lyrics. For similar reasons, RCA Victor substituted altered versions for two other tracks: "Let Me In '', changing the line "I got ta get in / you know where '' to "you shut your door / now it ai n't fair. '' In the same song, they also switched the lyric "Do n't tell me you want money '' to "Do n't tell me it ai n't funny ''. "Run Around '' was also edited, changing the line "flowers that sway as you lay under me '' to "flowers that sway as you stay here by me ''. The original pressings of the LP featuring "Runnin ' ' Round The World '' and the uncensored versions of "Let Me In '' and "Run Around '' are now worth thousands of dollars on the collectors ' market.
Signe Anderson gave birth to her daughter in May 1966, and in October she announced her departure from the band. Her final gig with the Airplane took place at the Fillmore on October 15, 1966.
The following night, Anderson 's replacement Grace Slick made her first appearance. Slick was already well known to the band -- she had attended the Airplane 's debut gig at the Matrix in 1965 and her previous group, the Great Society, had often supported the Airplane in concert.
Slick 's recruitment proved pivotal to the Airplane 's commercial breakthrough -- she possessed a powerful and supple contralto voice that complemented Balin 's and was well - suited to the group 's amplified psychedelic music, and, a former model, her good looks and stage presence greatly enhanced the group 's live impact. "White Rabbit '' was written by Grace Slick while she was still with The Great Society. The first album Slick recorded with Jefferson Airplane was Surrealistic Pillow, and Slick provided two songs from her previous group: her own "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody to Love '', written by her brother - in - law Darby Slick. Both songs became breakout successes for Jefferson Airplane and have ever since been associated with that band.
The Great Society had recorded an early version of "Somebody to Love '' (under the title "Someone to Love '') as the B - side of their only single, "Free Advice '', produced by Sylvester Stewart (soon to become famous as Sly Stone). It reportedly took more than 50 takes to achieve a satisfactory rendition. The Great Society decided to split up in late 1966 and played its last show on September 11. Soon after, Slick was asked to join Jefferson Airplane by Jack Casady (whose musicianship was a major influence on her decision) and her Great Society contract was bought out for $750.
In December 1966, Jefferson Airplane was featured in a Newsweek article about the booming San Francisco music scene, one of the first in a welter of similar media reports that prompted a massive influx of young people to the city and contributed to the commercialization of the hippie culture.
Around the beginning of 1967 Bill Graham took over from Bill Thompson as manager. In January the group made their first visit to the East Coast. On January 14, alongside the Grateful Dead and Quicksilver Messenger Service, Jefferson Airplane headlined the "Human Be-In '', the famous all - day "happening '' in Golden Gate Park, one of the key events leading up to the "Summer of Love ''.
During this period the band gained their first international recognition when rising British pop star Donovan, who saw them during his stint on the U.S. West Coast in early 1966, mentioned the Airplane in his song "The Fat Angel '', which subsequently appeared on his Sunshine Superman LP.
The group 's second LP, Surrealistic Pillow, recorded in Los Angeles with producer Rick Jarrard in only thirteen days at a cost of $8,000, launched the Airplane to international fame. Released in February 1967, the LP entered the Billboard 200 album chart on March 25 and remained there for over a year, peaking at No. 3. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. The name "Surrealistic Pillow '' was suggested by the album 's "shadow producer, '' Jerry Garcia, when he mentioned that, as a whole, the album sounded "as surrealistic as a pillow is soft. '' Although RCA Victor would not acknowledge Garcia 's considerable contributions to the album with a production credit, he is listed in the album 's credits as "spiritual advisor. ''
In addition to the group 's two best - known tracks, "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody to Love '', the album featured "My Best Friend '' by former drummer Skip Spence, Balin 's driving blues - rock songs "Plastic Fantastic Lover '' and "3 / 5 of a Mile in 10 Seconds '', and the atmospheric Balin - Kantner ballad "Today ''. A reminder of their earlier folk incarnation was Kaukonen 's solo acoustic guitar tour de force, "Embryonic Journey '' (his first composition), which referenced contemporary acoustic guitar masters such as John Fahey and helped to establish the popular genre exemplified by acoustic guitarist Leo Kottke.
The first single from the album, Spence 's "My Best Friend '', failed to chart, but the next two singles rocketed the group to prominence. Both "Somebody to Love '' and "White Rabbit '' became major U.S. hits, the former reaching No. 5 and the latter No. 8 on the Billboard singles chart. By late 1967 the Airplane were national and international stars and had become one of the hottest groups in America. Grace Slick biographer Barbara Rowes called the album "a declaration of independence from the establishment (-) What Airplane originated was a romanticism for the electronic age. Unlike the highly homogenized harmonies of the Beach Boys, Airplane never strived for a synthesis of its divergent sensibilities. Through (-) each song, there remain strains of the individual styles of the musicians (creating) unusual breadth and original interplay within each structure ''.
This phase of the Airplane 's career peaked with their famous performance at the Monterey International Pop Festival in June 1967. Monterey showcased leading bands from several major music "scenes '' including New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and the United Kingdom, and the resulting TV and film coverage gave national (and international) exposure to groups that had previously had only regional fame. Two songs from the Airplane 's set were subsequently included in the D.A. Pennebaker film documentary of the event.
In August 1967, the Airplane performed in Montreal, Quebec, Canada at two free outdoor concerts, along with fellow San Francisco Bay Area band The Grateful Dead. The first concert was held in downtown Montreal at Place Ville Marie, and the second was at the Youth Pavilion of Expo 67.
The Airplane also benefited greatly from appearances on national network TV shows such as The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on NBC and The Ed Sullivan Show on CBS. The Airplane 's famous appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour performing "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody to Love '' was videotaped in color and augmented by developments in video techniques. It has been frequently re-screened and is notable for its pioneering use of the Chroma key process to simulate the Airplane 's psychedelic light show.
After Surrealistic Pillow, the group 's music underwent a significant transformation. Key influences on the group 's new direction were the popularity and success of Jimi Hendrix and the British supergroup Cream, which prompted the Airplane (like many other groups) to adopt a "heavier '' sound and to place a greater emphasis on improvisation. The band 's third LP, After Bathing at Baxter 's, was released on November 27, 1967, and eventually peaked in the charts at No. 17. Its famous cover, drawn by renowned artist and cartoonist Ron Cobb, depicts a Heath Robinson - inspired flying machine (constructed around an idealised version of a typical Haight - Ashbury district house) soaring above the chaos of American commercial culture.
Recorded over a period of more than four months, with little input from nominal producer Al Schmitt, the new album demonstrated the group 's growing engagement with psychedelic rock. Where the previous LP had consisted entirely of "standard - length '' pop songs, Baxter 's was dominated by long multi-part suites, while "A Small Package of Value Will Come To You Shortly '' was a musique concrete - style audio collage inspired by Frank Zappa 's contemporaneous work.
Baxter 's also marked the ascendency of Kantner and Slick as the band 's chief composers and the concurrent decline in the influence and involvement of founder Marty Balin. The other members, gravitating toward a harder - edged style, openly criticized Balin for his ballad - oriented compositions. Balin was also reportedly becoming increasingly disenchanted with the "star trips '' and inflated egos generated by the band 's runaway commercial success.
Baxter 's also marked the end of the Airplane 's brief run of success on the singles chart. In contrast to "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody To Love '', "The Ballad of You and Me and Pooneil '' only peaked at No. 43 and "Watch Her Ride '' stalled at No. 61. (Both singles reached the Top 40 in Cash Box.) None of the band 's subsequent singles reached the Billboard Top 40 and several failed to chart at all. AM Top 40 radio became wary of a group that had scored a hit with a song that contained thinly - veiled drug references and whose singles were often deemed too controversial, so Jefferson Airplane never again enjoyed the kind of widespread AM radio support that served as a prerequisite for Top Ten hits.
In February 1968, manager Bill Graham was fired after Grace Slick delivered an "either he goes or I go '' ultimatum. Bill Thompson took over as permanent manager and set about consolidating the group 's financial security, establishing Icebag Corp. to oversee the band 's publishing interests and purchasing a 20 - room mansion at 2400 Fulton Street across from Golden Gate Park near the Haight - Ashbury, which became the band 's office and communal residence. Bill Laudner was hired as road manager.
In mid-1968, the group was photographed for a Life magazine story on "The New Rock '', appearing on the cover of the June 28, 1968 edition. They undertook their first major tour of Europe in August -- September 1968, playing alongside the Doors in the Netherlands, England, Germany, and Sweden. In a notorious incident at a concert in Amsterdam, while the Airplane was performing "Plastic Fantastic Lover '', Doors singer Jim Morrison, under the influence of a combination of drugs fans had given him, appeared on stage and began dancing "like a pinwheel ''. As the group played faster and faster, Morrison spun around wildly until he finally fell senseless on the stage at Marty Balin 's feet. Morrison was unable to perform his set with the Doors and was hospitalized while keyboardist Ray Manzarek was forced to sing all the vocals. It was also during this tour that Slick and Morrison allegedly engaged in a brief sexual relationship, described in Somebody To Love?, Slick 's 1998 autobiography.
Jefferson Airplane 's fourth LP, Crown of Creation (released in September 1968), was a commercial success, peaking at No. 6 on the album chart. Grace Slick 's "Lather '', which opens the album, is said to be about her affair with drummer Spencer Dryden and his 30th birthday. "Triad '', a David Crosby composition, had been rejected by The Byrds because they deemed its subject matter (a ménage à trois) to be too "hot. '' Slick 's searing sexual and social - commentary anthem "Greasy Heart '' was released as a single in March 1968. A few tracks recorded for the LP were left off the album but later included as bonus tracks, including the Grace Slick / Frank Zappa collaboration "Would You Like A Snack? ''
The Airplane 's appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour in the fall of that year caused a minor stir when Grace Slick appeared in blackface (she claimed she simply wanted to wear all the makeup she saw in her dressing room) and raised her fist in the Black Panther Party 's salute after singing "Crown of Creation ''.
In November 1968, the band played "House at Pooneil Corners '' on a New York City rooftop. It was filmed for D.A. Pennebaker movie 1 PM. The concert was stopped by the police just like the Beatles ' famous rooftop concert about two months later, as depicted in the 1970 documentary Let It Be.
In February 1969, RCA released the live album Bless Its Pointed Little Head, which was culled from 1968 performances at the Fillmore West on October 24 -- 26 and the Fillmore East on November 28 -- 30. It became the Airplane 's fourth Top 20 album, peaking at No. 17.
Hot Tuna began during a break in Jefferson Airplane 's touring schedule in early 1969 while Grace Slick recovered from throat node surgery that left her unable to perform. Kaukonen, Casady, Kantner and drummer Joey Covington played several shows around San Francisco, including the Airplane 's original club, The Matrix, before Jefferson Airplane resumed performing. Their early repertoire derived mainly from Airplane material that Kaukonen (the band 's frontman) sang and covers of American country blues artists such as Reverend Gary Davis, Jelly Roll Morton, Bo Carter and Blind Blake. In addition, Casady and Kaukonen played as a duo under the moniker with Kaukonen on acoustic guitar and Casady on electric bass. From October 1969 to November 1970, Hot Tuna (also including Balin and, following Kantner 's departure, a dedicated rhythm guitarist in their electric performances until November 1970) performed as the opening act to Jefferson Airplane with a combination of both electric and acoustic sets.
In April 1969, sessions began for their next album, Volunteers, using new 16 - track facilities at the Wally Heider Studio in San Francisco. This proved to be the last album by the "classic '' lineup of the group. The album 's release was delayed when the band ran into conflict with their label over the content of songs such as "We Can Be Together '' and the planned title of the album, Volunteers of Amerika. "Volunteers of Amerika '' is a corruption of the Volunteers of America charity, the term being in vogue in 1969 as an ironic expression of dissatisfaction with America; after the charity objected, the name was shortened to Volunteers.
A few days after the band headlined at a free concert in New York 's Central Park in August 1969, they performed in what Grace Slick characterized as the "morning maniac music '' slot at the Woodstock Festival, for which the group was joined by noted British session keyboard player Nicky Hopkins. When interviewed about Woodstock by Jeff Tamarkin in 1992, Paul Kantner still recalled it with fondness, whereas Grace Slick and Spencer Dryden had less than rosy memories.
Immediately after their Woodstock performance, the band appeared on The Dick Cavett Show and played a few songs. Other guests on that same episode were David Crosby, Stephen Stills, and Joni Mitchell. The new album was finally released in the United States in November 1969 with the title shortened to Volunteers. The album continued the Airplane 's run of Top 20 LPs, peaking at No. 13 and attaining a RIAA gold certification early in 1970. It was their most political venture, showcasing the group 's vocal opposition to the Vietnam War and documenting their reaction to the changing political atmosphere in the United States. The best - known tracks include "Volunteers, '' "We Can Be Together, '' "Good Shepherd, '' and the post-apocalyptic "Wooden Ships, '' which Paul Kantner co-wrote with David Crosby and Stephen Stills, and which Crosby, Stills & Nash also recorded on their debut album.
RCA raised objections to the phrase "up against the wall, motherfucker '' in the lyrics of Kantner 's "We Can Be Together '', but the group managed to prevent it from being censored on the album, pointing out that RCA had already allowed the offending word to be included on the cast album of the rock musical Hair. In addition, the song had the line "in order to survive, we steal, cheat, lie, forge, fuck, hide, and deal '', which was also kept on the album (and which they sang on broadcast TV during their Dick Cavett appearance). For the single versions of "We Can Be Together, '' "motherfucker '' was changed to a long, drawn out "Ma, '' and "fuck '' was changed to "fred. '' These edits were reflected in the printed lyrics that accompanied the album.
In September 1969, Kaukonen and Casady played a week of acoustic - based concerts at the New Orleans House in Berkeley, California as Hot Tuna; recordings culled from this engagement were released as the band 's eponymous debut album in 1970. This initial Hot Tuna album was remarkably successful, reaching No. 30 on the U.S. album chart. Over the next two years, the various configurations of Hot Tuna began to occupy more and more of Casady 's and Kaukonen 's time, contributing to the growing divisions within Jefferson Airplane that came to a head in 1972.
In December 1969, the Airplane played at the Altamont Free Concert at Altamont Speedway in California. Following the Grateful Dead 's withdrawal from the program, they became the only band to perform at all three of the iconic rock festivals of the 1960s -- Altamont, Monterey Pop, and Woodstock. Headlined by The Rolling Stones, the concert was marred by violence. Marty Balin was knocked out during a scuffle with Hells Angels members who had been hired to act as "security. '' The event became notorious for the fatal stabbing of black teenager Meredith Hunter in front of the stage by Hells Angels "guards '' after he pulled out a revolver during the Stones ' performance. This incident was the centerpiece of the documentary film Gimme Shelter.
Spencer Dryden was dismissed from the band in February 1970 by a unanimous vote of the other members. He felt burned out by four years on the "acid merry - go - round '' and was deeply disillusioned by the events of Altamont, which, he later recalled, "did not look like a bunch of happy hippies in streaming colors. It looked more like sepia - toned Hieronymus Bosch. '' He took time off before returning to music the following year as Mickey Hart 's replacement in the New Riders of the Purple Sage. Dryden was replaced by Hot Tuna drummer Joey Covington, who had already contributed additional percussion to Volunteers and performed select engagements with the Airplane as a touring second drummer in 1969. Later that year, the band was further augmented by the addition of veteran jazz violinist Papa John Creach, a friend of Covington who officially joined Hot Tuna and Jefferson Airplane for their fall tour in October 1970.
Touring continued throughout 1970, but the group 's only new recording that year was the single "Mexico '' b / w "Have You Seen the Saucers? ''. Slick 's "Mexico '' was an attack on President Richard Nixon 's Operation Intercept, which had been implemented to curtail the flow of marijuana into the United States. "Have You Seen the Saucers '' marked the beginning of the science fiction themes that Kantner explored in much of his subsequent work, including Blows Against the Empire, his first solo album. Released in November 1970 and credited to "Paul Kantner / Jefferson Starship, '' this prototypical iteration of Jefferson Starship (alternatively known as the Planet Earth Rock and Roll Orchestra) included David Crosby and Graham Nash; Grateful Dead members Jerry Garcia, Bill Kreutzmann, and Mickey Hart; session luminary Harvey Brooks; David Freiberg; and Slick, Covington and Casady. Blows Against the Empire peaked at No. 20 in the United States and was the first rock album nominated for the Hugo Award.
Jefferson Airplane ended 1970 with their traditional Thanksgiving Day engagement at the Fillmore East (the final performance of the short - lived Creach - era septet) and the release of their first compilation album, The Worst of Jefferson Airplane, which continued their unbroken run of post-1967 chart success, reaching No. 12 on the Billboard album chart.
1971 was a year of major upheaval for Jefferson Airplane. Grace Slick and Paul Kantner had begun a relationship during 1970, and on January 25, 1971, their daughter China Wing Kantner ("Wing '' was Slick 's maiden name) was born. Slick 's divorce from her first husband had come through shortly before this, but she and Kantner agreed that they did not wish to marry.
In April 1971, Marty Balin officially left Jefferson Airplane after disassociating himself from the group following the fall 1970 tour. Although he had remained a key part of live performances after the band 's creative direction shifted from the brooding love songs that he specialized in, the evolution of the polarized Kantner / Slick and Kaukonen / Casady cliques -- compounded by an emerging drinking problem -- had finally left him the odd man out. Following the traumatic death of Janis Joplin, he began to pursue a healthier lifestyle; Balin 's study of yoga and abstention from drugs and alcohol further distanced him from the other members of the group, whose drug intake continued unabated. This further complicated the recording of their long - overdue follow - up to Volunteers; Balin had recently completed several new songs, including "Emergency '' and the elongated R&B - infused "You Wear Your Dresses Too Short, '' both of which later appeared on archival releases.
On May 13, 1971, Grace Slick was injured in a near - fatal automobile crash when her car slammed into a wall in a tunnel near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. The accident happened while she was drag racing with Jorma Kaukonen; both were driving at over 100 miles per hour, and Kaukonen claims that he "saved her life '' by pulling her from the car. Slick 's recuperation took a few months, forcing the Airplane to curtail their touring commitments. In the meantime, Slick recorded a comic song ("Never Argue with a German If You 're Tired or European Song '') about the incident for the new album.
In September 1971, Bark was released. With cover art depicting a dead fish wrapped in an A&P - style grocery bag, it was both the final album owed to RCA under the band 's existing contract and the inaugural release on the band 's Grunt Records vanity label. Manager Bill Thompson had struck a deal with RCA to allow Jefferson Airplane to run Grunt Records as they saw fit while retaining RCA 's distribution. The single "Pretty As You Feel '', excerpted from a longer jam with members of Santana and featuring lead vocals by Joey Covington, its principal composer, was the last Jefferson Airplane chart hit, peaking at No. 60 in Billboard and No. 35 in Cashbox. The album rose to No. 11 in Billboard, higher than Volunteers, Blows Against the Empire and Hot Tuna 's second album, First Pull Up, Then Pull Down, released three months before Bark in June.
In spite of the band 's continued success, major creative and personal divisions persisted between the Slick / Kantner and Kaukonen / Casady factions. (Kaukonen 's "Third Week In The Chelsea, '' from Bark, chronicles the thoughts he was having about leaving the band.) These problems continued to be exacerbated by the band 's escalating cocaine use and Slick 's alcohol use disorder. Consequently, while the band played several dates in August in support of Bark (including two concerts in the New York metropolitan area and a show apiece in Detroit and Philadelphia), no tour was planned. Following a private concert / party commemorating the formation of Grunt Records at San Francisco 's Friends and Relations Hall in September, the band would not reconvene until several Midwestern engagements in January 1972.
Jefferson Airplane held together long enough to record one more album, entitled Long John Silver, begun in April 1972 and released in July. By this time the various members were thoroughly engaged with their various solo projects. Following the release of Kantner and Slick 's Sunfighter in November 1971 and Creach 's eponymous solo debut in December 1971, Hot Tuna released their first studio album and third opus (Burgers) in February 1972; meanwhile, Joey Covington immersed himself in various Grunt Records projects, including his own solo album (Fat Fandango, released in 1973) and the sessions for Black Kangaroo 's debut album (led by Peter Kaukonen, Jorma 's younger brother). However, Covington was either dismissed from the band or left of his own volition shortly after the sessions commenced.
With Hot Tuna drummer Sammy Piazza deputizing on one track, Covington (who had already recorded two drum parts) was soon replaced by former Turtles / CSNY drummer John Barbata, who ultimately played on most of the album. Long John Silver is notable for its cover, which folded out into a humidor, which the inner photo depicted as storing cigars (which may have been filled with marijuana). Despite middling reviews, the album rose to No. 20 in the United States, a significantly higher placement than Burgers (No. 68) or Sunfighter (No. 89).
The band began a proper national tour to promote Long John Silver in the summer of 1972, their first in nearly two years. Shortly before the tour commenced, David Freiberg (who had recently completed a prison sentence for marijuana possession after leaving Quicksilver Messenger Service) joined as a belated replacement for Balin. The East Coast leg of the tour included a major free concert in Central Park that drew over 50,000 attendees. They returned to the West Coast in September, playing concerts in San Diego, Hollywood, Phoenix and Albuquerque. The tour culminated in two shows at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco (September 21 -- 22), both of which were recorded. At the end of the second show, the group was joined on stage by Marty Balin, who sang lead vocals on "Volunteers '' and the final song, "You Wear Your Dresses Too Short. ''
The Winterland shows were the last live performances by Jefferson Airplane until their reunion in 1989. A new live album, Thirty Seconds Over Winterland, was culled from the tour and released in April 1973. Later that year, Kaukonen and Casady decided to focus on Hot Tuna as a full - time endeavor, effectively leaving the band; however, no official announcement was ever released. By December 1973, RCA had terminated the band 's salaries, resulting in Freiberg being forced to draw unemployment to maintain his house payments.
Following the commercially unsuccessful Baron von Tollbooth & the Chrome Nun (1973; credited to Kantner, Slick and Freiberg) and Manhole (1974; credited to Slick), Jefferson Airplane evolved into Jefferson Starship in January 1974. The initial lineup consisted of the remaining members of Jefferson Airplane (Kantner, Slick, Freiberg, Barbata, Creach); bassist Peter Kaukonen (soon replaced by British multi-instrumentalist Pete Sears, a veteran of Creach 's solo oeuvre and Manhole); and lead guitarist Craig Chaquico, a member of Grunt Records band Jack Traylor and Steelwind who contributed to the Kantner / Slick solo albums beginning with Sunfighter. They appropriated the name from Kantner 's Blows Against the Empire, with Bill Thompson convincing the group that maintaining the connection was prudent from a business standpoint. Reflecting the transition, their first album (Dragon Fly, released in September 1974) was credited to Slick, Kantner and Jefferson Starship.
After the acrimonious events that resulted in Jefferson Starship 's 1984 evolution into Starship, Kantner reunited with Balin (who joined Jefferson Starship in 1974 following a guest appearance on Dragon Fly before leaving once more in 1978) and Jack Casady in 1985 to form the KBC Band. They released their only album, KBC Band, in 1987 on Arista Records. On March 4, 1988, Grace Slick made a cameo appearance during a Hot Tuna San Francisco performance at the Fillmore (with Kantner and Creach joining in), facilitating a potential reunion of Jefferson Airplane.
In 1989, the classic 1966 - 1970 lineup of Jefferson Airplane reunited (with the exception of drummer Spencer Dryden) for a tour and album. The self - titled album was released by Epic to modest sales but the accompanying tour was considered a success.
In 1996, the 1966 - 1970 lineup of Jefferson Airplane was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, with Balin, Casady, Dryden, Kantner and Kaukonen attending as well as performing. Grace Slick was absent, as she was unable to travel for medical reasons.
1998 saw the production and broadcast of a very popular episode of the hit VH1 documentary television series Behind The Music about Jefferson Airplane, directed by Bob Sarles. Band members Grace Slick, Marty Balin, Paul Kantner, Jorma Kaukonen, Jack Casady and Spencer Dryden were all interviewed for the episode, along with David Crosby, longtime Airplane manager Bill Thompson and China Kantner, daughter of Paul Kantner and Grace Slick.
In 2004, the film Fly Jefferson Airplane (directed by Bob Sarles) was released on DVD. It covers the years 1965 -- 1972 and includes then - recent interviews with band members and thirteen complete songs.
Spencer Dryden died of colon cancer on January 11, 2005.
Jorma Kaukonen and Jack Casady performed a set at the 2015 Lockn ' Festival to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Jefferson Airplane. They were joined by G.E. Smith, Rachael Price, Larry Campbell and Teresa Williams. In 2016, Jefferson Airplane was given the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.
Both Signe Anderson and Paul Kantner died on January 28, 2016.
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how many billionaires are there in united states | List of countries by the number of billionaires - wikipedia
This is a list of countries by the number of billionaires by net worth (USD) based on an annual assessment of wealth and assets compiled and published by Forbes magazine. This list excludes lists compiled and published by Business Insider, Challenges, Hurun Report, The Sunday Times, UBS and other sources.
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what are the two sides of a sand dune | Dune - wikipedia
In physical geography, a dune is a hill of loose sand built by aeolian processes (wind) or the flow of water. Dunes occur in different shapes and sizes, formed by interaction with the flow of air or water. Most kinds of dunes are longer on the stoss (upflow) side, where the sand is pushed up the dune, and have a shorter "slip face '' in the lee side. The valley or trough between dunes is called a slack. A "dune field '' or erg is an area covered by extensive dunes.
Dunes occur in some deserts and along some coasts. Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient lake or sea beds. Dunes can form under the action of water flow (fluvial processes), and on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries and the sea - bed.
The modern word "dune '' came into English from French c. 1790, which in turn came from Middle Dutch dūne.
Dunes are made of sand; the sand may be quartz, calcium carbonate, snow, gypsum, or other materials. The upwind / upstream / upcurrent side of the dune is called the stoss side; the downflow side is called the lee side. Sand is pushed (creep) or bounces (saltation) up the stoss side, and slides down the lee side. A side of a dune that the sand has slid down is called a slip face.
The Bagnold formula gives the speed at which particles can be transported.
Barchan dunes are crescent - shaped mounds which are generally wider than they are long. The lee - side slipfaces are on the concave sides of the dunes. These dunes form under winds that blow consistently from one direction (unimodal winds). They form separate crescents when the sand supply is comparatively small. When the sand supply is greater, they may merge into barchanoid ridges, and then transverse dunes (see below).
Some types of crescentic dunes move more quickly over desert surfaces than any other type of dune. A group of dunes moved more than 100 metres per year between 1954 and 1959 in China 's Ningxia Province, and similar speeds have been recorded in the Western Desert of Egypt. The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest - to - crest widths of more than three kilometres, are in China 's Taklamakan Desert.
See lunettes and parabolic dues, below, for other crescent - shaped dunes.
Abundant barchan dunes (see above) may merge into barchanoid ridges, which then grade into linear (or slightly sinuous) transverse dunes, so called because they lie transverse, or across, the wind direction, with the wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge crest.
Seif dunes are linear (or slightly sinuous) dunes with two slip faces. The two slip faces make them sharp - crested. They are called seif dunes after the Arabic word for "sword ''. They may be more than 160 kilometres (100 miles) long, and thus easily visible in satellite images (see illustrations).
Seif dunes are associated with bidirectional winds. The long axes and ridges of these dunes extend along the resultant direction of sand movement (hence the name "longitudinal ''). Some linear dunes merge to form Y - shaped compound dunes.
Formation is debated. Bagnold, in The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, suggested that some seif dunes form when a barchan dune moves into a bidirectional wind regime, and one arm or wing of the crescent elongates. Others suggest that seif dunes are formed by vortices in a unidirectional wind. In the sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes, barchans may be formed, because the wind is constrained to be unidirectional by the dunes.
Rub ' al Khali (Arabian Empty Quarter) sand dunes imaged by Terra (EOS AM - 1). Most of these dunes are seif dunes. Their origin from barchans is suggested by the stubby remnant "hooks '' seen on many of the dunes. Wind would be from left to right.
Large linear seif dunes in the Great Sand Sea in southwest Egypt, seen from the International Space Station. The distance between each dune is 1.5 - 2.5 km.
The average - direction - longitudinal model of seif dune formation.
By contrast, transverse dunes form with the wind blowing perpendicular to the ridges, and have only one slipface, on the lee side. The stoss side is less steep.
Transverse dunes lie perpendicular to the wind, which moves them forwards, producing the cross-bedding shown here.
Seif dunes are common in the Sahara. They range up to 300 m (980 ft) in height and 300 km (190 mi) in length. In the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula, a vast erg, called the Rub ' al Khali or Empty Quarter, contains seif dunes that stretch for almost 200 km and reach heights of over 300 m.
Linear loess hills known as pahas are superficially similar. These hills appear to have been formed during the last ice age under permafrost conditions dominated by sparse tundra vegetation.
Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the high center of the mound. They tend to accumulate in areas with multidirectional wind regimes. Star dunes grow upward rather than laterally. They dominate the Grand Erg Oriental of the Sahara. In other deserts, they occur around the margins of the sand seas, particularly near topographic barriers. In the southeast Badain Jaran Desert of China, the star dunes are up to 500 metres tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth.
Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface. Dome dunes are rare and occur at the far upwind margins of sand seas.
Fixed crescentic dunes that form on the leeward margins of playas and river valleys in arid and semiarid regions in response to the direction (s) of prevailing winds, are known as lunettes, source - bordering dunes, bourrelets and clay dunes. They may be composed of clay, silt, sand, or gypsum, eroded from the basin floor or shore, transported up the concave side of the dune, and deposited on the convex side. Examples in Australia are up to 6.5 km long, 1 km wide, and up to 50 metres high. They also occur in southern and West Africa, and in parts of the western United States, especially Texas.
U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. These dunes are formed from blowout dunes where the erosion of vegetated sand leads to a U-shaped depression. The elongated arms are held in place by vegetation; the largest arm known on Earth reaches 12 km. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their crests point upwind. The bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward.
In plan view, these are U-shaped or V - shaped mounds of well - sorted, very fine to medium sand with elongated arms that extend upwind behind the central part of the dune. There are slipfaces that often occur on the outer side of the nose and on the outer slopes of the arms.
These dunes often occur in semiarid areas where the precipitation is retained in the lower parts of the dune and underlying soils. The stability of the dunes was once attributed to the vegetative cover but recent research has pointed to water as the main source of parabolic dune stability. The vegetation that covers them -- grasses, shrubs, and trees -- help anchor the trailing arms. In inland deserts, parabolic dunes commonly originate and extend downwind from blowouts in sand sheets only partly anchored by vegetation. They can also originate from beach sands and extend inland into vegetated areas in coastal zones and on shores of large lakes.
Most parabolic dunes do not reach heights higher than a few tens of metres except at their nose, where vegetation stops or slows the advance of accumulating sand.
Simple parabolic dunes have only one set of arms that trail upwind, behind the leading nose. Compound parabolic dunes are coalesced features with several sets of trailing arms. Complex parabolic dunes include subsidiary superposed or coalesced forms, usually of barchanoid or linear shapes.
Parabolic dunes, like crescent dunes, occur in areas where very strong winds are mostly unidirectional. Although these dunes are found in areas now characterized by variable wind speeds, the effective winds associated with the growth and migration of both the parabolic and crescent dunes probably are the most consistent in wind direction.
The grain size for these well - sorted, very fine to medium sands is about 0.06 to 0.5 mm. Parabolic dunes have loose sand and steep slopes only on their outer flanks. The inner slopes are mostly well packed and anchored by vegetation, as are the corridors between individual dunes. Because all dune arms are oriented in the same direction, and, the inter-dune corridors are generally swept clear of loose sand, the corridors can usually be traversed in between the trailing arms of the dune. However to cross straight over the dune by going over the trailing arms, can be very difficult. Also, traversing the nose is very difficult as well because the nose is usually made up of loose sand without much if any vegetation.
A type of extensive parabolic dune that lacks discernible slipfaces and has mostly coarse grained sand is known as a zibar. The term zibar comes from the Arabic word to describe "rolling transverse ridges... with a hard surface ''. The dunes are small, have low relief, and can be found in many places across the planet from Wyoming (United States) to Saudi Arabia to Australia. Spacing between zibars ranges from 50 to 400 metres and they do n't become more than 10 metres high. The dunes form at about ninety degrees to the prevailing wind which blows away the small, fine - grained sand leaving behind the coarser grained sand to form the crest.
Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above shapes. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions. The minor slipfaces are usually temporary, as they appear after a reverse wind and are generally destroyed when the wind next blows in the dominant direction.
Draas are very large - scale dune bedforms; they may be tens or a few hundreds of meters in height, kilometers wide, and hundreds of kilometers in length. After a draa has reached a certain size, it generally develops superimposed dune forms. They are thought to be more ancient and slower - moving than smaller dunes, and to form by vertical growth of existing dunes. Draas are widespread in sand seas and are well - represented in the geological record.
All these dune shapes may occur in three forms: simple, compound, and complex. Simple dunes are basic forms with the minimum number of slipfaces that define the geometric type. Compound dunes are large dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and slipface orientation are superimposed. Complex dunes are combinations of two or more dune types. A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its crest is the most common complex dune. Simple dunes represent a wind regime that has not changed in intensity or direction since the formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the intensity and direction of the wind has changed.
The sand mass of dunes can move either windward or leeward, depending on if the wind is making contact with the dune from below or above its apogee. If wind hits from above, the sand particles move leeward. If sand hits from below, sand particles move windward. The leeward flux of sand is greater than the windward flux. Further, when the wind carrying sand particles when it hits the dune, the dune 's sand particles will saltate more than if the wind had hit the dune without carrying sand particles.
Dunes form where the beach is wide enough to allow for the accumulation of wind - blown sand, and where prevailing onshore winds tend to blow sand inland. Obstacles -- for example, vegetation, pebbles and so on -- tend to slow down the wind and lead to the deposition of sand grains. These small "incipient dunes or "shadow dunes '' tend to grow in the vertical direction if the obstacle slowing the wind can also grow vertically (i.e., vegetation). Coastal dunes expand laterally as a result of lateral growth of coastal plants via seed or rhizome. Models of coastal dunes suggest that their final equilibrium height is related to the distance between the water line and where vegetation can grow. Additionally the height of coastal dunes is impacted by storm events, which can erode dunes. Recent work has suggested that coastal dunes tend to evolve toward a high or low morphology depending on the growth rate of dunes relative to storm frequency. In certain conditions, both low and high dunes are possible -- dunes are a system that shows bistable dynamics.
Dunes provide privacy and shelter from the wind.
As a dune forms, plant succession occurs. The conditions on an embryo dune are harsh, with salt spray from the sea carried on strong winds. The dune is well drained and often dry, and composed of calcium carbonate from seashells. Rotting seaweed, brought in by storm waves adds nutrients to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune. These pioneer species are marram grass, sea wort grass and other sea grasses in the United Kingdom. These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the foredune typically having deep roots which reach the water table, root nodules that produce nitrogen compounds, and protected stoma, reducing transpiration. Also, the deep roots bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a foredune as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add nitrogen to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these are heather, heaths and gorses. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration. Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil pH, caused by the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching. Coniferous forests and heathland are common climax communities for sand dune systems.
Young dunes are called yellow dunes and dunes which have high humus content are called grey dunes. Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes. It is usually in the slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune slacks soil to be waterlogged and where only marsh plants can survive. These plants would include: creeping willow, cotton grass, yellow iris, reeds, and rushes. As for the species, there is a tendency for natterjack toads to breed here.
Dune ecosystems are extremely difficult places for plants to survive. This is due to a number of pressures related to their proximity to the ocean and confinement to growth on sandy substrates. These include:
There are many adaptations plants have evolved to cope with these pressures:
A nabkha, or coppice dune, is a small dune anchored by vegetation. They usually indicate desertification or soil erosion, and serve as nesting and burrow sites for animals.
Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines. Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope in typical bedform construction.
These dunes most often form as a continuous ' train ' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in wavelength and height. The shape of a dune gives information about its formation environment. For instance, rives produce asymmetrical ripples, with the steeper slip face facing downstream. This is useful when they are found fossilized in the geological record.
Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river flooding.
A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or aeolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the color of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in the Zion National Park in the western United States.
A slang term, used in the southwest US, for consolidated and hardened sand dunes is "slickrock '', a name that was introduced by pioneers of the Old West because their steel - rimmed wagon wheels could not gain traction on the rock.
Sand dunes can have a negative impact on humans when they encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move via a few different means, all of them helped along by wind. One way that dunes can move is by saltation, where sand particles skip along the ground like a bouncing ball. When these skipping particles land, they may knock into other particles and cause them to move as well, in a process known as creep. With slightly stronger winds, particles collide in mid-air, causing sheet flows. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of metres through such sheet flows. Also as in the case of snow, sand avalanches, falling down the slipface of the dunes -- that face away from the winds -- also move the dunes forward.
Sand threatens buildings and crops in Africa, the Middle East, and China. Drenching sand dunes with oil stops their migration, but this approach is quite destructive to the dunes ' animal habitats and uses a valuable resource. Sand fences might also slow their movement to a crawl, but geologists are still analyzing results for the optimum fence designs. Preventing sand dunes from overwhelming towns, villages, and agricultural areas has become a priority for the United Nations Environment Programme. Planting dunes with vegetation also helps to stabilise them.
Dune habitats provide niches for highly specialized plants and animals, including numerous rare species and some endangered species. Due to widespread human population expansion, dunes face destruction through land development and recreational usages, as well as alteration to prevent the encroachment of sand onto inhabited areas. Some countries, notably the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Sri Lanka have developed significant programs of dune protection through the use of sand dune stabilization. In the U.K., a Biodiversity Action Plan has been developed to assess dunes loss and to prevent future dunes destruction.
Dunes can likely be found in any environment where there is a substantial atmosphere, winds, and dust to be blown. Dunes are common on Mars and in the equatorial regions of Titan.
Titan 's dunes include large expanses with modal lengths of about 20 -- 30 km. The regions are not topographically confined, resembling sand seas. These dunes are interpreted to be longitudinal dunes whose crests are oriented parallel to the dominant wind direction, which generally indicates west - to - east wind flow. The sand is likely composed of hydrocarbon particles, possibly with some water ice mixed in.
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who does patrick dempsey play in brother bear 2 | Brother Bear 2 - wikipedia
Brother Bear 2 is a 2006 American animated comedy - drama film and the direct - to - video sequel to the animated feature Brother Bear, which was released on August 29, 2006. Melissa Etheridge contributed three songs to the film. In the film, the adventures of bear brothers Kenai and Koda continue. While the first film dealt with Kenai 's relationship with Koda, this one focuses more on his bond with a young human, Nita.
Only five of the original characters return for the sequel (excluding Denahi), including Kenai, Koda, Rutt, Tuke, and Tug, because Jason Raize committed suicide in 2004. Only four of those actors came back to do their original roles, which include Jeremy Suarez, Rick Moranis (in his most recent role as of 2017), Dave Thomas, and Michael Clarke Duncan.
Producer Jim Ballantine was removed from the project and replaced with producer Carolyn Bates. Jason Marsden, as heard in the first trailer, was originally announced to voice Kenai, originally voiced by Joaquin Phoenix in the first film, but Patrick Dempsey ultimately voiced the character. However, the end credits still note Marsden as one of the additional voices.
Picking up several months after the events of the first film, Kenai, now a cave bear, is living happily with his foster brother Koda. Having just awoken from hibernation, the bears begin traveling to Crowberry Ridge for the first berries of the season. However, Kenai is haunted by memories of his childhood friend Nita, to whom he gave a special amulet many years ago after saving her from drowning. Nita, now grown up, is set to wed Atka, a man from a neighboring Inuit village. However, on the day of the wedding, the Spirits appear in the form of a storm that causes a fissure to open up in the ground between Nita and Atka, much to Nita 's horror. Believing it to be a sign, Nita consults the wisest shaman of the tribes. By communicating with the Spirits, the shaman reveals that the amulet that Kenai gave Nita all those years ago bonded her and Kenai together. The only way for Nita to sever the bond and be able to marry Atka is to find Kenai, go with him to Hokani Falls (where Kenai gave Nita the amulet), and burn the amulet on the eve of the Equinox, thus returning the bond to the Spirits. The shaman grants Nita the ability to communicate with Kenai and the other wildlife for this journey.
Eventually, Kenai and Koda meet up with Nita. At first, Kenai refuses to destroy the bond, but Nita tells him that the Spirits may turn him back into a human and send him to find her. Under pressure from Nita and Koda, who is worried that he and Kenai could no longer be brothers if this happens, Kenai relents and the three make their way to Hokani Falls. As they spend more time together, Kenai and Nita rekindle their old friendship, much to Koda 's jealousy. One night, Nita asks Kenai if he ever thought of being human again. When Kenai says that he has considered it, Koda hears this and races up a mountain, grief - stricken that Kenai may leave him. Nita finds Koda hiding in a cave, but both are caught in an avalanche and barely rescued by Kenai. Kenai scolds Koda for almost getting himself killed, but the two reconcile with Kenai assuring Koda that he would never leave him.
The trio eventually make it to Hokani Falls, where they burn the amulet. Without it, Nita can no longer communicate with Kenai or Koda, so she says goodbye. Seeing how depressed Kenai is and realizing that he loves Nita, Koda secretly asks his mother in the Spirit land to turn Kenai back into a human so he can be happy. The next morning, Rutt and Tuke (whom Kenai, Koda, and Nita ran into multiple times throughout their journey, and whom Nita helped woo a pair of female Canadian moose) inform Kenai that Koda went to the village to retrieve Nita. Knowing that Koda could be killed, Kenai follows after him.
At the village, the tribes prepare for the wedding once again, but Nita, realizing her feelings for Kenai, tells her father that she can not marry Atka. At that moment, Koda creates a major commotion in the village in order to get Nita 's attention, while Kenai arrives to retrieve Koda. Rutt and Tuke rescue Koda from two of the villagers, while Atka battles Kenai, shoving him off of a cliff and into shallow water. Nita rushes to Kenai 's aide, where the two profess their love for each other. The Spirits appear to change Kenai back into a human, allowing Nita to communicate with Kenai and Koda. Kenai tells Nita that he can not become a human again and leave Koda, but Nita tells him that she can be with him. With her father 's blessing, the Spirits transform Nita into a bear. The film ends with Kenai and Nita 's wedding that the tribes, bears, Rutt, Tuke and their mates happily watch.
The film was produced by DisneyToon Studios,, Disney Animation Australia and Project Firefly, a start up animation company founded by former Disney Feature Animation Florida employees.
Brother Bear 2 received generally mixed reviews from critics, and the film currently holds a 50 % in Rotten Tomatoes, and an average rating of 5.6 / 10 (based on 8 votes). The film is the second direct - to - video sequel to have a higher rating on Rotten Tomatoes than its predecessor, with the first film being An Extremely Goofy Movie.
Enthusiastic reviews included Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures, which wrote "The kids will love "Brother Bear 2, '' especially if they loved the first film. It has a good message and some decent scenes. '' RealTalk Movie Reviews said "Although sequels -- even a few from Disney -- are often disappointing, this one is a keeper, mostly because of its charming story and extraordinary background music '', and DVDTalk 's Brian Orndorf said "As money - grabbing animated product goes, "Brother Bear 2 '' rests nicely on a lowered expectation level, and is hardly an offensive affront to the first film. The texture and polish is deeply missed, but the characters are so strong and engaging, it still entertains. '' David Cornelius of DVDTalk wrote "The story fails to impress, but everything else adds up in all the right ways to make up for it. The makers of "Brother Bear 2 '' break the curse of the Disney sequel and turn in a welcome effort. '' Movie Metropolis said "When you consider that Disney meant this production strictly for the home and it probably did n't cost nearly as much as the first film to make or market, it 's actually a superior product... '' Brother Bear 2 '' may not be first - tier Disney filmmaking, but it is first - tier Disney animation, and that and the sweetness of the story line may be enough to keep even grown - ups entertained. ''
Negative reviews came from Pablo Villaca of Cinema em Cena, who said "sad to say... the magic of the first film and sensitivity were replaced by cliches, ridiculous story and cheap sentimentality. '' Reel Film Reviews said "There 's little doubt that Brother Bear 2, for the most part, comes off as an affable yet entirely needless piece of work, as filmmaker Ben Gluck, working from Rich Burns ' script, is generally unable to wholeheartedly capture and sustain the viewer 's interest - with the ongoing emphasis on stand - alone segments (eg the central trio run afoul of several violent raccoons) ensuring that the movie is only sporadically engaging. ''
In 2016, Doug Walker of Channel Awesome reviewed Brother Bear 2 as part of Disneycember, praising the animation but criticizing the writing and the film itself for being "mostly dumb ''.
The soundtrack to Brother Bear 2 was released August 15, 2006. It is available only on digital outlets such as the iTunes Store and walmart.com. It includes the following tracks:
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who plays for third place in world cup | Third place playoff - wikipedia
A third place playoff, match / game for third place, bronze medal game or consolation game is a single match that is included in many sporting knockout tournaments to decide which competitor or team will be credited with finishing third and fourth. The teams that compete in the third place playoff game are usually the two losing semi-finalists in a particular knockout tournament.
Many tournaments use the third place playoff to determine who wins the bronze medal. In some tournaments, a third place playoff is necessary for seeding purposes if three or all four semi-finalists advance to another tournament.
In tournaments that do not award medals or have the third place finisher advance to something else, a third place playoff is a classification match that serves little more than as a consolation to the losing semi-finalists. A consolation game also allows teams to play more than one game after having invested time, effort and money in the quest for a championship. Third place playoffs held as such consolation games are subject to debate. Many sports tournaments do not have a third place playoff due to a lack of interest. It has been criticised by some who feel that the match serves little purpose, but others see this game as an occasion for the losing semi-finalists to salvage some pride. How seriously the competitors or teams take a third place playoff, may also be mixed: a heavily favoured team that lost in an upset in the semi-final round may not have as much incentive to win as would a "Cinderella '' team who was not expected to advance that far.
Most sports using a knockout format in the Olympic Games have a third place game to determine who wins the bronze medal, with the exception being boxing which awards two bronze medals (judo, taekwondo, and wrestling, which also award two bronze medals, both feature two bronze medal matches, between the losing semi-finalists and the winners of the repechage). As the difference between a bronze medal and no medal is quite significant, competitors still take this game seriously.
The Rugby World Cup used to give automatic qualification to all teams in the top three of the ongoing tournament to the one that would follow it four years later thus making the third place playoff game important, but this was later scrapped after the 1999 edition of the tournament allowing teams outside the top three to automatically qualify depending on their IRB co-efficient in the rankings.
The 1980 edition was the last UEFA European Football Championship to have a third place match. That was one of the few third place football matches ever to be decided by a penalty shootout, where Czechoslovakia defeated hosts Italy 9 - 8.
The FIFA World Cup features a third place playoff, usually on the day before the final. It is often there to provide a spectacle as there is often a gap of a few days between the semi-finals and the final. The third place playoff is considered a lower - priority match to organizers, as it is frequently scheduled in one of the smaller stadia; the largest stadium (usually located in the host nation 's capital city) is reserved for the final, while the semi-finals occupy the second and third - largest stadia. However, the third place match in the 1994 World Cup did use the Rose Bowl stadium, the same venue that would later host the tournament final, setting a record attendance of 91,500 for a third place playoff in FIFA World Cup history.
The third - place match in the FIFA Women 's World Cup has been somewhat more important to the organizers -- the 1999, 2003, and 2007 matches were all held in the same stadium as the final. In fact, the 1999 and 2007 third - place matches were both held as the first half of a doubleheader that culminated in the final. The 2011 third - place match returned to the more traditional scheduling of the day before the final in a different stadium. Notably, the 1999 third - place match was the curtain - raiser to the most - attended women 's sporting event in history, the 1999 final also held in the Rose Bowl.
The third place match is generally a high - scoring affair, as no men 's match has seen fewer than two goals scored since Poland 's 1 - 0 win over Brazil in 1974, while all bronze - medal games since 1994 (except for 1998, 2014 and 2018) have seen four goals or more. For tournament top scorers, the third place match 's tendency of attacking football is a great opportunity to win the Golden Shoe, with players such as Salvatore Schillaci (1990), Davor Šuker (1998), and Thomas Müller (2010) getting the goal they needed to take sole possession of the lead. The FIFA Women 's World Cup has had only seven editions to date, therefore creating less opportunity for a pattern to form. However, two of the third - place games in that competition have seen fewer than three goals. In 1995, the USA defeated China 2 -- 0. In 1999, the third - place match between Brazil and Norway ended in a scoreless draw and penalty shootout (won by Brazil), as did the final between the USA and China (won by the USA). In 2015, the third place match between Germany and England was the first to go to extra time, and in the second period of extra time, England scored a single penalty kick goal and held on to the lead to upset Germany.
How seriously the competing teams take this match is subject to debate. Certain teams, especially ones which had been expected to reach the final, will rest some of their starters to allow some of their reserve team players to participate in a World Cup game. For instance French team captain Michel Platini did not play in either the 1982 or 1986 third place matches, while German goalkeeper Hans - Jörg Butt received his only competitive international appearance in a third place playoff, and Michel Vorm came on during injury time of the 3 -- 0 third place play - off win against Brazil in Brasília thus ensuring that all 23 Dutch squad members played at the tournament. By contrast, teams that are not expected to get this far usually take this match seriously, as third place can be a historical achievement. In the 1994 World Cup, the Sweden national team branded the game as "the bronze match '' and after victory they landed at Arlanda with a fighter escort and were then paraded through the streets of Stockholm to millions live on national TV. Another example of a high - profile third place match was in 1998, when the recently established Croatian football team upset the Netherlands.
If the host nation is involved in the third place match, the team generally uses the match to thank the support of their fans (such as the South Korean football team in 2002, and the German football team in 2006. German goalkeeper Oliver Kahn, who had been a reserve to Jens Lehmann during the 2006 tournament, was allowed to retire in the third place playoff by then manager Jürgen Klinsmann. Germany and Portugal fielded strong lineups in that match, after both were narrowly eliminated in their respective semi-finals (Germany and Italy nearly went to a penalty shootout, while Portugal was defeated by the lower - ranked France). For Brazil, the dismal 3 -- 0 loss to the Netherlands in the 2014 third place match, along with the 7 - 1 semi-final defeat to Germany, led to coach Luiz Felipe Scolari being dismissed. For the Dutch, this was their first bronze medal in the FIFA World Cup.
Germany currently holds the most third - place finishes in the (men 's) World Cup, with four, their most recent in 2010. The U.S. has the most third - place finishes in the Women 's World Cup, with three; they have never finished outside the top three.
For most of its history, the Little League World Series has featured either a consolation bracket, or consolation games. Currently, the tournament features a single consolation game between the United States runner - up and the International runner - up. Like the championship, the game allows an American team to compete against an International team. All other games are played within their respective American or International pool of eight teams each, except two exhibition games which match the United States teams and International teams which went 0 - 2 in their respective brackets.
Third place games (and consolation games for lower placings) are common in early season college basketball tournaments, as it gives each team an opportunity to play more games before the conference games start in earnest. It also provides the tournament venue with additional games.
Many sports tournaments do not have a third place playoff, mostly due to a lack of interest from the competitors and also from the fans. Two of the most celebrated knockout tournaments -- the FA Cup Third - fourth place matches (1970 -- 1974) and the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship (1946 -- 1981) -- did feature the third place game for a period of time, but later abandoned it. For most of its years, the NCAA consolation game held interest because it usually featured two nationally ranked teams in which only a few teams qualified for the tournament. However, as the field expanded beyond 32 teams, the game lost significance. In addition, eliminating the game allowed the losing teams to return home rather than remaining in the Final Four city for an additional two days to play a game many believed was irrelevant. Relevancy aside, others supported the game for competitive reasons because it typically featured a match between two of the best college teams in the nation; and, it allowed each of those teams to be honored as a Final Four team for the entire weekend.
The National Football League had a consolation game, the Playoff Bowl, from 1960 to 1969, which pitted the second - place team in each of the two conferences (based on regular season record from 1960 to 1966) against each other in Miami, Florida. Through the 1966 season, the only scheduled NFL playoff game was the Championship Game (with unscheduled conference tie - breaker games as necessary; only in 1965 during the 1960s). In 1967, the NFL playoff field expanded to four (division champions), and its first round losers went to the Playoff Bowl, increasingly unpopular with the participating players. With interest declining for a third - place game and an eight - team playoff field arriving with the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970, the Playoff Bowl was abandoned with little objection.
Third place playoffs are especially controversial when they are used in tournaments that use a Page playoff system since there is only one "semi-final '' game in this format. Critics argue that in such a formula, the loser of the semi-final should simply be awarded third place. Proponents of the third place game argue that without it, the importance of the medal round is cheapened since the top two teams heading into the Page playoff would otherwise be "guaranteed '' a medal - this argument carries less weight in tournaments where medals are not awarded or where they are considered of relatively minor importance in comparison to winning the tournament.
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who is playing in the super bowl 2017 | Super Bowl LI - wikipedia
Super Bowl LI was an American football game played at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas, on Sunday, February 5, 2017, to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2016 season. The American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots, after trailing by as many as 25 points (28 -- 3) during the third quarter, defeated the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Atlanta Falcons, 34 -- 28 in overtime. The Patriots ' 25 - point comeback is the largest comeback in Super Bowl history, and Super Bowl LI was the first to be decided in overtime.
The Patriots ' victory was their fifth, moving them into a three - way tie with the Dallas Cowboys and the San Francisco 49ers for second place on the all - time Super Bowl wins list, trailing only the Pittsburgh Steelers who have six victories. New England, after finishing the regular season with a league - best 14 -- 2 record, advanced to their record - setting ninth Super Bowl appearance, their second in three years, and their seventh under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. The Falcons entered the game after completing an 11 -- 5 regular season record, and were trying to win their first Super Bowl title, having lost their only previous appearance in Super Bowl XXXIII.
After a scoreless first quarter, Atlanta scored 21 points before New England made a field goal with two seconds left in the second quarter, to make it a 21 -- 3 halftime lead. The Falcons then increased their lead to 28 -- 3 midway through the third quarter, with quarterback Matt Ryan completing his second touchdown pass. The Patriots then scored 25 unanswered points to tie the game, 28 -- 28, with 57 seconds left in regulation. New England won the overtime coin toss, received the kickoff and drove 75 yards to win with a 2 - yard touchdown run by running back James White. When the game ended, more than 30 team and individual Super Bowl records had been either broken or matched. White 's 14 receptions and his 20 points scored (off of 3 touchdowns and a two - point conversion) were among these broken records. New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, who also broke single - game Super Bowl records with 43 completed passes, 62 pass attempts, and 466 passing yards, was named Super Bowl MVP for a record fourth time.
Fox 's broadcast of the game averaged around 111.3 million viewers, slightly down from the 111.9 million viewers of the previous year 's Super Bowl. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Lady Gaga, was higher at 117.5 million. On the following day a number of media outlets immediately hailed the game as the greatest Super Bowl of all time.
The NFL selected the sites for Super Bowl 50 and Super Bowl LI at the owners ' spring meetings in Boston on May 21, 2013. On October 16, 2012, the NFL announced that Reliant Stadium in Houston, which was renamed NRG Stadium in 2014, was a finalist to host Super Bowl LI. Houston then competed against the runner - up for the site of Super Bowl 50: Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. The South Florida bid for either Super Bowl partially depended on whether the stadium underwent renovations. However, on May 3, the Florida Legislature refused to approve the funding plan to pay for the renovations, dealing a blow to South Florida 's chances. The NFL ultimately selected Houston as the host city of Super Bowl LI.
This was the second Super Bowl to be held at NRG Stadium, the other being Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004, which also featured the New England Patriots against that season 's NFC South champion Carolina Panthers. It was also the third time the Super Bowl has been played in Houston, with Super Bowl VIII in 1974 having been held at Rice Stadium. With the Astros baseball team reaching the World Series eight months later, Houston would become just the fourth city to host both the Super Bowl and Fall Classic in the same calendar year, following San Diego (1998), Detroit (2006) and Arlington, Texas (2011); and the first among the four to win the Major League Baseball championship.
Proposition 1, an ordinance which would have prohibited discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity in Houston 's housing, employment, public accommodations, and city contracting, was rejected by voters (60.97 % opposing) during the November 3, 2015 elections. Subsequently, the NFL announced it would not alter plans to have the city host Super Bowl LI. Houston Texans owner Bob McNair donated $10,000 to Campaign for Houston, an organization that opposes the ordinance, which he later rescinded.
In 2016, New England tied an NFL record, earning 12 + wins for the seventh consecutive season. Even though starting quarterback Tom Brady was suspended for the first four games, and All - Pro tight end Rob Gronkowski was lost to injury in midseason, the Patriots still recorded an NFL - best 14 -- 2 record; their only losses were a shutout loss to the Buffalo Bills in Week 4 and a loss to the Seattle Seahawks in Week 10. They scored 441 points (third in the NFL) while allowing the fewest in the league (250).
Brady missed the first four games of the year on suspension due to a 2014 postseason incident known as Deflategate. Jimmy Garoppolo and Jacoby Brissett each started two games in Brady 's place. After his suspension ended, Brady took back command of the offense and went on to earn his 12th Pro Bowl selection, passing for 3,554 yards and 28 touchdowns, with only two interceptions, while his 112.2 passer rating ranked second in the NFL. The team 's leading receiver was Julian Edelman, who caught 98 passes for 1,106 yards and added 135 more returning punts. Wide receivers Chris Hogan (38 receptions for 680 yards) and Malcolm Mitchell (32 receptions for 401 yards) were also significant receiving threats. Gronkowski caught 25 passes for 540 yards before suffering a season - ending back injury in week 13. Tight end Martellus Bennett stepped up in his absence, hauling in 55 receptions for 701 yards and a team - leading seven touchdown catches. Running back LeGarrette Blount was the team 's top rusher with 1,168 yards and a league - leading 18 touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 60 passes for 551 yards and added another 166 on the ground. Running back Dion Lewis was also a valuable asset to the offense, rushing for 283 yards on offense and catching 17 passes for 94 yards.
Despite trading All - Pro outside linebacker Jamie Collins to the Cleveland Browns in the middle of the season, the Patriots defensive line was led by tackle Trey Flowers, who ranked first on the team with seven quarterback sacks, and Jabaal Sheard, who recorded five sacks of his own. Linebacker Dont'a Hightower earned his first Pro Bowl selection and made the second All - Pro team, compiling 65 tackles and 21⁄2 sacks. Linebacker Rob Ninkovich also made a big impact, recording 34 tackles, two forced fumbles, and four sacks. In the secondary, cornerback Malcolm Butler led the team with four interceptions, while Logan Ryan led the team in tackles and intercepted two passes. Safety Devin McCourty ranked second on the team with 83 tackles and notched one interception while earning his third career Pro Bowl selection. The team also had a defensive expert on special teams, Matthew Slater, who made the Pro Bowl for the sixth consecutive year.
By advancing to play in Super Bowl LI, the Patriots earned their NFL - record ninth Super Bowl appearance, as well as their seventh in the past 16 years under Brady and head coach Bill Belichick. The Patriots have also participated in the only other Super Bowl to be held at NRG Stadium; they won Super Bowl XXXVIII over the Carolina Panthers by a 32 -- 29 score thirteen years earlier. The Patriots entered Super Bowl LI with an overall record of 4 -- 4 in their previous eight Super Bowl appearances, with all four of their wins and two of their four losses coming under the leadership of Belichick and Brady.
With his appearance in Super Bowl LI, Belichick broke the tie of six Super Bowls as a head coach that he had shared with Don Shula. It was also his record tenth participation in a Super Bowl in any capacity, which overtook the mark of nine that he had shared with Dan Reeves. This was also Brady 's seventh Super Bowl appearance, the most appearances by a player in Super Bowl history.
The Atlanta Falcons, under second - year head coach Dan Quinn, finished the 2016 season with an 11 -- 5 record, earning them the No. 2 seed in the NFC playoffs. It was a big reversal of declining fortunes for the team, who had failed to qualify to play in the playoffs in each of the last three seasons.
The Falcons were loaded with offensive firepower, leading all NFL teams in scoring with 540 points. Nine - year veteran quarterback Matt Ryan earned the NFL MVP and the AP NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award, as well as his fourth career Pro Bowl selection, leading the league in passer rating (117.1). While he ranked only ninth in completions (373), his passing yards (4,944) and touchdowns (38) both ranked second in the NFL. His favorite target was receiver Julio Jones, who caught 83 passes for 1,409 yards (second in the NFL) and six touchdowns. But Ryan had plenty of other options, such as newly acquired wide receivers Mohamed Sanu (59 receptions for 653 yards) and Taylor Gabriel (35 receptions for 579 yards and six touchdowns). Pro Bowl running back Devonta Freeman was the team 's leading rusher, with 1,078 yards, 11 touchdowns, and 4.8 yards per rush. He was also a superb receiver out of the backfield, catching 54 passes for 462 yards and two more scores. Running back Tevin Coleman was also a major asset on the ground and through the air, with 520 rushing yards, 31 receptions for 421 yards, and 11 total touchdowns. The Falcons also had an excellent special teams unit led by veteran kick returner Eric Weems. His 24 punt returns for 273 yards gave him the sixth highest return average in the NFL (11.4), and he added another 391 yards returning kickoffs. Pro Bowl kicker Matt Bryant led the league in scoring with 158 points, while also ranking third in field goal percentage (91.8 %). Atlanta 's offensive line featured center Alex Mack, who earned his fourth Pro Bowl selection.
The Falcons defensive line was led by defensive ends Adrian Clayborn, who recorded five sacks and a fumble recovery, and long - time veteran Dwight Freeney, who ranks as the NFL 's 18th all - time leader in sacks (1221⁄2). Behind them, linebacker Vic Beasley was the team 's only Pro Bowl selection on defense, leading the NFL in sacks with 151⁄2; Beasley also forced six fumbles. Rookie linebacker Deion Jones was also an impact player, leading the team in combined tackles (108) and interceptions (three). The Falcons secondary featured hard - hitting safety Keanu Neal, who had 106 tackles and forced five fumbles. Safety Ricardo Allen added 90 tackles and two interceptions. But overall, the defense ranked just 27th in the league in points allowed (406).
This game marked the Falcons ' second Super Bowl appearance in franchise history, after having lost Super Bowl XXXIII in January 1999 to the Denver Broncos.
The Patriots, with the AFC 's # 1 seed, began their postseason run by defeating the fourth - seeded Houston Texans in the Divisional Round, 34 -- 16. The next week, in the AFC Championship Game, the Patriots defeated the third - seeded Pittsburgh Steelers 36 - 17.
The Falcons, with the NFC 's # 2 seed, began their postseason run by defeating the third - seeded Seattle Seahawks in the Divisional Round, 36 -- 20, racking up 422 yards. The next week, in the last NFL game ever played at the Georgia Dome, the Falcons racked up 493 total yards as they defeated the fourth - seeded Green Bay Packers 44 -- 21 to win the NFC Championship.
As the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, the Falcons elected to wear their red home jerseys with white pants, which meant that the Patriots wore their white road jerseys. The game featured Atlanta 's # 1 scoring offense versus New England 's # 1 scoring defense. This was the sixth Super Bowl since the AFL - NFL merger in 1970 to feature a # 1 scoring offense against a # 1 scoring defense, with the team with the # 1 scoring defense winning four of the previous five matchups.
Fan - oriented activities during the lead - up to Super Bowl LI were centered around the George R. Brown Convention Center and Discovery Green park. Discovery Green hosted Super Bowl Live, a 10 - day festival which featured live concerts and other attractions, including projection shows, fireworks shows, and a virtual reality attraction, Future Flight, in conjunction with NASA. The neighboring George R. Brown Convention Center hosted the annual NFL Experience event, which featured interactive activities and appearances by players. Super Bowl Opening Night, the second edition of the game 's revamped media day, was held on January 30, 2017 at nearby Minute Maid Park.
Super Bowl Live was organized by the Houston Super Bowl Host Committee, which was led by Honorary Chairman James A. Baker, III, Chairman Ric Campo, and President and CEO Sallie Sargent.
According to Bloomberg story two most anticipated pre-Super Bowl parties were invite - only 13th annual ESPN party and the Rolling Stone party. ESPN party was hosted by Fergie and DJ Khaled and took place in a 65,000 - square - foot warehouse in the Houston Arts District. The Rolling Stone party celebrated the magazine 50th anniversary. It took place at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and featured the performance of Big Sean, DJ Cassidy, Nas, Diplo and Busta Rhymes.
The Patriots stayed at the JW Marriott Houston and practiced at the University of Houston. The Falcons stayed at the Westin Houston Memorial City and practiced at Rice University.
In the beginning of February 2017 the NFL and law enforcement announced that tickets to Super Bowl LI would feature heat - sensitive logos to deter counterfeit tickets. On the front of each ticket was a full polymer graphic that was raised and the back features a true color security label with Houston 's skyline and the Super Bowl logo. The final security feature was a graphic on the lower portion of the back of each ticket printed with thermochromic ink. The HTX logo and the NRG Stadium image faded when heat was applied and returned when the heat source was removed.
The estimated average price for a ticket was $4,744.
In late 2016, ride - share service Uber had threatened to leave Houston ahead of the Super Bowl LI festivities, insisting various city regulations, including fingerprint background checks of drivers, were too burdensome and prevented drivers from working. Houston officials and Uber reached a compromise in December, which determined that Houston would continue to require a fingerprint check for drivers but eliminate requirements for driver drug testing and physicals through at least February 5.
In the United States, Super Bowl LI was televised by Fox, as part of a cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. The game was carried in Spanish by sister cable network Fox Deportes. Online streams of the game were provided via Fox Sports Go; although normally requiring a television subscription to use, Fox made the service available as a free preview for the Super Bowl. Due to Verizon Communications exclusivity, streaming on smartphones was exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers via the NFL Mobile app.
As with Super Bowl 50, the stadium was equipped for Intel freeD instant replay technology, using an array of 36 5K resolution cameras positioned around the stadium to enable 360 - degree views of plays. Fox introduced a new feature utilizing the system known as Be the Player, which composited the various camera angles into a single view of a play from the point - of - view of a player on the field. Fox constructed a temporary, two - floor studio in Discovery Green, which originated pre-game coverage, and broadcasts of Fox Sports 1 studio programs during the week leading up to the game, such as Fox Sports Live, The Herd with Colin Cowherd, Skip and Shannon: Undisputed, NASCAR Race Hub, and UFC Tonight.
An average of 111.3 million viewers watched Super Bowl LI, down from 2016. Fox stated that 1.72 million viewers utilized its online streams.
Fox set the base rate for a 30 - second commercial at $5 million, the same rate CBS charged for Super Bowl 50, leading to advertising revenue of $534 million for the single day event. Snickers announced that it would present a live commercial during the game. Nintendo broadcast an ad showcasing its upcoming Nintendo Switch video game console. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles broadcast three spots for Alfa Romeo, as part of an effort to re-launch the Italian brand in the U.S.
A spot from longtime advertiser Budweiser garnered controversy before the game for depicting Anheuser - Busch co-founder Adolphus Busch 's emigration to the United States from Germany, its broadcast coming on the heels of U.S. President Donald Trump signing an executive order that bans travelers from several Muslim nations. Meanwhile, 84 Lumber aired a commercial depicting a mother and daughter journeying from Mexico to the United States, which had been edited following Fox 's objection to its depiction of a border wall for sensitivity reasons.
Many films were advertised with Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Logan, Transformers: The Last Knight, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales and The Fate of the Furious. AMC and Netflix advertised their shows, The Walking Dead and Stranger Things, respectively, while National Geographic teased its new series Genius with an ad featuring a nod to Lady Gaga 's halftime performance.
Fox was able to earn an estimated $20 million by airing four extra commercials due to the additional overtime period. Even without historical precedent, Fox negotiated deals with a handful of advertisers in case overtime were to occur.
Canadian broadcast rights to Super Bowl LI were subject to a still - ongoing legal dispute; although U.S. network affiliates are carried by pay TV providers in the country, Canadian law grants domestic broadcast stations the right to require that these signals be substituted with their own if they are carrying the same program in simulcast with a U.S. station ("simsub ''). This policy is intended to help protect Canadian advertising revenue from being lost to viewers watching via U.S. feeds of a program. In 2016, as part of a larger series of regulatory reforms, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) banned the Super Bowl from being substituted under these circumstances, meaning that the telecast on CTV -- a simulcast of the U.S. telecast with Canadian advertising inserted, would co-exist with feeds of the game from U.S. network affiliates. The CRTC cited dissatisfaction surrounding the practice from Canadian viewers -- particularly the unavailability of the U.S. commercials, which the CRTC cited as being an "integral part '' of the game based on this reception, but also other technical problems caused by poorly implemented simsubs (such as reduced quality and missing content due to mistimed transitions back into the U.S. program feed).
The NFL 's Canadian rightsholder Bell Media, as well as the league itself, have displayed objections to the policy; Bell felt that the decision devalued its exclusive Canadian rights to the game, and violated Canada 's Broadcasting Act, which forbids the "making of regulations singling out a particular program or licensee. '' On November 2, 2016, Bell was granted the right to challenge the ruling in the Federal Court of Appeal. Bell, the NFL, and government representatives from both Canada and the U.S., have lobbied the CRTC for the rule to be retracted. However, court action on the ruling was not taken in time for the game, meaning that it was in effect for the first time during Super Bowl LI. Bell Media cited the decision, among other factors, as justification for a planned series of layoffs it announced on January 31, 2017.
The simsub prohibition only applied to the game itself, and not pre-game or post-game programming (which was simulcast with Fox and subject to simsub). In an attempt to mitigate the loss of de facto exclusivity to the clean U.S. feeds, Bell simulcast the game across CTV Two and TSN in addition to CTV, and organized a sponsored sweepstakes in which viewers could earn entries to win cash and automobile prizes by texting keywords displayed during the Canadian telecast. Montreal Gazette media analyst Steve Faguy felt that these promotions were an attempt to offset the loss of viewership by carrying the game across as many of its channels as possible, and providing incentives for viewers to watch the game on CTV instead of Fox. He further noted that Bell still had exclusive rights to stream the game in Canada via CTV 's TV Everywhere services, as the CRTC does not regulate web content, and Fox 's online stream is only available to U.S. users. Consequently, some Canadian companies (such as Leon 's and Pizza Pizza) took advantage of the CRTC decision by buying local advertising time during the game from Fox affiliates distributed in Canada in order to target these viewers, such as KAYU - TV in Spokane (which is widely carried by television providers in the significantly larger markets of Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta).
Viewership of Super Bowl LI across the three English - language Bell Media properties broadcasting it was down by 39 % in comparison to Super Bowl 50, with only 4.47 million viewers. Viewership on the French - language telecast presented by TSN 's sister network RDS was in line with that of Super Bowl 50. It is not known how many Canadian viewers watched the game via Fox, as neither Nielsen or Canadian ratings provider Numeris calculate Canadian viewership of American broadcasters.
In the United States, Westwood One carried the broadcast nationwide, with Kevin Harlan on play - by - play, Boomer Esiason and Mike Holmgren on color commentary, and sideline reports from Tony Boselli and James Lofton. The Westwood One broadcast was simulcast in Canada on TSN Radio. Each team 's network flagship station carried the local feed: WBZ - FM for the Patriots (with Bob Socci and Scott Zolak announcing), and WZGC for the Falcons (with Wes Durham and Dave Archer announcing); under the league 's contract with Westwood One, no other stations in the teams ' usual radio networks were allowed to carry the local broadcast, and unlike in recent years when at least one of the two flagships was a clear - channel station, both the Patriots and Falcons use FM radio stations as their local flagships, limiting listenership to those within the local metropolitan areas or with access to those feeds via Sirius XM satellite radio or TuneIn Premium.
Spanish - language radio rights are held by Entravision as part of a three - year agreement signed in 2015. Erwin Higueros served as the play - by - play announcer.
The United Kingdom 's BBC Radio 5 Live produced a commercial - free broadcast, with Darren Fletcher and Rocky Boiman returning.
During pre-game festivities, the NFL honored members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame that had played college football at historically black colleges and universities. Of the 303 members of the Hall of Fame, 29 were from HBCUs.
The Patriots took the field first as the designated away team to Ozzy Osbourne 's "Crazy Train ''. The Falcons took the field second as the designated home team to Trick Daddy 's "Let 's Go ''. Both teams ' season recaps were presented by Ving Rhames.
Before the game, American country music singer and songwriter Luke Bryan sang the US national anthem. Bryan was the first male performer to sing the national anthem at a Super Bowl since Billy Joel at Super Bowl XLI. Immediately before Bryan sang the national anthem, Phillipa Soo, Renée Elise Goldsberry and Jasmine Cephas Jones, who originated the roles of the Schuyler sisters in the Broadway musical Hamilton, performed "America the Beautiful ''.
After the national anthem, former President George H.W. Bush performed the coin toss alongside his wife, Barbara. The Patriots called heads, but the Falcons won the coin toss with tails. The Falcons chose to defer to the second half.
On September 29, 2016, Lady Gaga, who had performed the national anthem the previous year at Super Bowl 50, confirmed that she would be performing at the Super Bowl LI halftime show on her Instagram account with the message: "It 's not an illusion. The rumors are true. This year the SUPER BOWL goes GAGA! '' Fox Sports president and executive producer of the show, John Entz, confirmed Gaga 's involvement adding "(She) is one of the most electric performers of our generation, and we could n't be happier with the choice to have her headline the Super Bowl LI Halftime Show... It is going to be an incredible night. ''
Lady Gaga opened the halftime show with a combination of "God Bless America '' and "This Land Is Your Land ''. Her performance also included some of her biggest hit songs, such as "Poker Face '', "Born This Way '', "Million Reasons '', and "Bad Romance '' and was accompanied by a swarm of 300 LED - equipped Intel drones forming an American flag in the sky in a pre-recorded segment.
Mohamed Sanu stated the long length of the halftime show played a part in Atlanta ultimately losing the game. Teams on average are off the field for fifteen minutes during halftime, but Super Bowl halftimes are considerably longer. Unlike the Falcons it appears Bill Belichick actually incorporated the length of the show into the team 's practices. Sanu 's argument was discounted by the fact that Atlanta marched the ball downfield and scored a touchdown right out of halftime.
The first quarter of Super Bowl LI was a scoreless defensive match with each team punting twice. The longest play from scrimmage was a 37 - yard carry by Falcons running back Devonta Freeman, which did not lead to any points, though it would be the longest run of the game for either team.
On the first play of the second quarter, New England 's quarterback Tom Brady completed a 27 - yard pass to wide receiver Julian Edelman on the Falcons 33 - yard line. But on the next play, linebacker Deion Jones stripped the ball from running back LeGarrette Blount; the fumble was recovered by defensive back Robert Alford on the 29 - yard line. On the next two plays, Matt Ryan completed passes to Julio Jones for gains of 19 and 23 yards. Freeman ran the ball on the next three plays, covering the final 29 yards to the end zone, the last carry a 5 - yard touchdown run that put Atlanta up 7 -- 0.
New England failed to get a first down on the series following the Freeman score, and the Falcons moved the ball 62 yards in five plays. Ryan started the drive with a 24 - yard completion to Taylor Gabriel, then completed a pass to Jones for an 18 - yard gain. On 3rd - and - 9, he threw a 19 - yard touchdown pass to tight end Austin Hooper, giving the Falcons a 14 -- 0 lead. It was the largest deficit Brady had ever faced in his seven Super Bowl appearances, and it would soon get larger. New England responded with a drive to the Falcons 23, aided by three defensive holding penalties against the Atlanta defense, each one giving them a first down on a third down play. However, on 3rd - and - 6, Brady threw a pass that was intercepted by Alford and returned 82 yards for a touchdown, increasing Atlanta 's lead to 21 -- 0. It was the first time in his career that Brady had thrown a pick - six in his 33 postseason games, and Alford 's 82 yard return was the second longest interception return in Super Bowl history. Brady ultimately became the first quarterback to win a Super Bowl in which he threw a pick - six. Getting the ball back with 2: 20 left in the second quarter, Brady completed a 15 - yard pass to Martellus Bennett, and then a short pass to running back James White, who took off for a 28 - yard gain. The drive stalled at the Falcons 20 - yard line, but Stephen Gostkowski kicked a field goal with two seconds left on the clock to send the teams into their locker rooms with the score 21 -- 3.
New England had an early third quarter scoring opportunity when Edelman returned a punt 26 yards to the Patriots ' 47 - yard line, but they could not gain a first down on the drive. Following the Patriots ' punt, the Falcons started their drive on their own 15 - yard line, Ryan completed two long passes to wide receiver Taylor Gabriel for gains of 17 and 35 yards to bring the ball to the New England 28 - yard line. Four plays later, Ryan finished the 85 - yard drive with a 6 - yard touchdown pass to running back Tevin Coleman, giving the Falcons a 28 -- 3 lead with 8: 31 left in the quarter. On the next series, Brady led the Patriots 75 yards in 13 plays for a responding touchdown, completing five of seven passes for 43 yards, the biggest a 17 - yard completion to Danny Amendola on 4th - and - 3 from the New England 46 - yard line. Brady also made a big play with his legs, rushing for a 15 - yard gain (which would be the longest rushing play by the Patriots on the day) on 3rd - and - 8 from the Atlanta 35 - yard line. Three subsequent carries by Blount moved the ball 15 yards to the 5 - yard line, and then Brady threw the ball to White for a touchdown, making the score 28 -- 9 after Gostkowski 's extra point attempt hit the right goalpost.
New England then attempted an onside kick, but the ball was recovered by Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds, and a penalty against Gostkowski for touching the ball before it went ten yards gave Atlanta even better field position. Ryan completed a 9 - yard pass to Hooper to the Patriots 32 - yard - line, but on the next play, a holding penalty on Atlanta offensive lineman Jake Matthews pushed the team back ten yards. Then after an incompletion, Trey Flowers and Kyle Van Noy shared a sack on Ryan that forced the Falcons to punt on the first play of the fourth quarter.
Matt Bosher 's 42 - yard punt pinned the Patriots back on their own 13 - yard line. Brady led the next drive down the field, completing three passes to wide receiver Malcolm Mitchell for 40 yards and one to Bennett for 25 to bring the ball to the Falcons 7 - yard line. However, Brady was sacked twice by defensive tackle Grady Jarrett over the next three plays, and the Patriots ended up having to settle for Gostkowski 's 33 - yard field goal that cut their deficit to two scores, 28 -- 12, with less than 10 minutes left in the game. Atlanta had burned two of their three time outs on defense and equipment malfunction. On the third play of Atlanta 's ensuing drive, linebacker Dont'a Hightower sacked Ryan as he was winding up for a pass, resulting in a fumble that was recovered by defensive tackle Alan Branch on the Falcons 25 - yard line. New England soon cashed in their scoring opportunity, with Brady throwing a 6 - yard touchdown pass to Amendola. Then White took a direct snap in for a two - point conversion to make the score 28 -- 20 in favor of Atlanta with 5: 56 left on the clock. The Patriots had run the same play for a two - point conversion with Kevin Faulk in their Super Bowl XXXVIII victory.
On the first play of Atlanta 's next possession, Freeman caught a short pass from Ryan and ran it for a 39 - yard gain, the longest play of the game for either team. Then on 2nd - and - 9 from the Patriots 49 - yard line, Ryan threw a deep pass to Jones at the right sideline, who made an acrobatic sideline catch for a 27 - yard gain, giving the Falcons a first down on the Patriots 22 - yard line with 4: 40 left on the clock and a chance for a late - game two - score lead. On the next play, Freeman ran for a 1 - yard loss on a tackle by Devin McCourty. Atlanta tried to pass the ball on second down, but Flowers sacked Ryan for a 12 - yard loss on the Patriots 35 - yard line. Ryan then completed a 9 - yard pass to Mohamed Sanu on 3rd - and 23, but this was negated by a holding penalty on Matthews. Now out of field goal range and faced with 3rd - and - 33 from the New England 45 - yard line, Ryan threw an incomplete pass, and the team was left with no choice but to punt the ball to New England.
Bosher 's 36 - yard kick gave the Patriots the ball on their own 9 - yard line with 3: 30 left on the clock and two of their timeouts left. After two incompletions, Brady picked up a first down with a 16 - yard pass to Chris Hogan. After an 11 - yard pass to Mitchell, Brady threw a pass that was nearly intercepted by Alford. Instead, he batted the ball in the air, and it fell into the arms of Edelman, who made a diving catch and just barely managed to get his hands under the ball before it hit the ground, picking up 23 yards. Atlanta challenged the catch, but the referees confirmed the call on the field and Atlanta lost their final time out. Brady 's next pass to Amendola gained 20 yards to the Falcons 21 - yard line as the clock ran down below the two - minute warning. Two more passes to White gained 20 yards and gave New England a first down at the 1 - yard line. With one minute left, White scored on a 1 - yard touchdown run, and Brady completed a 2 - point conversion pass to Amendola, tying the score at 28. Atlanta started their drive deep in their own end with zero time outs. The Falcons failed to get in range to score a possible game - winning field goal and punted, with the Patriots fair catching the ball at their own 35 - yard line. The Patriots considered, but ultimately declined, ending regulation on what would have been the first fair catch kick ever attempted in a Super Bowl. Instead, New England attempted a fake quarterback kneel running play for Dion Lewis. The play gained several yards but failed to score and sent the Super Bowl into overtime for the first time in the game 's history. Super Bowl LI became the first NFL championship game to go into an overtime period since the historic 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants.
The Patriots won the coin toss to start overtime, and elected to receive the ball. Starting at their 25 - yard line after a touchback, Brady completed passes to White, Amendola, and Hogan for gains of 6, 14, and 18 yards, respectively. Then after White was dropped for a 3 - yard loss, Brady completed a 15 - yard pass to Edelman to the Falcons 25 - yard line. White then took a lateral throw from Brady to the 15 - yard line. Brady 's pass to Bennett in the end zone fell incomplete, but Falcons linebacker De'Vondre Campbell was called for pass interference, giving the Patriots first - and - goal from the Falcons ' 2 - yard line. On first down, Brady threw another incomplete pass to Bennett that was deflected by Vic Beasley. On second down, White took a pitch and ran the ball right. He was hit by Falcons defenders at the 1 - yard line, but managed to stretch forward and get the ball across the goal line before his knee hit the ground, scoring a touchdown to give the Patriots the 34 -- 28 victory. It marked the first time in NFL postseason history that a team leading by 17 points or more at the start of the fourth quarter went on to lose the game. Previously, dating back to 1940, teams leading by 17 or more points after three quarters in playoff games were 133 -- 0 in such situations.
Super Bowl LI had more than 30 records either broken, set, or tied by the time it was done. Brady completed 43 of 62 passes for 466 yards and two touchdowns, with one interception, while also rushing for 15 yards. His completions, attempts, and passing yards were all single - game Super Bowl records. He also set the career Super Bowl records for games played (7), completions (207), attempts (309), yards (2,071), and touchdown passes (15). James White caught a Super Bowl record 14 passes for 110 yards, rushed for 29 yards, and tied a Super Bowl record with three touchdowns. He also set the record for most points scored with 20. After the game, Brady said he felt White deserved the MVP award more than he did. Brady planned to give White the vehicle that has traditionally been awarded to Super Bowl MVPs (he 'd given the truck he received after Super Bowl XLIX to Malcolm Butler) but found out after the game that there was no vehicle to give to White because the sponsor had decided to end its practice of donating one. Edelman caught five passes for 87 yards and returned three punts for 39 yards. Amendola recorded eight receptions for 78 yards and one touchdown. Flowers recorded six tackles and 2.5 sacks.
For Atlanta, Ryan completed 17 of 23 passes for 284 yards and two touchdowns. Freeman was the top rusher of the game with 11 carries for 75 yards and a touchdown, while also catching two passes for 46 yards. Jones was Atlanta 's leading receiver with four receptions for 87 yards. Robert Alford had 11 tackles (9 solo), an interception returned for a touchdown, and a fumble recovery. Grady Jarrett had five tackles and tied a Super Bowl record with three sacks.
Atlanta became the first team in Super Bowl history to return an interception for a touchdown and lose the game. Prior to Super Bowl LI, teams returning an interception for a touchdown in the Super Bowl had been a perfect 12 -- 0. New England had two turnovers for the game, while Atlanta only turned the ball over once. This made New England the fifth team to win a Super Bowl despite losing the turnover battle, joining the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl V, the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowls XIV and XL, and the Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX.
The game set the record for the largest deficit overcome to win the Super Bowl (the previous record was ten points, set by the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XXII and matched by the New Orleans Saints in Super Bowl XLIV and by the Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX); it is the third - largest comeback win in NFL playoff history, behind The Comeback (32 - point deficit; Buffalo Bills trailed 35 -- 3 and won 41 -- 38) and the wild card game between the Indianapolis Colts and the Kansas City Chiefs during the 2013 -- 14 NFL playoffs (28 - point deficit; Colts trailed 38 -- 10 and won, 45 -- 44). In addition to being the largest Super Bowl comeback, the game set the record for the largest fourth - quarter comeback in NFL playoff history, as no team had previously won a playoff game after trailing by 17 or more points entering the final quarter; the Patriots were trailing by 19 points at the start of the fourth quarter by a score of 28 -- 9. The Patriots won their fifth franchise championship, all under the leadership of starting quarterback Tom Brady, the most by a single quarterback. Brady won his fourth Super Bowl MVP, the most such awards by a single player in history. This game represented the largest comeback in the history of the New England Patriots ' regular season or post-season games, and Tom Brady 's NFL career.
Super Bowl LI became the first Super Bowl in history in which the winning team had never held the lead at any point during regulation time, and it also became the first Super Bowl in history in which the winning team did not score on a PAT kick, as the Patriots missed their only PAT attempt during the game, which occurred following their first touchdown, opted for two - point conversions after each of their next two touchdowns, and did not have to attempt the extra point after their game - winning touchdown in overtime.
Late in the third quarter, the Falcons ' chances of winning were estimated at 99.8 %.
at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Super Bowl LI had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
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what do you get for two numbers on the health lottery | The Health Lottery - Wikipedia
The Health Lottery is a lottery that operates on behalf of 51 local society lotteries across Great Britain. It was launched in October 2011 and runs 5 weekly draws on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays. Each week a different Community Interest Company raises the funds for their respective area, with 20 % of ticket sales being awarded to local health - related causes. It is operated by Northern and Shell which owns numerous media outlets in the United Kingdom.
The origins of the Health Lottery predate the National Lottery, to the failed National Health Service Lottery which had an abortive launch in 1988, before being declared illegal. The assets of the NHS Lottery were purchased in 2007 by Altala Group Ltd, a company run by Ian Milligan, a former employee of Camelot Group, the operators of the UK National Lottery. Altala went into administration in 2009, shortly before it was due to be granted its gambling licence, and was purchased by Health Lottery Ltd. After winning the licence, the Health Lottery was sold in February 2011 to Richard Desmond 's Northern & Shell group. The Health Lottery launched in September 2011.
From launch, draws for the Health Lottery were broadcast live on the ITV network during an advertisement break of The X Factor, paid for by Northern and Shell, and shortly after on Channel 5. Draws are currently broadcast at around 9.55 pm on Channel 5. It was initially planned to be hosted by Eamonn Holmes but as Holmes was employed by Sky News, he was dropped due to a possible conflict of interest. Melinda Messenger was confirmed as the host on 5 October 2011.
To celebrate the first anniversary of the Health Lottery, a new Wednesday night draw called "Win Wednesday '' was launched.
On 5 August 2015, it was announced that the Health Lottery would be extended to five nights a week, with previous National Lottery presenter Anthea Turner taking over as host of the new - look draws from 13 August.
The game has been criticised for donating only 20.3 % of the ticket price to causes, compared with 28 % donated by the National Lottery. Spokespersons for The Health Lottery argue that the game will grow the market. Some attention was also given to the possibility that favourable coverage of the lottery in Desmond 's Daily Express and the Daily Star amounted to disguised advertising, which was reported to the Advertising Standards Authority, who found the issue to be outside their remit. The Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt announced in October 2011 that the Gambling Commission would investigate the legality of the Health Lottery, after questions were raised about the way the lottery was being run and the cost to smaller lotteries nationwide.
To circumvent the requirements of the Gambling Act, the Health Lottery is not structured as a national lottery, but rather as 51 different society lotteries, each one representing at least one local authority area within England, Scotland and Wales. Each society lottery is licensed by the Gambling Commission and operates as an individual Community Interest Company, or CIC. Different CICs take turns in participating in a weekly draw so each week different CICs are represented and every region gets a share of the pot. Money is then donated to support health - related causes within their respective local areas. The Health Lottery ELM Ltd operates as an external lottery manager to oversee the society lotteries. The ELM charges a management fee of 0.5 p in every pound, which provides the profit for the lottery owners. The allocation of funds to causes raised by the Health Lottery is determined by the relevant CICs and their partner charity, the People 's Health Trust, and not by The Health Lottery ELM Ltd.
In 2010 this complicated structure was judged by the Gambling Commission regulatory panel to be "close to the line in respect of section 99 of the (Gambling) Act '' and that while the structure was "capable of being compliant with the Act '' it was "finely balanced ''. Concern was expressed that the individual lotteries were not to be combined into one de facto national lottery, as to do so would be a breach of the Act.
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who sings i just want to dance with you tonight | Dance with Me Tonight - wikipedia
"Dance with Me Tonight '' is a single by English singer - songwriter Olly Murs, taken from his second studio album, In Case You Did n't Know. It was released as the album 's second single on 18 November 2011 and was written by Murs, Claude Kelly and Steve Robson.
The song stayed at number two in the UK for two consecutive weeks before finally giving Murs his third UK number - one single in December 2011. The track was released as the album 's third single across Europe in November 2012, and as with his previous European single "Oh My Goodness '' will receive a CD release that was absent in the UK. In August 2013 a new version of the song was released as the third single from the US version of Right Place, Right Time.
Murs wrote the song with Claude Kelly and Steve Robson in the spring of 2011, following their successful collaborations on the first album including his debut number one, "Please Do n't Let Me Go ''. Lyrically, Murs has said that the song was inspired by his frustration with modern - day dating, in particular the incessant use of social networking websites: "I 'm sick of Twitter and Facebook, you know, I want to meet a girl in a club or in a bar. Everytime I meet a girl they 're like ' Just add me on Facebook, or Tweet me ', and it 's like why do n't we go out on a proper date like we used to back in the early 2000s, go for a proper drink and get to know her? So I went into the studio and just went, ' OK, I wan na write a really old, classic song about seeing a really fit girl in a club and taking her out on a date. ' ''
In an interview with Music Week in September 2011, he also added that it was the soulful, Motown feel of the song that was to influence the direction of the In Case You Did n't Know album as a whole, and that he was keen to reinvent his sound from his previous album: "We had to change slightly and I looked at myself. The ska / reggae vibe put me in a place but I do n't want to be the same artist over and over and over again because people get bored. You have to keep it fresh. We decided the ' white boy soul ' sound was really me and we wrote ' Dance With Me Tonight ', which solidified where we 'd go. When we wrote that song we knew that was the direction. '' The brass section was provided by the Blackjack Horns: - Nik Carter -- Sax / Jack Birchwood -- Trumpet and Steven Fuller -- Trombone.
In 2013 the song was nominated for a Ivor Novello award for Most Performed Work.
The single received mixed reviews from critics upon its release. Hit the Floor magazine awarded it five out of five, calling it a "great do - wop 50 ′ s style number that will no doubt reach the uppermost rankings of the chart. '' Robert Copsey of Digital Spy, however, gave the song three out of five stars. He was most critical of the sound of the song and its lyrics, stating that "the swinging ' 60s funk - pop sound of his latest effort might not be the most original, and the lyrics are cheesier than a tube of Primula '', but praised it for being "unashamedly fun. ''
A music video to accompany the release of "Dance with Me Tonight '' was directed by Marcus Lundin. It was first released onto YouTube on 14 October 2011 at a total length of three minutes and twenty - six seconds.
The video starts with Olly going through a police station and pulling funny poses at a mug shot camera, after being arrested with his friends and another girl. Five hours before the incident, he drives around London in a Peugeot 504 Cabriolet, picking up his best friend and supplies for a street party along the way. In the process of getting the supplies, Olly also invites two young clerks to come along with him. Together they set up the street party with the aim of Olly wooing the girl who was with him in the police station called "Jamie Winter '' (played by actress and model Katja Zwara). They dance as a display of fireworks goes off behind them, whilst a more senior female citizen looks out disturbed by the noise, and calls the police. As the video ends Olly and Jamie are arrested by the police. revealing what they were arrested for was obviously disturbing the peace.
Filming took place over one day in late August 2011 in Putney, South West London. The iconic Putney Wharf Tower, Putney Bridge, along with parts of Fulham, Fulham Palace Road, Lysia Street and Bishops Park Road are shown as "snapshots '' during the course of the video. Mortlake and New Cross were other filming locations.
For the American release Murs released a lyric video which featured clips from his time in America and fans dancing.
On 27 November 2011, Murs performed "Dance with Me Tonight '' for the first time on The X Factor results show. He performed with The Muppets, and the studio version of this performance was featured as a bonus track on the UK version of the soundtrack for the new The Muppets that was released in UK cinemas in February 2012. Murs also performed the song for his special for Channel 4 's The Album Chart Show on 4 December 2011, MTV Live Sessions on 11 December 2011, and on RTÉ One 's The Late Late Toy Show on 2 December 2011, and acoustically for T4 show Sunday Brunch on 18 December 2011. The track was also performed in April 2012 on the Channel 4 show Hit the Road Jack, hosted by comedian Jack Whitehall. Murs ' first American TV performance of the song was on Good Morning America on 28 September 2012, where he also performed "Heart Skips a Beat ''.
"Dance with Me Tonight '' debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two on 27 November 2011, behind Rihanna and Calvin Harris ' collaborative single "We Found Love '', which spent a sixth non-consecutive week at number one. The following week saw the single remain at number two, this time behind The X Factor finalists with "Wishing on a Star '' featuring JLS and One Direction. On its third charting week, 11 December, the single climbed to number - one, marking Murs ' third number - one single after "Please Do n't Let Me Go '' (2010) and "Heart Skips a Beat '' (2011).
It had by this point sold over 200,000 copies before reaching the top of the UK chart -- more than any other number one single that year. It spent 8 weeks inside the UK top 10, and a total of 20 weeks inside the UK top 40, making it one of his most successful singles in the UK to date. It also topped the UK radio airplay chart for six weeks between December 2011 and January 2012, and became his highest charting solo single to date in Ireland, peaking at number two.
In August 2013, the song was used as the theme tune to ITV dancing show Stepping Out and was sung by the show 's house band.
As of May 2014 the song has been used in an advert for Kinder Chocolate bars.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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what are the stars on the c on nfl jerseys for | National Football League team captains - wikipedia
In the National Football League, the team captain designation is a team - appointed position that designates certain players as leaders on and off the field. The captains program was implemented by the NFL Player Advisory Council established by NFL commissioner Roger Goodell in conjunction with the NFL Players Association. Starting in 2007, the league began permitting teams to name up to six players as captains.
Players who have been named a team captain typically have a "C '' patch on their jerseys. There is a standard design used by all teams participating in the captaincy program. The patches are in team colors and are worn on the front left or right breast (depending on other patches, etc. worn by the specific team). The number of stars filled in on the patch represents the number of consecutive years that player has been named captain by that team. If they 've been named captain for longer than four years, the "C '' on the patch is gold. Some teams (e.g. Pittsburgh and New England) do not have this patch on their jerseys but still designate captains. In the case of the Green Bay Packers, they would use weekly captains during the regular season, but would switch to assigning captains whenever they qualify for the playoffs.
The New York Jets suspended designated team captains after an incident involving Santonio Holmes in a 2011 game. In the 4th quarter of the final game of the 2011 season against the Miami Dolphins, Holmes appeared to get into an argument with Jets offensive tackle Wayne Hunter while the team was huddling. As a result of the argument, Holmes was benched for the remainder of the game, and the Jets ended up losing the game, which resulted in the Jets missing the postseason for the first time in three years. His leadership qualities and credibility as a captain have since been questioned. In 2015, under new head coach Todd Bowles, the Jets resumed appointing captains weekly.
During special recognitions, the patch may be a different color; e.g., pink for breast cancer awareness; or camouflage for military service recognition.
Because of the nature of the game, most teams include their starting quarterbacks as an offensive captain. The starting quarterback has no other responsibility or authority on field. However, he may, depending on the league or individual team, have various informal duties, such as participation in pre-game ceremonies, the coin toss, the trophy presentation, or other events outside the game. Often compared to captains of other team sports, the starting quarterback is usually the de facto team leader and a well - respected player on and off the field, even before the NFL implemented the team captain 's patch in 2007.
NFL rule 18 details the guidelines for team captains. Within Rule 18, there are four articles that pertain to:
Coin Toss Procedures -- Each team can send as many as 6 team captains to the center of the field. On each team, one captain is designated the "speaking captain '' of the delegation. The visiting team or the team designated "visitor '' by the referee (if no team is declared ' visitor ') shall choose "heads or tails '' or in the case of a special ceremony coin, the options on the face and rear of that coin.
The winner of the coin toss have 3 options, 1. Defer the choice to the second half, 2. Receive / kick the ball, 3. Choose an end zone to defend. There is strategy in employing your election. It could depend on such conditions as weather, or making an aggressive statement at the beginning of the game, or something simple as coming out of the locker room in the second half receiving the ball.
After the winning captain makes their choice, the opposing team captain chooses from the remaining 2 options.
Choice on Penalty Option (s) -- The offended team captain has a choice of accepting a penalty enforcement or declining, except where said penalty is automatically "enforced by rule. '' In some circumstances, a team captain may elect to "decline '' the penalty. This typically happens in a situation in which declining the penalty may mean that the next down should occur (3rd or 4th). A good example would be on an "offensive holding '' enforcement, the defensive team might elect a "4th down and 5 yards to gain '' v. a "3rd down and 15 yards to gain. ''
Players listed in bold currently wear the 5 + star all gold captain patches.
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the story of a good samaritan in the bible | Parable of the Good Samaritan - wikipedia
The parable of the Good Samaritan is a parable told by Jesus in Luke 10: 25 -- 37. It is about a traveler who is stripped of clothing, beaten killed and left half dead alongside the road. First a priest and then a Levite comes by, but both avoid the man. Finally, a Samaritan happens upon the traveler. Samaritans and Jews generally despised each other, but the Samaritan helps the injured man. Jesus is described as telling the parable in response to the question from a lawyer, "And who is my neighbor? '' whom Leviticus Lev 19: 18 says should be loved. In response, Jesus tells the parable, the conclusion of which is that the neighbour figure in the parable is the man who shows mercy to the injured man -- that is, the Samaritan
Some Christians, such as Augustine, have interpreted the parable allegorically, with the Samaritan representing Jesus Christ, who saves the sinful soul. Others, however, discount this allegory as unrelated to the parable 's original meaning and see the parable as exemplifying the ethics of Jesus.
The parable has inspired painting, sculpture, satire, poetry, and film. The colloquial phrase "good Samaritan '', meaning someone who helps a stranger, derives from this parable, and many hospitals and charitable organizations are named after the Good Samaritan.
In the Gospel of Luke, the parable is introduced by a question, known as the Great Commandment:
Behold, a certain lawyer stood up and tested him, saying, "Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life? ''
He said to him, "What is written in the law? How do you read it? ''
He answered, "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, with all your mind, (Deuteronomy 6: 5); and your neighbour as yourself (Leviticus 19: 18). ''
He said to him, "You have answered correctly. Do this, and you will live. ''
Jesus replies with a story:
Jesus answered, "A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and he fell among robbers, who both stripped him and beat him, and departed, leaving him half dead. By chance a certain priest was going down that way. When he saw him, he passed by on the other side. In the same way a Levite also, when he came to the place, and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he travelled, came where he was. When he saw him, he was moved with compassion, came to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on oil and wine. He set him on his own animal, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. On the next day, when he departed, he took out two denarii, and gave them to the host, and said to him, ' Take care of him. Whatever you spend beyond that, I will repay you when I return. ' Now which of these three do you think seemed to be a neighbour to him who fell among the robbers? ''
He said, "He who showed mercy on him. ''
In the time of Jesus, the road from Jerusalem to Jericho was notorious for its danger and difficulty, and was known as the "Way of Blood '' because "of the blood which is often shed there by robbers ''. Martin Luther King, Jr., in his "I 've Been to the Mountaintop '' speech, on the day before his death, described the road as follows:
Jesus 's target audience, the Jews, hated Samaritans to such a degree that they destroyed the Samaritans ' temple on Mt. Gerizim. Due to this hatred, some think that the Lawyer 's phrase "The one who had mercy on him '' (Luke 10: 37a) may indicate a reluctance to name the Samaritan. Or, on another, more positive note, it may indicate that the lawyer has recognized that both his questions have been answered and now concludes by generally expressing that anyone behaving thus is a Lev 19: 18 "neighbour '' eligible to inherit eternal life. The Samaritans in turn hated the Jews. Tensions were particularly high in the early decades of the 1st century because Samaritans had desecrated the Jewish Temple at Passover with human bones.
As the story reached those who were unaware of the oppression of the Samaritans, this aspect of the parable became less and less discernible: fewer and fewer people ever heard of them in any context other than as a description. Today, the story is often recast in a more modern setting where the people are ones in equivalent social groups known not to interact comfortably. Thus, cast appropriately, the parable regains its message to modern listeners: namely, that an individual of a social group they disapprove of can exhibit moral behavior that is superior to individuals of the groups they approve. Christians have used it as an example of Christianity 's opposition to racial, ethnic, and sectarian prejudice. For example, anti-slavery campaigner William Jay described clergy who ignored slavery as "following the example of the priest and Levite ''. Martin Luther King, Jr., in his "I 've Been to the Mountaintop '' speech, described the Samaritan as "a man of another race ''. Sundee Tucker Frazier saw the Samaritan more specifically as an example of a mixed - race person. Klyne Snodgrass wrote: "On the basis of this parable we must deal with our own racism but must also seek justice for, and offer assistance to, those in need, regardless of the group to which they belong. ''
Samaritans appear elsewhere in the Gospels and Book of Acts. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus heals ten lepers and only the Samaritan among them thanks him (Luke 17: 11 -- 19), although Luke 9: 51 -- 56 depicts Jesus receiving a hostile reception in Samaria. Luke 's favorable treatment of Samaritans is in line with Luke 's favorable treatment of the weak and of outcasts, generally. In John, Jesus has an extended dialogue with a Samaritan woman, and many Samaritans come to believe in him. In Matthew, however, Jesus instructs his disciples not to preach in heathen or Samaritan cities (Matthew 10: 5 -- 8). In the Gospels, generally, "though the Jews of Jesus ' day had no time for the ' half - breed ' people of Samaria '', Jesus "never spoke disparagingly about them '' and "held a benign view of Samaritans ''.
Many see the model for the Samaritan 's neighborly behavior in the parable to be 2Chronicles 28: 8 -- 15, in which Northern Israelite ancestors of Samaritans treat Judean enemies as fellow - Israelite neighbors. After comparing the earlier account with the later parable presented to the expert in Israel 's religious law, Evans concludes: "Given the number and significance of these parallels and points of correspondence it is hard to imagine how a first - century scholar of Scripture could hear the parable and not think of the story of the merciful Samaritans of 2 Chronicles 28. ''
In Jewish culture, contact with a dead body was understood to be defiling. Priests were particularly enjoined to avoid uncleanness. The priest and Levite may therefore have assumed that the fallen traveler was dead and avoided him to keep themselves ritually clean. On the other hand, the depiction of travel downhill (from Jerusalem to Jericho) may indicate that their temple duties had already been completed, making this explanation less likely, although this is disputed. Since the Mishnah made an exception for neglected corpses, the priest and the Levite could have used the law to justify both touching a corpse and ignoring it. In any case, passing by on the other side avoided checking "whether he was dead or alive ''. Indeed, "it weighed more with them that he might be dead and defiling to the touch of those whose business was with holy things than that he might be alive and in need of care. ''
Origen described the allegory as follows:
The man who was going down is Adam. Jerusalem is paradise, and Jericho is the world. The robbers are hostile powers. The priest is the Law, the Levite is the prophets, and the Samaritan is Christ. The wounds are disobedience, the beast is the Lord 's body, the (inn), which accepts all who wish to enter, is the Church.... The manager of the (inn) is the head of the Church, to whom its care has been entrusted. And the fact that the Samaritan promises he will return represents the Savior 's second coming.
John Welch further states:
This allegorical reading was taught not only by ancient followers of Jesus, but it was virtually universal throughout early Christianity, being advocated by Irenaeus, Clement, and Origen, and in the fourth and fifth centuries by Chrysostom in Constantinople, Ambrose in Milan, and Augustine in North Africa. This interpretation is found most completely in two other medieval stained - glass windows, in the French cathedrals at Bourges and Sens. ''
The allegorical interpretation is also traditional in the Orthodox Church. John Newton refers to the allegorical interpretation in his hymn "How Kind the Good Samaritan, '' which begins:
How kind the good Samaritan To him who fell among the thieves! Thus Jesus pities fallen man, And heals the wounds the soul receives.
Robert Funk also suggests that Jesus ' Jewish listeners were to identify with the robbed and wounded man. In his view, the help received from a hated Samaritan is like the kingdom of God received as grace from an unexpected source.
John Calvin was not impressed by Origen 's allegorical reading:
Francis Schaeffer suggested: "Christians are not to love their believing brothers to the exclusion of their non-believing fellowmen. That is ugly. We are to have the example of the good Samaritan consciously in mind at all times. ''
Other modern theologians have taken similar positions. For example, G.B. Caird wrote:
The meaning of the parable for Calvin was, instead, that "compassion, which an enemy showed to a Jew, demonstrates that the guidance and teaching of nature are sufficient to show that man was created for the sake of man. Hence it is inferred that there is a mutual obligation between all men. '' In other writings, Calvin pointed out that people are not born merely for themselves, but rather "mankind is knit together with a holy knot... we must not live for ourselves, but for our neighbors. '' Earlier, Cyril of Alexandria had written that "a crown of love is being twined for him who loves his neighbour. ''
Joel B. Green writes that Jesus ' final question (which, in something of a "twist, '' reverses the question originally asked):
Such a reading of the parable makes it important in liberation theology, where it provides a concrete anchoring for love and indicates an "all embracing reach of solidarity. '' In Indian Dalit theology, it is seen as providing a "life - giving message to the marginalized Dalits and a challenging message to the non-Dalits. ''
Martin Luther King, Jr. often spoke of this parable, contrasting the rapacious philosophy of the robbers, and the self - preserving non-involvement of the priest and Levite, with the Samaritan 's coming to the aid of the man in need. King also extended the call for neighbourly assistance to society at large:
In addition to these classical interpretations many scholars have drawn additional themes from the story. Some have suggested that religious tolerance was an important message of the parable. By selecting for the moral protagonist of the story someone whose religion (Samaritanism) was despised by the Jewish audience to which Jesus was speaking, some argue that the parable attempts to downplay religious differences in favor of focusing on moral character and good works.
Others have suggested that Jesus was attempting to convey an anti-establishment message, not necessarily in the sense of rejecting authority figures in general, but in the sense of rejecting religious hypocrisy. By contrasting the noble acts of a despised religion to the crass and selfish acts of a priest and a Levite, two representatives of the Jewish religious establishment, some argue that the parable attempts to downplay the importance of status in the religious hierarchy (or importance of knowledge of scripture) in favor of the practice of religious principles.
The following is based on the public domain article Brotherly Love found in the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia
The story of the good Samaritan, in the Pauline Gospel of Luke x. 25 - 37, related to illustrate the meaning of the word "neighbor, '' possesses a feature which puzzles the student of rabbinical lore. The kind Samaritan who comes to the rescue of the men that had fallen among the robbers, is contrasted with the unkind priest and Levite; whereas the third class of Jews -- i.e., the ordinary Israelites who, as a rule, follow the Cohen and the Levite are omitted; and therefore suspicion is aroused regarding the original form of the story. If "Samaritan '' has been substituted by the anti-Judean gospel - writer for the original "Israelite, '' no reflection was intended by Jesus upon Jewish teaching concerning the meaning of neighbor; and the lesson implied is that he who is in need must be the object of our love.
The term "neighbor '' has not at all times been thus understood by Jewish teachers. In Tanna debe Eliyahu R. xv. it is said: "Blessed be the Lord who is impartial toward all. He says: ' Thou shalt not defraud thy neighbor. Thy neighbor is like thy brother, and thy brother is like thy neighbor. ' '' Likewise in xxviii.: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God ''; that is, thou shalt make the name of God beloved to the creatures by a righteous conduct toward Gentiles as well as Jews (compare Sifre, Deut. 32). Aaron b. Abraham ibn Ḥayyim of the sixteenth century, in his commentary to Sifre, l.c.; Ḥayyim Vital, the cabalist, in his "Sha'are Ḳedushah, '' i. 5; and Moses Ḥagis of the eighteenth century, in his work on the 613 commandments, while commenting on Deut. xxiii. 7, teach alike that the law of love of the neighbor includes the non-Israelite as well as the Israelite. There is nowhere a dissenting opinion expressed by Jewish writers. For modern times, see among others the conservative opinion of Plessner 's religious catechism, "Dat Mosheh we - Yehudit, '' p. 258.
Accordingly, the synod at Leipzig in 1869, and the German - Israelitish Union of Congregations in 1885, stood on old historical ground when declaring (Lazarus, "Ethics of Judaism, '' i. 234, 302) that "' Love thy neighbor as thyself ' is a command of all - embracing love, and is a fundamental principle of the Jewish religion ''; and Stade, when charging with imposture the rabbis who made this declaration, is entirely in error (see his "Geschichte des Volkes Israel, '' l.c.).
The Jesus Seminar voted this parable to be authentic, with 60 % of fellows rating it "red '' (authentic) and a further 29 % rating it "pink '' (probably authentic). The paradox of a disliked outsider such as a Samaritan helping a Jew is typical of Jesus ' provocative parables, and is a deliberate feature of this parable. In the Greek text, the shock value of the Samaritan 's appearance is enhanced by the emphatic Σαμαρίτης (Samaritēs) at the beginning of the sentence in verse 33.
Bernard Brandon Scott, a member of the Jesus Seminar, questions the authenticity of the parable 's context, suggesting that "the parable originally circulated separately from the question about neighborliness '' and that the "existence of the lawyer 's question in Mark 12: 28 -- 34 and Matthew 22: 34 -- 40, in addition to the evidence of heavy Lukan editing '' indicates the parable and its context were "very probably joined editorially by Luke. '' A number of other commentators share this opinion, with the consensus of the Jesus Seminar being that verses Luke 10: 36 -- 37 were added by Luke to "connect with the lawyer 's question. '' On the other hand, the "keen rabbinic interest in the question of the greatest commandment '' may make this argument invalid, in that Luke may be describing a different occurrence of the question being asked. Differences between the gospels suggest that Luke is referring to a different episode from Mark and Matthew, and Klyne Snodgrass writes that "While one can not exclude that Luke has joined two originally separate narratives, evidence for this is not convincing. '' The Oxford Bible Commentary notes:
The unexpected appearance of the Samaritan led Joseph Halévy to suggest that the parable originally involved "a priest, a Levite, and an Israelite '', in line with contemporary Jewish stories, and that Luke changed the parable to be more familiar to a gentile audience. '' Halévy further suggests that, in real life, it was unlikely that a Samaritan would actually have been found on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem, although others claim that there was "nothing strange about a Samaritan travelling in Jewish territory ''. William C. Placher points out that such debate misinterprets the biblical genre of a parable, which illustrates a moral rather than a historical point: on reading the story, "we are not inclined to check the story against the police blotter for the Jerusalem - Jericho highway patrol. We recognize that Jesus is telling a story to illustrate a moral point, and that such stories often do n't claim to correspond to actual events. '' The traditionally understood ethical moral of the story would not hold if the parable originally followed the priest - Levite - Israelite sequence of contemporary Jewish stories, as Halévy suggested, for then it would deal strictly with intra-Israelite relations just as did the Lev 19: 18 command under discussion.
The term "good Samaritan '' is used as a common metaphor: "The word now applies to any charitable person, especially one who, like the man in the parable, rescues or helps out a needy stranger. ''
The name has consequently been used for a number of charitable organisations, including Samaritans, Samaritan 's Purse, Sisters of the Good Samaritan, and The Samaritan Befrienders Hong Kong. The name Good Samaritan Hospital is used for a number of hospitals around the world. Good Samaritan laws encourage those who choose to serve and tend to others who are injured or ill.
This parable was one of the most popular in medieval art. The allegorical interpretation was often illustrated, with Christ as the Good Samaritan. Accompanying angels were sometimes also shown. In some Orthodox icons of the parable, the identification of the Good Samaritan as Christ is made explicit with a halo bearing a cross.
The numerous later artistic depictions of the parable include those of Rembrandt, Jan Wijnants, Vincent van Gogh, Aimé Morot, Domenico Fetti, Johann Carl Loth, George Frederic Watts, and Giacomo Conti.
In his essay Lost in Non-Translation, biochemist and author Isaac Asimov asserts (despite portrayals of many good Samaritans in Luke 17: 11 - 19; Acts 8: 5 - 7; 15: 3, as well as John 4: 4 - 42, etc.) that at the time when the parable was included in the gospel, there were no good Samaritans; in his view, this was half the point of the parable. As Asimov put it, we need to think of the story occurring in Alabama in 1950, with a mayor and a preacher ignoring a man who has been beaten and robbed, with the role of the Samaritan being played by a poor black sharecropper.
The story 's theme is portrayed throughout Marvel 's Daredevil.
The parable of the Good Samaritan is the theme for the Austrian Christian Charity commemorative coin, minted 12 March 2003. This coin shows the Good Samaritan with the wounded man, on his horse, as he takes him to an inn for medical attention. An older coin with this theme is the American "Good Samaritan Shilling '' of 1652.
Australian poet Henry Lawson wrote a poem on the parable ("The Good Samaritan ''), of which the third stanza reads:
"He 's been a fool, perhaps, and would Have prospered had he tried, But he was one who never could Pass by the other side. An honest man whom men called soft, While laughing in their sleeves -- No doubt in business ways he oft Had fallen amongst thieves. ''
John Gardiner Calkins Brainard also wrote a poem on the theme.
Dramatic film adaptations of the Parable of the Good Samaritan include Samaritan, part of the widely acclaimed Modern Parables DVD Bible study series. Samaritan, which sets the parable in modern times, stars Antonio Albadran in the role of the Good Samaritan.
The English composer, Benjamin Britten, was commissioned to write a piece to mark the centenary of the Red Cross. His resulting work for solo voices, choir, and orchestra, Cantata Misericordium, sets a Latin text by Patrick Wilkinson that tells the parable of the Good Samaritan. It was first performed in Geneva in 1963.
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who score the most goal in world cup | FIFA World Cup top goalscorers - wikipedia
Over 2,500 goals have been scored at the 21 editions of the FIFA World Cup final tournaments, excluding penalties converted during shoot - outs. Since the first goal scored by French player Lucien Laurent at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, over 1,200 footballers have scored goals at the World Cup, only 97 of which scored at least five goals.
The top goalscorer of the inaugural competition was Argentina 's Guillermo Stábile with eight goals. Since then, only 22 players have scored more goals at all the games played at the World Cup than Stábile did throughout the 1930 tournament. The first was Hungary 's Sándor Kocsis with eleven goals scored in 1954. At the next tournament, France 's Just Fontaine improved on this record with 13 goals in only six games. Gerd Müller scored 10 goals for West Germany in 1970 and broke the overall record when he scored his 14th goal at the World Cup during West Germany 's win at the 1974 final. His record stood for more than three decades until Brazil 's Ronaldo scored 15 goals between 1998 and 2006. Germany 's Miroslav Klose went on to score a record 16 goals across four consecutive tournaments between 2002 and 2014. Only two other players have also scored more than 10 goals at the World Cup: Pelé with 12 between 1958 and 1970 and Jürgen Klinsmann with 11 between 1990 and 1998.
Of all the players who have played at the World Cup, only six have scored, on average, at least two goals per game played: Kocsis, Fontaine, Stábile, Oleg Salenko, Josef Hügi, and Ernst Wilimowski -- the latter scored four goals in his single World Cup game in 1938. The top 90 goalscorers have represented 30 nations, with 13 players scoring for Brazil, and another 14 for Germany or West Germany. In total, 60 footballers came from UEFA (Europe), 26 from CONMEBOL (South America), and only four from elsewhere: Cameroon, Ghana, Australia, and the United States.
Fontaine holds the record for the most goals scored at a single tournament, with 13 goals in 1958. The players that came closest to this record were Kocsis in 1954, Müller in 1970 and Portugal 's Eusébio in 1966, with 11, 10 and 9 goals, respectively. The lowest scoring tournament 's top goalscorer was in 1962, when six players scored only four goals each. Across the 20 editions of the World Cup, 29 footballers have been credited with the most tournament goals, and no one has achieved this feat twice. Nine of them scored at least seven goals in a tournament, while Jairzinho became in 1970 the only footballer to score at least seven goals without being the top goalscorer of that tournament. These 29 top goalscorers played for 19 nations, the most (five) for Brazil. Another five came from other South American countries, and the remaining 19 came from Europe. Excluding the 2010 tournament, all the top goalscorers won the Golden Boot.
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when does the national hockey league playoffs start | 2017 -- 18 NHL season - wikipedia
The 2017 -- 18 NHL season was the 101st season of operation (100th season of play) of the National Hockey League. With the addition of a new expansion team, the Vegas Golden Knights, 31 teams competed in an 82 - game regular season. The regular season began on October 4, 2017, and ended on April 8, 2018. The 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs began on April 11, 2018 with the Stanley Cup Finals held in early June.
On June 22, 2016, the NHL confirmed that it had granted an expansion franchise in the city of Las Vegas to an ownership group led by Bill Foley, whose identity was revealed as the Vegas Golden Knights on November 22. The team plays in the Pacific Division of the Western Conference.
On April 3, 2017, the NHL announced that, after five Olympic tournaments in which the NHL allowed its players to participate in the event, it would not do so for the men 's hockey tournament at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea. Furthermore, the league did not include a break for the Olympics in its schedule, and scheduled its All - Star Game as usual for late - January shortly prior to the Olympics (historically, the All - Star Game was not played during Olympic years). Each team 's mandatory bye week, stipulated in the league 's CBA, was also scattered throughout the month of January.
The restriction will apply to any player under NHL contract, including those in its affiliated minor leagues, but not to players signed to one - way contracts directly with the teams in those minor leagues nor players signed to entry - level contracts who are playing junior ice hockey. Several players have vowed to participate anyway, most notably Alexander Ovechkin and Evgeni Malkin. The league had initially stated that minor league prospects would not be subject to the ban. As the league had little legal room to enforce a ban itself without running afoul of the National Hockey League Players ' Association, the league instead colluded with the International Ice Hockey Federation, who agreed to establish a blacklist forbidding the national teams from offering invitations to players under NHL contracts.
Players with Olympic aspirations who were free agents, especially those whose NHL prospects were marginal, were advised not to sign NHL contracts and, if they wished to play professionally, sign directly with minor league clubs to maintain Olympic eligibility. Former Buffalo Sabres captain Brian Gionta and former Olympian Jarome Iginla were among those who opted not to sign NHL contracts for the season prior to the Olympics; Iginla, because of a lingering injury, would not go to the Olympics.
On June 18, 2017, the National Hockey League Players ' Association announced that the salary cap would be set at $75 million per team for the 2017 -- 18 season.
The NHL Board of Governors passed some new rules that take effect this season, including:
The Board of Governors has also stated that existing rules be fully enforced in certain situations that had become "unofficially '' ignored:
This is the seventh season under the NHL 's ten - year U.S. rights deal with NBC Sports, and the fourth season of its twelve - year Canadian rights deals with Sportsnet and TVA Sports. The CBC 's rights to air Hockey Night in Canada, which was due to expire after this season, was renewed through the end of the current Rogers deal.
Since CBC and NBC also hold the rights to air the Olympics in their respective countries, Rogers has not scheduled any HNIC games on CBC during those Saturdays nights, and will instead only air those NHL games on either City or the Sportsnet networks. NBC originally decided not to air any NHL games at all during the Olympics, but later reversed course and will air the NHL Game of the Week on those Sunday afternoons.
AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain (which, along with AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh, the regional broadcaster of the Pittsburgh Penguins, re-branded from Root Sports over the off - season) are the inaugural regional television rightsholders for the Vegas Golden Knights. TSN has re-gained regional English - language rights to the Montreal Canadiens, and extended its radio contract with co-owned CKGM. Rogers Media has acquired the radio rights for the Vancouver Canucks for newly acquired 650 CISL.
The NHL 's centennial commemorations continued into the 2017 -- 18 season, as its 100th season of play. On March 17, 2017, the NHL announced that it would hold an outdoor game at TD Place Stadium between the Ottawa Senators and Montreal Canadiens on December 16, 2017, to formally mark the 100th anniversary of their first NHL game.
The Toronto Maple Leafs marked the centennial of the NHL 's first game (which involved their predecessor, the Toronto Arenas) with a "Next Century Game '' on December 19, 2017 against the Carolina Hurricanes; the team wore special Toronto Arenas jerseys, and season ticket holders were encouraged to donate their tickets to the MLSE Foundation to allow students to attend the game. Mayor of Toronto John Tory also declared December 19 "Toronto Maple Leafs Day ''.
On March 30, 2017, it was announced that the Los Angeles Kings and Vancouver Canucks would play two pre-season games in China; on September 21 at Mercedes - Benz Arena in Shanghai and September 23 at the Beijing Wukesong Culture & Sports Center in Beijing. These were the first NHL games ever played in China.
This was the first NHL season since the 1966 -- 67 season in which no coaching changes took place during the regular season.
The regular season began on October 4, 2017, and ended on April 8, 2018. Each team received a five - day "bye week '', all of which took place in mid-January.
Two regular season games between the Colorado Avalanche and the Ottawa Senators were played at Ericsson Globe in Stockholm, Sweden on November 10 and 11, 2017, branded as the SAP NHL Global Series.
The 63rd National Hockey League All - Star Game was held in Tampa, Florida at Amalie Arena, home of the Tampa Bay Lightning, on January 28, 2018. The format did not change, and followed the format used in two previous All - Star games.
The Florida Panthers -- Boston Bruins game scheduled for January 4, 2018, at TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts was postponed due to the effects of the January 2018 nor'easter. The game was rescheduled for April 8, the day after the regular season was originally scheduled to end.
Tie Breakers: 1. Fewer number of games played. 2. Greater Regulation + OT Wins (ROW) 3. Greatest number of points earned in head - to - head play (If teams played an unequal # of head - to - head games, the result of the first game on the home ice of the team with the extra home game is discarded.) 4. Greater Goal differential
In each round, teams compete in a best - of - seven series following a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (scores in the bracket indicate the number of games won in each best - of - seven series). The team with home ice advantage plays at home for games one and two (and games five and seven, if necessary), and the other team is at home for games three and four (and game six, if necessary). The top three teams in each division make the playoffs, along with two wild cards in each conference, for a total of eight teams from each conference.
In the First Round, the lower seeded wild card in the conference plays against the division winner with the best record while the other wild card plays against the other division winner, and both wild cards are de facto # 4 seeds. The other series match the second and third place teams from the divisions. In the first two rounds, home ice advantage is awarded to the team with the better seed. Thereafter, it is awarded to the team that had the better regular season record.
The following players led the league in regular season points at the conclusion of games played on April 7, 2018.
The following goaltenders led the league in regular season goals against average at the conclusion of games played on April 8, 2018, while playing at least 1,800 minutes.
The league 's awards will be presented at the NHL Awards ceremony, to be held following the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs on June 20 at the Las Vegas Hard Rock Hotel and Casino. Finalists for voted awards are announced during the playoffs and winners are presented at the award ceremony. Voting will conclude immediately after the end of the regular season. The Presidents ' Trophy, the Prince of Wales Trophy and Clarence S. Campbell Bowl are not presented at the awards ceremony. The Lester Patrick Trophy is announced during the summer and presented in the fall. For the first time, the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association voted to release each voters ' ballot to the public after the awards ceremony.
The following is a list of notable players who played their first NHL game during the 2017 -- 18 season, listed with their first team.
The following is a list of players of note who played their last NHL game in 2017 -- 18, listed with their team:
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who does the voice of young simba in lion king | Simba - wikipedia
Simba is a fictional character who appears in Disney 's The Lion King franchise. Introduced in Walt Disney Animation 's 32nd animated feature film The Lion King (1994), the character subsequently appears in its sequels The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (1998) and The Lion King 11⁄2 (2004) as well as the upcoming 2019 remake of the original film directed by Jon Favreau.
Simba was created by screenwriters Irene Mecchi, Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton. While Mark Henn served as Simba 's supervising animator as a cub, Ruben A. Aquino animated the character as he appears as an adult.
Although considered an original character, Simba was inspired by the character Bambi from Disney 's Bambi (1942), as well as the stories of Moses and Joseph from the Bible. Additionally, several similarities have been drawn between Simba and Prince Hamlet from William Shakespeare 's Hamlet. In 1997, The Lion King was adapted into a Broadway musical, with actors Scott Irby - Ranniar and Jason Raize originating the roles of the cub and adult Simbas, respectively.
-- Producer Don Hahn on Simba 's role in the film.
The idea for The Lion King originated from Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg in 1989 and was originally conceived under the title King of the Jungle. The story, which has been compared to Bambi (1942), was jokingly referred to as "Bambi in Africa '' because of the similarities between the two films and their respective main characters. Co-director Rob Minkoff said that both films are "more true - life adventure than mythical epic. '' Though considered an original coming - of - age story that follows the life of Simba as he grows up and "tak (es) on the responsibility of adulthood, '' co-directors Roger Allers and Minkoff drew inspiration from other sources. In particular, the biblical figures Moses and Joseph served as creative inspiration for the character. Producer Don Hahn said that, like them, Simba is "born into royalty, is then exiled, and has to return to claim (his) kingdom. ''
Several film and entertainment critics have noted similarities and parallels between the stories of The Lion King and William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet, and their protagonists. Allers said that these similarities were not initially intentional and came as a surprise to the filmmakers themselves; they noticed the similarities only after the story was established and they eventually decided to pursue it. According to Hahn, "When we first pitched the revised outline of the movie... someone in the room announced that its themes and relationships were similar to Hamlet. Everyone responded favorably to the idea that we were doing something Shakespearean, so we continued to look for ways to model our film on that all - time classic. ''
Screenwriter Jonathan Roberts said that, in a musical, songs are used to convey a character 's emotions and "I wants. '' Composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice wrote the song "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '' in order to give Simba a medium through which he can express his desire to become King of the Pride Lands. Roberts said, "It 's a way for storytellers to move the story and deliver the direction of the character. ''
Matthew Broderick provided the speaking voice of Adult Simba. The first actor to be assigned to The Lion King, Broderick learned of the role while he was on vacation in Ireland, where he received a telephone call from his agent informing him that the directors were interested in casting him as Simba. At the time, Broderick was well known for portraying the title character in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off (1986). The directors decided to cast him as Simba because they felt that he was "perfect '' for the role; according to producer Don Hahn, Broderick 's voice resembled "the kind of character who could be irresponsible and likeable, but you also felt that he could come back in a very heroic way. '' Jonathan Taylor Thomas, who was starring as Randy Taylor on the television sitcom Home Improvement at the time, was cast as the speaking voice of Young Simba. His appearance and personality would later serve as creative inspiration for supervising animator Mark Henn.
Though Broderick is a trained Broadway singer, he was not up to the task, and neither was non-singer Thomas, so Toto lead singer Joseph Williams and actor Jason Weaver were hired to dub their respective singing voices. Williams ' voice is heard on the song "Can You Feel the Love Tonight ''. Impressed by Weaver 's performance as a young Michael Jackson in the miniseries The Jacksons: An American Dream, songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice recruited him to record "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '' and "Hakuna Matata '' while the film was still in its early stages of production. As directors, Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff worked closely with the actors in order to ensure credible performances. As is frequently done in animated films, the filmmakers videotaped the actors while they recorded their dialogue, allowing the animators to incorporate their specific mannerisms into the designs of their characters.
When The Lion King was green - lit, its concept and story were not well received by studio employees. To guarantee the release of at least one successful film, Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg divided the studio into two separate projects: The Lion King and Pocahontas (1995), with Pocahontas expected to be the more successful of the two. Because of this assumption, the majority of the studio 's more seasoned animators gravitated towards Pocahontas because The Lion King was deemed a "risk '', while less experienced animators were assigned to work on The Lion King. Co-director Rob Minkoff received this positively, saying that this decision "gave a lot of newer animators a chance to step up to leadership roles. ''
-- Supervising animator Mark Henn on animating Simba.
The role of animating Simba was divided between Mark Henn and Ruben A. Aquino. While Henn served as the supervising animator of Simba as a cub, credited as Young Simba, Aquino was placed in charge of animating the character as he appears as an adult. The Lion King was Disney 's first animated feature film to feature absolutely no humans since Robin Hood (1973). According to Aquino, animating four - legged creatures is difficult because the artists are faced with the task of drawing "twice as many legs... as you do with human characters '' and must also attribute to them both human and animal - like qualities. For assistance, Aquino drew influence from previous animated films that feature four - legged creatures as their main characters, citing Bambi, Lady and the Tramp (1955) and The Jungle Book (1967) as his main sources of inspiration.
Before The Lion King, Henn 's experience as a supervising animator was limited to predominantly female characters; he had just recently completed work on Ariel from The Little Mermaid (1989), Belle from Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Jasmine from Aladdin (1992). When he became involved with The Lion King, Henn initially expressed interest in animating the film 's villain, Scar, because he wanted to do "something different. '' However, producer Don Hahn felt that he was better suited for animating Simba. Henn approaches animating new characters by "put (ting himself) into the character 's situation. '' Simba proved to be a challenge because Henn was faced with the task of creating an animated character who would both appear and behave like a real lion cub. To achieve this, Henn visited zoos, sketched and studied live lion cubs that were brought into the studio for research, and frequently consulted with wildlife experts.
When it came time to animate Simba during the "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '' musical sequence, Henn felt it essential that the character remain on all fours at all times, despite the fact that he is meant to be dancing. In terms of personality, Henn aimed to depict Simba as a "cocky, confident character '' at the beginning of the film, who must eventually mature and learn to take responsibility. The animators would often observe and document the voice actors while they recorded their dialogue, using their movements and mannerisms as a visual aid. Actor Jonathan Taylor Thomas, who provided the voice of Young Simba, served as inspiration for the design and personality of Simba. Henn said, "I loved watching Jonathan Taylor Thomas when he was a boy on Home Improvement, and getting to meet him and observe him. '' Although Aquino was responsible for animating the majority of Simba 's adult sequences, Henn animated the character 's first appearance as an adult that occurs near the end of the "Hakuna Matata '' musical number.
Released in theaters in 1994, The Lion King marks Simba 's first appearance. All the animals in the Pride Lands gather at the foot of Pride Rock to commemorate the birth of Simba, who will eventually succeed to the throne and take his father Mufasa 's place as king. Furious by the fact that he is no longer next in line, Simba 's jealous uncle Scar refuses to attend the ceremony. While Simba grows into a rambunctious lion cub who frequently boasts about the fact that he will someday rule over the Pride Lands, Scar secretly plots against him.
Scar plots regicide and familicide against Simba and Mufasa by luring Simba into a vast gorge, where he triggers a wildebeest stampede. Notified by Scar that Simba is in danger, Mufasa rushes to his aid and manages to place him safely on a ledge. Weakened and unable to pull himself up the steep slope to safety, Mufasa asks his brother for assistance. However, Scar 's true nature is revealed and he betrays Mufasa, throwing him into the gorge where he is killed by the fall.
Convinced by Scar that he is responsible for his father 's death, Simba runs away to a distant jungle where he is befriended by Timon and Pumbaa, who teach him to ignore his past and avoid his responsibilities. There, he grows into a handsome young lion, while Scar wreaks havoc on the Pride Lands. When Simba is discovered by his childhood friend named Nala, she confronts him, warning him of Scar 's tyranny and begging him to return home. Afraid of facing his past, Simba refuses until a wise mandrill named Rafiki leads him to Mufasa 's ghost, who convinces him to return home and reclaim his kingdom from Scar.
Simba returns to the Pride Lands and finds them barren because their natural resources have been squandered and abused by Scar. After witnessing Scar strike his mother Sarabi, Simba orders Scar to resign. At first thrown by the fact that he is alive, Scar soon regains composure and forces Simba to reveal that he is responsible for Mufasa 's death, while cornering him at the edge of Pride Rock, hoping to subject him to a similar fate as his father. Having grown overconfident, Scar finally reveals to Simba that he killed Mufasa. Furious, Simba tackles Scar and forces him into announcing this to the pride, initiating a battle between Simba 's pride of lionesses, Timon, Pumbaa and Scar 's army of hyenas. Simba eventually defeats Scar and throws him into a pit, where he is cornered and killed by the hyenas, who overheard Scar blame them for what he 'd done. Simba then takes his rightful place as king. When the kingdom returns to its former glory, the animals welcome the birth of King Simba and Queen Nala 's first born.
A direct - to - video sequel released in 1998, Simba 's Pride takes place shortly after the events of the first film, depicting Simba and Nala as king and queen of the Pride Lands. In a ceremony at Pride Rock, the Pride Lands commemorate the birth of Simba and Nala 's daughter Kiara, whom Simba is overprotective of. He discovers that Kiara has disobeyed him by visiting the forbidden Outlands, home to an enemy pride of Scar 's followers known as the Outsiders, and befriending a young member of the pride named Kovu. After a close confrontation with Kovu 's mother Zira, the leader of the Outsiders and Scar 's most loyal follower, Simba separates the two and reminds Kiara of her responsibilities as the future queen. Meanwhile, Zira plots to manipulate Kovu to exact revenge on Simba for Scar 's death.
Several years later, Simba grants an adolescent Kiara 's request to embark on her first hunt, but has Timon and Pumbaa follow her in secret. Realizing this, Kiara rebels and pursue her hunt outside of the Pride Lands, where she nearly falls victim to a wildfire. Kiara is rescued by Kovu, who returns her to the Pride Lands, which is actually part of Zira 's plan to overthrow Simba. Saying that he has left the Outsiders, Kovu asks Simba to let him join his pride. Simba reluctantly accepts, but distrusts Kovu because of his similarities to Scar, and continues to treat him ruthlessly. That night, Simba has a nightmare about attempting to save his father Mufasa from falling into the stampede but is stopped by Scar who turns into Kovu and throws Simba off the cliff into the stampede.
While Kiara and Kovu 's friendship continues to grow, Simba, encouraged by Nala, attempts to show Kovu kindness by spending a day with him. Realizing that Kovu is beginning to side with Simba because of his love for Kiara, Zira ambushes and attacks Simba. Convinced by Zira that Kovu is responsible for the ambush, Simba exiles him and forbids Kiara to see him, but she makes her father realize that he is acting irrationally, before leaving to find Kovu. When a battle ensues between the Pride Landers and the Outsiders, Kiara and Kovu arrive and stop them, with Kiara telling them that they are one. When a furious Zira attacks Simba, she is intercepted by Kiara, causing the two to fall over the edge of a cliff. Having landed safely on a ledge, Kiara offers to help Zira, who is struggling to hang on. However, Zira, consumed by her resentment towards Simba, falls to her death. Simba finally approves of Kiara 's love for Kovu and reconciles with his daughter, and accepts the two lions as future king and queen of the Pride Lands.
In The Lion King 11⁄2, a direct - to - video followup released in 2004, Simba appears as a less prominent character because the film 's primary focus is on Timon and Pumbaa 's behind - the - scenes role and involvement in The Lion King, in which they appear as supporting characters. Although the two films technically share the same story and timeline, the plot of The Lion King 11⁄2 focuses more on Timon and Pumbaa. The meerkat and warthog unknowingly coexist alongside Simba, and the story fills in the two characters ' backstories and events that led up to their long - lasting friendship, coinciding with and often initiating the events that affect Simba 's life during the first film. These events include the commemorative bow that occurs during the opening "Circle of Life '' musical number and the collapsing of the animal tower that takes place during "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King. '' The film also explores, in further detail, the relationship among the three characters as Timon and Pumbaa struggle to raise Simba as adoptive "parents '' and disapprove of his relationship with Nala, portraying Simba as he grows from an energetic young lion cub, into an incorrigible teenager and, finally, an independent young lion.
In mid-February 2017, Donald Glover was cast as adult Simba. On November 1, 2017, J.D. McCrary was cast as young Simba.
The success of The Lion King and popularity of its characters led to the production of Timon & Pumbaa, an animated television series starring Timon and Pumbaa. Simba makes several appearances, including one episode in which Timon drags him out to try to revive Pumbaa 's lost memory.
In the episode "Congo On Like This, '' Timon and Pumbaa (especially Timon) suspect that Simba has reverted to his carnivorous nature. The episode "Shake Your Djibouti '' again features Simba, when Timon and Pumbaa are forced to train him to protect them from a laboratory monster. Another episode, entitled "Rome Alone, '' shows Simba being captured by Romans and forced into gladiatorial battle with another lion named Claudius. Simba makes brief appearances in "Once Upon a Timon '', "Zazu 's Off - By - One Day '', and "Beethoven 's Whiff ''. He also appears in a music video of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight ''.
Simba was featured as a guest in the animated series House of Mouse, in which he alternates between cub and adult.
In January 2016, a new series called The Lion Guard premiered, following a television pilot film The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar in November 2015. Set within the time gap in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, it features Kion who is the son and youngest child of Simba and Nala, who as the second - born cub, is tasked with assembling a team to protect the Pride Lands.
The success of The Lion King led to the production of a Broadway musical based on the film. Directed by Julie Taymor, with a book by Irene Mecchi and Roger Allers, The Lion King premiered at the New Amsterdam Theatre on November 13, 1997, where it ran for nine years until being moved to the Minskoff Theatre on June 13, 2006. The role of Simba was originated by Scott Irby - Ranniar and Jason Raize, with Irby - Ranniar portraying Young Simba and Raize portraying Adult Simba.
Raize auditioned for the role of Adult Simba after hearing that Taymor was looking to cast an actor who was of "unidentifiable ethnicity. '' Raize revealed in an interview that there was a lot of competition for the role because the musical required "triple - threat work -- singing, dancing and acting -- that you do n't get to such an extent in other shows. It was more the sense of who can take the challenge and not be daunted by the task. '' Raize, who instantly felt that he "had a connection with Simba, '' eventually won the role with the approval of Taymor and choreographer Garth Fagan, with Fagan admiring the fact that Raize was "willing to try, to fail, and then to try again. '' Once cast, Raize found it difficult to maintain Taymor 's "sense of duality '' because Simba is "both man and beast. '' He said, "The tendency is to sacrifice one for the other, but you ca n't. '' Although hundreds of children auditioned for the role of Young Simba, the casting process was far less grueling for Irby - Ranniar who, according to Taymor, simply "walked in and he had the part. ''
In 1994, a six - volume book set titled The Lion King: Six New Adventures were released. Set after the events of the first film, they featured a cub named Kopa, who was the son of Simba and Nala.
As part of the franchise 's merchandising, Simba has appeared in various The Lion King - related products. The character 's likeness has been used in and adapted into a variety of items, including plush toys and figurines, clothing, bedding, household decor and appliances. The success of the Broadway musical has also led to its own line of merchandising, including the Simba beanbag doll, based on the character 's appearance and costume in the Broadway show.
Since the film 's 1994 debut, Simba has appeared as a playable character in a variety of video game releases, both directly and indirectly associated with the franchise. The character 's first appearance as a video game character was in The Lion King, which was released by Virgin Interactive on November 1, 1994, for the video game platforms Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Game Gear, Nintendo Entertainment System and PC. The game follows the plot of the original film and features Simba as both a cub and an adult.
On December 28, 2000, Activision released The Lion King: Simba 's Mighty Adventure for Game Boy Color and PlayStation. The game encompasses 10 levels and incorporates the plot of both The Lion King and The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride as "Simba... matures from a precocious cub to an adult lion. '' Simba also appears as a playable character in Disney Interactive Studios ' Disney 's Extreme Skate Adventure, released on September 3, 2003, for Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2, GameCube and Xbox, and Disney Friends, released for Nintendo DS on February 26, 2008. Additionally, Simba appears in the Square Enix Kingdom Hearts video game franchise as a friend and ally of the series ' main character, Sora.
Live versions of Simba appear in the Lion King musical and in the parades and shows at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts.
Simba was also the main character in "Legend of the Lion King, '' a former Fantasyland attraction in Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom, which retold the story of the film using fully articulated puppets. Other Disney attractions that have featured Simba include the Mickey 's PhilharMagic 3D show and the Hong Kong Disneyland version of It 's a Small World.
He appeared as one of the main characters at Epcot 's Land Pavilion 12 - minute edutainment film Circle of Life: An Environmental Fable, until its closure in 2018. He currently appears in animatronic form in Festival of the Lion King at Disney 's Animal Kingdom.
Although The Lion King itself has garnered universal acclaim from film critics, reception towards Simba has been generally mixed. The Christian Science Monitor 's David Sterritt hailed Simba as "a superbly realized character, '' specifically praising the scene in which the character "faces discipline by his dad after his adventure with the hyenas. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Simba "has been given a marvelously expressive face '' to the point of which "He seems more human than the Ken and Barbie types featured in Aladdin and The Little Mermaid. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described "the father - son relationship '' shared by Simba and Mufasa as "movingly rendered, '' while About. com 's David Nusair wrote, "it 's the touching father / son stuff that lies at the heart of the movie that cements The Lion King 's place as an utterly timeless piece of work. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews enjoyed the fact that the film focuses more on the story of Simba himself as opposed to the romantic relationship developing between the character and Nala. However, Berardinelli criticized Matthew Broderick 's vocal performance, describing it as "nondescript. '' Rob Humanick of Slant Magazine hailed the fact that "it 's never laid on (Simba) that his time as king will directly correspond with the eventual passing of his father '' as one of the film 's "most important facets. '' However, he criticized The Lion King 's characters, describing them as well - designed but "lazy and troublesome. '' The Austin Chronicle 's Robert Faires felt that Simba and the other Lion King characters, though "true '', were simply unoriginal retreads of preceding animated characters who were "swiped from other Disney cartoons. ''
Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the character a negative review. Labeling Timon and Pumbaa the only interesting characters in The Lion King, Hinson questioned Simba 's role as the film 's hero. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times agreed, "A movie 's heroes may have their names above the title, but often as not it 's the sidekicks who get the real work done. '' Turan went on to pan Simba, describing him as "irritatingly callow. '' Chris Hick of the Deseret News complained about the fact that Simba and the other "characters in The Lion King are not as warm and fuzzy as other Disney animated features, '' crediting this with making "the film a bit tougher to warm (up) to. '' ComingSoon.net strongly panned Simba as a lead character, writing, "typically for Disney animated fare, it 's the hero who is the weak link being both blandly designed and blandly performed. '' Acknowledging the character 's Shakespearean origins, The Baltimore Sun 's Stephen Hunter gave Simba a negative review, writing, "Alas... Simba stands in for Hamlet, but he 's a lot less complicated; in fact, he 's less complicated than Morris the Cat or Sylvester. '' Hunter continued, "Simba the Exile is even less interesting than Simba the Prince. '' Christopher Null of Contactmusic.com was critical of Weaver 's performance as the singing voice of Young Simba, writing, "If there 's anything annoying about the film, it 's the singing. Young Simba sounds like a young Michael Jackson... You almost do n't want him to succeed. '' However, Null reacted more positively towards Broderick 's performance.
Despite the character 's mixed reception, several critics have awarded specific praise to Broderick for his portrayal of Simba, including the San Francisco Chronicle 's Peter Stack and The Washington Post 's Desson Howe. Annette Basile of Filmink described Broderick 's performance as "excellent, '' while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called it "sumptuous. '' Digital Spy 's Mayer Nissim described Broderick 's portrayal of Simba as "wonderful. ''
During the film 's opening number, "Circle of Life '', Rafiki introduces a newborn Simba to the crowd of animals gathered at the foot of Pride Rock by holding him high above their heads while parents Mufasa and Sarabi look on. Since the film 's 1994 release, this scene has grown to iconic status. In November 2002, singer Michael Jackson sparked controversy by holding his son over the protective railing of a hotel balcony in Berlin. The event was witnessed by a large crowd of spectators who were watching from below. Some sources have claimed that Jackson was harmlessly attempting to emulate the scene from The Lion King.
When Kate Middleton, Duchess of Cambridge went into labor with hers and Prince William 's baby in July 2013, the idea that the couple should reenact the famous scene from The Lion King became quite popular among Twitter users. Radio journalist Darren Simpson reportedly tweeted, "when your baby arrives please re-enact the scene from the Lion King ''. Shortly after Middleton gave birth to a boy, England native Tommy Peto initiated a petition asking the couple to welcome their baby by having the Archbishop of Canterbury emulate the scene by holding him over the balcony of Buckingham Palace. Ultimately, the idea was deemed "outside the responsibility of the government '' and was declined.
The scene has found itself the subject of both reference and parody in various forms of media, such as in the film George of the Jungle (1997). In what is almost an exact replica of the scene, George, portrayed by actor Brendan Fraser, takes the place of both Rafiki and Mufasa by standing at the tip of Pride Rock and presenting his young son to a crowd of onlooking animals, accompanied by wife Ursula, portrayed by Leslie Mann.
During the third season finale of Once Upon a Time, the main character Emma Swan asked her parents Snow White and David Nolan if they were going to hold up her yet unnamed baby brother like in The Lion King. Since the release of The Lion King in 1994, the name "Simba '' has increased in use and popularity among dog and cat owners. According to Comcast in 2010, the use of Simba as a dog name reemerged in popularity in 2009 after experiencing a noticeable decline in 2001, ranking the name ninth out of 10 on its list of "Top 10 Trendiest Dog Names of the Year. '' In May 2013, Yahoo! Lifestyle included the name on its list of "Trendiest Dog Names. '' According to YouPet, Simba is the 17th most popular cat name out of 100 candidates. Care2 included Simba in its article "All - around Cool Cat Names, '' while DutchNews.nl reported that Simba ranks among the country 's most popular cat names as of July 2013. In its list of "Top Popular Pet Names, '' BabyNames.com placed Simba at number 64 on its list of most popular dog names out of the 100 that were considered.
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what is the name of fuel used in rocket | Rocket propellant - wikipedia
Rocket propellant is either a high oxygen containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose combustion takes place, in a definite and controlled manner with the evolution of a huge volume of gas. In the rocket engine, the propellant is burnt in the combustion chamber and the hot jet of gases (usually at very high pressures, with combustion temperatures approaching 3000K) escapes through the nozzle at very high velocity.
Rocket propellant is a material used by a rocket as, or to produce in a chemical reaction, the reaction mass (propulsive mass) that is ejected, typically with very high speed, from a rocket engine to produce thrust, and thus provide spacecraft propulsion. Each rocket type requires different kind of propellant: chemical rockets require propellants capable of undergoing exothermic chemical reactions, which provide the energy to accelerate the resulting gases through the nozzle. Thermal rockets instead use inert propellants of low molecular weight that are chemically compatible with the heating mechanism at high temperatures, while cold gas thrusters use pressurized, easily stored inert gases. Electric propulsion requires propellants that are easily ionized or made into plasma, and in the extreme case of nuclear pulse propulsion the propellant consists of many small, non-weapon nuclear explosives of which the resulting shock wave of propels the spacecraft away from the explosive, thereby creating propulsion. One such spacecraft was designed (but never built), being dubbed "Project Orion '' (not to be confused with the NASA Orion spacecraft).
Rocket propellant is either a high oxygen containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose combustion takes place, in a definite and controlled manner with the evolution of a huge volume of gas. In the rocket engine, the propellant is burnt in the combustion chamber and the hot jet of gases (usually at a temperature of 3,000 ° C and a pressure of 300 kg / cm ^ 2) escapes through the nozzle at very high velocity. Rockets create thrust by expelling mass backwards in a high - speed jet (see Newton 's Third Law). Chemical rockets, the subject of this article, create thrust by reacting propellants within a combustion chamber into a very hot gas at high pressure, which is then expanded and accelerated by passage through a nozzle at the rear of the rocket. The amount of the resulting forward force, known as thrust, that is produced is the mass flow rate of the propellants multiplied by their exhaust velocity (relative to the rocket), as specified by Newton 's third law of motion. Thrust is therefore the equal and opposite reaction that moves the rocket, and not by interaction of the exhaust stream with air around the rocket. Equivalently, one can think of a rocket being accelerated upwards by the pressure of the combusting gases against the combustion chamber and nozzle. This operational principle stands in contrast to the commonly - held assumption that a rocket "pushes '' against the air behind or below it. Rockets in fact perform better in outer space (where there is nothing behind or beneath them to push against), because there is a reduction in air pressure on the outside of the engine, and because it is possible to fit a longer nozzle without suffering from flow separation, in addition to the lack of air drag.
The maximum velocity that a rocket can attain in the absence of any external forces is primarily a function of its mass ratio and its exhaust velocity. The relationship is described by the rocket equation: V f = V e ln (M 0 / M f) (\ displaystyle V_ (f) = V_ (e) \ ln (M_ (0) / M_ (f))), where V f (\ displaystyle V_ (f)) is the final velocity, V e (\ displaystyle V_ (e)) is the exhaust velocity relative to the rocket, M 0 (\ displaystyle M_ (0)) is the initial total mass, and M f (\ displaystyle M_ (f)) is the mass after the propellant is burned. The mass ratio expresses what proportion of the rocket is propellant (fuel / oxidizer combination) prior to engine ignition. Typically, a single - stage rocket might have a mass fraction of 90 % propellant, 10 % structure, and hence a mass ratio of 9: 1. The impulse delivered by the motor to the rocket vehicle per weight of propellant consumed is the rocket propellant 's specific impulse. A propellant with a higher specific impulse is said to be more efficient as more thrust is produced per unit of propellant.
Lower rocket stages usually use high - density (low volume per unit mass) propellants due to their lighter tankage to propellant weight ratios and because higher performance propellants require higher expansion ratios for maximum performance than can be attained when operated in atmosphere. Thus, the Saturn V first stage used kerosene - liquid oxygen rather than the liquid hydrogen - liquid oxygen used on its upper stages. Similarly, the Space Shuttle used high - thrust, high - density solid rocket boosters for its lift - off with the liquid hydrogen - liquid oxygen Space Shuttle Main Engines used partly for lift - off but primarily for orbital insertion.
There are four main types of chemical rocket propellants: solid, storable liquid, cryogenic liquid and liquid monopropellant. Hybrid solid / liquid bi-propellant rocket engines are starting to see limited use as well.
Solid propellants are either "composites '' composed mostly of large, distinct macroscopic particles or single -, double -, or triple - bases (depending on the number of primary ingredients), which are homogeneous mixtures of one or more primary ingredients. Composites typically consist of a mixture of granules of solid oxidizer (examples: ammonium nitrate, ammonium perchlorate, potassium nitrate) in a polymer binder (binding agent) with flakes or powders of energetic compounds (examples: RDX, HMX), metallic additives (examples: aluminium, beryllium), plasticizers, stabilizers, and / or burn rate modifiers (iron oxide, copper oxide). Single -, double -, or triple - bases are mixtures of the fuel, oxidizer, binders, and plasticizers that are macroscopically indistinguishable and often blended as liquids and cured in a single batch. Often, the ingredients of a double - base propellant have multiple roles. For example, RDX is both a fuel and oxidizer while nitrocellulose is a fuel, oxidizer, and plasticizer. Further complicating categorization, there are many propellants that contain elements of double - base and composite propellants, which often contain some amount of energetic additives homogeneously mixed into the binder. In the case of gunpowder (a pressed composite without a polymeric binder) the fuel is charcoal, the oxidizer is potassium nitrate, and sulphur serves as a catalyst. (Note: sulphur is not a true catalyst in gunpowder as it is consumed to a great extent into a variety of reaction products such as K S.) During the 1950s and 60s researchers in the United States developed ammonium perchlorate composite propellant (APCP). This mixture is typically 69 - 70 % finely ground ammonium perchlorate (an oxidizer), combined with 16 - 20 % fine aluminium powder (a fuel), held together in a base of 11 - 14 % polybutadiene acrylonitrile (PBAN) or Hydroxyl - terminated polybutadiene (polybutadiene rubber fuel). The mixture is formed as a thickened liquid and then cast into the correct shape and cured into a firm but flexible load - bearing solid. Historically the tally of APCP solid propellants is relatively small. The military, however, uses a wide variety of different types of solid propellants some of which exceed the performance of APCP. A comparison of the highest specific impulses achieved with the various solid and liquid propellant combinations used in current launch vehicles is given in the article on solid - fuel rockets.
Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than liquid propellant rockets. High propellant density makes for compact size as well. These features plus simplicity and low cost make solid propellant rockets ideal for military applications. In the 1970s and 1980s the U.S. switched entirely to solid - fueled ICBMs: the LGM - 30 Minuteman and LG - 118A Peacekeeper (MX). In the 1980s and 1990s, the USSR / Russia also deployed solid - fueled ICBMs (RT - 23, RT - 2PM, and RT - 2UTTH), but retains two liquid - fueled ICBMs (R - 36 and UR - 100N). All solid - fueled ICBMs on both sides had three initial solid stages, and those with multiple independently targeted warheads had a precision maneuverable bus used to fine tune the trajectory of the re-entry vehicles. U.S. Minuteman III ICBMs were reduced to a single warhead by 2011 in accordance with the START treaty leaving only the Navy 's Trident sub-launched ICBMs with multiple warheads.
Their simplicity also makes solid rockets a good choice whenever large amounts of thrust are needed and cost is an issue. The Space Shuttle and many other orbital launch vehicles use solid - fueled rockets in their boost stages (solid rocket boosters) for this reason.
Relative to liquid fuel rockets, solid fuel rockets have lower specific impulse, a measure of propellant efficiency. The propellant mass ratios of solid propellant upper stages is usually in the. 91 to. 93 range which is as good as or better than that of most liquid propellant upper stages but overall performance is less than for liquid stages because of the solids ' lower exhaust velocities. The high mass ratios possible with (unsegmented) solids is a result of high propellant density and very high strength - to - weight ratio filament - wound motor casings. A drawback to solid rockets is that they can not be throttled in real time, although a programmed thrust schedule can be created by adjusting the interior propellant geometry. Solid rockets can be vented to extinguish combustion or reverse thrust as a means of controlling range or accommodating warhead separation. Casting large amounts of propellant requires consistency and repeatability which is assured by computer control. Casting voids in propellant can adversely affect burn rate so the blending and casting takes place under vacuum and the propellant blend is spread thin and scanned to assure no large gas bubbles are introduced into the motor. Solid fuel rockets are intolerant to cracks and voids and often require post-processing such as x-ray scans to identify faults. Since the combustion process is dependent on the surface area of the fuel; voids and cracks represent local increases in burning surface area. This increases the local temperature, system pressure and radiative heat flux to the surface. This positive feedback loop further increases burn rate and can easily lead to catastrophic failure typically due to case failure or nozzle system damage.
The most common liquid propellants in use today:
These include propellants such as the letter - coded rocket propellants used by Germany in World War II used for the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet 's Walter HWK 109 - 509 motor and the V - 2 pioneer SRBM missile, and the Soviet / Russian utilized syntin, which is synthetic cyclopropane, C H which was used on Soyuz U2 until 1995. Syntin develops about 10 seconds greater specific impulse than kerosene.
Liquid - fueled rockets have higher specific impulse than solid rockets and are capable of being throttled, shut down, and restarted. Only the combustion chamber of a liquid - fueled rocket needs to withstand high combustion pressures and temperatures and they can be regeneratively cooled by the liquid propellant. On vehicles employing turbopumps, the propellant tanks are at very much lower pressure than the combustion chamber. For these reasons, most orbital launch vehicles use liquid propellants.
The primary performance advantage of liquid propellants is due to the oxidizer. Several practical liquid oxidizers (liquid oxygen, nitrogen tetroxide, and hydrogen peroxide) are available which have better specific impulse than the ammonium perchlorate used in most solid rockets, when paired with comparable fuels. These facts have led to the use of hybrid propellants: a storable oxidizer used with a solid fuel, which retain most virtues of both liquids (high ISP) and solids (simplicity). (The newest nitramine solid propellants based on CL - 20 (HNIW) can match the performance of NTO / UDMH storable liquid propellants, but can not be controlled as can the storable liquids.)
While liquid propellants are cheaper than solid propellants, for orbital launchers, the cost savings do not, and historically have not mattered; the cost of the propellant is a very small portion of the overall cost of the rocket. Some propellants, notably oxygen and nitrogen, may be able to be collected from the upper atmosphere, and transferred up to low - Earth orbit for use in propellant depots at substantially reduced cost.
The main difficulties with liquid propellants are also with the oxidizers. These are generally at least moderately difficult to store and handle due to their high reactivity with common materials, may have extreme toxicity (nitric acid, nitrogen tetroxide), require moderately cryogenic storage (liquid oxygen), or both (liquid fluorine, FLOX - a fluorine / LOX mix). Several exotic oxidizers have been proposed: liquid ozone (O), ClF, and ClF, all of which are unstable, energetic, and toxic.
Liquid - fueled rockets also require potentially troublesome valves and seals and thermally stressed combustion chambers, which increase the cost of the rocket. Many employ specially designed turbopumps which raise the cost enormously due to difficult fluid flow patterns that exist within the casings.
A gas propellant usually involves some sort of compressed gas. However, due to the low density of the gas and high weight of the pressure vessel required to contain it, gases see little current use, but are sometimes used for vernier engines, particularly with inert propellants like nitrogen.
GOX (gaseous oxygen) was used as the oxidizer for the Buran program 's orbital maneuvering system.
A hybrid rocket usually has a solid fuel and a liquid or NEMA oxidizer. The fluid oxidizer can make it possible to throttle and restart the motor just like a liquid - fueled rocket. Hybrid rockets can also be environmentally safer than solid rockets since some high - performance solid - phase oxidizers contain chlorine (specifically composites with ammonium perchlorate), versus the more benign liquid oxygen or nitrous oxide often used in hybrids. This is only true for specific hybrid systems. There have been hybrids which have used chlorine or fluorine compounds as oxidizers and hazardous materials such as beryllium compounds mixed into the solid fuel grain. Because just one constituent is a fluid, hybrids can be simpler than liquid rockets depending motive force used to transport the fluid into the combustion chamber. Fewer fluids typically means fewer and smaller piping systems, valves and pumps (if utilized).
Hybrid motors suffer two major drawbacks. The first, shared with solid rocket motors, is that the casing around the fuel grain must be built to withstand full combustion pressure and often extreme temperatures as well. However, modern composite structures handle this problem well, and when used with nitrous oxide and a solid rubber propellant (HTPB), relatively small percentage of fuel is needed anyway, so the combustion chamber is not especially large.
The primary remaining difficulty with hybrids is with mixing the propellants during the combustion process. In solid propellants, the oxidizer and fuel are mixed in a factory in carefully controlled conditions. Liquid propellants are generally mixed by the injector at the top of the combustion chamber, which directs many small swift - moving streams of fuel and oxidizer into one another. Liquid - fueled rocket injector design has been studied at great length and still resists reliable performance prediction. In a hybrid motor, the mixing happens at the melting or evaporating surface of the fuel. The mixing is not a well - controlled process and generally quite a lot of propellant is left unburned, which limits the efficiency of the motor. The combustion rate of the fuel is largely determined by the oxidizer flux and exposed fuel surface area. This combustion rate is not usually sufficient for high power operations such as boost stages unless the surface area or oxidizer flux is high. Too high of oxidizer flux can lead to flooding and loss of flame holding that locally extinguishes the combustion. Surface area can be increased, typically by longer grains or multiple ports, but this can increase combustion chamber size, reduce grain strength and / or reduce volumetric loading. Additionally, as the burn continues, the hole down the center of the grain (the ' port ') widens and the mixture ratio tends to become more oxidizer rich.
There has been much less development of hybrid motors than solid and liquid motors. For military use, ease of handling and maintenance have driven the use of solid rockets. For orbital work, liquid fuels are more efficient than hybrids and most development has concentrated there. There has recently been an increase in hybrid motor development for nonmilitary suborbital work:
Some work has been done on gelling liquid propellants to give a propellant with low vapor pressure to reduce the risk of an accidental fireball. Gelled propellant behaves like a solid propellant in storage and like a liquid propellant in use.
Some rocket designs have their propellants obtain their energy from non chemical or even external sources. For example, water rockets use the compressed gas, typically air, to force the water out of the rocket.
Solar thermal rockets and Nuclear thermal rockets typically propose to use liquid hydrogen for an I (Specific Impulse) of around 600 -- 900 seconds, or in some cases water that is exhausted as steam for an I of about 190 seconds.
Additionally for low performance requirements such as attitude control jets, inert gases such as nitrogen have been employed.
Nuclear thermal rockets pass a propellant over a central reactor, heating the propellant and causing it to expand rapidly out a rocket nozzle, pushing the craft forward. The propellant itself is not directly interacting with the interior of the reactor, so the propellant is not irradiated.
Solar thermal rockets use concentrated sunlight to heat a propellant, rather than using a nuclear reactor.
The theoretical exhaust velocity of a given propellant chemistry is a function of the energy released per unit of propellant mass (specific energy). Unburned fuel or oxidizer drags down the specific energy. However, most rockets run fuel - rich mixtures.
The usual explanation for fuel - rich mixtures is that fuel - rich mixtures have lower molecular weight exhaust, which by reducing M (\ displaystyle M) increases the ratio T c M (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ sqrt (T_ (c))) (M))) which is approximately equal to the theoretical exhaust velocity. Fuel - rich mixtures actually have lower theoretical exhaust velocities, because T c (\ displaystyle (\ sqrt (T_ (c)))) decreases as fast or faster than M (\ displaystyle M).
The nozzle of the rocket converts the thermal energy of the propellants into directed kinetic energy. This conversion happens in a short time, on the order of one millisecond. During the conversion, energy must transfer very quickly from the rotational and vibrational states of the exhaust molecules into translation. Molecules with fewer atoms (like CO and H) store less energy in vibration and rotation than molecules with more atoms (like CO and H O). These smaller molecules transfer more of their rotational and vibrational energy to translation energy than larger molecules, and the resulting improvement in nozzle efficiency is large enough that real rocket engines improve their actual exhaust velocity by running rich mixtures with somewhat lower theoretical exhaust velocities.
The effect of exhaust molecular weight on nozzle efficiency is most important for nozzles operating near sea level. High expansion rockets operating in a vacuum see a much smaller effect, and so are run less rich. The Saturn - II stage (a LOX / LH rocket) varied its mixture ratio during flight to optimize performance.
LOX / hydrocarbon rockets are run only somewhat rich (O / F mass ratio of 3 rather than stoichiometric of 3.4 to 4), because the energy release per unit mass drops off quickly as the mixture ratio deviates from stoichiometric. LOX / LH rockets are run very rich (O / F mass ratio of 4 rather than stoichiometric 8) because hydrogen is so light that the energy release per unit mass of propellant drops very slowly with extra hydrogen. In fact, LOX / LH rockets are generally limited in how rich they run by the performance penalty of the mass of the extra hydrogen tankage, rather than the mass of the hydrogen itself.
Another reason for running rich is that off - stoichiometric mixtures burn cooler than stoichiometric mixtures, which makes engine cooling easier. Because fuel - rich combustion products are less chemically reactive (corrosive) than oxygenated products, vast majority of rocket engines are designed to run fuel - rich, with at least one exception for the Russian RD - 180 preburner, which burns LOX and RP - 1 at a ratio of 2.72.
Additionally, mixture ratios can be dynamic during launch. This can be exploited with designs that adjust the oxidizer to fuel ratio (along with overall thrust) during the flight to maximize overall system performance. For instance, during lift - off thrust is a premium while specific impulse is less so. As such, the system can be optimized by carefully adjusting the O / F ratio so the engine runs cooler at higher thrust levels. This also allows for the engine to be designed slightly more compactly, improving its overall thrust to weight performance.
Although liquid hydrogen gives a high I, its low density is a significant disadvantage: hydrogen occupies about 7x more volume per kilogram than dense fuels such as kerosene. This not only penalises the tankage, but also the pipes and fuel pumps leading from the tank, which need to be 7x bigger and heavier. (The oxidiser side of the engine and tankage is of course unaffected.) This makes the vehicle 's dry mass much higher, so the use of liquid hydrogen is not as advantageous as might be expected. Indeed, some dense hydrocarbon / LOX propellant combinations have higher performance when the dry mass penalties are included.
Due to lower I, dense propellant launch vehicles have a higher takeoff mass, but this does not mean a proportionately high cost; on the contrary, the vehicle may well end up cheaper. Liquid hydrogen is quite an expensive fuel to produce and store, and causes many practical difficulties with design and manufacture of the vehicle.
Because of the higher overall weight, a dense - fueled launch vehicle necessarily requires higher takeoff thrust, but it carries this thrust capability all the way to orbit. This, in combination with the better thrust / weight ratios, means that dense - fueled vehicles reach orbit earlier, thereby minimizing losses due to gravity drag. Thus, the effective delta - v requirement for these vehicles are reduced.
However, liquid hydrogen does give clear advantages when the overall mass needs to be minimised; for example the Saturn V vehicle used it on the upper stages; this reduced weight meant that the dense - fueled first stage could be made significantly smaller, saving quite a lot of money.
Tripropellant rockets designs often try to use an optimum mix of propellants for launch vehicles. These use mainly dense fuel while at low altitude and switch across to hydrogen at higher altitude. Studies by Robert Salkeld in the 1960s proposed SSTO using this technique. The Space Shuttle approximated this by using dense solid rocket boosters for the majority of the thrust for the first 120 seconds, the main engines, burning a fuel - rich hydrogen and oxygen mixture operate continuously throughout the launch but only provide the majority of thrust at higher altitudes after SRB burnout.
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can you board a train with rac ticket | Reservation Against Cancellation - wikipedia
A Reservation Against Cancellation (RAC) is a type of ticket that can be sold for travel on the Indian Railways. Although it ensures certainty of travel, it does not guarantee a berth. A berth will be allocated to the person who reserves an RAC ticket if passengers who already have a confirmed ticket do not turn up before the train departure or get their confirmed ticket cancelled. A berth is split into 2 seats for 2 RAC ticket holders. If there 's any last minute cancellations, or if any quota allocations remain unsold, or if any confirmed ticket holders are given a free upgrade (more later), an RAC ticket holder is given the empty berth, the other RAC ticket holder can then convert the 2 seats into a berth.
Generally, RAC / WL tickets will have two numbers - RAC8 / RAC2, WL20 / WL15, WL12 / RAC2, etc. The first number shows the status of the ticket at the time of booking. The second number after the slash (/) shows the current status of your ticket. So, RAC8 / RAC2 means that when you purchased the ticket, it may be that yours was the 8th such ticket under RAC category, which has moved 6 places after 6 cancellations before your position which is moved to the 2nd (you can assume that you were the 8th person in the queue and you are the 2nd person now). You can check the current status of your booking by entering 10 - digit PNR number in Indian Railway website. So having a RAC ticket means that you can travel sharing a berth with another person.
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enumerate and describe the common instruments of cambodia | Traditional Cambodian musical instruments - wikipedia
Traditional Cambodian musical instruments are the musical instruments used in the traditional and classical musics of Cambodia. They comprise a wide range of wind, string, and percussion instruments, used by both the Khmer majority as well as the nation 's ethnic minorities.
Traditional Cambodian musical instruments plays a significant role in the Cambodian culture. These instruments are typically used during royal events, weddings, and festivals. For weddings and royal events, the musicians playing the instruments would wear traditional Cambodian attire. Just like the Chinese, with regard to playing context, there is no conductor in traditional Cambodian music because musicians generally learned and memorized how to play the instruments aurally. These instruments provides a sense of identity for the Cambodian people.
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where are sensory neurons located in the body | Sensory neuron - wikipedia
Sensory neurons also known as afferent neurons are neurons that convert a specific type of stimulus, via their receptors, into action potentials or graded potentials. This process is called sensory transduction. The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in the dorsal ganglia of the spinal cord.
This sensory information travels along afferent nerve fibers in an afferent or sensory nerve, to the brain via the spinal cord. The stimulus can come from extoreceptors outside the body, for example light and sound, or from interoreceptors inside the body, for example blood pressure or the sense of body position.
Different types of sensory neurons have different sensory receptors that respond to different kinds of stimuli.
The sensory neurons involved in smell are called olfactory receptor neurons. These receptor neurons contain receptors, called olfactory receptors, that are activated by the odor molecules in the air. The perception of these odor molecules is called a scent.
Similarly to olfactory receptor neurons, taste receptors (gustatory receptors) in taste buds interact with chemicals in food to produce an action potential.
Photoreceptor cells are capable of phototransduction, a process which converts light (electromagnetic radiation) into electrical signals. These signals are refined and controlled by the interactions with other types of neurons in the retina.
The five basic classes of neurons within the retina are photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells.
The basic circuitry of the retina incorporates a three - neuron chain consisting of the photoreceptor (either a rod or cone), bipolar cell, and the ganglion cell.
The first action potential occurs in the retinal ganglion cell. This pathway is the most direct way for transmitting visual information to the brain.
There are three primary types of photoreceptors: Cones are photoreceptors that respond significantly to color. In humans the three different types of cones correspond with a primary response to short wavelength (blue), medium wavelength (green), and long wavelength (yellow / red). Rods are photoreceptors that are very sensitive to the intensity of light, allowing for vision in dim lighting. The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal. In humans, rods outnumber cones by approximately 20: 1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer to 1000: 1. Retinal ganglion cells are involved in the sympathetic response. Of the ~ 1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina, 1 - 2 % are believed to be photosensitive.
Problems and decay of sensory neurons associated with vision lead to disorders such as:
The auditory system is responsible for converting pressure waves generated by vibrating air molecules or sound into signals that can be interpreted by the brain.
This mechanoelectrical transduction is mediated with hair cells within the ear. Depending on the movement, the hair cell can either hyperpolarize or depolarize. When the movement is towards the tallest stereocilia, the K cation channels open allowing K to flow into cell and the resulting depolarization causes the Ca channels to open, thus releasing its neurotransmitter into the afferent auditory nerve. There are two types of hair cells: inner and outer. The inner hair cells are the sensory receptors.
Problems with sensory neurons associated with the auditory system leads to disorders such as:
Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors, which respond to varying temperatures. While the mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear, recent discoveries have shown that mammals have at least two distinct types of thermoreceptors. The bulboid corpuscle, is a cutaneous receptor a cold - sensitive receptor, that detects cold temperatures. The other type is a warmth - sensitive receptor.
Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces, such as pressure or distortion.
Specialized sensory receptor cells called mechanoreceptors often encapsulate afferent fibers to help tune the afferent fibers to the different types of somatic stimulation. Mechanoreceptors also help lower thresholds for action potential generation in afferent fibers and thus make them more likely to fire in the presence of sensory stimulation.
Some types of mechanoreceptors fire action potentials when their membranes are physically stretched.
Proprioceptors are another type of mechanoreceptors which literally means "receptors for self ''. These receptors provide spatial information about limbs and other body parts.
Nociceptors are responsible for processing pain and temperature changes. The burning pain and irritation experienced after eating a chili pepper (due to its main ingredient, capsaicin), the cold sensation experienced after ingesting a chemical such as menthol or icillin, as well as the common sensation of pain are all a result of neurons with these receptors.
Problems with mechanoreceptors lead to disorders such as:
Internal receptors that respond to changes inside the body are known as interoceptors.
The aortic bodies and carotid bodies contain clusters of glomus cells -- peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in chemical properties in the blood such as oxygen concentration. These receptors are polymodal responding to a number of different stimuli.
Nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal cord and brain. This process, called nociception, usually causes the perception of pain. They are found in internal organs as well as on the surface of the body. Nociceptors detect different kinds of damaging stimuli or actual damage. Those that only respond when tissues are damaged are known as "sleeping '' or "silent '' nociceptors.
Information coming from the sensory neurons in the head enters the central nervous system (CNS) through cranial nerves. Information from the sensory neurons below the head enters the spinal cord and passes towards the brain through the 31 spinal nerve s. The sensory information traveling through the spinal cord follows well - defined pathways. The nervous system codes the differences among the sensations in terms of which cells are active.
A sensory receptor 's adequate stimulus is the stimulus modality for which it possesses the adequate sensory transduction apparatus. Adequate stimulus can be used to classify sensory receptors:
Sensory receptors can be classified by location:
Somatic sensory receptors near the surface of the skin can usually be divided into two groups based on morphology:
There are many drugs currently on the market that are used to manipulate or treat sensory system disorders. For instance, Gabapentin is a drug that is used to treat neuropathic pain by interacting with one of the voltage - dependent calcium channels present on non-receptive neurons. Some drugs may be used to combat other health problems, but can have unintended side effects on the sensory system. Ototoxic drugs are drugs which affect the cochlea through the use of a toxin like aminoglycoside antibiotics, which poison hair cells. Through the use of these toxins, the K+ pumping hair cells cease their function. Thus, the energy generated by the endocochlear potential which drives the auditory signal transduction process is lost, leading to hearing loss.
Ever since scientists observed cortical remapping in the brain of Taub 's Silver Spring monkeys, there has been a lot of research into sensory system plasticity. Huge strides have been made in treating disorders of the sensory system. Techniques such as constraint - induced movement therapy developed by Taub have helped patients with paralyzed limbs regain use of their limbs by forcing the sensory system to grow new neural pathways. Phantom limb syndrome is a sensory system disorder in which amputees perceive that their amputated limb still exists and they may still be experiencing pain in it. The mirror box developed by V.S. Ramachandran, has enabled patients with phantom limb syndrome to relieve the perception of paralyzed or painful phantom limbs. It is a simple device which uses a mirror in a box to create an illusion in which the sensory system perceives that it is seeing two hands instead of one, therefore allowing the sensory system to control the "phantom limb ''. By doing this, the sensory system can gradually get acclimated to the amputated limb, and thus alleviate this syndrome.
Hydrodynamic reception is a form of mechanoreception used in a range of animal species.
Illustration of Tactile Receptors in the Skin
Illustration of Lamellated Corpuscle
Illustration of Ruffini Corpuscle
Illustration of Skin Merkel Cell
Illustration of Tactile Corpuscle
Illustration of Root Hair Plexus
Illustration of Free Nerve Endings
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who did the voice of the ship in flight of the navigator | Flight of the Navigator - wikipedia
Flight of the Navigator is a 1986 American science fiction adventure film directed by Randal Kleiser and written by Mark H. Baker, Michael Burton and Matt MacManus. The film stars Joey Cramer as David Freeman, a 12 - year - old boy who is abducted by an alien spaceship and finds himself caught in a world that has changed around him.
The film 's producers initially sent the project to Walt Disney Pictures in 1984, but the studio was unable to approve it and it was sent to Producers Sales Organization, which made a deal with Disney to distribute it in the United States. It was partially shot in Fort Lauderdale, Florida and Norway, it being a co-production with Norwegian company Viking Film.
On the night of July 4, 1978 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, 12 - year - old David Scott Freeman walks through the woods to pick up his 8 - year - old younger brother Jeff from a friend 's house when he accidentally falls into a ravine and is knocked unconscious. When he comes to, he discovers that 8 years have passed and the year is now 1986; while he has not aged at all, his parents are now middle - aged and Jeff is 16 years old. Meanwhile, an alien spaceship crashes through power lines and is promptly confiscated by NASA. David is taken to a hospital for tests where his brainwaves reveal images of the spaceship. Dr. Louis Faraday, who has been studying the spaceship since its arrival, persuades David to come to a NASA research facility for just 48 hours for extra tests, promising him that they can help him learn the truth about what happened to him. There, Faraday discovers that David 's mind is filled with alien technical manuals and star charts covering expanses of the galaxy far exceeding anything humans have recorded. David 's subconscious mind tells the scientists that he was taken to a planet called Phaelon, 560 light years away, in just over 4.4 hours. They realize that David has experienced severe time dilation as a result of having traveled faster than the speed of light, explaining why eight years have passed on Earth, but not for him. David is unable to comprehend what Faraday tells him and flees the room, leaving Faraday muttering that 48 hours will be insufficient to finish his investigation.
The next morning, following a telepathic communication from the ship, David secretly boards it and meets its robotic commander called "Trimaxion Drone Ship '' (or "Max '' for short), which refers to David as the "Navigator ''. After they escape from the facility, Max tells David that its mission was to travel across the galaxy, collect biological specimens, take them to Phaelon for analysis, and then return them to their homes. Phaelon 's scientists discovered humans only use 10 % of their brain and, as an experiment, filled the remainder of David 's with miscellaneous information. This includes all of the star charts discovered by Phaelon 's astronomers, some of which were shown to the NASA scientists during David 's interrogation. Max then returned him to Earth, but did not take him back to his own time, having determined that a human would be unlikely to survive a trip back in time. Before leaving Earth, Max accidentally crashed the ship, erasing all the computer 's star charts and data. Therefore, Max needs the information in David 's brain to return home.
Max programs the ship for a mind transfer, and David is shown the eight remaining alien specimens on board, and bonds with a "Puckmaren '', a tiny bat - like alien, that is the last of his kind after a comet destroyed its planet. Max performs the mind transfer on David to reacquire the star charts, but in the process also contracts human emotional attributes, resulting in eccentric behavior. Max and David start bickering while their antics trigger several UFO reports in Tokyo and other cities. Meanwhile, NASA intern Carolyn McAdams contacts David 's family and tells them about his escape in the ship; as a result, Faraday has the family confined to the house and Carolyn is sent back to the facility.
When the ship stops at a gas station in the Florida Keys, David calls Jeff and asks him to send a signal to locate the family 's new home. Jeff sets off fireworks on the rooftop. David and Max arrive near the house, but NASA agents, having tracked the ship 's every move, get there first. Fearing that he would be institutionalized for life if he remains in 1986, he orders Max to return him to 1978, regardless of the risk to his life. After the journey back in time, David wakes up in the ravine, walks home, and finds everything as he left it. During the Fourth of July celebration, he watches Max flash across the sky against the backdrop of fireworks while Jeff is surprised to see the Puckmaren in David 's backpack.
The Trimaxion Drone Ship was rendered in CGI by Omnibus Computer Animation, under the supervision of Jeff Kleiser, the brother of director Randal Kleiser.
The music score for the film was composed by Alan Silvestri. It is distinct from his other scores in being entirely electronically generated, using the Synclavier, one of the first digital multi-track recorders and samplers.
The film received mainly positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes rated it a fresh rating of 81 % based on 27 reviews with the consensus: "Bolstered by impressive special effects and a charming performance from its young star, Flight of the Navigator holds up as a solidly entertaining bit of family - friendly sci - fi. ''
Kevin Thomas of the LA Times said its biggest plus was "its entirely believable, normal American family. '' The New York Times described it as "definitely a film most children can enjoy. '' People declared it "out - of - this - world fun. '' Empire gave it 3 / 5 stars, saying it was "well - made enough to keep the family happy, but it certainly wo n't challenge them. '' Variety was more critical, announcing that "instead of creating an eye - opening panorama, Flight of the Navigator looks through the small end of the telescope. '' Dave Kehr gave it 3 stars and described it as "a new high for Disney. ''
In May 2009, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Disney was readying a remake of the film. Brad Copeland was writing the script and Mandeville partners David Hoberman and Todd Lieberman would serve as producers. In November 2012, Disney hired Safety Not Guaranteed 's director Colin Trevorrow and writer / producer Derek Connolly to rewrite the script. On September 2017, Lionsgate and The Jim Henson Company announced that a reboot of Flight of the Navigator is in pre-production with Joe Henderson from TV 's Lucifer writing the script.
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words in english and french that are the same | List of English words of French origin - wikipedia
A great number of words of French origin have entered the English language to the extent that many Latin words have come to the English language. According to different sources, 45 % of all English words have a French origin. This suggests that 80,000 words should appear in this list; this list, however, only includes words imported directly from French, such as both joy and joyous, and does not include derivatives formed in English of words borrowed from French, including joyful, joyfulness, partisanship, and parenthood. It also excludes both combinations of words of French origin with words whose origin is a language other than French -- e.g.: ice cream, sunray, jellyfish, killjoy, lifeguard, and passageway -- and English - made combinations of words of French origin -- e.g.: grapefruit (grape + fruit), layperson (lay + person), mailorder, magpie, marketplace, surrender, petticoat, and straitjacket. This list also excludes words that come from French but were introduced into the English language via a language other than French, which include commodore, domineer, filibuster, ketone, loggia, lotto, mariachi, monsignor, oboe, paella, panzer, picayune, ranch, vendue, and veneer.
Although French is mainly from Latin (which accounts for about 60 % of English vocabulary either directly or via a Romance language), it also includes words from Gaulish and Germanic languages (especially Old Frankish). Since English is of Germanic origin, words that have entered English from the Germanic elements in French might not strike the eye as distinctively from French. Conversely, as Latin gave many derivatives to both the English and the French languages, ascertaining that a given Latinate derivative did not come to the English language via French can be difficult in a few cases.
Most of the French vocabulary now appearing in English was imported over the centuries following the Norman Conquest of 1066, when England came under the administration of Norman - speaking peoples. William the Conqueror invaded the island of Britain, distributing lands and property to the Normans. As a result, French became the language of culture and the administration. The majority of the population of England continued to use their Anglo - Saxon language, but it was influenced by the language of the ruling elite, resulting in doublets. Consider for example the words for the meats eaten by the Anglo - Norman nobility and the corresponding animals raised by the Anglo - Saxon peasants: beef / ox, mutton / sheep, veal / calf, pork / pig, or pairs of words pertaining to different registers of language: commence / start, continue / go on, disengage / withdraw, encounter / meet, vend / sell, purchase / buy, commerce / trade. Words of French origin often refer to more abstract or elaborate notions than their Anglo - Saxon equivalents (e.g. liberty / freedom, justice / fairness), and are therefore of less frequent use in everyday language. This may not, however, be the case for all English words of French origin. Consider, for example: able, car, chair, city, country, fine, fruit, journey, juice, just, part, people, real, stay, table, travel, use, very, and wait.
After the rise of Henry Plantagenet to the throne of England, other forms of dialectal French may have gained in influence to the detriment of Norman French (notably the variants of Anjou where the House of Plantagenet came from, and possibly Poitevin, the tongue of Eleanor of Aquitaine). With the English claim to the throne of France, the influence of the language in use at the royal court of France in Paris increased. The cultural influence of France remained strong in the following centuries and from the Renaissance onward borrowings were mainly made from Parisian French, which became the de facto standard language of France.
Norman rule of England had a lasting impact on British society. Words from Anglo - Norman or Old French include terms related to Chivalry (homage, liege, peasant, government, seigniorage, suzerain, vassal, villain) and other institutions (bailiff, chancellor, council, government, mayor, minister, parliament), the organisation of religion (abbey, clergy, cloister, diocese, friar, mass, parish, prayer, preach, priest, sacristy, vestment, vestry, vicar), the nobility (baron, count, dame, duke, marquis, prince, sir), and the art of war (armour, baldric, dungeon, hauberk, mail, portcullis, rampart, surcoat). Many of these words related to the feudal system or medieval warfare have a Germanic origin (mainly through Old Frankish) (see also French words of Germanic origin).
The Norman origin of the British monarchy is still visible in expressions like Prince Regent, heir apparent, Princess Royal where the adjective is placed after the noun, like in French.
The vocabulary of heraldry has been heavily influenced by French (blazon, or, argent, sable, gules, passant), for more details see tinctures, attitudes, and charges of heraldry.
Sometimes used in heraldry, some mythological beasts (cockatrice, dragon, griffin, hippogriff, phoenix) or exotic animals (lion, leopard, antelope, gazelle, giraffe, camel, zebu, elephant, baboon, macaque, mouflon, dolphin, ocelot, ostrich, chameleon) draw their name from French. It is also the case of some animals native of Europe (via Anglo - Norman: eagle, buzzard, falcon, squirrel, coney, rabbit, leveret, lizard, marten, ferret, salmon, viper).
The vocabulary of warfare and the military include many words of French origin (battalion, dragoon, soldier, marine, grenadier, guard, officer, infantry, cavalry, army, artillery, corvette, musketeer, carabineer, pistol, fusilier, squad, squadron, platoon, brigade, corps, sortie, reconnaissance / reconnoitre, surrender, surveillance, rendezvous, espionage, volley, siege, terrain, troop, camouflage, logistics, matériel, accoutrements, bivouac, latrine, aide - de-camp, legionnaire, morale, esprit de corps, cordon sanitaire. See also military ranks: corporal, sergeant, lieutenant, captain, colonel, general, admiral. Many fencing terms are also from French.
The political / economic lexicon include many words of French origin like money, treasury, exchequer, commerce, finance, tax, liberalism, capitalism, materialism, nationalism, plebiscite, coup d'état, regime, sovereignty, state, administration, federal, bureaucracy, constitution, jurisdiction, district.
The judicial lexicon has also been heavily influenced by French (justice, judge, jury, attorney, court, case). (See also Law French).
attaché, chargé d'affaires, envoy, embassy, chancery, diplomacy, démarche, communiqué, aide - mémoire, détente, entente, rapprochement, accord, treaty, alliance, passport, protocol.
art, music, dance, theatre, author, stage, paint, canvas, perform, harmony, melody, rhythm, trumpet, note, director, gallery, portrait, brush, pallet, montage, surrealism, impressionism, fauvism, cubism, symbolism, art nouveau, gouache, aquarelle, collage, render, frieze, grisaille...;
aisle, arcade, arch, vault, voussoir, belfry, arc - boutant, buttress, bay, lintel, estrade, facade, balustrade, terrace, lunette, niche, pavilion, pilaster, porte cochère;
France played a pioneering role in the fields of aviation (nacelle, empennage, fuselage, aileron, altimeter, canard, decalage, monocoque, turbine) and automobile engineering or design (chassis, piston, arbor, grille, tonneau, berline, sedan, limousine, cabriolet, coupé, convertible);
baba au rhum, beef, beef bourguignon, boudin, caramel, casserole, cassoulet, clafoutis, confit, consommé, cream, croissant, custard, foie gras, flognarde, fondant, fondue, gateau, gratin, marmalade, mayonnaise, meringue, mille - feuille, mustard, mutton, navarin, pâté, pastry, petit four, pork, ragout, roux, salad, sauce, sausage, soufflé, stew, terrine, trifle, veal...
Other influences include color names (ecru, mauve, beige, carmine, maroon, blue, orange, violet, vermilion, turquoise, lilac, perse, scarlet, cerise); vegetables or fruits (courgette, aubergine, cabbage, carrot, cherry, chestnut, cucumber, nutmeg, quince, spinach, lemon, orange, apricot); months of the year (January, March, May, July, November, December).
Some of the French words that made their way into the English language were coined by French inventors, discoverers or pioneers, or scientists: cinema, television, helicopter, parachute, harmonium, bathyscaphe, lactose, lecithin, bacteriophage, chlorophyll, mastodon, pterodactyl, oxide, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, photography, stethoscope, thermometer, stratosphere, troposphere.
Some French words were named after French people (from their family name), especially in the fields of science (ampere, appertisation, baud, becquerel, braille, coulomb, curie, daguerreotype, pascal, pasteurise, vernier), botany and mineralogy (begonia, bougainvillea, clementine, magnolia, dolomite, nicotine), fashion and style or any other cultural aspect (lavalier, leotard, recamier, mansard, chauvinism, kir, praline, saxophone, silhouette, guillotine).
The names of certain cities in non-francophone regions / countries entered English with French spelling (Constance, Ypres, Bruges, Louvain, Turin, Milan, Plaisance, Florence, Rome, Naples, Syracuse, Vienna, Prague, Munich, Cologne, Aix - la - Chapelle, Seville, Constantinople.
In North America, the names of some of the Native American peoples or First Nations the French came in contact with first are from French (Sioux, Saulteaux, Iroquois, Nez Perce, Huron, Cheyenne, Algonquin). It is also the case of some place names such as Arkansas, Michigan, Illinois, Maine, Vermont, Des Moines, Detroit, Chicago and Baton Rouge.
Some words from Old French have been imported again from Middle French or Modern French, but have generally taken a more restrictive or specialised meaning the second time. Consider for instance: chief / chef, luminary / luminaire, liquor / liqueur, castle / château, hostel / hotel, mask / masque, necessary / nécessaire, petty / petit, ticket / etiquette, troop / troupe, vanguard / avant - garde. Note that the word in French has kept the general meaning: e.g. château in French means castle and chef means chief. Even when not imported several times in different forms, loanwords from French generally have a more restrictive or specialised meaning than in French: e.g. legume (in Fr. légume means vegetable), gateau (in Fr. gâteau means cake).
In some cases, the English language has been more conservative than the French one with Old French words, at least in spelling if not in pronunciation: e.g. apostle (O.Fr. apostle / M.Fr. apôtre), castle (O.Fr. castel or chastel / M.Fr. château), forest (O.Fr. forest / M.Fr. forêt), vessel (O.Fr. vaissel / M.Fr. vaisseau). Other Old French words have even disappeared from Modern French: dandelion.
On the other hand, a move to restore the classical roots (Latin or Ancient Greek) occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Thus words from Old French saw their spelling re-Latinized. Although in most cases this did not affect their pronunciation (e.g. debt, doubt, indict, mayor), in some cases it did (e.g. abnormal, adventure, benefit). The ph transcription of words of Greek etymology was restored instead of the f. Thus fantosme became phantom, fesan became pheasant. This move occurred also in French, although less systematically (Old French farmacie became pharmacie ("pharmacy ''), fenix became phénix ("phoenix ''), but fantosme became fantôme ("phantom, ghost '') and fesan became faisan ("pheasant '').
Beside re-Latinization that blurred the French origin of some words (e.g. peradventure), other modifications in spelling have included folk etymology alterations (see belfry, crayfish, gillyflower, gingerbread, penthouse, pickaxe).
Furthermore, the spelling of some words was changed to keep the pronunciation as close to the original as possible (e.g. leaven), whereas in other cases the French spelling was kept and resulted in totally different pronunciation than French (e.g. leopard, levee). Terms that most recently entered the English language have kept French pronunciation and spelling (ambiance, aplomb, arbitrage, armoire, barrage, bonhomie, bourgeoisie, brochure, bureau, café, camaraderie, catalogue, chauffeur, collage, critique, debris, décor, dossier, élite, entourage, ennui, entrepreneur, espionage, expertise, exposé, financier, garage, genre, glacier, intrigue, liaison, lingerie, machine, mirage, montage, panache, penchant, plaque, promenade, repertoire, reservoir, sabotage, souvenir, terrain, tranche), though this may change with time (e.g. the initial h in hotel is not silent anymore, consider also the evolving pronunciation of herb, or garage). Expressions like femme fatale, bête noire and enfant terrible are still recognisably French.
Borrowings are not a one - way process (See Reborrowing), some words of French origin ultimately come from Old English (Anglo - Saxon words): e.g.: bateau, chiffon, gourmet. While conversely English words of French origin made their way "back '' into Modern French: budget, challenge, design, discount, fuel, gay, gin, humour, interview, jury, management, mess, pedigree, record, reporter, spleen, sport, squat, standard, suspense, tennis, ticket, toast, toboggan, tunnel, vintage.
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when was the last time someone won back to back us opens | List of U.S. Open (golf) champions - wikipedia
The U.S. Open is an annual golf competition established in 1895, with Horace Rawlins winning the inaugural championship. It is run by the United States Golf Association (USGA). The championship was not held from 1917 to 1918 or from 1942 to 1945 due to World War I and World War II respectively.
The U.S. Open is currently the second of the four major championships to be played each year. U.S. Open champions are automatically invited to play in the other three majors (the Masters, the Open Championship (British Open), and the PGA Championship) for the next five years, and earn a ten - year exemption from qualifying for the U.S. Open. They also receive membership on the PGA Tour for the following five seasons and invitations to The Players Championship for the five years following their victories. The champion receives a gold champion 's medal, and the U.S. Open Championship Cup, which the winner is allowed to keep for a year.
Willie Anderson, Bobby Jones, Ben Hogan and Jack Nicklaus hold the record for the most U.S. Open victories, with four victories each. Anderson holds the record for most consecutive wins with three (1903 -- 05). Hale Irwin is the oldest winner of the U.S. Open: he was 45 years and 15 days old when he won in 1990. The youngest winner of the U.S. Open is John McDermott who was 19 years, 10 months and 14 days old when he won in 1911. Rory McIlroy holds the record for the lowest aggregate score in 2011 at 268. Rory McIlroy and Brooks Koepka share the record for the lowest score in relation to par with their winning scores of - 16.
The U.S. Open has been won wire - to - wire by seven golfers on eight occasions: 1914 by Walter Hagen, 1921 by Jim Barnes, 1953 by Hogan, 1970 by Tony Jacklin, 2000 and 2002 by Tiger Woods, 2011 by McIlroy, and 2014 by Martin Kaymer. Eight others have led wire - to - wire in nine tournaments if ties after a round are counted: Willie Anderson in 1903, Alex Smith in 1906, Chick Evans in 1916, Tommy Bolt in 1958, Nicklaus in 1972 and 1980, Hubert Green in 1977, Payne Stewart in 1991, and Retief Goosen in 2001.
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when does the new episode of black lightning come on | Black Lightning (TV series) - wikipedia
Black Lightning is an American superhero television series developed by Salim Akil, airing on The CW. It is based on the DC Comics character of the same name, created by Tony Isabella. It stars Cress Williams as the titular character alongside China Anne McClain, Nafessa Williams, Christine Adams, Marvin Jones III, Damon Gupton, and James Remar. The series sees the retired Black Lightning return to the hero life and its effects on his family life.
Development on the series began in September 2016 when Fox ordered a pilot production commitment for Black Lightning. In February 2017, Fox passed on the series, with it being picked up by The CW with a new script for the pilot. The CW officially ordered the series in May 2017. The first season premiered on January 16, 2018, for a 13 - episode run. On April 2, 2018, The CW renewed the show for a second season.
High school principal Jefferson Pierce, who retired from his superhero persona Black Lightning nine years ago after seeing the effects it had on his family, is forced to become a vigilante again when the rise of the local gang called the 100 leads to increased crime and corruption in his community of Freeland.
Roland S. Martin and Nina Turner appeared as themselves in the pilot. Journalist Amanda Davis has a posthumous cameo appearance in the debut episode.
In September 2016, after being in various stages of development, Warner Bros. Television began pitching Black Lightning to networks. The project was being developed by Mara Brock Akil and her husband, Salim Akil. They were partnered with Greg Berlanti, who was behind several DC Comics properties for the studio, eventually landing at Fox with a pilot production commitment. In February 2017, Fox opted not to go forward with the project, deciding that it was "not a good fit into its already crowded genre drama space ''. Warner Bros. Television presented the project to other networks, with The CW officially ordering a pilot for Black Lightning. The CW also opted to discard the original pilot script, as it had been written for Fox, and shoot a short presentation instead. The CW officially ordered Black Lightning to series on May 10, 2017.
Salim Akil stated that Black Lightning would not follow the villain of the week format or be a procedural, because he wanted to "explore the characters, even the villains ''.
In late February 2017, Cress Williams was cast as Jefferson Pierce / Black Lightning, followed a month later by the casting of China Anne McClain and Nafessa Williams as his daughters, Jennifer Pierce and Anissa Pierce, respectively, and Christine Adams was cast as Lynn Pierce, Jefferson 's ex-wife. At the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con International, it was announced that James Remar and Damon Gupton had joined the cast as Pierce 's friend Peter Gambi and detective inspector Henderson, respectively. The following month, Marvin "Krondon '' Jones III of the hip hop group Strong Arm Steady was cast as Tobias Whale.
At the end of September 2017, Kyanna Simone Simpson was cast as the recurring role Kiesha. The following month, Edwina Findley joined the cast as Tori Whale, while Chantal Thuy was cast as Grace Choi. In January 2018, it was revealed that Skye Marshall had been cast as Mrs. Frowdy.
Black Lightning 's costume was designed by Laura Jean Shannon.
Filming for the series takes place in Atlanta. Filming for the first season began August 14 2017.
Kurt Farquhar composes the soundtrack for the series while Godholly provides original music for the series. These tracks include "Black Lightning '', "Power '', "Green Light '', "Welcome to Freeland '', "Ca n't Go '' and "Thunder ''.
Black Lightning began airing on The CW on January 16, 2018, and is set to run for 13 episodes. Each episode airs a week later on Netflix across Western Europe.
The first season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in Region 1 on June 26, 2018.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has received a 97 % approval rating, with an average rating of 8.3 / 10, based on 43 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Black Lightning does n't reinvent superhero TV, but it does give the genre a necessary jolt with real - world plots, scary new villains, and a star - making performance from Cress Williams. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 79 out of 100 based on 24 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Daniel Fienberg, in a review for The Hollywood Reporter, praised the series for being "smart and relevant and full of an attitude that 's all its own. '' The portrayal of Anissa Pierce as Thunder has received praise for making television history as the first black lesbian superhero.
Despite airing on The CW and being created by Berlanti, Mark Pedowitz, president of The CW said in May 2017 that the series "at this time, is not part of the Arrowverse. It is a separate situation. '' Berlanti had previously stated when the series was in development at Fox that it would not crossover with his other DC Comics television properties on The CW nor would it exist in the Arrowverse. However, Akil later stated that they were not ruling out eventual crossovers. In August 2017, Pedowitz added, "If (the showrunners) wish to bring it in, that is their call. We had a long discussion with the studio, Mara, Salim, and myself. We were fine with them making it separate from the Arrowverse, they have a different point of view. If they end up wanting to go that way, that will be their decision. '' Salim Akil noted references in the first season to the Arrowverse heroes Vixen and Supergirl were a "fun '' way "to tease the fans ''. He also further reiterated that the series existed on a separate Earth from the other Arrowverse series, and was hopeful that any future crossover would involve the heroes of the other series visiting the world of Black Lightning.
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nickname of a state that once was part of mexico | List of U.S. State nicknames - wikipedia
The following is a table of U.S. state nicknames, including officially adopted nicknames, and other traditional nicknames for individual states and the district of the United States.
Current official state nicknames are highlighted in bold. A state nickname is not to be confused with an official state motto.
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