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what does the viva la vida song mean | Viva la Vida - wikipedia
"Viva la Vida '' (/ ˈviːvə lə ˈviːdə /; Spanish: (ˈbiβa la ˈβiða)) is a song by British rock band Coldplay. It was written by all members of the band for their fourth album, Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends (2008), and was released as the second single from the album. On the album, this song segues directly into the next track, "Violet Hill ''. Viva la Vida is Spanish for "Long Live Life '' or simply "Live Life ''. It is recognized as one of Coldplay 's signature songs.
The lyrics to the song contain historical and Christian references, and the track is built around a looping string section in unison with a digital processed piano, with other layers gradually being added as the song builds.
The song was released on 13 June 2008 as the album 's second single, debuting to critical acclaim and commercial success. "Viva la Vida '' reached the top spot of the UK Singles Chart and Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's first number - one single in both the U.S. and U.K. The song won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards in 2009. The song became the sixth song to reach the 4 million mark in paid downloads in the United States. It has sold over 7.1 million copies worldwide by 2014, and over 6 million in the U.S. alone by June 2013.
The song 's Spanish title, "Viva la Vida '', is taken from a painting by 20th - century Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. In Spanish "viva '' is an expression used to acclaim someone or something, so "Long Live Life '' is an accurate translation and the painting reflects the artistic irony of acclaiming life while suffering physically. When asked about the album 's title, referring to Frida Kahlo 's strength, enduring polio, a broken spine, and a decade of chronic pain, lead singer Chris Martin said: "She went through a lot of pain, of course, and then she started a big painting in her house that said ' Viva la Vida ', I just loved the boldness of it. ''
During the album 's production, "Viva la Vida '' was one of the songs that had polarised each member 's opinion over which version they should choose. In an interview, Martin recalled: "We did quite a few different versions and went round the houses a bit and eventually settled on those treatments for it. ''
-- Bill Lamb, About.com.
The lyrics to "Viva la Vida '' are narrated by a protagonist who says he "used to rule the world ''. Martin has explained the song lyric "I know Saint Peter wo n't call my name '' in an interview with Q magazine: "It 's about... You 're not on the list, '' When asked about the song, bass guitarist Guy Berryman said: "It 's a story about a king who 's lost his kingdom, and all the album 's artwork is based on the idea of revolutionaries and guerrillas. There 's this slightly anti-authoritarian viewpoint that 's crept into some of the lyrics and it 's some of the pay - off between being surrounded by governments on one side, but also we 're human beings with emotions and we 're all going to die and the stupidity of what we have to put up with every day. Hence the album title. ''
Unlike the typical arrangement of Coldplay songs, in which either the guitar or piano is the prominent instrument, the track mostly consists of a string section and a digital piano playing the song 's upbeat riff, along with a steady bass drum beat, percussion (including a timpano and a church bell), bass guitar, and Martin 's vocals; there is limited use of electric guitar. All the strings are arranged and conducted by violinist Davide Rossi, who is one of the main collaborators of the album. Rossi 's strings comprise the main driving force throughout the song, with a strong beginning loop that supports Martin 's voice, until the choruses where the symphonic power of the orchestra takes its fullest shape. The prominent chords played by the string section throughout the song (and in the chorus of "Rainy Day, '' another of the band 's songs) are very similar to those used by "Viva la Vida '' co-producer Brian Eno in his piece "An Ending (Ascent), '' meaning they could have been suggested partially for the song by Eno.
The song is written in the key of A ♭ major.
"Viva la Vida '' was initially released only with iTunes Store pre-orders of Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends on 7 May 2008 -- the "new edit '' version of the song -- which led to the song 's temporary exclusion from the UK Singles Chart. It was released as a download - only single on 25 May 2008, and a physical CD single in Europe on 29 July 2008 to coincide with the release of the single 's music videos. "Viva la Vida '' was well - downloaded in the internet, becoming iTunes ' best - selling song of 2008.
The song was used as part of Apple Inc. 's iPod + iTunes advertisement campaign. Coldplay performed the song live for the first time at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards. It has since gone on to make many media appearances, including being featured throughout the episode "A Person of Interest '' from the paranormal drama Medium, as a song played on the radio in the episode "We 're Not in Kansas Anymore '' from the teen drama 90210, used as bumper music on Bill Bennett 's "Morning in America '' radio talk show, and on the international soundtrack to the Brazilian soap opera A Favorita which helped push "Viva la Vida '' up the charts in Brazil, where the telenovela been shown. In 2009, Solange Knowles covered the song. Lady Gaga also covered the song for BBC Radio 1. A live version of the song appeared on Coldplay 's 2009 live album LeftRightLeftRightLeft. Pet Shop Boys also performed the song live on their 2009 Pandemonium Tour and the song appeared on their Christmas EP. It was also used in an episode entitled "Million Dollar Maybe '' of The Simpsons. The song was covered in the seventh series of The X Factor by the boyband One Direction in 2010.
The official music video for "Viva la Vida '' was directed by Hype Williams and premiered at Coldplay 's official website on 1 August 2008. The video depicts the band performing against a blurry, warped version of Eugène Delacroix 's painting La Liberté guidant le peuple, ending with the band members crumbling into rose petals. The video currently has over 500 million views on YouTube.
A second, alternate video was shot in The Hague, the Netherlands, directed by Anton Corbijn and released alongside the first. This second version is a tribute to Corbijn 's video for Depeche Mode 's "Enjoy the Silence '' and portrays Chris Martin as the king from whose perspective the song is sung. During the video, he carries Delacroix 's painting. At the end, he hangs the picture up in a white stall on top of a hill. As he sings the last chorus, his band mates surface heading his way, tying in loose ends from the "Violet Hill '' video.
"Viva la Vida '' received widespread critical acclaim. In the Entertainment Weekly review of the album, critic Chris Willman wrote: "Take the title track... on which (Martin) imagines himself as a paranoid monarch. ' Who would ever want to be king? ' Martin asks. ' Revolutionaries wait / For my head on a silver plate! ' The confident majesty of the music, however, belies how he and his bandmates have invigorated their rock - lite reign. '' Josh Hathaway from The Plain Dealer noted "Viva la Vida '' as the "catchiest '' song on the album. Chris Jones of the BBC noted: "The string / brass mutations that bolster a track like ' Viva La Vida '... conjure tunes so sweetly melancholy. '' In the IGN review, critic Chad Grischow wrote, "It is their one and only foray into unabashed orchestral pop, but the punchy strut of the strings and fantastic marching vocals make it far too charming and lively to dislike, and even harder not to love. ''
"Viva la Vida '' was nominated for "Record of the Year '', and won "Song of the Year '', and "Best Pop Performance by a Duo or a Group '' at the 2009 Grammy Awards. This song also won the Ivor Novello Award for "Best Selling British Single ''. The song was included in Rolling Stone 's annual "100 Best Songs '' of 2008 at number nine; it was also voted number two on Rolling Stone 's Readers ' Rock List: Best Songs of 2008. "Viva la Vida '' was also listed at number five on Blender 's 1001 Downloads: The Top 144 Songs of 2008, as well in the number eight position on Village Voice 's Pazz and Jop list.
"Viva la Vida '' has been sampled in several other songs, including Flo Rida 's single "Be on You ''.
"Viva la Vida '' has become the band 's highest charting single. Fueled by high digital sales, the song peaked at the top spot of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's first and, to date, only US number - one single and their second top ten on the Hot 100. It is the first song by a British group to reach number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 since "Wannabe '' by the Spice Girls in 1996. Although the song was initially successful in digital sales, after being released, it went on to become the band 's highest - charting single in American radio, becoming their first top - ten hit on the Hot 100 Airplay where it peaked at number eight. It had also become the band 's first number - one single on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. On the Billboard Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks, the song has become the band 's first number one, as well as the first single on the Capitol Records label to ever top the chart. The single has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The song also became one of the first six songs to reach the 4 million mark in paid digital downloads. As of January 2014, it had sold 6,131,000 units in the US.
The single was also successful in the United Kingdom. Although the song had been disqualified from the UK charts due to initially being available only by pre-ordering the album on iTunes, it became eligible to chart after the album was released. "Viva la Vida '' hit number one on the UK Singles Chart, becoming Coldplay 's first chart - topping single in the UK.
In Canada, the single made a "Hot Shot Debut '' at number four on the Canadian Hot 100 on the issue of 24 May, making it Coldplay 's highest debut there. It is also one of Coldplay 's three highest - charting singles in Australia, reaching number two (both "A Sky Full of Stars '' and "Something Just Like This '' matched this peak in 2014 and 2017, respectively). In New Zealand, the song was less successful, only peaking at number 16; however, the song stayed in the top 40 for 27 non-consecutive weeks.
In Spain, the single peaked at # 2 and achieved Double Platinum status due to the 80,000 copies sold. It also had a strong airplay on the Spanish radio stations.
During the 2008 -- 09 season, the German football club Hamburger SV used "Viva la Vida '' as their goal celebration song. It 's also the goal celebration song of the German football club Hannover 96. The song also became the anthem of Spanish football club FC Barcelona during the 2008 -- 09 season. It turned out to be a season of unprecedented success for the Spanish club in 2009, as they won all six competitions they could possibly be involved in, which no football club has managed before in history. The song was selected by the manager of the club, Pep Guardiola -- himself a Coldplay fan -- to help motivate and encourage his team. It was often played at the Camp Nou before the start of a Barcelona match. The song was also played during Pep Guardiola 's farewell before his final match coaching Barcelona at the Nou Camp, a 4 -- 0 victory against Espanyol on 5 May 2012. UEFA used "Viva la Vida '' as the goal celebration song for the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final and Europa League Final.
The National Hockey League 's New York Rangers played "Viva la Vida '' at Madison Square Garden after victories during the 2011 season. The song was used by the Vancouver Canucks in a tribute video during Markus Näslund 's number retirement ceremony held in Vancouver 's Rogers Arena. It was also used in Game 7 of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals when the Boston Bruins won the Stanley Cup on Vancouver Ice. The Kansas City Chiefs play the song at the end of home games in Arrowhead Stadium. Additionally, it is also used by the Kansas City Royals to celebrate home runs and wins at Kauffman Stadium. This was the at - bat music of Scott Rolen, former third baseman of the Cincinnati Reds. The song was also used pre-match during every 2008 Rugby League World Cup game before the two teams took to the field and in the halftime show of Super Bowl 50 in 2016.
Coldplay were first accused of plagiarism of "The Songs I Did n't Write '' by American alternative band Creaky Boards, for the melody of "Viva la Vida ''. Creaky Boards ' band member Andrew Hoepfner claimed that Martin had heard them playing the song at a live show in October 2007. The band released a video clip, in which it compares sections of both songs. Coldplay denied the claim. Band spokesman Murray Chambers said Martin was working in AIR Studios in London at that time, having checked the singer 's diary. In addition, Coldplay had recorded a demo version of "Viva la Vida '' in March 2007, long before Creaky Boards performed it live in October of the same year. Creaky Boards later retracted the accusations and speculated that both songs may have been inspired by the video game The Legend of Zelda.
On December 4, 2008, American guitarist Joe Satriani filed a copyright infringement suit against Coldplay in Los Angeles. The suit claims that "Viva la Vida '' incorporates "substantial, original portions '' of his instrumental track "If I Could Fly '' from his 2004 album Is There Love in Space? The band has denied the allegation, saying the similarities were "entirely coincidental ''. On September 14, 2009, the case was dismissed by the California Central District Court, with both parties potentially agreeing to an out - of - court settlement.
In May 2009, Yusuf Islam stated that the song is very similar to his song "Foreigner Suite, '' recorded under his former stage name, Cat Stevens. He said "My son brought it to my attention and said: ' Does n't that sound like ' Foreigner Suite? ' '' Islam said that any legal action he might take "depends on how well Satriani does. '' Coldplay drummer Will Champion denied the claim, stating, "We 're confident we have n't done anything wrong. '' In June 2009, Islam later said, "They did copy my song but I do n't think they did it on purpose, '' adding, "I do n't want them to think I am angry with them. I 'd love to sit down and have a cup of tea with them and let them know it 's okay. ''
In a documentary for Sveriges Television (2011) American music professor Dr. Lawrence Ferrara showed that the melody structures of "Viva La Vida '', "If I Could Fly '' and "Foreigner Suite '' were very similar to the composition "Se tu m'ami '' by the Italian composer Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, who died in 1736. "Obviously this is a work that we would call in the ' public domain ' '', Dr. Ferrara said.
Chris Martin once said that the plagiarism allegations were inspiring him and added: "If everyone 's trying to take away our best song, then we 'd better write 25 better ones! '' Will Champion has also talked about the accusation saying, "For some reason, God only knows why, the successful songs seem to be the ones that are accused of being stolen. ''
The song and "Lost+ '' was performed live at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, on February 8, 2009. Coldplay performed a medley of "Lost + '' and "Viva la Vida '' on the ceremony. American rapper, Jay - Z, who was the featured vocals of "Lost + '', performed "Lost + '' with Coldplay in the stage.
The performance was recorded and released on 8 February 2009, after the release of "Life in Technicolor II ''
Swedish singer Darin 's cover of the song reached number 1 on 30 October 2009 on the Swedish Singles Chart. The song appears in Darin 's 2010 album Lovekiller.
In 2010, it was yet again included as the B - side of Darin 's "You 're Out of My Life '' single, reaching # 3 in the Swedish Singles Chart.
Coldplay 's original single had already charted in Sweden for a total of 49 weeks between 15 May 2008 and 23 October 2009, peaking at number seven.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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i am that you are that all this is that | I Am That - wikipedia
I Am That is a compilation of talks on Shiva Advaita (Nondualism) philosophy by Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj, a Hindu spiritual teacher who lived in Mumbai. The English translation of the book from the original Marathi recordings was done by Maurice Frydman, edited by Sudhakar S. Dixit and first published in 1973 by Chetana Publications. The book was revised and reedited in July 1981. These publications led to the spread of Nisargadatta 's teachings to the West, especially North America and Europe. Excerpts of the book were published in Yoga Journal in September 1981, the month Nisargadatta died at age 84.
The book is considered the author 's masterpiece and a spiritual classic by authors and teachers like Eckhart Tolle, Wayne Dyer, Deepak Chopra and Adyashanti, who called the book a "standout '' and "the clearest expression I 've ever found. '' Dyer calls Nisargadatta his teacher, and cites the quotation, "Love says: ' I am everything '. Wisdom says: ' I am nothing '. Between the two my life flows. '' That quotation has also been cited by several other authors in diverse fields, from wellness to cooking. Joseph Goldstein visited Nisargadatta in January 1980 after reading the book, and after several meetings said, "The path that Nisargadatta revealed was not a search, but a find, not a struggle, but an abiding, not a cultivation, but something intrinsic to all ''.
I Am That has been translated into several languages, including Dutch, Italian and Hebrew.
Nisargadatta Maharaj met his guru, Siddharameshwar Maharaj, in 1933. Siddharameshwar died two and half years later, and Nisargadatta continued to practice what his guru had taught him while running a small shop in Khetwadi locality in Girgaon, Mumbai. In 1951, after receiving an inner revelation from his guru, he began to give initiations. He allowed devotees to gather twice a day for satsang, with meditation, bhajan - singing, and the answering of questions, continuing until his death on 8 September 1981, at the age of 84.
Maurice Frydman, a Jewish refugee from Warsaw, came to India in the late 1930s. Initially, he worked at the State Government Electric Factory in Bangalore. Later, influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, he worked in Aundh State (the present Satara district) on the Aundh Experiment for local self - governance. Thereafter he took sannyas (renunciation). He was associated with Sri Ramana Maharshi and J. Krishnamurti. Eventually he became a disciple of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj in the early days of Nisargadatta 's spiritual work in 1965. Frydman spoke Marathi and so became a translator of Nisargadatta 's talks. He recorded and compiled the sessions, leading to the publication of I Am That.
Most of the conversations were in Marathi, but for the benefit of Westerners talks were often translated. Frydman: '' Whenever I was present the task would fall to me. Many of the questions put and answers given were so interesting and significant that a tape - recorder was brought in. While most of the tapes were of the regular Marathi - English variety, some were polyglot scrambles of several Indian and European languages. Later, each tape was deciphered and translated into English ''.
All the conversations were recorded at Nisargadatta 's small tenement and later transcribed and translated by Frydman while the master was still unknown to the Western public. A Marathi version of the talks, verified by Nisargadatta, was published separately.
According to Nisargadatta, "Maurice (Frydman) told me, ' Everything that is said here is immediately lost, though it could be of a great benefit for those looking for truth. I would like to translate and publish your words so others might know them. And so, he wrote I Am That ''.
With the book 's publication, Nisargadatta became very popular: hundreds of foreigners started flocking to his small tenement, and Nisargadatta once remarked: '' I used to have a quiet life but the book I Am That by Maurice has turned my house into a railway station platform. ''
I Am That was initially rejected by the major publishers, so Frydman worked with a then small publisher, Chetana Publications. The book was first published in 1973 in two hardcover volumes. The revised and enlarged second edition was published in one volume in 1976. The first paperback was published in 1984. The book is now published in the USA and Canada by The Acorn Press.
The book comprises 101 sections, each corresponding to a particular conversation, averaging four pages each and cast in a question - and - answer format. Most deal with a single issue but some go from one subject to other, always in line with the spiritual quest. The second edition includes an epilogue, Nisarga Yoga, by Maurice Frydman.
Nisargadatta 's teachings are grounded in the Advaita Vedanta interpretation of the Advaita idea Tat Tvam Asi, literally "That Thou Art '', (Tat = "Absolute '', Tvam = "You '', Asi = "are '') meaning "You are (actually) Absolute '' (who think otherwise). Nisargadatta also had a strong devotion to his own guru, and suggested the path of devotion, Bhakti yoga, to some of his visitors.
Nisargadatta deviated from the formal Navnath Sampradaya lineage style of teaching by giving informal discourses for the benefit of Western devotees who did not have access to Dasbodh or other texts, and who were not familiar with Indian traditions and customs.
It has been said that Nisargadatta _́ s style was direct, and even at times aggressive. He very rarely mentioned scriptures or quoted spiritual books. His teachings came from his own experience.
According to Nisargadatta and others one of the main blockages to self - realization is identification with the body.
"Once you give up your identification with the body, then you are all the time the Self, or Atman, only. For this, no effort is required. You only have to realize that you are not the body ''.
A most suitable way to drop the identification with the body is to focus in the source of consciousness, the feeling "I am '', which is not the body, the thoughts or anything observable. According to the sage of Mumbai whatever happens happens because "I am ''; even if you doubt that, you have to be there to doubt. "Yes, sadhana (practice) consists in reminding oneself forcibly of one 's pure ' being - ness ', of not being anything in particular ''.
"Empty yourself '', "surrender '' or "give up everything '' is the advice to many visitors. Whatever your path is it ends with complete surrender to the truth.
Conceptual knowledge can not help the student progress. According to David Godman, Nisargadatta "would clench his fist, bang it on the floor and shout ' Kalpana! Kalpana! ' which means ' Concept! Concept! ' That would sometimes be the only answer the questioners would get. Maharaj was definitely not interested in massaging visitor 's concepts. He wanted people to drop them, not discuss them ''.
Throughout the book the master insists on earnest, zestful work towards spiritual progress and final attainment, liberation or Moksha; "Earnestness is the sign of maturity ''. "You may choose any way that suits you; your earnestness will determine the rate of progress ''.
Nisargadatta does not quote other teachers in the book, but a few are mentioned by his visitors, Ramana Maharshi being the most significant.
Give up all questions except one, "Who am I? '' After all the only fact you are sure of is that you "are ''. The "I am '' is certain, the "I am this '' is not. Struggle to find out what you are in reality. (Chapter 21; Who Am I?)
Be content with what you are sure of. And the only thing you can be sure of is "I am ''. Stay with it and reject everything else. This is Yoga. (Chapter 36; Killing Hurts the Killer not the Killed)
Love says: "I am everything ''. Wisdom says: "I am nothing ''. Between the two my life flows. (Chapter 57; Beyond the Mind There is no Suffering)
To deal with things, knowledge of things is needed. To deal with people, you need insight, sympathy. To deal with yourself, you need nothing. Be what you are -- conscious being -- and do n't stray away from yourself. (Chapter 66; All Search for Happiness is Misery)
2016, Published in Portuguese by Satsangeditora (2)
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who does john goodman play in the bee movie | Bee Movie - Wikipedia
Bee Movie is a 2007 American computer animated comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Directed by Simon J. Smith and Steve Hickner, the film stars Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger, with Matthew Broderick, Patrick Warburton, John Goodman and Chris Rock in supporting roles. Its story follows Barry B. Benson (Seinfeld), a honey bee who sues the human race for exploiting bees after learning from his florist friend Vanessa (Zellweger) that humans sell and consume honey.
Bee Movie is the first motion - picture script to be written by Seinfeld, who co-wrote the film with Spike Feresten, Barry Marder, and Andy Robin. The film was produced by Seinfeld, Christina Steinberg, and Cameron Stevning. The production was designed by Alex McDowell, and Christophe Lautrette was the art director. Nick Fletcher was the supervising editor and music for the film was composed by Rupert Gregson - Williams.
The cast and crew include some veterans of Seinfeld 's long - running NBC sitcom Seinfeld, including writer / producers Feresten and Robin, and actors Warburton (Seinfeld character David Puddy), Michael Richards (Seinfeld character Cosmo Kramer), and Larry Miller (who plays the title character on the Seinfeld episode "The Doorman ''). Coincidentally, NBC was host to the broadcast television premiere of the film on November 27, 2010.
Bee Movie opened on November 2, 2007. Upon release, the film was met with mixed reviews, with primary criticism directed at the film 's premise. While domestic box office performance failed to recoup its $150 million budget, it ultimately saw worldwide box office performance of $287.6 million and domestic video sales of $92.7 million.
A young honey bee named Barry B. Benson (Jerry Seinfeld) has recently graduated from college and is about to enter the hive 's Honex Industries honey - making workforce alongside his best friend Adam Flayman (Matthew Broderick). Barry is initially excited to join the workforce, but his courageous, non-conformist attitude emerges upon discovering that his choice of job will never change once picked. Later, the two bees run into a group of Pollen Jocks, bees who collect pollen from flowers outside the hive. The Jocks offer to take Barry outside the hive to a flower patch, and he accepts. While on his first pollen - gathering expedition in New York City, Barry gets lost in the rain, and ends up on the balcony of a human florist named Vanessa (Renée Zellweger). Upon noticing Barry, Vanessa 's boyfriend Ken (Patrick Warburton) attempts to squash him, but Vanessa gently catches and releases Barry outside the window, saving his life.
Barry later returns to express his gratitude to Vanessa, breaking the sacred rule that bees are not supposed to communicate with humans. Barry and Vanessa develop a close bond, bordering on attraction, and spend time together frequently. Later, while Barry and Vanessa are walking through a grocery store, Barry is horrified to discover that the humans have been stealing and eating the bees ' honey for centuries. He decides to journey to Honey Farms, which supplies the grocery store with its honey. Furious at the poor treatment of the bees in the hive, including the use of bee smokers to subdue the colony, Barry decides to sue the human race to put an end to the exploitation of bees.
Barry 's mission attracts wide attention from bees and humans alike, and hundreds of people show up to watch the trial. Although Barry is up against tough defense attorney Layton T. Montgomery (John Goodman) the trial 's first day goes well. That evening, Barry is having dinner with Vanessa when Ken shows up. Vanessa leaves the room, and Ken expresses to Barry that he hates the pair spending time together. When Barry leaves to use the restroom, Ken ambushes Barry and attempts to kill him, only for Vanessa to intervene and break up with Ken. The next day at the trial, Montgomery taunts the bees, which causes Adam to sting him. Adam 's actions jeopardize the bees ' credibility and put his life in danger, though he manages to survive. While visiting Adam in the hospital, Barry notices two people smoking outside, and is struck by inspiration. The next day, Barry wins the trial by exposing the jury to the cruel treatment bees are subjected to, particularly the smoker, and humans are banned from stealing honey from bees ever again.
Having lost the trial, Montgomery cryptically warns Barry that a negative shift in the balance of nature is imminent. As it turns out, the sudden, massive stockpile of honey has put every bee out of a job, including the vitally important Pollen Jocks. As a result, without anything to pollinate them, the world 's flowers slowly begin to die out. Before long, the only flowers left with healthy pollen are those in a flower parade called "The Tournament of Roses '' in Pasadena, California. Barry and Vanessa travel to the parade and steal a parade float, which they load onto a plane to be delivered to the bees so they can re-pollinate the world 's flowers. When the plane 's pilot and copilot are knocked unconscious, Vanessa is forced to land the plane, with help from Barry and the bees from Barry 's hive.
Armed with the pollen of the last flowers, Barry and the Pollen Jocks manage to reverse the damage and save the world 's flowers, restarting the bees ' honey production. Humans and bees are seen working together, and certain brands of honey are now "bee - approved ''. Barry becomes a member of the Pollen Jocks, helping to pollinate the world 's plants. Barry is also seen running a law firm inside Vanessa 's flower shop, titled "Insects at Law '', handling disputes between animals and humans. The film ends with Barry flying off to a flower patch with the Pollen Jocks.
All music composed by Rupert Gregson - Williams, except as noted.
Two teaser trailers were released for the film that feature Seinfeld dressed in a bee costume, trying to shoot the film in live - action. Eddie Izzard portrays the direction agent, and Steven Spielberg suggests to Seinfeld in the second trailer to just do it as a cartoon. Upon the release of the first trailer, it was announced that three of the live - action teasers would be released in total. In the second trailer, Steven Spielberg is taking a picture of himself and an assistant director, referencing the camera gag Ellen DeGeneres pulled on him during the 79th Academy Awards. After Seinfeld fails to do scenes in live - action, Spielberg suggests Seinfeld that the film can just be made as a cartoon. One of the crew members announce that the film is a cartoon, having the crew leave the stage studio. The trailer finally shows the movie as an animated CGI feature. Also in the second trailer, the bear that jumps out at Barry is Vincent the Bear from Over the Hedge, another DreamWorks Animation SKG movie.
The third trailer was released with Shrek the Third, but this was an animated teaser. The fourth trailer was released on the Bee Movie official website, and revealed most of the film 's plot. In addition, two weeks before the release, NBC aired 22 behind - the - scenes skits called "Bee Movie TV Juniors, '' all of which are staged and tongue - in - cheek in nature. The popular internet site Gaia Online featured a great deal of promotional material for the film.
Ten books were released for the film: Bee Movie: The Story Book, Bee Movie: The Honey Disaster, The Art of Bee Movie, Bee Movie: Deluxe Sound Storybook, Bee Movie (Ultimate Sticker Books), Bee Movie (I Can Find It), Bee Movie: The Junior Novel, Bee Movie: What 's the Buzz?, Bee Movie Mad Libs, and Bee Movie: Bee Meets Girl.
A video game titled Bee Movie Game was released on October 30, 2007 for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, and Nintendo DS.
Bee Movie was released on DVD on March 11, 2008 in both fullscreen and widescreen formats and a 2 - disc special edition DVD. The single - disc extras include the "Inside the Hive: The Cast of Bee Movie '' and "Tech of Bee Movie '' featurettes, "We Got the Bee '' music video, "Meet Barry B. Benson '' feature, and interactive games. The special edition DVD extras additionally include a filmmaker commentary, alternate endings, lost scenes with commentary, the live action trailers, and Jerry 's Flight Over Cannes. An HD DVD version was cancelled after the demise of HD DVD. Paramount released the movie on Blu - ray Disc on May 20, 2008.
The film received a 51 % approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 169 reviews with an average rating of 5.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Bee Movie has humorous moments, but its awkward premise and tame delivery render it mostly forgettable. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 54 based on 34 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "After Shrek the Third 's flatulence jokes, the return of that Seinfeldian wit brings animation up a level. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "It 's on the easygoing level of Surf 's Up, and a full tick up from, say, Over the Hedge or The Ant Bully. But given the Seinfeld pedigree it 's something of a disappointment. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three out of four stars, saying "At its relaxed best, when it 's about, well, nothing, the slyly comic Bee Movie is truly beguiling. '' Desson Thomson of The Washington Post said, "Bee Movie feels phoned in on every level. The images, usually computer animation 's biggest draw, are disappointingly average. And as for the funny stuff, well, that 's where you were supposed to come in. ''
A.O. Scott of the New York Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "The most genuinely apian aspect of Bee Movie is that it spends a lot of its running time buzzing happily around, sniffing out fresh jokes wherever they may bloom. '' Claudia Puig gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Bee Movie is certainly not low - budget, but it has all the staying power and creative value of a B - movie. The secret life of bees, as told by Seinfeld, is a bore with a capital B. '' Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three stars out of four, saying "Bee Movie is not Shrek, and it is not Ratatouille either (by far the standout computer - animated feature of the year). But it has enough buzzing wit and eye - popping animation to win over the kids -- and probably more than a few parents, too. '' Richard Roeper gave the film a positive review, saying "This is a beautifully animated, cleverly executed, warm and funny adventure. ''
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two out of four stars, saying "All of this material, written by Seinfeld and writers associated with his television series, tries hard, but never really takes off. We learn at the outset of the movie that bees theoretically can not fly. Unfortunately, in the movie, that applies only to the screenplay. It is really, really, really hard to care much about a platonic romantic relationship between Renee Zellweger and a bee, although if anyone could pull it off, she could. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three out of four stars, saying "The vibe is loose - limbed and fluky, and the gags have an extra snap that 's recognizably Seinfeldian. If I believed in a sitcom afterlife, I 'd swear the whole thing was cooked up by Kramer and George 's dad. '' Jack Mathews of the New York Daily News gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Watching this pun - filled cartoon is like falling into a tray of children 's watercolors -- the warm end, where oranges and yellows and ambers wave. ''
Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The movie has some pretty pictures and a few good jokes, but not nearly enough. And the story suffers from sitcom attention - deficit disorder, veering off in a new direction every half - hour or so. '' David Botti of Newsweek said, "What I like about Bee Movie is its comfy, off - the - cuff charm: unlike a lot of animated family entertainment, it 's not all Thwack Smash Kaboom. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Bee Movie does n't touch the bar raised so high by Pixar, but it creates a little buzz of its own. '' Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Bee Movie is a cute movie. Not that there 's anything... well, you know the rest. But cute is not what adults expect from Jerry Seinfeld, although children will be delighted. ''
The film opened in second place to American Gangster, but its gross of $38,021,044 had it more in line with the studios ' lowest - grossing features, such as Shark Tale. The film had an average of $9,679 from 3,928 theaters. In its second weekend, the film held well with a 33 % drop to $25,565,462 and claiming the top spot, resulting in a $6,482 average from expanding to 3,944 theaters. Its widest release was 3,984 theaters, and closed on February 14, 2008 after 104 days of release, grossing $126,631,277 domestically along with an additional $160,963,300 overseas for a worldwide total of $287,594,577. Based on its domestic box office performance, the film failed to recoup its production budget of $150 million. Following the income from worldwide box office, home media, and pay television, the film ultimately turned a small profit for the studio.
Bee Movie was nominated for Best Animated Feature Film at the 65th Golden Globe Awards.
Barry B. Benson was the presenter for Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film on the 80th Academy Awards for 2008. Beforehand, he showed the audience some of his "prior '' roles, including every bee in the swarm in The Swarm.
Bee Movie is alleged to be similar to a concept developed in 2000 by a team of Swedish animation students, which they claim was presented to DreamWorks in 2001 under the name Beebylon. The animation students say DreamWorks rejected the idea, on the basis of it being "too childish ''. When Bee Movie was announced in 2003, the students claim they once again contacted DreamWorks to make sure the movie was not similar to their original concept, and was given a reassuring answer. When one of the members of the Beebylon team saw a trailer of the movie in 2007, he found it to be extremely similar and attempted to find a U.S. lawyer who could represent them. Jerry Seinfeld rejected the plagiarism claims during his PR tour for Bee Movie in Sweden. "I 'm doing my best not to laugh and I 'm taking it as serious as I can. But it 's a little bit hard. It is entirely possible that somebody else came up with an idea about making a movie about bees. I knew nothing of this until this very morning and I hope they are not too upset. ''
A Florida - based cosmetics company called Beeceuticals filed a lawsuit over the use of their trademarked phrase "Give Bees a Chance ''. The suit between the parties was settled out of court.
Several years after the film 's release, Bee Movie had an unexpected rise in popularity as an Internet meme.
In 2015, posts of the entire film screenplay spread across Facebook. In November 2016 YouTube user "Avoid at All Costs '' uploaded a video where the entire film sped up every time the word "bee '' was used. The video has gathered over 17 million views as of May 2017. The popularity of this video spawned several variants where the movie or trailer is edited in unusual ways. Vanity Fair would later characterize the film 's late popularity as "totally bizarre. ''
There have been some attempts to explain the phenomenon: Jason Richards, whom Vanity Fair identified as one of the larger promoters of the meme via his @ Seinfield2000 Twitter handle has noted the "off - brand Pixar quality '' as a possible reason, while Barry Marder, one of the film 's script writers, identified "that odd relationship between an insect and a human woman, '' as the possible cause. Inverse meanwhile writes that the film 's internet popularity "was a reaction not just to the movie itself but to the realization among millennials that they 'd been shown a truly odd movie as children and thought nothing of it. ''
Writing for New York magazine, Paris Martineau identified the meme as starting on Tumblr circa 2011 at which point users would, apparently in earnest, post the opening quotation identifying it as inspiring. By December 2012, however these posts became so ubiquitous that it would inspire parodies. It has also been suggested that the spread of such videos was inspired by the preceding popularity of the "We Are Number One '' meme.
Seinfeld himself said that he has no interest to make a sequel to Bee Movie in the wake of it 's popularity. During a Reddit AMA in June 2016, a fan asked if a Bee Movie 2 would happen. Seinfeld had this to say,
I considered it this spring for a solid six hours. There 's a fantastic energy now for some reason, on the internet particularly. Tumblr, people brought my attention to. I actually did consider it, but then I realized it would make Bee Movie 1 less iconic. But my kids want me to do it, a lot of people want me to do it. A lot of people that do n't know what animation is want me to do it. If you have any idea what animation is, you 'd never do it.
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a presidential power that has been challenged by congress since 1980 is the power to | War Powers Resolution - wikipedia
The War Powers Resolution (also known as the War Powers Resolution of 1973 or the War Powers Act) (50 U.S.C. 1541 -- 1548) is a federal law intended to check the president 's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress. The Resolution was adopted in the form of a United States Congress joint resolution. It provides that the U.S. President can send U.S. Armed Forces into action abroad only by declaration of war by Congress, "statutory authorization, '' or in case of "a national emergency created by attack upon the United States, its territories or possessions, or its armed forces. ''
The War Powers Resolution requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to military action and forbids armed forces from remaining for more than 60 days, with a further 30 - day withdrawal period, without a Congressional authorization for use of military force (AUMF) or a declaration of war by the United States. The resolution was passed by two - thirds of Congress, overriding the veto of the bill from President Nixon.
It has been alleged that the War Powers Resolution has been violated in the past -- for example, by President Bill Clinton in 1999, during the bombing campaign in Kosovo. Congress has disapproved all such incidents, but none has resulted in any successful legal actions being taken against the president for alleged violations.
Under the United States Constitution, war powers are divided. Under Article I, Section 8, Congress has the power to:
Section 8 further provides that the states have the power to:
Article II, Section 2 provides that:
It is generally agreed that the commander - in - chief role gives the President power to repel attacks against the United States and makes the President responsible for leading the armed forces. The President has the right to sign or veto congressional acts, such as a declaration of war, and Congress may override any such presidential veto. Additionally, when the president 's actions (or inactions) provide "Aid and Comfort '' to enemies or levy war against the United States, then Congress has the power to impeach and remove (convict) the president for treason. For actions short of treason, they can remove the president for "Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '', the definition of which the Supreme Court has left up to Congress. Therefore, the war power was intentionally split between Congress and the Executive to prevent unilateral executive action that is contrary to the wishes of Congress.
During the Korean and Vietnam wars, the United States found itself involved for many years in situations of intense conflict without a declaration of war. Many members of Congress became concerned with the erosion of congressional authority to decide when the United States should become involved in a war or the use of armed forces that might lead to war. It was prompted by news leaking out that President Nixon conducted secret bombings of Cambodia during the Vietnam War without notifying Congress.
The War Powers Resolution was passed by both the House of Representatives and Senate but was vetoed by President Richard Nixon. By a two - thirds vote in each house, Congress overrode the veto and enacted the joint resolution into law on November 7, 1973.
Presidents have submitted 130 reports to Congress as a result of the War Powers Resolution, although only one (the Mayagüez incident) cited Section 4 (a) (1) and specifically stated that forces had been introduced into hostilities or imminent danger.
Congress invoked the War Powers Resolution in the Multinational Force in Lebanon Act (P.L. 98 - 119), which authorized the Marines to remain in Lebanon for 18 months during 1982 and 1983. In addition, the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991 (Pub. L. 102 -- 1) which authorized United States combat operations against Iraqi forces during the 1991 Gulf War, stated that it constituted specific statutory authorization within the meaning of the War Powers Resolution.
On November 9, 1994, the House used a section of the War Powers Resolution to state that U.S. forces should be withdrawn from Somalia by March 31, 1994; Congress had already taken this action in appropriations legislation. More recently under President Clinton, war powers were at issue in former Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Iraq, and Haiti, and under President George W. Bush in responding to terrorist attacks against the U.S. after September 11, 2001. "(I) n 1999, President Clinton kept the bombing campaign in Kosovo going for more than two weeks after the 60 - day deadline had passed. Even then, however, the Clinton legal team opined that its actions were consistent with the War Powers Resolution because Congress had approved a bill funding the operation, which they argued constituted implicit authorization. That theory was controversial because the War Powers Resolution specifically says that such funding does not constitute authorization. '' Clinton 's actions in Kosovo were challenged by a member of Congress as a violation of the War Powers Resolution in the D.C. Circuit case Campbell v. Clinton, but the court found the issue was a non-justiciable political question. It was also accepted that because Clinton had withdrawn from the region 12 days prior the 90 - day required deadline, he had managed to comply with the act.
After the 1991 Gulf War, the use of force to obtain Iraqi compliance with United Nations resolutions, particularly through enforcement of Iraqi no - fly zones, remained a war powers issue. In October 2002 Congress enacted the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Pub. L. 107 -- 243 which authorized President George W. Bush to use force as necessary to defend the United States against Iraq and enforce relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. This was in addition to the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists enacted in 2001.
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton testified to Congress in March 2011 that the administration did not need congressional authorization for its military intervention in Libya or for further decisions about it, despite congressional objections from members of both parties that the administration was violating the War Powers Resolution. During that classified briefing, she reportedly indicated that the administration would sidestep the Resolution 's provision regarding a 60 - day limit on unauthorized military actions. Months later, she stated that, with respect to the military operation in Libya, the United States was still flying a quarter of the sorties, and the New York Times reported that, while many presidents had bypassed other sections of the War Powers Resolution, there was little precedent for exceeding the 60 - day statutory limit on unauthorized military actions -- a limit which the Justice Department had said in 1980 was constitutional. The State Department publicly took the position in June 2011 that there was no "hostility '' in Libya within the meaning of the War Powers Resolution, contrary to legal interpretations in 2011 by the Department of Defense and the Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel.
May 20, 2011, marked the 60th day of US combat in Libya (as part of the UN resolution) but the deadline arrived without President Obama seeking specific authorization from the US Congress. President Obama notified Congress that no authorization was needed, since the US leadership had been transferred to NATO, and since US involvement was somewhat "limited ''. In fact, as of April 28, 2011, the US had conducted 75 percent of all aerial refueling sorties, supplied 70 percent of the operation 's intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, and contributed 24 percent of the total aircraft used in the operation. By September, the US had conducted 26 percent of all military sorties, contributing more resources to Operation Unified Protector than any other NATO country. The State Department requested (but never received) express congressional authorization.
On Friday, June 3, 2011, the US House of Representatives voted to rebuke President Obama for maintaining an American presence in the NATO operations in Libya, which they considered a violation of the War Powers Resolution. In The New York Times, an opinion piece by Yale Law Professor Bruce Ackerman stated that Obama 's position "lacks a solid legal foundation. And by adopting it, the White House has shattered the traditional legal process the executive branch has developed to sustain the rule of law over the past 75 years. ''
In or about 2013, at the direction of U.S. President Barack Obama, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was put in charge of a covert program to arm and train the rebels who were fighting against Syrian President Assad, while the State Department supplied the moderate rebels of the Free Syrian Army with non-lethal aid. The Assad regime used chemical weapons on several occasions during the civil war, including a well publicized attack in Ghouta on 21 August 2013. Following the attacks, Obama asked Congress for authorization to use military force in Syria, which Congress rejected. Instead, Congress passed a bill that specified that the Defense Secretary was authorized "... to provide assistance, including training, equipment, supplies, and sustainment, to appropriately vetted elements of the Syrian opposition and other appropriately vetted Syrian groups and individuals... '' The bill specifically prohibited the introduction of U.S. troops or other U.S. forces into hostilities. The bill said:
In spite of the prohibition, President Obama, and later President Trump, introduced ground forces into Syria and the United States became fully engaged in the country. On April 6, 2017, the United States launched 59 BGM - 109 Tomahawk missiles at Shayrat airbase in Syria in response to Syria 's alleged use of chemical weapons. Constitutional scholar and law professor Stephen Vladeck has noted that the strike potentially violated the War Powers Resolution.
The War Powers Resolution has been controversial since it was passed. In passing the resolution, Congress specifically cites the Necessary and Proper Clause for its authority. Under the Necessary and Proper Clause, it is specifically provided that the Congress shall have the power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution, not only its own powers but also all other powers vested by the Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.
Because the Constitution Article 1 Section 8 limits the President 's authority in the use of force without a declaration of war by Congress, there is controversy as to whether the provisions of the resolution are consistent with the Constitution. Presidents have therefore drafted reports to Congress required of the President to state that they are "consistent with '' the War Powers Resolution rather than "pursuant to '' so as to take into account the presidential position that the resolution is unconstitutional.
One argument for the unconstitutionality of the War Powers Resolution by Philip Bobbitt argues "The power to make war is not an enumerated power '' and the notion that to "declare '' war is to "commence '' war is a "contemporary textual preconception ''. Bobbitt contends that the Framers of the Constitution believed that statutory authorization was the route by which the United States would be committed to war, and that ' declaration ' was meant for only total wars, as shown by the history of the Quasi-War with France (1798 -- 1800). In general, constitutional powers are not so much separated as "linked and sequenced ''; Congress 's control over the armed forces is "structured '' by appropriation, while the President commands; thus the act of declaring war should not be fetishized. Bobbitt also argues that "A democracy can not... tolerate secret policies '' because they undermine the legitimacy of governmental action.
A second argument concerns a possible breach of the ' separation of powers ' doctrine, and whether the resolution changes the balance between the Legislative and Executive functions. This type of constitutional controversy is similar to one that occurred under President Andrew Johnson with the Tenure of Office Act (1867). In that prior instance, the Congress passed a law (over the veto of the then - President) that required the President to secure Congressional approval for the removal of Cabinet members and other executive branch officers. The Act was not declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States until 1926. When Andrew Johnson violated the Act, the House of Representatives impeached him; action in the Senate to remove him failed by one vote.
Here, the separation of powers issue is whether the War Powers Resolution requirements for Congressional approval and presidential reporting to Congress change the constitutional balance established in Articles I and II, namely that Congress is explicitly granted the sole authority to "declare war '', "make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces '' (Article 1, Section 8), and to control the funding of those same forces, while the Executive has inherent authority as Commander in Chief. This argument does not address the other reporting requirements imposed on other executive officials and agencies by other statutes, nor does it address the provisions of Article I, Section 8 that explicitly gives Congress the authority to "make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces ''.
The constitution specifically states that Congress is authorized "to provide and maintain a Navy '' (Article 1 Section 8). The idea of "maintenance '' of a Navy implies that Naval Forces would be a permanent fixture of national defense. Two types of Land Forces are described by the Constitution (Article 1 Section 8): the Militia (armed citizenry organized into local defense forces and state volunteer regiments) which Congress can "call forth '' and prescribe the "organizing, arming, and disciplining (training) '' of, as Congress did in the Militia acts of 1792; and the Army, which Congress can "raise and support '', through regular appropriation acts limited to no more than two years. This division matches how the Revolutionary War was fought, by the Continental Army, raised and supported by the Continental Congress, and local Militias and Volunteer Regiments, raised by the separate Colonies. After the war, under the Articles of Confederation, a small standing Army, the First American Regiment was raised and gradually increased in size over time by Congress before, following the Constitution 's ratification, being transformed into the Regular Army. The availability of a standing Army, and the President of the United States being authorized as "Commander in Chief '', implies his ability as a military commander to employ forces necessary to fulfill his oath to defend the constitution.
There is also an unresolved legal question, discussed by Justice White in INS v. Chadha of whether a "key provision of the War Powers Resolution '', namely 50 U.S.C. 1544 (c), constitutes an improper legislative veto. (See Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 971.) That section 1544 (c) states "such forces shall be removed by the President if the Congress so directs by concurrent resolution ''. Justice White argues in his dissent in Chadha that, under the Chadha ruling, 1544 (c) would be a violation of the Presentment Clause. The majority in Chadha does not resolve the issue. Justice White does not address or evaluate in his dissent whether that section would fall within the inherent Congressional authority under Article I Section 8 to "make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces ''.
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who sang the song the world is black the world is white | Black and White (Three Dog Night song) - Wikipedia
"Black and White '' is a song written in 1954 by David I. Arkin and Earl Robinson.
The most successful recording of the song was the pop version by Three Dog Night in 1972, when it reached number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 and Billboard Easy Listening charts. Billboard ranked it as the number 63 song for 1972. This was one of the few hits for Three Dog Night on which Danny Hutton sang the lead vocals.
The song was first recorded by Pete Seeger in 1956, followed by Sammy Davis Jr. in 1957.
The song 's author Earl Robinson released his own recording in 1957, on the Folkways album A Walk in the Sun and other Songs and Ballads. (The album title refers to a song written for the 1945 film A Walk in the Sun.)
Reggae groups The Maytones, from Jamaica, and Greyhound, from the UK, both recorded the song in 1971, the latter achieving a UK top ten hit.
Having heard the Greyhound version, Three Dog Night covered the song and included it on their 1972 album Seven Separate Fools. Their version of the song peaked at number one on the U.S. pop chart on September 16, 1972, and topped the easy listening chart on October 7. Billboard ranked it as the number 63 song for 1972.
Inner Circle recorded a cover for their 1989 album Identified.
The song was inspired by the United States Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which outlawed racial segregation of public schools.
The original lyrics of the song opened with this verse, in reference to the court:
Their robes were black, Their heads were white, The schoolhouse doors were closed so tight, Nine judges all set down their names, To end the years and years of shame.
However, the version of the song recorded by Greyhound, and subsequently covered by Three Dog Night, did not include this verse - making the song more universal, but also less historically specific.
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what type of water is in the ocean | Ocean - wikipedia
An ocean (from Ancient Greek Ὠκεανός, transc. Okeanós, the sea of classical antiquity) is a body of saline water that composes much of a planet 's hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major conventional divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans. The word sea is often used interchangeably with "ocean '' in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land.
Saline water covers approximately 360,000,000 km (140,000,000 sq mi) and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately 71 % of Earth 's surface and 90 % of the Earth 's biosphere. The ocean contains 97 % of Earth 's water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5 % of the World Ocean has been explored. The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers (320 million cu mi) with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters (12,100 ft).
As the world ocean is the principal component of Earth 's hydrosphere, it is integral to life, forms part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the number of species that exist in the ocean is much larger, possibly over two million. The origin of Earth 's oceans is unknown; oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life.
Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their geologic histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a runaway greenhouse effect may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of Europa is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth. The Solar System 's giant planets are also thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.
The word "ocean '' comes from the figure in classical antiquity, Oceanus (/ oʊ ˈsiːənəs /; Greek: Ὠκεανός Ōkeanós, pronounced (ɔːkeanós)), the elder of the Titans in classical Greek mythology, believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of the sea, an enormous river encircling the world.
The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo - European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā - śáyāna -, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra -, who captured the cows / rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon - tail on some early Greek vases.
Though generally described as several separate oceans, the global, interconnected body of salt water is sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. The concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.
The major oceanic divisions -- listed below in descending order of area and volume -- are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria.
Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits.
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean and the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,000 mi) long (several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range).
The total mass of the hydrosphere is about 1.4 quintillion metric tons (7018140000000000000 ♠ 1.4 × 10 long tons or 7018150000000000000 ♠ 1.5 × 10 short tons), which is about 0.023 % of Earth 's total mass. Less than 3 % is freshwater; the rest is saltwater, almost all of which is in the ocean. The area of the World Ocean is about 361.9 million square kilometers (139.7 million square miles), which covers about 70.9 % of Earth 's surface, and its volume is approximately 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (320.3 million cubic miles). This can be thought of as a cube of water with an edge length of 1,101 kilometers (684 mi). Its average depth is about 3,688 meters (12,100 ft), and its maximum depth is 10,994 meters (6.831 mi) at the Mariana Trench. Nearly half of the world 's marine waters are over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. The vast expanses of deep ocean (anything below 200 meters or 660 feet) cover about 66 % of Earth 's surface. This does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea.
The bluish color of water is a composite of several contributing agents. Prominent contributors include dissolved organic matter and chlorophyll. Mariners and other seafarers have reported that the ocean often emits a visible glow which extends for miles at night. In 2005, scientists announced that for the first time, they had obtained photographic evidence of this glow. It is most likely caused by bioluminescence.
Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical zones defined by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone includes all open ocean regions, and can be divided into further regions categorized by depth and light abundance. The photic zone includes the oceans from the surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most biodiverse. Because plants require photosynthesis, life found deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are the primary source of energy in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic.
The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to temperature. The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of 12 ° C (54 ° F), which, in the tropics generally lies at 700 -- 1,000 meters (2,300 -- 3,300 ft). Next is the bathypelagic lying between 10 and 4 ° C (50 and 39 ° F), typically between 700 -- 1,000 meters (2,300 -- 3,300 ft) and 2,000 -- 4,000 meters (6,600 -- 13,100 ft), lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 meters (20,000 ft). The last zone includes the deep oceanic trench, and is known as the hadalpelagic. This lies between 6,000 -- 11,000 meters (20,000 -- 36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.
The benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep - sea. The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft). The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone, which is found in oceanic trenches.
The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two subregions: the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic zone encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves whereas the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water.
In contrast, the littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region.
If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline. The tropical thermocline is typically deeper than the thermocline at higher latitudes. Polar waters, which receive relatively little solar energy, are not stratified by temperature and generally lack a thermocline because surface water at polar latitudes are nearly as cold as water at greater depths. Below the thermocline, water is very cold, ranging from − 1 ° C to 3 ° C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9 ° C. If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline.
The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced pycnocline.
The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 meters (35,994 ft) (plus or minus 11 meters; see the Mariana Trench article for discussion of the various estimates of the maximum depth.) The British naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the "Challenger Deep ''. In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men.
Oceanic maritime currents have different origins. Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence are quasiperiodic, they may form various knots in certain places, most notably around headlands. Non periodic currents have for origin the waves, wind and different densities.
The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as "drift currents ''). These currents can decompose in one quasi permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (at the echelon of a couple of seconds).). The quasi permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface.
This acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind. Accordingly, when the sea depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of currents, in proportion with the increase of depth while friction lowers their speed. At a certain sea depth, the current changes direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with speed current becoming nul: known as the Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface, often from 400 to 800 meters of maximum depth. These currents can considerably alter, change and are dependent on the various yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi permanent current at the surface adopts an extreme oblique direction in relation to the direction of the wind, becoming virtually homogeneous, until the Thermocline.
In the deep however, maritime currents are caused by the temperature gradients and the salinity between water density masses.
In littoral zones, breaking wave is so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime currents reach often 1 to 2 knots.
Ocean currents greatly affect Earth 's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions. Transferring warm or cold air and precipitation to coastal regions, winds may carry them inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large - scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation. Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on Earth 's energy budget. In so far as the thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.
For a discussion of the possibilities of changes to the thermohaline circulation under global warming, see shutdown of thermohaline circulation.
It is often stated that the thermohaline circulation is the primary reason that the climate of Western Europe is so temperate. An alternate hypothesis claims that this is largely incorrect, and that Europe is warm mostly because it lies downwind of an ocean basin, and because atmospheric waves bring warm air north from the subtropics.
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles that continent, influencing the area 's climate and connecting currents in several oceans.
One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons '' and "hurricanes '' depending upon where the system forms).
The ocean has a significant effect on the biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall, and ocean temperatures determine climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region.
As it is thought that life evolved in the ocean, the diversity of life is immense, including:
In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance, seabirds are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans. They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many only going on land for breeding. Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space are penguins, seagulls and pelicans. Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of their time in the oceans.
A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around − 1.9 ° C at atmospheric pressure. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is the case in tropical regions, salinity will be higher. Thus, oceanic waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters in temperate and tropical regions.
Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity, which is a measure of the total mass of halogen ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) in seawater. By international agreement, the following formula is used to determine salinity:
Salinity (in ‰) = 1.80655 × Chlorinity (in ‰)
The average chlorinity is about 19.2 ‰, and, thus, the average salinity is around 34.7 ‰
Many of the world 's goods are moved by ship between the world 's seaports. Oceans are also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests are shrimp, fish, crabs, and lobster.
The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell.
Although Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and the only one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans.
The gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, are thought to lack surfaces and instead have a stratum of liquid hydrogen, however their planetary geology is not well understood. The possibility of the ice giants Uranus and Neptune having hot, highly compressed, supercritical water under their thick atmospheres has been hypothesised. Although their composition is still not fully understood, a 2006 study by Wiktorowicz and Ingersall ruled out the possibility of such a water "ocean '' existing on Neptune, though some studies have suggested that exotic oceans of liquid diamond are possible.
The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, though the water on Mars is no longer oceanic (much of it residing in the ice caps). The possibility continues to be studied along with reasons for their apparent disappearance. Astronomers think that Venus had liquid water and perhaps oceans in its very early history. If they existed, all later vanished via resurfacing.
A global layer of liquid water thick enough to decouple the crust from the mantle is thought to be present on the natural satellites Titan, Europa, Enceladus and, with less certainty, Callisto, Ganymede and Triton. A magma ocean is thought to be present on Io. Geysers have been found on Saturn 's moon Enceladus, possibly originating from about 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) deep ocean beneath an ice shell. Other icy moons may also have internal oceans, or may once have had internal oceans that have now frozen.
Large bodies of liquid hydrocarbons are thought to be present on the surface of Titan, although they are not large enough to be considered oceans and are sometimes referred to as lakes or seas. The Cassini -- Huygens space mission initially discovered only what appeared to be dry lakebeds and empty river channels, suggesting that Titan had lost what surface liquids it might have had. Cassini 's more recent fly - by of Titan offers radar images that strongly suggest hydrocarbon lakes exist near the colder polar regions. Titan is thought to have a subsurface liquid - water ocean under the ice and hydrocarbon mix that forms its outer crust.
Ceres appears to be differentiated into a rocky core and icy mantle and may harbour a liquid - water ocean under its surface.
Not enough is known of the larger trans - Neptunian objects to determine whether they are differentiated bodies capable of supporting oceans, although models of radioactive decay suggest that Pluto, Eris, Sedna, and Orcus have oceans beneath solid icy crusts approximately 100 to 180 km thick.
Some planets and natural satellites outside the Solar System are likely to have oceans, including possible water ocean planets similar to Earth in the habitable zone or "liquid - water belt ''. The detection of oceans, even through the spectroscopy method, however is likely extremely difficult and inconclusive.
Theoretical models have been used to predict with high probability that GJ 1214 b, detected by transit, is composed of exotic form of ice VII, making up 75 % of its mass, making it an ocean planet.
Other possible candidates are merely speculated based on their mass and position in the habitable zone include planet though little is actually known of their composition. Some scientists speculate Kepler - 22b may be an "ocean - like '' planet. Models have been proposed for Gliese 581 d that could include surface oceans. Gliese 436 b is speculated to have an ocean of "hot ice ''. Exomoons orbiting planets, particularly gas giants within their parent star 's habitable zone may theoretically have surface oceans.
Terrestrial planets will acquire water during their accretion, some of which will be buried in the magma ocean but most of it will go into a steam atmosphere, and when the atmosphere cools it will collapse on to the surface forming an ocean. There will also be outgassing of water from the mantle as the magma solidifies -- this will happen even for planets with a low percentage of their mass composed of water, so "super-Earth exoplanets may be expected to commonly produce water oceans within tens to hundreds of millions of years of their last major accretionary impact. ''
Oceans, seas, lakes and other bodies of liquids can be composed of liquids other than water, for example the hydrocarbon lakes on Titan. The possibility of seas of nitrogen on Triton was also considered but ruled out. There is evidence that the icy surfaces of the moons Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Titan and Enceladus are shells floating on oceans of very dense liquid water or water -- ammonia. Earth is often called the ocean planet because it is 70 % covered in water. Extrasolar terrestrial planets that are extremely close to their parent star will be tidally locked and so one half of the planet will be a magma ocean. It is also possible that terrestrial planets had magma oceans at some point during their formation as a result of giant impacts. Hot Neptunes close to their star could lose their atmospheres via hydrodynamic escape, leaving behind their cores with various liquids on the surface. Where there are suitable temperatures and pressures, volatile chemicals that might exist as liquids in abundant quantities on planets include ammonia, argon, carbon disulfide, ethane, hydrazine, hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, neon, nitrogen, nitric oxide, phosphine, silane, sulfuric acid, and water.
Supercritical fluids, although not liquids, do share various properties with liquids. Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets Uranus and Neptune, it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high - density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles. The gaseous outer layers of Jupiter and Saturn transition smoothly into oceans of supercritical hydrogen. The atmosphere of Venus is 96.5 % carbon dioxide, which is a supercritical fluid at its surface.
On other bodies:
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what is the hydrophilic portion of a phospholipid molecule | Phospholipid - wikipedia
Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes. They can form lipid bilayers because of their amphiphilic characteristic. The structure of the phospholipid molecule generally consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails '' and a hydrophilic "head '' consisting of a phosphate group. The two components are joined together by a glycerol molecule. The phosphate groups can be modified with simple organic molecules such as choline.
The first phospholipid identified in 1847 as such in biological tissues was lecithin, or phosphatidylcholine, in the egg yolk of chickens by the French chemist and pharmacist, Theodore Nicolas Gobley. Biological membranes in eukaryotes also contain another class of lipid, sterol, interspersed among the phospholipids and together they provide membrane fluidity and mechanical strength. Purified phospholipids are produced commercially and have found applications in nanotechnology and materials science.
An amphiphile (from the Greek αμφις, amphis: both and φιλíα, philia: love, friendship) is a term describing a chemical compound possessing both hydrophilic (water - loving, polar) and lipophilic (fat - loving) properties. The phospholipid head contains a negatively charged phosphate group and glycerol; it is hydrophilic (attracted to water). The phospholipid tails usually consists of 2 long fatty acid chains; they are hydrophobic and avoid interactions with water. When placed in aqueous solutions, phospholipids are driven by hydrophobic interactions that result in the fatty acid tails aggregating to minimize interactions with water molecules. These specific properties allow phospholipids to play an important role in the phospholipid bilayer. In biological systems, the phospholipids often occur with other molecules (e.g., proteins, glycolipids, sterols) in a bilayer such as a cell membrane. Lipid bilayers occur when hydrophobic tails line up against one another, forming a membrane of hydrophilic heads on both sides facing the water.
Such movement can be described by the fluid mosaic model, that describes the membrane as a mosaic of lipid molecules that act as a solvent for all the substances and proteins within it, so proteins and lipid molecules are then free to diffuse laterally through the lipid matrix and migrate over the membrane. Sterols contribute to membrane fluidity by hindering the packing together of phospholipids. However, this model has now been superseded, as through the study of lipid polymorphism it is now known that the behaviour of lipids under physiological (and other) conditions is not simple.
See Sphingolipid
Phospholipids have been widely used to prepare liposomal, ethosomal and other nanoformulations of topical, oral and parenteral drugs for differing reasons like improved bio-availability, reduced toxicity and increased permeability across membranes. Liposomes are often composed of phosphatidylcholine - enriched phospholipids and may also contain mixed Phospholipid chains with surfactant properties. The ethosomal formulation of ketoconazole using phospholipids is a promising option for transdermal delivery in fungal infections.
Computational simulations of phospholipids are often performed using molecular dynamics with force fields such as GROMOS, CHARMM, or AMBER.
Phospholipids are optically highly birefringent, i.e. their refractive index is different along their axis as opposed to perpendicular to it. Measurement of birefringence can be achieved using cross polarisers in a microscope to obtain an image of e.g. vesicle walls or using techniques such as dual polarisation interferometry to quantify lipid order or disruption in supported bilayers.
There are no simple methods available for analysis of phospholipids since the close range of polarity between different phospholipid species makes detection difficult. Oil chemists often use spectroscopy to determine total Phosphorus abundance and then calculate approximate mass of phospholipids based on molecular weight of expected fatty acid species. Modern lipid profiling employs more absolute methods of analysis, with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), particularly P - NMR, while HPLC - ELSD provides relative values.
Phospholipid synthesis occurs in the cytosole adjacent to ER membrane that is studded with proteins that act in synthesis (GPAT and LPAAT acyl transferases, phosphatase and choline phosphotransferase) and allocation (flippase and floppase). Eventually a vesicle will bud off from the ER containing phospholipids destined for the cytoplasmic cellular membrane on its exterior leaflet and phospholipids destined for the exoplasmic cellular membrane on its inner leaflet.
Common sources of industrially produced phospholipids are soya, rapeseed, sunflower, chicken eggs, bovine milk, fish eggs etc. Each source has a unique profile of individual phospholipid species and consequently differing applications in food, nutrition, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and drug delivery.
Some types of phospholipid can be split to produce products that function as second messengers in signal transduction. Examples include phosphatidylinositol (4, 5) - bisphosphate (PIP), that can be split by the enzyme Phospholipase C into inositol triphosphate (IP) and diacylglycerol (DAG), which both carry out the functions of the G type of G protein in response to various stimuli and intervene in various processes from long term depression in neurons to leukocyte signal pathways started by chemokine receptors.
Phospholipids also intervene in prostaglandin signal pathways as the raw material used by lipase enzymes to produce the prostaglandin precursors. In plants they serve as the raw material to produce Jasmonic acid, a plant hormone similar in structure to prostaglandins that mediates defensive responses against pathogens.
Phospholipids can act as emulsifiers, enabling oils to form a colloid with water. Phospholipids are one of the components of lecithin which is found in egg - yolks, as well as being extracted from soy beans, and is used as a food additive in many products, and can be purchased as a dietary supplement. Lysolecithins are typically used for water - oil emulsions like margarine, due to their higher HLB ratio.
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where does the last rivet go on a ship | Golden rivet - wikipedia
In naval folklore there is a tale that every ship is built containing a single, commemorative "golden rivet '' -- an idea doubtless adapted from the golden spike that was temporarily driven at the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. The rivet 's location is allegedly different for each ship and undisclosed, known only to the crew. No such rivet exists: gold is too malleable to use for a rivet. Like many urban legends, the "golden rivet '' is perpetuated for the amusement of "old salts '' at the expense of the gullible.
Most often the myth is used as a practical joke or snipe hunt played on junior sailors, exploiting their naivete and natural curiosity with their new surroundings. The prank consists of informing a new sailor of the existence of the "golden rivet '' and encouraging him to look for it. After scouring the entire ship without success, it eventually dawns on the junior that he has been the butt of a joke.
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who won the national championship college basketball game | List of NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Champions - wikipedia
This is a list of NCAA Division I men 's basketball champions. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, or NCAA Tournament, is a single - elimination tournament for men 's college basketball teams in the United States. It determines the champion of Division I, the top level of play in the NCAA, and the media often describes the winner as the national champion of college basketball. The NCAA Tournament has been held annually since 1939, and its field grew from eight teams in the beginning to sixty - five teams by 2001; as of 2011, sixty - eight teams take part in the tournament. Teams can gain invitations by winning a conference championship or receiving an at - large bid from a 10 - person committee. The semifinals of the tournament are known as the Final Four and are held in a different city each year, along with the championship game; Indianapolis, the city where the NCAA is based, will host the Final Four every five years until 2040. Each winning university receives a rectangular, gold - plated trophy made of wood.
The first NCAA Tournament was organized by the National Association of Basketball Coaches. Oregon won the inaugural tournament, defeating Ohio State 46 -- 33 in the first championship game. Before the 1941 tournament, control of the event was given to the NCAA. In the early years of the tournament, it was considered less important than the National Invitation Tournament (NIT), a New York City - based event. Teams were able to compete in both events in the same year, and three of those that did so -- Utah in 1944, Kentucky in 1949, and City College of New York (CCNY) in 1950 -- won the NCAA Tournament. The 1949 -- 50 CCNY team won both tournaments (defeating Bradley in both finals), and is the only college basketball team to accomplish this feat. By the mid-1950s, the NCAA Tournament became the more prestigious of the two events, and in 1971 the NCAA barred universities from playing in other tournaments, such as the NIT, if they were invited to the NCAA Tournament.
The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) has been the most successful college in the NCAA Tournament, winning 11 national titles. Ten of those championships came during a 12 - year stretch from 1964 to 1975. UCLA also holds the record for the most consecutive championships, winning seven in a row from 1967 to 1973. Kentucky has the second-most titles, with eight. North Carolina is third with six championships, while Duke and Indiana follow with five each. Villanova is the most recent champion, having defeated Michigan in the final of the 2018 tournament. Among head coaches, John Wooden is the all - time leader with 10 championships; he coached UCLA during their period of success in the 1960s and 1970s. Duke 's Mike Krzyzewski is second all - time with five titles.
General
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when is season 8 of shamelss coming out | Shameless (Season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of Shameless, an American comedy - drama television series based on the award - winning British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, was announced on December 19, 2016, a day after the seventh season finale. The season will consist of a total of 12 episodes. It is slated to premiere on November 5, 2017.
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who is the director of kung fu panda | Kung Fu Panda - Wikipedia
Kung Fu Panda is a 2008 American computer - animated action comedy martial arts film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It was directed by John Stevenson and Mark Osborne and produced by Melissa Cobb, and stars the voices of Jack Black, Dustin Hoffman, Angelina Jolie, Ian McShane, Seth Rogen, Lucy Liu, David Cross, Randall Duk Kim, James Hong, Dan Fogler, Michael Clarke Duncan, and Jackie Chan. Set in a version of ancient China populated by anthropomorphic talking animals, the plot revolves around a bumbling panda named Po who aspires to be a kung fu master. When an evil kung fu warrior named Tai Lung is foretold to escape after twenty years in prison, Po is unwittingly named the chosen one destined to defeat him and bring peace to the land, much to the chagrin of the resident kung fu warriors.
The idea for the film was conceived by Michael Lachance, a DreamWorks Animation executive. The film was originally intended to be a parody, but director Stevenson decided instead, to shoot an action comedy wuxia film that incorporates the hero 's journey narrative archetype for the lead character. The computer animation in the film was more complex than anything DreamWorks had done before. As with most DreamWorks animated films, Hans Zimmer (collaborating with John Powell this time) scored Kung Fu Panda. He visited China to absorb the culture and get to know the China National Symphony Orchestra as part of his preparation. A sequel, Kung Fu Panda 2, was released on May 26, 2011, along with a television series, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness later that same year as a part of a franchise. A second sequel called Kung Fu Panda 3 was released on January 29, 2016.
Kung Fu Panda premiered in the United States on June 6, 2008. The film received positive reviews upon release. Kung Fu Panda opened in 4,114 theaters, grossing $20.3 million on its opening day and $60.2 million on its opening weekend, resulting in the number one position at the box office. The film became DreamWorks ' biggest opening for a non-sequel film, the highest grossing animated film of the year worldwide, and also had the fourth - largest opening weekend for a DreamWorks animated film at the American and Canadian box office, behind Shrek 2, Shrek the Third, and Shrek Forever After.
In the Valley of Peace, a land in ancient China inhabited by anthropomorphic animals, Po, a giant panda, is a Kung Fu fanatic who idolizes the Furious Five (Tigress, Monkey, Mantis, Viper, and Crane), a quintet of Kung Fu students trained by the red panda Master Shifu at the Jade Palace. However, as he helps his adoptive goose father Mr. Ping in his noodle restaurant, Po is unable to pursue his dream of becoming a Kung Fu master himself.
Grand Master Oogway, a sage old tortoise and Shifu 's mentor, has a vision that Shifu 's former student, the evil snow leopard Tai Lung, will escape from prison and return to the Valley of Peace to exact his revenge. Panicked, Shifu sends his messenger, Zeng the goose, with a request for the prison to tighten the security in order to prevent Tai Lung 's escape. He then holds a tournament for the Furious Five so that Oogway can identify the Dragon Warrior, the one Kung Fu master worthy of the Dragon Scroll, which is said to hold the secret to the boundless power and be capable of defeating Tai Lung. Po fails to arrive at the arena before the doors are closed. Desperate to see the Dragon Warrior, Po straps himself to a set of fireworks, rockets into the sky and crashes into the arena. He opens his eyes to see Oogway pointing his finger at him. Much to the shock of everyone there (including Po), Oogway proclaims Po as the Dragon Warrior.
Unwilling to accept Oogway 's decision, Shifu tries to dispose of Po with an excruciatingly harsh training regime bordering on torture coupled with constant belittlement of his physique and personality. Following in Shifu 's footsteps, the Furious Five similarly berate and mock Po as simply an enthusiast with no potential in the martial art. Po considers resigning, but after receiving encouragement from Oogway, he endures his training and slowly begins to befriend the Five with his culinary skill, resilience, and good humor, though Tigress remains reluctant to accept him as the Dragon Warrior.
Tigress tells Po the story of Shifu and Tai Lung. Long ago, Shifu found the infant Tai Lung on the steps of the palace. He brought up Tai Lung as his son and taught him Kung Fu. Although Tai Lung was a proficient Kung Fu practitioner, Oogway refused to give him the Dragon Scroll. Tai Lung attacked the valley and tried to take the scroll by force, but Oogway successfully stopped him. Shifu, filled with guilt and sorrow over his son 's betrayal, became cold and distant to his later students. Meanwhile, Tai Lung escapes from prison as foreseen by Oogway, ironically picking his locks with one of Zeng 's fallen feathers. Shifu learns of Tai Lung 's escape from Zeng and informs Oogway, who extracts a promise from Shifu to believe in Po, and then passes on to the heavens in a stream of peach blossoms. Still unable to grasp the basics of Kung Fu, Po despairingly admits that he has no chance of defeating Tai Lung. However, Shifu discovers that Po is capable of impressive physical feats when motivated by food, and takes advantage of this in order to successfully train Po by incorporating these feats into an effective Kung Fu style.
Meanwhile, the Furious Five set out to stop Tai Lung themselves, only to be defeated by his nerve strikes. Following their return, Shifu decides that Po is ready to receive the Dragon Scroll, but the scroll reveals nothing but a blank reflective surface. Unable to understand the message of the scroll, Shifu orders Po and the Five to evacuate the valley while he faces Tai Lung, knowing that he will most likely forfeit his life. As Tai Lung arrives and fights Shifu, a distraught Po finds Mr. Ping. In an attempt to console his son, Mr. Ping reveals that the secret ingredient to his famous "secret ingredient soup '' is "nothing '' (explaining that "to make something special, you just have to believe it is ''). Po realizes that this is the message of the Dragon Scroll and goes back to confront Tai Lung.
Po becomes a formidable challenge for Tai Lung, frustrating him with confusing fighting techniques on top of a physique that renders him immune to Tai Lung 's nerve strikes. Tai Lung momentarily bests Po and retrieves the scroll, but he is unable to understand it. When Po explains to Tai Lung that the true secret to becoming the Dragon Warrior is to just believe in yourself, he refuses to accept it and continues attacking Po. Eventually, Po defeats Tai Lung in combat before using the mysterious Wuxi Finger Hold to vanquish him. Po is praised by the Valley of Peace and earns the respect of the Furious Five, who fully acknowledge him as a true Kung Fu master. Po then finds Shifu, who finally attains inner peace, now that the valley is safe once more.
-- co-director John Stevenson on the comedic approach to the martial arts film.
Publicized work on the film began in October 2004. In September 2005, DreamWorks Animation announced the film alongside Jack Black, who was selected to be the main voice star.
In November 2005, DreamWorks Animation announced that Dustin Hoffman, Jackie Chan, Lucy Liu and Ian McShane would join Jack Black in the cast. This is also the second DreamWorks Animation film in which Black and Angelina Jolie have co-starred together, the first being 2004 's Shark Tale.
The idea for the film was conceived by Michael Lachance, a DreamWorks Animation executive. Initially, the idea was to make it a spoof, but co-director John Stevenson was not particularly keen on it and instead chose the direction of a character - based wuxia comedy.
Reportedly inspired by Stephen Chow 's 2004 martial arts action comedy, Kung Fu Hustle, the co-directors wanted to make sure the film also had an authentic Chinese and kung fu feel to it. Production designer Raymond Zibach and art director Tang Heng spent years researching Chinese painting, sculpture, architecture and kung fu films to help create the look of the film. Zibach said some of the biggest influences for him are the more artful martial arts films such as Hero, House of Flying Daggers and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. Stevenson 's aim for the film, which took four years to make, was to make "the best looking film DreamWorks has ever made ''.
-- Dan Wagner, Head of Character Animation.
The hand - drawn animation sequence at the beginning of the film was made to resemble Chinese shadow puppetry. The opening, which was directed by Jennifer Yuh Nelson and produced by James Baxter, was praised by The New York Times reviewer Manohla Dargis as "striking '' and "visually different from most mainstream American animations ''.
Other reviewers have compared the opening to the evocative style of Genndy Tartakovsky 's Samurai Jack. The rest of the film is modern computer animation, which uses bright, offbeat colors to evoke the natural landscape of China. The end credit sequence also features hand - drawn characters and still paintings in the background.
The computer animation used throughout the film was more complex than anything DreamWorks had done before. When the head of production handed the script to VFX Supervisor Markus Manninen, she reportedly laughed and wished him "good luck ''. "When we started talking, '' said Manninen, "the movie was still a high concept. But for everyone that looked at it, it screamed complexity. We launched off saying, how can you make this movie tangible? How can you find smart ways to bring this world to life in a way that makes it a great movie and not feel like the complexity becomes the driver of the story, but the story and the emotion being the driver? '' In preparation, the animators took a six - hour kung fu class.
Producer Melissa Cobb said that originally Po was "more of a jerk, '' but that the character changed after they heard Jack Black. According to Jack Black, he mostly worked "in isolation '', although he and Dustin Hoffman did spend a day together, which Cobb said helped with the scene where their characters face off. Lucy Liu said that the film "was quite different because it was such a long process. '' Liu said that when she was presented with the project they already had artwork of her character as well as a "short computerized video version of what she would look like when she moved. ''
The film held its worldwide premiere at the 61st Cannes Film Festival on May 15, 2008, where it received massive and sustained applause at the end of the film 's screening. Kung Fu Panda later had national premieres in the US on June 1, 2008 at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, and on June 26, 2008 at Leicester Square in London, for the UK.
Kung Fu Panda was released on DVD and Blu - ray on November 9, 2008, and on 3D Blu - ray on December 6, 2011 as a Best Buy exclusive. The DVD double pack release of Kung Fu Panda also includes a short animated film Secrets of the Furious Five. With 7,486,642 DVD units sold in 2008, Kung Fu Panda was the fourth highest - selling film and the first highest - selling animated film of 2008, right before WALL - E, which sold 7,413,548 units.
Rotten Tomatoes reported that 87 % of 183 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Kung Fu Panda has a familiar message, but the pleasing mix of humor, swift martial arts action, and colorful animation makes for winning summer entertainment. '' Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 73 out of 100, based on 33 reviews. Audience gave the film an average A - grade on CinemaScore.
Richard Corliss of Time Magazine gave Kung Fu Panda a positive review, stating the picture "provides a master course in cunning visual art and ultra-satisfying entertainment ''. The New York Times said, "At once fuzzy - wuzzy and industrial strength, the tacky - sounding Kung Fu Panda is high concept with a heart, '' and the review called the film "consistently diverting '' and "visually arresting ''. Chris Barsanti of Filmcritic.com commented, "Blazing across the screen with eye - popping, sublime artwork, Kung Fu Panda sets itself apart from the modern domestic animation trend with its sheer beauty (...) the film enters instant classic status as some of the most gorgeous animation Hollywood has produced since the golden age of Disney. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune called the film "one of the few comedies of 2008 in any style or genre that knows what it 's doing ''. However, Tom Charity of CNN criticized the action for tending "to blur into a whirlwind of slapstick chaos '' and considered the character of Po too similar to others played by Black. Peter Howell of The Toronto Star awarded the film two and a half stars, considering it to have a "lack of story '' that "frequently manages to amuse, if not entirely to delight ''.
The film topped the box office in its opening weekend, grossing $60.2 million for a $14,642 average from 4,114 theaters and performing much better than analysts had been expecting. It also was the highest - grossing opening for a non-sequel DreamWorks Animation film at the time. In its second weekend, the film retreated 44 % to second place behind The Incredible Hulk grossing $33.6 million for a $8,127 average from expanding to 4,136 theaters. It closed on October 9, 2008 after 125 days of release, grossing $215.4 million in the United States and Canada and $416.3 million overseas for a worldwide total of $631.7 million. Kung Fu Panda was the highest - grossing non-Shrek film from DreamWorks Animation in the United States and Canada, before being surpassed by How to Train Your Dragon in 2010.
Kung Fu Panda was also well received in China. It made nearly 110 million Yuan by July 2, 2008, becoming the first animated film to earn more than 100 million Yuan in China. The Chinese director Lu Chuan commented, "From a production standpoint, the movie is nearly perfect. Its American creators showed a very sincere attitude about Chinese culture. '' The film 's critical and commercial success in China led to some local introspection about why no film like Kung Fu Panda had been produced in China, with commentators attributing the problem variously to lower film budgets in China, too much government oversight, a dearth of national imagination, and an overly reverent attitude to China 's history and cultural icons.
Kung Fu Panda was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film, but both awards were won by Pixar 's WALL - E. Jack Black joked about his film 's underdog status at the 81st Academy Awards, saying "Each year, I do one DreamWorks project, then I take all the money to the Oscars and bet it on Pixar. ''
By contrast, Kung Fu Panda won 10 Annie Awards (including Best Picture) out of 16 nominations, although this created controversy, with some accusing DreamWorks head Jeffrey Katzenberg of rigging the vote by buying ASIFA - Hollywood memberships (with voting power) for everyone at DreamWorks Animation.
As with most DreamWorks animated movies, composer Hans Zimmer scored Kung Fu Panda. Zimmer visited China to absorb the culture and got to know the Chinese National Symphony as part of his preparation; in addition, Timbaland also contributed to the soundtrack. The soundtrack also includes a partially rewritten version of the classic song, "Kung Fu Fighting '', performed by Cee - Lo Green and Jack Black for the end credits. Furthermore, in some versions, the ending credit was sung by Rain. Although Zimmer was originally announced as the main composer of the film, during a test screening, CEO of DreamWorks Animation SKG Jeffrey Katzenberg announced that composer John Powell would also be contributing to the score. This marked the first collaboration in eight years for the two, who had previously worked together on DreamWorks ' The Road to El Dorado and the action thriller Chill Factor. A soundtrack album was released by Interscope Records on June 3, 2008.
A sequel, Kung Fu Panda 2, was released on Thursday, May 26, 2011, to good reviews (Rotten Tomatoes rating of 81 %). It was released in 3 - D and was directed by Jennifer Yuh Nelson (who directed the 2 - D opening sequence of the first film) with the original cast returning. The story features a new villain with a mysterious weapon so powerful it threatens the existence of kung fu, and Po must additionally confront his past.
A second sequel, Kung Fu Panda 3 was announced as a co-production between DreamWorks Animation and Shanghai - based Oriental DreamWorks. Kung Fu Panda 3 was released on January 29, 2016. DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg has said that perhaps the series could see 3 more sequels after Kung Fu Panda 3, bringing it to a six - film series.
A manga based on the film was released in Japan in Kerokero Ace magazine 's September 2008 issue. It is written by Hanten Okuma and illustrated by Takafumi Adachi.
A television series titled Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness aired on Nickelodeon with its premiere on September 19, 2011. From the cast of Kung Fu Panda, only Lucy Liu and James Hong reprised their roles, of Master Viper and Mr. Ping respectively. In the series, Po continues to defend the Valley of Peace from all kinds of villains, while making mistakes, learning about the history of kung fu, and meeting other kung fu masters. In the United States, the series ended its run on June 29, 2016, with a total of three seasons and 80 episodes. However, prior to premiering in the U.S., the final few episodes first premiered in Germany from December 30, 2014 to January 7, 2015.
The Kung Fu Panda Holiday Special was aired on NBC Wednesday, November 24, 2010.
A video game adaptation of the film was published by Activision on June 3, 2008. The game was released for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS and PC platforms. The plot follows the same basic plot as the film, but with Tai Lung portrayed as the leader of various gangs that surround the Valley of Peace, which Po, who possesses some basic martial art skills which can be upgraded as the game progresses, must defeat. The game was released on Microsoft Windows, as well as multiple consoles. However the Windows version has been discontinued. The game received mostly positive reviews; it scored a Metacritic rating of 76 % from critics and a 7.5 out of 10 from IGN. In 2009, it won the International Animated Film Society 's Annie Award for Best Animated Video Game, "in recognition of creative excellence in the art of animation. ''
DreamWorks Animation was sued in 2011 by a writer, Terence Dunn, for allegedly stealing the idea for Kung Fu Panda from him. Dunn alleged that DreamWorks Animation had stolen his pitch for a "spiritual kung - fu fighting panda bear '' which he sent to a DreamWorks executive in 2001. DreamWorks Animation denied any wrongdoing and after a two - week trial the jurors found in favor of DreamWorks.
In 2011, another lawsuit was brought against the studio by an illustrator named Jayme Gordon. Gordon had created characters under the name "Kung Fu Panda Power '' and registered them with the U.S. Copyright Office in 2000. He had pitched this concept work to Disney while Jeffrey Katzenberg, who later left Disney and formed DreamWorks Animation in 1994, was working there. Gordon withdrew his claim just before the trial was due to take place. On December 20, 2015, federal prosecutors charged Gordon with four counts of wire fraud and three counts of perjury for allegedly fabricating and backdating drawings to support the claims in his lawsuit, and for allegedly tracing some of his drawings from a Disney Lion King coloring book. On November 18, 2016, Gordon was convicted for wire fraud and perjury, facing a sentence of up to 25 years in prison.
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where does the mosel river start and end | Moselle - wikipedia
The Moselle (French: la Moselle, IPA: (mɔzɛl); German: Mosel; Luxembourgish: Musel) is a river flowing through France, Luxembourg, and Germany. It is a left tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A small part of Belgium is also drained by the Moselle through the Sauer and the Our.
The Moselle "twists and turns its way between Trier and Koblenz along one of Germany 's most beautiful river valleys. '' It flows through a region that has been influenced by mankind since it was first cultivated by the Romans. Today, its hillsides are covered by terraced vineyards where "some of the best Rieslings grow '', and numerous ruined castles dominate the hilltops above wine villages and towns that line the riverbanks. Traben - Trarbach with its art nouveau architecture and Bernkastel - Kues with its traditional market square are two of the many popular tourist attractions on the Moselle river.
The name Moselle is derived from the Celtic name form, Moseal, via the Latin Mosella, a diminutive form of Mosa, the Latin description of the Meuse, which used to flow parallel to the Moselle. So the Mosella was the "Little Meuse ''.
The Moselle is first recorded by Tacitus in Book 13 of his Annals and in Book 4 of his Histories.
The Roman poet, Decimius Magnus Ausonius, made it a literary theme as early as the 4th century. In his poem dated A.D. 371, called Mosella, which was published in 483 hexameters, this poet of the Late Antiquity and teacher at the Trier Imperial Court (Kaiserhof) described a journey from Bingen over the Hunsrück hills to the Moselle and then following its course to Trier on the road named after him, the Via Ausonius. Ausonius describes flourishing and rich landscapes along the river and in the valley of the Moselle, thanks to the policies of their Roman rulers.
The river subsequently gave its name to two French republican départements: Moselle and Meurthe - et - Moselle.
The source of the Moselle is at 715 metres above sea level on the Col de Bussang on the western slopes of the Ballon d'Alsace in the Vosges. After 544 kilometres it discharges into the Rhine at the Deutsches Eck in Koblenz at a height of 59 metres above NHN. The length of the river in France is 314 kilometres, for 39 kilometres it forms the border between Germany and Luxembourg, and 208 kilometres are solely within Germany.
The Moselle flows through the Lorraine region, west of the Vosges. Further downstream, in Germany, the Moselle valley forms the division between the Eifel and Hunsrück mountain regions.
The average flow rate of the Moselle at its mouth is 328 m3 / s, making it the second largest tributary of the Rhine by volume after the Aare (560 m3 / s) and bigger than the Main and Neckar.
The section of the Moselle from the Franco - German - Luxembourg tripoint to its confluence with the Saar near Konz shortly before Trier is in Germany known (geographically incorrectly) as the Upper Moselle. The section from Trier to Pünderich is the Middle Moselle, the section between Pünderich and its mouth in Koblenz as the Lower Moselle or Terraced Moselle (Terrassenmosel). Characteristic of the Middle and Lower Moselle are its wide meanders cut deeply into the highlands of the Rhenish Massif, the most striking of which is the Cochemer Krampen between Bremm and Cochem. Also typical are its vineyard terraces.
From the tripoint the Moselle marks the entire Saarland - Luxembourg.
The catchment area of the Moselle is 28,286 km2 in area. The French part covers 15,360 km2, about 54 percent of the entire catchment. The German state of Rhineland - Palatinate has 6,980 km2, the Saarland 2,569 km2, Luxembourg 2,521 km2, Wallonia (Belgium) 767 km2 and North Rhine - Westphalia, 88 km2.
The three largest tributaries of the Moselle are, in order, the Meurthe, the Saar and the Sauer. The Meurthe was the old upper course of the Moselle, until the latter captured the former upper reaches of the Meuse and took it over. However, the Meuse only delivered a little more water than the Meurthe at its confluence. The Saar is the biggest of all the tributaries (78.2 m3 / s) as well as the longest (246 km). The Sauer is the largest left - hand tributary and drains the region on either side of the German - Luxembourg border. The largest tributary relative to the Moselle at its confluence is the Moselotte, which is about 40 % greater by volumetric flow and thus represents the main branch of the Moselle system. At its mouth, the Mosell delivers 328 m3 / s of water into the Rhine after flowing for 544 km.
From the left: Madon, Terrouin, Esch, Rupt de Mad, Orne, Fensch, Gander, Syre, Sauer, Kyll, Salm, Lieser, Alf, Endert, Brohlbach, Elz.
From the right: Moselotte, Vologne, Meurthe, Seille, Saar, Olewiger Bach, Avelsbach, Ruwer, Feller Bach, Dhron, Ahringsbach, Kautenbach, Lützbach, Flaumbach, Altlayer Bach, Baybach, Ehrbach.
Towns along the Moselle are:
From Trier downstream the Moselle separates the two Central Upland ranges of the Eifel (to the northwest) and the Hunsrück (to the southeast).
The Vosges, the present source region of the Moselle, were formed about 50 million years ago. In the Miocene and Pliocene epochs the ancient Moselle (Urmosel) was already a tributary of the ancient Rhine (Ur - Rhein). When, in the Quaternary period, the Rhenish Massif slowly rose, the meanders of the Moselle were formed between the Trier Valley and the Neuwied Basin.
The highest navigable water level (HSW) is 695 cm and normal level (NSt) is 200 cm at the Trier Gauge (Pegel Trier).
High water:
Low water:
The Moselle was known to the Romans by the name of Flumen Musalla (in the Tabula Peutingeriana), and the river was romanticised by the poet Ausonius around 371 A.D. From 1815, the Moselle formed the border between the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and Prussia (German Empire in 1871).
In the act of 10 April 1952 ratifying the treaty instituted by the E.C.S.C., Article 2 charged the French Government "to initiate, before the establishment of the Common Market, negotiations with the governments concerned in order to achieve a rapid implementation of the canalisation of the Moselle between Thionville and Koblenz.
The River was canalised between Metz and Thionville, via a canal opened in 1964 by the Grand Duchess, Charlotte of Luxembourg, the Federal Chancellor of Germany, Konrad Adenauer and their host, General de Gaulle, President of France.
It is on the Moselle, at the site of the Franco - German - Luxembourg tripoint, that the Schengen Agreement was signed in 1992, establishing the free movement of goods and people in the European Community.
The Moselle valley between Metz and Thionville is an industrial area, with coal mining and steel manufactures.
The Moselle valley is famous for its beautiful scenery and the excellent wine produced. Most well - known is the German Mosel wine region, while the Luxembourg winegrowing region is called Moselle Luxembourgeoise and the French region is called AOC Moselle. Most notable among the wines produced here are Riesling, Elbling, Müller - Thurgau, Kerner, and Auxerrois. The German part of the Moselle is a particularly popular tourist destination.
After the Second World War, France pressed to be able to ply the Moselle with larger ships in order to be able to link the industrial regions of Lorraine. When, in 1955, the population on the Saar voted to belong to West Germany, France demanded as "compensation '' an upgrade of the Moselle. On 27 October 1956 they concluded the Moselle Treaty with Germany and Luxembourg for a canalisation of the Moselle and conceded to Germany in return the extension of the Grand Canal d'Alsace on the Upper Rhine instead of an extension of the canal via Breisach. In 1958 work began and by 26 May 1964 the Moselle could be officially opened from Metz to Koblenz as a major waterway for shipping with 14 locks. France extended it by 1979 as far as Neuves - Maisons. With that, 394 km of the Moselle have been upgraded with a total of 28 locks. In the years 1992 to 1999 the navigable channel was deepened from 2.7 to 3.00 metres, which enables 1500 - tonne freighters to use the river, a 20 % increase in capacity. The channel has a width of 40 metres, more on the bends. The International Moselle Commission (IMK), founded in 1962 with its head office in Trier, is responsible for navigation. The Moselle Shipping Police Act which it has produced is valid in all three participant states i.e. from Metz to Koblenz.
In 1921 the Moselle (Mo) became a Reich waterway, today it is a federal waterway (Bundeswasserstraße) from Apach at the tripoint to its mouth on the Rhine at kilometre 592.29 in Koblenz. The waterway is 242 kilometres long and managed by the Trier and Koblenz Water and Shipping Offices (Wasser - und Schifffahrtsämtern Trier und Koblenz). It is categorized as a European waterway of Class Vb. Its kilometrage begins at its mouth with km 0 and runs upstream. Since 1816 it has formed a 36 - km - long condominium from Apach, a common German - Luxembourg sovereign area with a division of responsibilities set out in a 1976 agreement. The International Moselle Company, initially set up in 1957 to finance the construction of the river 's upgrade, manages the shipping charges and the operation and maintenance of the waterway which they are used to fund.
Today the Moselle is navigable for large cargo ships up to 110 metres (360 ft) long from the Rhine in Koblenz up to Neuves - Maisons, south of Nancy. For smaller ships it is connected to other parts of France through the Canal de l'Est and the Canal de la Marne au Rhin. There are locks in Koblenz, Lehmen, Müden, Fankel, Sankt Aldegund, Enkirch, Zeltingen, Wintrich, Detzem, Trier, Grevenmacher, Palzem, Apach, Kœnigsmacker, Thionville, Richemont, Talange, Metz, Ars - sur - Moselle, Pagny - sur - Moselle, Blénod - lès - Pont - à - Mousson, Custines, Pompey, Aingeray, Fontenoy - sur - Moselle, Toul, Villey - le - Sec, and Neuves - Maisons.
By 1970 more than 10 million tonnes of goods were being transported on the Moselle, the majority on towed barges. Upstream freight mainly comprised fuel and ores; downstream the main goods were steel products, gravel and rocks. There is an inland port at Trier, a transshipment site in Zell (Mosel); and there are other ports in Mertert, Thionville, Metz and Frouard. In addition to freighters there are also pleasure boats for tourists between the very busy wine villages and small towns of the Middle and Lower Moselle. There are also yachting or sports marinas in the following places: Koblenz, Winningen, Brodenbach, Burgen, Löf, Hatzenport, Senheim, Treis, Traben - Trarbach, Kues, Neumagen, Pölich, Schweich, Trier and Konz. The Moselle is linked near Toul via the Canal de la Marne au Rhin with inter alia the Meuse, the Saône and the Rhône. Other canals link the river to the North Sea and even the Mediterranean.
There is a total of 28 changes of level on the Moselle:
With the exception of Detzem, all the structures at each change in level are laid out side by side; the lock is by one riverbank, the weir in the middle and the hydropower plant on the other bank. Between the lock and weir are a boat slipway / boat channel and boat lock, while between the weir and the power station is the fish ladder. The structures have been blended into the landscape through their low - level design; this was achieved by the choice of sector gates for the weir, vertically lowering upper gates and mitred lower lock gates. The water levels and hydropower works are controlled by the Fankel Central Control Station (Zentralwarte Fankel) of the RWE Power Company at Fankel.
Through the Moselle valley run the Moselle Wine Road and the Moselle Cycleway, which may be cycled from Metz in France via Trier to Koblenz on the River Rhine, a distance of 311 kilometres. Between Koblenz and Trier, large sections run on the trackbed of the old Moselle Valley Railway, far from the noise and fumes of motor vehicles. Every year on the Sunday after Pentecost, the 140 kilometres of road between Schweich and Cochem is also car - free as part of the Happy Moselle Day.
A number of notable castles and ruins adorn the heights above the Moselle valley and many are visible on a boat trip on the Moselle.
In 1910, a hiking trail, the Moselle Ridgeway, was established which runs for 185 kilometres on the Eifel side and 262 kilometres on the Hunsrück side. Another unusual trail runs from Ediger - Eller via the Calmont Trail to Bremm through the steepest vineyard in Europe.
Before the construction of barrages the Moselle was a popular route for ustufen beliebter Wanderfluss für folding kayaks which is why many of the weirs have boat channels. The river is still used today by canoeists, especially during the annual week - long lock closures when no commercial shipping is permitted.
In April 2014 the Moselle Trail was opened, a path running for 365 kilometres from Perl on the Upper Moselle to Koblenz. Numerous Moselle Trail "partner trails '', the so - called side branches (Seitensprünge) and "dream paths '' (Traumpfade) enhance the hiking network in the Moselle Valley.
The ADAC 's Rallye Deutschland has taken place since 2000 in the vineyards along the Moselle at Veldenz, Dhron, Piesport, Minheim, Kesten, Trittenheim, Fell, Ruwertal and Trier.
At Koblenz Locks the Mosellum offers exhibitions about the migration of fish in the Moselle as well as water ecology, navigation and power generation. With the construction of the visitor and information centre the most modern fish ladder along the Moselle was opened.
A wine - growing region lies along the Moselle with a cultivated area of about 10,540 hectares. The largest part, currently just under 9,000 ha, is on German soil in the states of Rhineland - Palatinate and Saarland; the Luxembourg part has an area of about 1,300 hectares (see Wine in Luxembourg). Upstream on the Moselle the vineyards extend into France as far as Seille in the region of Côtes de Moselle with an area of 130 hectares and to the region around Toul (Côtes de Toul) covering 110 hectares.
The German Moselle wine region, including its tributaries, bears the growing and manufacturing name of "Mosel ''. For marketing reasons the agricultural authorities of the region have divided it into six wine - growing areas. The wine literature and specialist press, by contrast, divide the region into four areas based on geomorphological, micro-climatic and also historical reasons:
1. Upper Moselle. The valley sides of the Upper Moselle (also called the Burgundy Moselle, Burgundermosel) with their overwhelmingly muschelkalk soils belong geologically to the so - called Paris Basin, which explains its low proportion of Riesling - only around 10 % in 2010 - and the increasing cultivation of Pinot Blanc and Pinot Noir grapes.
2. Trier Region. Around the city of Trier and in the valleys of the Saar and Ruwer with their side valleys, the Riesling is the predominant grape on the shale soils, with over 80 % of the crop. One climatic feature of this area is the frequent orientation of often small southwest - southeast facing locations in which the vegetation is exposed to stronger, cooler winds and, especially in the light of recent global warming, often achieve lower degrees of maturity than in the narrow, often deeply incised valley of the Middle and Lower Moselle.
3. Middle Moselle. With around 6000 hectares of vineyard the Middle Moselle is the largest wine growing area of the Moselle. According to the wine experts and trade, the "greatest '' wines of the Moselle, both in quantity and quality, are grown here on land that has been consolidated into large concerns with much vaunted steeply sloped vineyards.
4. Lower Moselle. In the Lower Moselle Valley, the viticulture is more picturesque: with large numbers of medieval castles, high above little villages, decorated with timber - framed houses, surrounded by steep slopes with small terraces in the narrow, winding valley. Here, cultivating vines is very labour - intensive and costly and it is difficult to make it economical. As a result, it is common for vineyards to fall into ruin here.
The wine industry on the German Moselle has been declining for decades. In 2005, statistics showed there were 10,375 hectares of vineyard; by 2012 this had fallen to just 8,491. The vineyards that have fallen fallow are mostly those on extremely steep hillsides. There has been a major decline in the number of so - called Nebenerwerbswinzer (vintners for whom it is a secondary occupation), and the small, family farming operations that, until the end of the 1960s formed the majority of wine businesses. Comparative figures by the Chamber of Agriculture for Rhineland - Palatinate for several wine villages on the Lower Moselle e. g. show that there were still 797 wine businesses in the early 1960s, but by the early 2000s there were only just under 100.
There has been the opposite trend amongst the established traditional wine estates and more recent vintners with a sound education in oenology and business management, who have increased their business through the reclamation of once renowned, but long forgotten sites. The end of the 20th century saw the rediscovery of the use of special terroir in order to improve quality and value, which has led to a more nuanced view of Moselle wine that, a few years before, had been characterised by overproduction, label scandals and cheap offers.
On 10 November 2006 in Burg the Moselle Regional Initiative was founded. The introduction of the Moselle as an umbrella brand was based on that of the Eifel region and covers products and services from the areas of agriculture, forestry, tourism, handicrafts and nature.
Moselle Slate (Moselschiefer) is a manufacturing and trade description for slate from the municipalities of Mayen, Polch, Müllenbach, Trier and its surrounding area. Today only products from the roofing slate mines of Katzenberg and Margareta in Mayen bear the name Moselle Slate. The name is derived from the historical transport route for this slate along the Moselle to the Lower Rhine. See also: Moselle Slate Road
The Moselle was celebrated in Mosella, a Latin poem by Ausonius (4th century). In the 20th century, the river and the folklore and local history of the towns along its banks were described by British travel writer Roger Pilkington. In the tale, "The Seven Swabians '' of the Brothers Grimm, the eponymous Swabians drown trying to cross the Moselle.
See also: Wikimedia Commons - Castles in Rhineland - Palatinate
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top 10 largest cities of india by area | List of cities in India by area - wikipedia
The below list is about the area of largest cities in India. The cities are ranked by the area governed by local political bodies such as Municipality or Municipal Corporation.
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list of chief ministers of all states in india | List of current Indian Chief ministers - Wikipedia
In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty - nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state - level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the assembly 's confidence, the chief minister 's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms he / she can serve.
Of the thirty - one incumbents, three are women -- Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal, Mehbooba Mufti in Jammu and Kashmir, and Vasundhara Raje in Rajasthan. Serving since December 1994 (for 7003843600000000000 ♠ 23 years, 35 days), Sikkim 's Pawan Kumar Chamling has the longest incumbency. Amarinder Singh (b. 1942) of Punjab is the oldest chief minister while Arunachal Pradesh 's Pema Khandu (b. 1979) is the youngest. Fourteen incumbents belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party, Five to the Indian National Congress and Two to the Communist Party of India (Marxist); no other party has more than one chief minister in office.
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where is jazz fest located in new orleans | New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival - wikipedia
The New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival, often known as Jazz Fest, is an annual celebration of the music and culture of New Orleans and Louisiana. The term "Jazz Fest '' also refers to the days surrounding the festival and the many shows at unaffiliated New Orleans nightclubs scheduled during the festival weekends.
Jazz Fest is held annually on the last weekend of April (Friday -- Sunday) and the first weekend of May (Thursday -- Sunday) between 11 a.m. and 7 p.m. at the Fair Grounds Race Course, a horse racing track in the middle of New Orleans.
The festival is a major tourist destination with economic importance for New Orleans rivaled only by Mardi Gras; the event brings to the city $300 million annually. Early Jazz Fests featured almost exclusively local acts. As the event 's popularity grew, the festival expanded to include nationally known acts.
According to the official website, "the Festival celebrates the indigenous music and culture of New Orleans and Louisiana, so the music encompasses every style associated with the city and the state: blues, R&B, gospel, Cajun, zydeco, Afro - Caribbean, folk, Latin, rock, rap, country, bluegrass, and everything in between. And of course there is lots of jazz, both contemporary and traditional. ''
The Festival also features a wide variety of vendors selling local foods and crafts. The official food policy of the Festival is "no carnival food '' and there are more than seventy food booths with food items including: Mango Freeze, crawfish beignets, cochon de lait sandwiches, alligator sausage po ' boy (sandwich), boiled crawfish, softshell crab po'boy, Cajun jambalaya, jalapeño bread, fried green tomatoes, Oyster patties, muffulettas, red beans and rice, and crawfish Monica. Vegan and vegetarian options are also available. All food vendors go through a strict screening process to ensure quality and sanitary food handling practices. In addition, most foods are made with fresh, local ingredients, and are prepared by hand. All food vendors are small, locally owned businesses.
There are craft booths throughout the grounds. The Congo Square African Marketplace contains pieces from local, national, and international artisans, and has the atmosphere of a true marketplace. Many of the artisans utilize ancient crafting techniques. In the Contemporary Crafts area, one can find handmade clothing, leather goods, jewelry, paintings, sculptures, and musical instruments, and visitors can also watch demonstrations of metal, painting, pottery, and fiber works. Lastly, the Louisiana Marketplace contains baskets, hand - colored photographs, jewelry, and landscape - themed art.
One unique aspect of the Festival is the allocation of large areas for dedication to cultural and historical practices unique to Louisiana. These dedications depict many cultures that exist in the state, including both the Cajun culture and the culture of the descendants of native Canary Islanders, the Los Isleños, as well as many others. Some of the areas include the Louisiana Folklife Village, which focuses on state art and culture, the Native American Village, and the Grandstand. Many of the folk demonstrators have been recognized by the National Endowment of the Arts for their work.
In addition, parades are held throughout the duration of the event. They include parades by the Mardi Gras Indians, marching bands, brass bands, and social aid and pleasure clubs.
The Festival has been held annually since 1970 when it was founded by the New Orleans Hotel Motel Association to form "the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Foundation '' that owns the Festival. George Wein 's Festival Productions was contracted to produce the Festival. Wein produced the Newport Jazz Festival (1954) and the Newport Folk Festival (1959) in Newport, Rhode Island.
To produce the Festival in New Orleans, Wein assembled advisers, among them Ellis Marsalis, Richard B. "Dick '' Allen and Harry Souchon. Allen, the curator of Tulane University 's Hogan Jazz Archives, recommended Archive employee Allison Miner and intern Quint Davis to Wein to help produce the first festival. Both Miner and Davis knew a great deal about jazz. They went to black clubs to hire performers rather than to Bourbon Street or other tourist destinations because it was at these clubs that live music was being produced. The first person the pair booked was Snooks Eaglin, a street singer who performed at the festival every year. After Wein established the Festival, Miner and Davis oversaw operations of Festival Productions Inc. - New Orleans for many years under the supervision of Wein and the Foundation Board. Quint Davis holds the position of CEO of Festival Productions, Inc. - New Orleans, while Miner is largely credited with founding the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Foundation Archive. AEG Live became a co-producer of the festival in 2004.
The Archive contains recordings from musicians interviewed at the festival, as well as other documents, photographs, and ephemera related to the Festival and the Foundation 's holdings, including early WWOZ 90.7 - FM recordings. It contains business records, photographs, video and audio recordings, as well as other artifacts. The Archive is open to the public by appointment.
When Miner died on December 23, 1995, the interviewing stage was renamed in her memory as the Allison Miner Music Heritage Stage. After Hurricane Katrina, the stage was temporarily merged with the Lagniappe Stage, which is housed in the Grandstand. However, in 2009, it was reinstated as a full stage.
Before the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival, similar New Orleands jazz festivals were held in the 1960s. The first two were in 1970 and 1971 at Louis Armstrong Park, previously called Beauregard Square, in Congo Square and the adjoining New Orleans Municipal Auditorium. The 145 - acre New Orleans Fair Grounds and Racetrack began to hold Jazz Fest in 1972. The venue is located at 1751 Gentilly Boulevard, approximately ten minutes from the French Quarter. The New Orleans Fair Grounds and Racetrack is a much larger venue than Congo Square and was chosen to hold the Festival when organizers realized how popular the event was.
The first Jazz Fest, in Congo Square, cost $3 for admission and was minimally advertised, and had only a Gospel Tent and four open stages, many of which had no microphones. Musicians were housed in Davis ' and Miner 's homes; there was no money for hotels. The festivities started on Wednesday night with the Pete Fountain and Clyde Kerr orchestras playing on a midnight steamboat ride.
The first Jazz Fest lineup included Mahalia Jackson (who was not booked, but simply heard about the Festival and showed up to sing), the Preservation Hall Jazz Band, Duke Ellington, Pete Fountain, Al Hirt, Clifton Chenier, Fats Domino, and The Meters This first lineup received an audience of 350 people, but the numbers grew every year, especially after the introduction of a limited edition silkscreen poster series in 1975. By the end of the 1980s, attendance peaked at 300,000. In 2001, when Louis Armstrong 's centennial was celebrated, 650,000 people attended. The poster series has been very popular with collectors. The first poster was designed by Sharon Dinkins and Thorn Grafton. Posters feature a performer or the overall theme of the Festival, and all posters are commissioned by the Festival. In 1998, the Festival added the Congo Square poster series. Artists such as George Dureau, James Michalopoulos, George Rodrigue, Douglas Bourgeois, Duke Jupiter, John Scott, and Bill Hemmerling have been designers of the official festival poster. Congo Square posters have been created by Aziz Diagne, Elizabeth Catlett, Bill Pajaud, and Terrance Osborne. Osborne designed the poster for 2012 (as well as the 2007 and 2010 posters), which featured Trombone Shorty.
The Jazz & Heritage Festival is owned by the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Foundation, which uses the proceeds from the festival for community development programs in education, economics, and culture. The Foundation also owns the broadcast license of radio station WWOZ. The festival is produced by Festival Productions, Inc. - New Orleans and AEG Live as a contract service to the Foundation. Since 2006, the festival 's main sponsor has been the Royal Dutch Shell, and the festival 's full name is "The New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival presented by Shell ''. Several of the stage names reflect sponsors, such as the Acura Stage, the Sheraton New Orleans Fais Do - Do Stage, the AT&T / wwoz Jazz Tent, the AIG, Gospel Tent.
The Board of Directors for the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Foundation, Inc. is made up of four parts: the Voting Board (30 community members), the Executive Board (President, Vice-President, Secretary, etc.), the Advisory Council (20 non-voting members), and the Past Presidents Senate (15 members). In addition, the Board is split into various committees. Board members serve three year terms, though there is no limit placed on the number of terms. Elections are held annually. Advisory Council members may only serve for two consecutive three year terms, however. Governance does not change much from year to year. Board members are not officially compensated, but they are given perks such as dozens of free tickets.
The foundation also owns multiple assets, including: the Jazz and Heritage Gallery, the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival, the Jazz and Heritage Radio WWOZ 90.7 FM, the Jazz and Heritage Foundation Archive, the Jazz and Heritage Center, and the Jazz and Heritage Gala. Their educational programs include The Don Jamison Heritage School of Music, the Tom Dent Congo Lecture Series, and School Day at the Fest. Economic development for the foundation comes in the forms of community partnership grants (over $250,000 awarded in 2007), Raisin ' the Roof (a program that assists southern - Louisiana musicians with home - buying costs), The Jazz and Heritage Music and Media Market, and the Jazz and Heritage Music Exchange. For cultural purposes, the foundation holds the Crescent City Blues and BBQ Festival, Fiesta Latina, the Congo Square Rhythms Festival, the Louisiana Cajun - Zydeco Festival, Gospel is Alive!, Jazz Journey, the Treme Creole Gumbo Festival, and many others.
SInce 1979, the nonprofit arm of the organization has given over $1 million in grants to local schools, artists, and musicians.
The festival has featured a variety of musicians and performers every year since its founding, ranging from Louisiana musicians to international pop stars. Many popular New Orleans musicians have played annually for long stretches over the history of the festival such as the Neville Brothers, Dr. John, Ellis Marsalis, and The Radiators.
Applications to perform (from the general public) are limited to bands from Louisiana to promote and preserve local culture.
There are 12 music stages and tents of various sizes, as well as two food stages, set up at the Festival. The following are the stages for 2015, and they are listed roughly in the order of capacity.
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is an application the same as a program | Computer program - wikipedia
A computer program is a collection of instructions for performing a specific task that is designed to solve a specific class of problems. The instructions of a program are designed to be executed by a computer and it is required that a computer is able to execute programs in order for it to function.
The instructions of a computer program are often specified by a computer programmer. A computer programmer does this by means of the application of a programming language. From the program in its human - readable form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code, which are computer program instructions that -- as a result of being specified in a language that a computer can understand -- are able to be directly executed by the computer they have been provided to. Alternatively, a computer program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter.
The method applied by a computer to execute the instructions of a computer program is called an algorithm. A collection of computer programs, libraries, and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as application software and system software.
The earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer. In 1801, Joseph - Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be woven and repeated by arranging the cards.
In 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquard 's loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine. The names of the components of the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled. The device would have had a "store '' -- memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. Numbers from the "store '' would then have then been transferred to the "mill '' (analogous to the CPU of a modern machine), for processing. It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards -- one to direct the operation and the other for the input variables. However, after more than 17,000 pounds of the British government 's money, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together.
During a nine - month period in 1842 -- 43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea. The memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world 's first written computer program.
In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine -- a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine. It is a finite - state machine that has an infinitely long read / write tape. The machine can move the tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm. The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state. This machine is considered by some to be the origin of the stored - program computer -- used by John von Neumann (1946) for the "Electronic Computing Instrument '' that now bears the von Neumann architecture name.
The Z3 computer, invented by Konrad Zuse (1941) in Germany, was a digital and programmable computer. A digital computer uses electricity as the calculating component. The Z3 contained 2,400 relays to create the circuits. The circuits provided a binary, floating - point, nine - instruction computer. Programming the Z3 was through a specially designed keyboard and punched tape.
The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (Fall 1945) was a Turing complete, general - purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create the circuits. At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together. Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied 1,800 square feet (167 m), and consumed $650 per hour (in 1940s currency) in electricity when idle. It had 20 base - 10 accumulators. Programming the ENIAC took up to two months. Three function tables were on wheels and needed to be rolled to fixed function panels. Function tables were connected to function panels using heavy black cables. Each function table had 728 rotating knobs. Programming the ENIAC also involved setting some of the 3,000 switches. Debugging a program took a week. The ENIAC featured parallel operations. Different sets of accumulators could simultaneously work on different algorithms. It used punched card machines for input and output, and it was controlled with a clock signal. It ran for eight years, calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns.
The Manchester Baby (June 1948) was the first electronic stored - program computer. Programming transitioned away from moving cables and setting dials; instead, a computer program was stored in memory as numbers. It was limited to eight instruction types, and program steps were entered by switches.
Computers manufactured until the 1970s had front - panel switches for programming. The computer program was written on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on / off settings. After setting the configuration, an execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also were manually input via paper tape or punched cards. After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches and the execute button pressed.
In 1961, the Burroughs B5000 was built specifically to be programmed in the ALGOL 60 language. The hardware featured circuits to ease the compile phase.
In 1964, the IBM System / 360 was a line of six computers each having the same instruction set architecture. The Model 30 was the smallest and least expensive. Customers could upgrade and retain the same application software. Each System / 360 model featured multiprogramming. With operating system support, multiple programs could be in memory at once. When one was waiting for input / output, another could compute. Each model also could emulate other computers. Customers could upgrade to the System / 360 and retain their IBM 7094 or IBM 1401 application software.
Computer programming is the process of writing or editing source code. Editing source code involves testing, analyzing, refining, and sometimes coordinating with other programmers on a jointly developed program. A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer programmer, software developer, and sometimes coder.
The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is usually referred to as software development. The term software engineering is becoming popular as the process is seen as an engineering discipline.
Computer programs can be categorized by the programming language paradigm used to produce them. Two of the main paradigms are imperative and declarative.
Imperative programming languages specify a sequential algorithm using declarations, expressions, and statements:
One criticism of imperative languages is the side effect of an assignment statement on a class of variables called non-local variables.
Declarative programming languages describe what computation should be performed and not how to compute it. Declarative programs omit the control flow and are considered sets of instructions. Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind functional languages (like Haskell) is to not allow side effects, which makes it easier to reason about programs like mathematical functions. The principle behind logical languages (like Prolog) is to define the problem to be solved -- the goal -- and leave the detailed solution to the Prolog system itself. The goal is defined by providing a list of subgoals. Then each subgoal is defined by further providing a list of its subgoals, etc. If a path of subgoals fails to find a solution, then that subgoal is backtracked and another path is systematically attempted.
A computer program in the form of a human - readable, computer programming language is called source code. Source code may be converted into an executable image by a compiler or executed immediately with the aid of an interpreter.
Compilers are used to translate source code from a programming language into either object code or machine code. Object code needs further processing to become machine code, and machine code consists of the central processing unit 's native instructions, ready for execution. Compiled computer programs are commonly referred to as executables, binary images, or simply as binaries -- a reference to the binary file format used to store the executable code.
Interpreters are used to execute source code from a programming language line - by - line. The interpreter decodes each statement and performs its behavior. One advantage of interpreters is that they can easily be extended to an interactive session. The programmer is presented with a prompt, and individual lines of code are typed in and performed immediately.
The main disadvantage of interpreters is computer programs run slower than when compiled. Interpreting code is slower because the interpreter must decode each statement and then perform it. However, software development may be faster using an interpreter because testing is immediate when the compiling step is omitted. Another disadvantage of interpreters is an interpreter must be present on the executing computer. By contrast, compiled computer programs need no compiler present during execution.
Just in time compilers pre-compile computer programs just before execution. For example, the Java virtual machine Hotspot contains a Just In Time Compiler which selectively compiles Java bytecode into machine code - but only code which Hotspot predicts is likely to be used many times.
Either compiled or interpreted programs might be executed in a batch process without human interaction.
Scripting languages are often used to create batch processes. One common scripting language is Unix shell, and its executing environment is called the command - line interface.
No properties of a programming language require it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted. The categorization usually reflects the most popular method of language execution. For example, Java is thought of as an interpreted language and C a compiled language, despite the existence of Java compilers and C interpreters.
Typically, computer programs are stored in non-volatile memory until requested either directly or indirectly to be executed by the computer user. Upon such a request, the program is loaded into random - access memory, by a computer program called an operating system, where it can be accessed directly by the central processor. The central processor then executes ("runs '') the program, instruction by instruction, until termination. A program in execution is called a process. Termination is either by normal self - termination or by error -- software or hardware error.
Many operating systems support multitasking which enables many computer programs to appear to run simultaneously on one computer. Operating systems may run multiple programs through process scheduling -- a software mechanism to switch the CPU among processes often so users can interact with each program while it runs. Within hardware, modern day multiprocessor computers or computers with multicore processors may run multiple programs.
Multiple lines of the same computer program may be simultaneously executed using threads. Multithreading processors are optimized to execute multiple threads efficiently.
A computer program in execution is normally treated as being different from the data the program operates on. However, in some cases, this distinction is blurred when a computer program modifies itself. The modified computer program is subsequently executed as part of the same program. Self - modifying code is possible for programs written in machine code, assembly language, Lisp, C, COBOL, PL / 1, and Prolog.
Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories are application software and system software. System software includes the operating system which couples computer hardware with application software. The purpose of the operating system is to provide an environment in which application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner. In addition to the operating system, system software includes embedded programs, boot programs, and micro programs. Application software designed for end users have a user interface. Application software not designed for the end user includes middleware, which couples one application with another. Application software also includes utility programs. The distinction between system software and application software is under debate.
There are many types of application software:
Utility programs are application programs designed to aid system administrators and computer programmers.
An operating system is a computer program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware.
In the 1950s, the programmer, who was also the operator, would write a program and run it. After the program finished executing, the output may have been printed, or it may have been punched onto paper tape or cards for later processing. More often than not the program did not work. The programmer then looked at the console lights and fiddled with the console switches. If less fortunate, a memory printout was made for further study. In the 1960s, programmers reduced the amount of wasted time by automating the operator 's job. A program called an operating system was kept in the computer at all times.
Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are typically written in C.
A stored - program computer requires an initial computer program stored in its read - only memory to boot. The boot process is to identify and initialize all aspects of the system, from processor registers to device controllers to memory contents. Following the initialization process, this initial computer program loads the operating system and sets the program counter to begin normal operations.
Independent of the host computer, a hardware device might have embedded firmware to control its operation. Firmware is used when the computer program is rarely or never expected to change, or when the program must not be lost when the power is off.
Microcode programs control some central processing units and some other hardware. This code moves data between the registers, buses, arithmetic logic units, and other functional units in the CPU. Unlike conventional programs, microcode is not usually written by, or even visible to, the end users of systems, and is usually provided by the manufacturer, and is considered internal to the device.
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who gave the concept of hot spots of biodiversity | Biodiversity hotspot - wikipedia
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction. For example forests are considered as biodiversity hotspots.
Norman Myers wrote about the concept in two articles in "The Environmentalist '' (1988), & 1990 revised after thorough analysis by Myers and others in "Hotspots: Earth 's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions '' and a paper published in the journal Nature.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot - map, a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at least 0.5 % or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics, and it has to have lost at least 70 % of its primary vegetation. Around the world, 36 areas qualify under this definition. These sites support nearly 60 % of the world 's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high share of those species as endemics.
Only a small percentage of the total land area within biodiversity hotspots is now protected. Several international organizations are working in many ways to conserve biodiversity hotspots.
By the influence of that the central government of india arrived a new authority named CAMPA (compulsory afforestation fund management and planning authority) to control the destruction of forests and biological spots in india
North and Central America
The Caribbean
South America
Europe
Africa
Central Asia
South Asia
South East Asia and Asia - Pacific
East Asia
West Asia
Critiques of "Hotspots ''
The high profile of the biodiversity hotspots approach has resulted in some criticism. Papers such as Kareiva & Marvier (2003) have argued that the biodiversity hotspots:
A recent series of papers has pointed out that biodiversity hotspots (and many other priority region sets) do not address the concept of cost. The purpose of biodiversity hotspots is not simply to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but to prioritize conservation spending. The regions identified include some in the developed world (e.g. the California Floristic Province), alongside others in the developing world (e.g. Madagascar). The cost of land is likely to vary between these regions by an order of magnitude or more, but the biodiversity hotspot designations do not consider the conservation importance of this difference. However, the available resources for conservation also tend to vary in this way.
Template: DEFAULT SORT: Biodiversity Hotspot
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elder scrolls online tamriel unlimited what's the difference | The Elder Scrolls Online - wikipedia
The Elder Scrolls Online is a massively multiplayer online role - playing (MMORPG) video game developed by ZeniMax Online Studios and published by Bethesda Softworks. It was released for Microsoft Windows and OS X in April 2014. It is a part of The Elder Scrolls series, of which it is the first multiplayer installment.
As with other games in The Elder Scrolls franchise, the game is set in the continent of Tamriel and features a storyline indirectly connected with the other games. The Elder Scrolls Online had been in development for seven years before its release in 2014. It initially received mixed reviews, but these improved significantly with the re-release and rebranding as The Elder Scrolls Online: Tamriel Unlimited, with critics praising the changes.
Similar to other MMORPGs, The Elder Scrolls Online originally used a mandatory monthly subscription model, until it transitioned to a buy - to - play model with microtransactions and an optional subscription in March 2015. The game was renamed as The Elder Scrolls Online: Tamriel Unlimited, and released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles in June 2015. As of 2017, the game had around a million monthly active players, with over 8.5 million players in total since release.
As in previous The Elder Scrolls titles, gameplay is mostly nonlinear, with a mixture of quests, random events, and free - roaming exploration of the world. The game does not provide a mode for single - player offline play, although the developers stated that there would be "plenty of content '' designed to accommodate players who prefer to play solo.
The player is able to play as ten different races; four different varieties of humans: Nords, Redguards, Bretons, and Imperials; Elvish varieties: Dunmer (Dark Elves), Altmer (High Elves), Bosmer (Wood Elves) and Orsimer (Orcs); and more bestial races: the Khajiit and Argonians. Players must choose one of five classes when creating their character. Each class gives the player various different attacks, spells, and passive effects. The game has other character choices beyond those of race and class, such as the player character also being able to become either a vampire or a werewolf, each of which grants its own skill tree.
As with other games in The Elder Scrolls series, the game is set on the continent of Tamriel. The events of the game occur a millennium before those of The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim and around 800 years before The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind and The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion. It has a broadly similar structure to Skyrim, with two separate conflicts progressing at the same time, one with the fate of the world in the balance, and one where the prize is supreme power on Tamriel. In The Elder Scrolls Online, the first struggle is against the Daedric Prince Molag Bal, who is attempting to meld the plane of Mundus with his realm of Coldharbour, and the second is to capture the vacant imperial throne, contested by three alliances of the mortal races. The player character has been sacrificed to Molag Bal, and Molag Bal has stolen their soul, the recovery of which is the primary game objective.
Many parts of the continent of Tamriel are available in the game, with most zones being accessible based on faction. Some zones are accessible with DLC - only from the Crown Store, while others are accessible to players of any faction when they reach a certain level. Players have the opportunity to join any of the three factions warring over the Ruby Throne of the Emperor of Tamriel: the First Aldmeri Dominion (represented by an eagle) led by Queen Ayrenn, composed of the Altmer (High Elf), Bosmer (Wood Elf), and Khajiit races; the Daggerfall Covenant (represented by a lion) led by High King Emeric, composed of the Bretons, Redguard, and Orsimer (Orcs); and the Ebonheart Pact (represented by a dragon) led by Jorunn Skald - King, composed of the Nord, Dunmer (Dark Elf), and Argonian races. Players may also unlock an additional race, Imperial, which may be a part of any of the three factions. The other major ruling faction of Tamriel is the Empire, led by Empress Regent Clivia Tharn, which has fallen into instability and disrepair, and serves as a non-joinable faction. Pre-ordered copies of the game included the "Explorers ' Pack '', which allowed all races to be played in each of the factions, and this feature is available in the Crown Store.
The game begins in the Wailing Prison in Coldharbour, where the player character 's soulless husk has been enslaved. This opening continues another Elder Scrolls tradition, of beginning the game with the player as a prisoner. After escaping, the base of operations becomes the Harborage, a cave found at each of the starting cities, and is where the Prophet opens portals to the locations of the main questline. Once the Amulet of Kings is retrieved, the headquarters shift to the Hollow City, a location in central Coldharbour blessed by Meridia. Civilians saved from Coldharbour 's prisons arrive in the Hollow City, and it is from there that attacks on Molag Bal 's controlled areas are orchestrated.
The Elder Scrolls Online had been in development for 7 years before its release in 2014. It is the first project for ZeniMax Online Studios, which was formed in 2007. Matt Firor, studio lead at ZeniMax Online, is the director of The Elder Scrolls Online.
While rumors of a massively multiplayer The Elder Scrolls game had been circulating for years, accurate information about the game and its imminent May 2012 announcement was not leaked until March 2012, to online publication Tom 's Guide by an anonymous industry source. According to the leak, the game was scheduled to be shown at E3 2012 in June and QuakeCon 2012 in August. On November 8, 2012, Bethesda released a video on YouTube called "An Introduction to The Elder Scrolls Online '', in which the game 's developers talk about the game 's content and development. Several actors were announced to voice the characters of The Elder Scrolls Online, among them John Cleese, Bill Nighy, Kate Beckinsale, Lynda Carter, Alfred Molina, Michael Gambon, Jennifer Hale, Malcolm McDowell, and Peter Stormare.
Beta sign - ups for The Elder Scrolls Online began on January 21, 2013, and continued for seven rounds until February 26.
In June 2013, Sony announced that The Elder Scrolls Online would be available on PlayStation 4 at their E3 press conference. It was later clarified by Bethesda that it would also be available on Xbox One. While players on PC and Mac play together, those on Xbox One and PlayStation 4 play only with others on the same platform. In August 2013, at Gamescom, it was announced that The Elder Scrolls Online would have a monthly subscription fee upon release for all platforms. Subscriptions could be purchased in 30 -, 90 -, and 180 - day increments. While it was announced in January 2014 that the game would not require a PlayStation Plus subscription to play online, the Xbox One version would require an Xbox Live Gold subscription in addition to a The Elder Scrolls Online monthly subscription. On May 8, 2014, Bethesda spoke about development of the console editions, announcing that the release date for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions of the game would be delayed until the end of 2014, though it was revealed in December 2014 that the game 's console debut was once again delayed into the Spring of 2015. ZeniMax Online Studios announced that players who purchased The Elder Scrolls Online before the end of June 2014 would have the opportunity to transfer their characters from Microsoft Windows or Mac OS to either console platform and receive a free 30 - day subscription.
The Elder Scrolls Online was announced on May 3, 2012, on the Game Informer website and in that same month 's issue of the magazine. It was released on April 4, 2014, for PC and Mac. Home console releases for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were released on June 9, 2015.
Shortly after the game 's launch, it was reported that some players were unable to activate the 30 - day complimentary game time included with their purchase until a subscription had been set up and -- in "a strange state of affairs '' and "most likely a mistake '' -- after a full month had been paid for. A serious item duplication exploit was discovered that allowed players to gain huge fortunes, which was patched shortly after release. ZeniMax later announced that they had permanently banned thousands of accounts because of the exploit.
On January 21, 2015, it was announced that an active subscription would no longer be needed to play the game effective March 17, 2015. Aside from the initial game price, there will be an optional subscription called "ESO Plus '' which grants access to all current and future downloadable content (DLC) and a monthly allotment of 1500 Crowns, one of the in - game currencies, as long as the player stays subscribed. The DLC will also be available for separate purchase in the Crown Store. Additionally, the optional subscription grants various perks that allow players to progress slightly faster than a free player.
On July 6, 2016, ZeniMax announced the release of a "Gold Edition '' of The Elder Scrolls Online for September 9, 2016. The Gold Edition includes the base game and a certain vanity item, as well as the four major DLCs: Imperial City, Orsinium, Thieves Guild, and Dark Brotherhood. Additionally, ZeniMax released the "Guilds and Glory '' DLC pack for users who already own the base game.
On January 31, 2017, ZeniMax Online Studios announced a full expansion pack based in Vvardenfell, the setting originally playable in The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind. Unlike previous DLC for the game, Morrowind is not purchasable with crown points, and must be purchased as a separate title. The expansion includes a new class, a new trial, and a new player vs. player mode, known as "Battlegrounds ''. The expansion was released on June 6, 2017.. However, Morrowind was introduced to the Crown Store by Bethesda during the 2018 June / July sale and Morrowind is now included in ESO+ subscription.
On March 21, 2018, ZeniMax Online Studios announced a full expansion pack based on Summerset Isle, a setting that has not been playable since The Elder Scrolls: Arena. Like the previous expansion, Morrowind, this is not purchasable with crown points, and must be purchased as a separate title. The expansion includes a new zone, new story line, jewelry crafting and a new skill line based on the Psijic Order. The expansion was released on May 21, 2018 for Windows and OS X and was released on June 5, 2018 for Playstation 4 and Xbox One.
On June 14, 2015, at the Bethesda showcase at E3, downloadable content (DLC) was announced for the Imperial City, the Capital of Cyrodiil. It was released for the PC and OS X on August 31, 2015, for the Xbox One on September 15, and for the PlayStation 4 on September 16. It introduced a new currency known as Tel Var Stones, and added the game 's largest dungeon to date, The Imperial City Sewers. The city itself is overrun by the forces of Daedric Prince Molag Bal, with every district and the central White - Gold Tower being merged into his realm.
At the E3 showcase, the new zone of Wrothgar was announced in a DLC called Orsinium, the capital of the Orsimer, better known as Orcs. The DLC was released in November 2015, and introduces a solo challenge known as the Maelstrom Arena. The questline involves assisting the Orcish King Kurog with rebuilding the city of Orsinium.
The Thieves Guild DLC was revealed by ZeniMax in a livestream to be set in a new area, Abah 's Landing in Hammerfell, featuring an all new quest line and new game mechanics. The DLC was released in March 2016.
At the end of the 2015 E3 trailer, was a note with a black hand on it that stated the words, "We Know '', a reference to a Dark Brotherhood guild in previous The Elder Scrolls games. The Dark Brotherhood DLC takes place on the Gold Coast of Cyrodiil, and introduces new story content and gameplay mechanics. It was released on May 31, 2016, for Microsoft Windows, and on June 14, 2016, for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It was made available on the Public Test Server on April 25, 2016. In addition to the Dark Brotherhood questline, the release of the expansion saw the removal of the Veteran Progression System, a new system of poison crafting, and quality of life changes for The Elder Scrolls Online Plus subscribers, including "craft bags '', which allow subscribers to store crafting materials without taking up space in their inventory.
In an interview with IGN, game director Matt Firor said that the last DLC for 2016 would be Argonian - themed. Further information was later released, revealing the title to be Shadows of the Hist. The DLC includes two new dungeons: the Cradle of Shadows and Ruins of Mazzatun, and was released in August 2016.
Announced on June 12, 2017 along with Clockwork City, Horns of the Reach. The DLC includes two new dungeons: Bloodroot Forge and Falkreath Hold and was released on August 14, 2017 on PC and Mac, with consoles receiving it on August 25.
Announced along with Horns of the Reach on June 12, Clockwork City was eventually released on October 23 for PC and Mac and November 11 for Xbox One and Playstation 4. This DLC takes players to a new zone, a realm of brass and artificial life forms. The Clockwork City is the domain of Sotha Sil.
Dragon Bones is a dungeon pack and includes two new dungeons. The pack was released for PC on February 12, 2018, with consoles receiving it on February 27.
In June 2016, a new content update, titled One Tamriel, was announced. The update changed the core gameplay to allow players to play quests, explore areas, and group up with others without previously implemented restrictions. The update was released in October 2016.
In October 2016, Firor announced that player housing would be coming to the game in 2017. It was released on February, 6, 2017 as part of update 13. There are over 40 different types of houses available, homes are styled after the game 's 10 playable races, and they come in furnished or unfurnished versions, which can be bought using in game gold or with real money using crowns.
The Elder Scrolls Online initially received mixed reviews; the game has a weighted aggregate rating of 71 / 100 on Metacritic, based on 64 reviews. PC Gamer gave the game a score of 68 / 100, writing that it is "an MMORPG of moderate scope with a few good ideas '' but cautioning that "' okay ' is n't good enough when you 're facing down this much of a premium. '' The game was mainly criticized for an excess of bugs, a "phasing '' mechanic that separated players from groups, and its Veteran Progression System. There was also some controversy about the game 's utilization of a subscription model.
ZeniMax responded to and fixed many of the game 's early criticisms, releasing major updates since the game 's launch. In January 2015, they announced that the game would no longer be using a subscription model, becoming effective March 17, 2015. ZeniMax also announced that the game would be coming to PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on June 9, 2015, and that the game would be rebranded as The Elder Scrolls Online: Tamriel Unlimited.
Tamriel Unlimited received mostly positive reviews. The PlayStation 4 version of the game has a weighted aggregate rating of 74 / 100 on Metacritic, based on 30 reviews, PC version has 80 / 100 based on 4 reviews and Xbox One version received 77 / 100 based on 11 reviews. Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead reviewed the game, saying that "For fans eager for a new fix all these years on from Skyrim, that may well be enough. The ability to share the adventure, somewhat clumsily, with friends is both a selling point and a pitfall, but those who concentrate their efforts on the Alliance War will find the experience worthwhile. ''
The Elder Scrolls Online was the top - selling game in the United Kingdom for the week of April 5, 2014, for individual formats, and number two across all formats. When the game was released on consoles, the game once again became the top - selling game in the United Kingdom for the week of June 15, 2015, across all formats, becoming the year 's second best - selling game at retail The game was ranked the best - selling digital PlayStation 4 game of June 2015 in the United States and Europe. In the United States, the game was the second and sixth best - selling game of June and July 2015, respectively.
In February 2017, it was announced that the game had surpassed over 8.5 million in retail sales having around one million monthly active players. In June 2017, it was announced that more than 10 million players had played the game since release, and that the game had around 2.5 million monthly active players.
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don't tread on me nc license plate | Gadsden flag - Wikipedia
The Gadsden flag is a historical American flag with a yellow field depicting a rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike. Positioned below the rattlesnake are the words "DONT TREAD ON ME. '' The flag is named after American general and politician Christopher Gadsden (1724 -- 1805), who designed it in 1775 during the American Revolution. It was used by the Continental Marines as an early motto flag, along with the Moultrie flag.
The timber rattlesnake can be found in the area of the original Thirteen Colonies. Its use as a symbol of the American colonies can be traced back to the publications of Benjamin Franklin. In 1751, he made the first reference to the rattlesnake in a satirical commentary published in his Pennsylvania Gazette. It had been the policy of Great Britain to send convicted criminals to the Americas, so Franklin suggested that they thank the British by sending rattlesnakes to Britain.
In 1754, during the French and Indian War, Franklin published his famous woodcut of a snake cut into eight sections. It represented the colonies, with New England joined together as the head and South Carolina as the tail, following their order along the coast. Under the snake was the message "Join, or Die ''. This was the first political cartoon published in an American newspaper.
As the American colonies came to identify more with their own communities and the concept of liberty, rather than as vassals of the British empire, icons that were unique to the Americas became increasingly popular. The rattlesnake, like the bald eagle and American Indian, came to symbolize American ideals and society.
As the American Revolution grew, the snake began to see more use as a symbol of the colonies. In 1774, Paul Revere added Franklin 's iconic cartoon to the nameplate of Isaiah Thomas ' paper, the Massachusetts Spy, depicted there as fighting a British dragon. In December 1775, Benjamin Franklin published an essay in the Pennsylvania Journal under the pseudonym American Guesser in which he suggested that the rattlesnake was a good symbol for the American spirit.
The rattlesnake symbol was first officially adopted by the Continental Congress in 1778 when it approved the design for the official Seal of the War Office (at that time and for many years thereafter, the War Office was a term associated with the Headquarters of the Army). At the top center of the Seal is a rattlesnake holding a banner which says: "This We 'll Defend ''. According to the US Army 's Institute of Heraldry, "' This We 'll Defend, ' on a scroll held by the rattlesnake is a symbol depicted on some American colonial flags and signifies the Army 's constant readiness to defend and preserve the United States. ' This design of the War Office Seal was carried forward -- with some minor modifications -- into the subsequent designs for the War Department 's Seal, and the Department of the Army 's Seal, Emblem and Flag. As such, the rattlesnake symbol has been in continuous official use by the US Army for over 236 years.
In fall 1775, the Continental Navy was established by General George Washington in his role as Commander in Chief of all Continental Forces, before Esek Hopkins was named Commodore of the Navy. The Navy began with seven ships, often called "Washington Cruisers '', that flew the "Liberty Tree Flag '', depicting a green pine tree with the motto "Appeal to Heaven ''. This is according to the October 20, 1775 letter of Washington 's aide Colonel Joseph Reed, which is stored in the Library of Congress.
Those first ships were used to intercept incoming British ships carrying war supplies to the British troops in the colonies both to deprive the British of the supplies and to supply to the Continental Army. One ship captured by Captain John Manley had 30,000 pairs of shoes on it. However, the admiralty agent demanded his 2 ⁄ per cent commission before he would release the cargo for Washington 's army, so many soldiers marched barefoot in the snow. To aid in this, the Second Continental Congress authorized the mustering of five companies of Marines to accompany the Navy on their first mission. The first Marines enlisted in the city of Philadelphia, and they carried drums painted yellow, depicting a coiled rattlesnake with thirteen rattles, and the motto "Do n't Tread on Me. '' This is the first recorded mention of the future Gadsden flag 's symbolism.
At the Congress, Continental Colonel Christopher Gadsden represented his home state of South Carolina. He was one of seven members of the Marine Committee who were outfitting the first naval mission.
Before the departure of that first mission in December 1775, the newly appointed commander - in - chief of the Navy, Commodore Esek Hopkins, received the yellow rattlesnake flag from Gadsden to serve as the distinctive personal standard of his flagship. It was displayed at the mainmast. Hopkins had previously led The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence, before being appointed to lead the Navy. The 1775 flag of the Providence Train of Artillery 's featured a coiled timber rattlesnake and the motto "Do Not Tread on Me '' along with an anchor, cannons and the motto "In God We Hope '' on a gold background. The flag presented to Hopkins as Commander of the Continental Navy is a simplified version of that design.
Gadsden also presented a copy of this flag to the Congress of South Carolina in Charleston, South Carolina. This was recorded in the South Carolina congressional journals on February 9, 1776:
Many variations of the Gadsden flag exist:
The Culpeper Minutemen flag has a coiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag. It has a white field, rather than yellow, and the additional motto "Liberty or Death '' and the name "The Culpeper Minute Men ''. It is the flag of Virginia volunteers from the Culpeper area.
The John Proctor 's Regiment flag of 1st Battalion Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, had a coiled rattlesnake shown on its flag.
The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence already used a coiled rattlesnake on a field of gold with the motto "Do Not Tread On Me '' on its flag. Before Esek Hopkins was named the first Commodore of the American Navy by the Continental Congress he served as a Brigadier General of the Rhode Island Militia Artillery, and would have been familiar with the design of the flag.
All four of the American - designed "Rattlesnake Flags '' show a coiled rattlesnake. The only other rattlesnake flag, the First Navy Jack, was "designed by '' the English artist Thomas Hart as background art.
The traditional version of the First Navy Jack has an uncoiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag, on a field of 13 horizontal red and white stripes. Flag experts (vexillologists) speculate that the English artist Thomas Hart either did not know about the practice of rattlesnakes to coil in defense, or did, and intended to insult the fledgling American Navy as a weak and vulnerable creature as a rattlesnake is when not coiled and ready to strike, slithering on the ground, trying to escape, with its motto "(Please) Do n't Tread on Me! '' However, others suggest the snake pictured on the flag was being provoked, and is striking. Hence the warning, "Do n't tread on me (or I will strike) ''.
Considered one of the first flags of the United States, the flag was later replaced by the current Stars and Stripes (or Old Glory) flag. Since the Revolution, the flag has seen resurgences as a symbol of American patriotism, disagreement with government, or support for civil liberties.
The First Navy Jack, which was not directly related to the Gadsden flag, has been in use by the United States Navy since its beginnings. Unlike the Liberty Tree Flag with the letter by Colonel Joseph Reed that describes it, there is no document that describes the Snake on Stripes flag, only an image by English artist Thomas Hart in the background of a portrait of Commodore Esek Hopkins. In that same painting is a round "tree flag ''. The triangular Liberty Tree flag is derived from the only surviving tree flag from the Revolution, found in an old trunk in 1993 on Long Island, the 5th Regt. Connecticut Militia. The Snake on Stripes flag was included in a book of flags by Admiral Preble, but later Preble determined the flag not valid, so he removed it from his text. However, the book publisher used the old color plates, so the image was continued in the new edition and subsequently picked up by other publications and Webster 's Dictionary.
In preparation for the 1976 bicentennial year, staff officers in the Secretary of the Navy 's office sought a powerful image for the Navy 's Bicentennial. One Navy officer saw the Snake on Stripes Flag in Webster 's Dictionary, so the staff officers ordered a large number to give away as Navy promotional items and then turned to the Naval Historical Center to "get the history ''. They were told that the flag had probably never flown during the Revolution, based on Admiral Preble 's later discoveries, but a decision was made to use the Snake on Stripes Flag, or the "Fake Snake Flag '', anyway. Beginning in 1975, commissioned Navy ships flew this Jack in place of the Naval Jack (officially known as the Union Jack, not to be confused with the United Kingdom 's flag) at the bow. In 1977, the Secretary of the Navy directed that the ship in active status with the longest total period of active service shall display the First Navy Jack until decommissioned or transferred to inactive service, at which time the flag shall be passed to the next ship in line with appropriate honors. The display of this jack by the oldest ship in the fleet is intended as a form of recognition to promote pride of service, enhance morale, and contribute to the tradition of naval service. USS Enterprise (CVN 65) became the oldest active ship in the United States Navy upon the decommissioning of USS Kitty Hawk (CV 63) on May 12, 2009. Enterprise is only the third aircraft carrier ever to hold the honor of flying the First Navy Jack.
Since the first Patriot Day on September 11, 2002, which commemorates the lives lost in the September 11 attacks, the rattlesnake from the flag is also shown on the US Army 's Drill Sergeant Identification Badge. After the Snake on Stripes Flag became the Navy 's symbol for the Global War on Terrorism, flag history professionals (vexillologists) have done extensive research papers that further question the claim that the flag ever flew during the American Revolution, yet it continues to fly at the bow of American warships today.
For historical reasons, the Gadsden flag is still popularly flown in Charleston, South Carolina, the city where Christopher Gadsden first presented the flag and where it was commonly used during the revolution, along with the blue and white crescent flag of pre-Civil War South Carolina.
The Gadsden flag has become a popular specialty license plate in several states.
As of 2018, the following states offer the option of obtaining a Gadsden flag specialty license plate: Alabama, Arizona, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
Beginning in 2009 at Tea Party rallies, the Gadsden Flag has been adopted as a symbol of the American Tea Party movement. It was also displayed by members of Congress at Tea Party movement rallies. Some lawmakers have called it a "political symbol '' because of this association.
In March 2013, a resident of New Rochelle, New York, put up a Gadsden flag at the city 's vacant armory building. The city ordered its removal, fearing that the flag would be seen as political. The next month, a veterans group, the United Veterans Memorial & Patriotic Association, filed suit against the city.
Athletic apparel company Nike uses the image of a rattlesnake coiled around a soccer ball for an ongoing, patriotic "Do n't Tread on Me '' campaign in support of the United States men 's national soccer team. The phrase has become a rallying cry for American soccer fans and the Gadsden flag can occasionally be seen at national team games. A representation of the rattlesnake is contained on the inside of their uniforms, over the heart, with the initials "D.T.O.M. '', which were used in the 2010 World Cup.
In Hideo Kojima 's video game Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty a variation of the flag can be seen on one of the connecting bridges of the "Big Shell '' facility, in a reference to both the original meaning and usage of the flag.
In the apocalyptic 2006 CBS TV drama Jericho, the flag makes several appearances, most notably in the series finale as Jericho 's acting mayor takes down the flag of the "Allied States of America '', which had been flying at the town hall following a federal coup. He replaces the red, white, and blue flag of the central government with a Gadsden Flag which the previous mayor had kept framed in his office. The scene depicts a once - collaborationist character as finally having summoned the courage to be in open defiance against a supreme government.
The heavy metal band Metallica recorded a song called "Do n't Tread on Me '' on their self - titled fifth studio album, released in 1991. The album cover features a dark grey picture of a coiled rattlesnake like the one found on the Gadsden Flag. The song 's lyrics refer to political phrases from the American Revolutionary War.
"Do n't Tread On Me '' is a song from hard rock supergroup Damn Yankees on their 1992 studio album Do n't Tread.
In addition, in the hit series The West Wing, Sam Seaborn 's office displays the flag hanging above his cabinet.
NASCAR driver Carl Edwards displayed the Gadsden Flag next to his facsimile signature on his race car.
In WWE, the tag team Real Americans, composed by Jack Swagger, Cesaro and the manager Zeb Colter, used the Gadsden Flag and the preamble "We the People ''.
In the 1979 novel Alongside Night, an organization called the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre, seeking a Second American Revolution, welcomes visitors to one of its undergrounds: "The room 's only decoration was a modified Gadsden flag draped on the wall adjoining the bar and medical areas (opposite the door), a golden field with ' LAISSEZ - FAIRE! ' in an upper left corner, a coiled rattlesnake facing left with its tongue out, and in the lower right, ' DONT TREAD ON ME! ' '' The Gadsden flag without the addition of "LAISSEZ - FAIRE! '' is carried over into the 2014 Alongside Night movie adaptation in which the Gadsden flag is used by the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre as well as the traditional anarchist black flag.
A verse from the 1970 song Uncle John 's Band by the Grateful Dead contains the words "Their wall are built of cannonballs, their motto is ' Do n't tread on me ' ''.
Media related to Gadsden flag at Wikimedia Commons
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which of the following cells will have class ii mhc proteins | Major histocompatibility complex - wikipedia
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a set of cell surface proteins essential for the acquired immune system to recognize foreign molecules in vertebrates, which in turn determines histocompatibility. The main function of MHC molecules is to bind to antigens derived from pathogens and display them on the cell surface for recognition by the appropriate T - cells. MHC molecules mediate interactions of leukocytes, also called white blood cells (WBCs), which are immune cells, with other leukocytes or with body cells. The MHC determines compatibility of donors for organ transplant, as well as one 's susceptibility to an autoimmune disease via crossreacting immunization. The human MHC is also called the HLA (human leukocyte antigen) complex (often just the HLA). The MHC in mice is called the H - 2 complex or H - 2.
In a cell, protein molecules of the host 's own phenotype or of other biologic entities are continually synthesized and degraded. Each MHC molecule on the cell surface displays a molecular fraction of a protein, called an epitope. The presented antigen can be either self or non-self, thus preventing an organism 's immune system targeting its own cells. In its entirety, the MHC population is like a meter indicating the balance of proteins within the cell.
The MHC gene family is divided into three subgroups: class I, class II, and class III. Class I MHC molecules have β2 subunits so can only be recognised by CD8 co-receptors. Class II MHC molecules have β1 and β2 subunits and can be recognised by CD4 co-receptors. In this way MHC molecules chaperone which type of lymphocytes may bind to the given antigen with high affinity, since different lymphocytes express different T - Cell Receptor (TCR) co-receptors.
Diversity of antigen presentation, mediated by MHC classes I and II, is attained in at least three ways: (1) an organism 's MHC repertoire is polygenic (via multiple, interacting genes); (2) MHC expression is codominant (from both sets of inherited alleles); (3) MHC gene variants are highly polymorphic (diversely varying from organism to organism within a species). Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection has been observed in male mice making mate choices of females with different MHCs and thus demonstrating sexual selection. Also, at least for MHC I presentation, there has been evidence of antigenic peptide splicing which can combine peptides from different proteins, vastly increasing antigen diversity.
The first descriptions of the MHC were made by British immunologist Peter Gorer in 1936. MHC genes were first identified in inbred mice strains. Clarence Little transplanted tumors across differing strains and found rejection of transplanted tumors according to strains of host versus donor. George Snell selectively bred two mouse strains, attained a new strain nearly identical to one of the progenitor strains, but differing crucially in histocompatibility -- that is, tissue compatibility upon transplantation -- and thereupon identified an MHC locus. For this work, Snell was awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, together with Baruj Benacerraf and Jean Dausset.
Of the three MHC classes identified, attention commonly focuses on classes I and II. By interacting with CD4 molecules on surfaces of helper T cells, MHC class II mediates establishment of specific immunity (also called acquired immunity or adaptive immunity). By interacting with CD8 molecules on surfaces of cytotoxic T cells, MHC class I mediates destruction of infected or malignant host cells, the aspect of specific immunity termed cellular immunity. (The other arm of specific immunity is humoral immunity, whose relation to MHC is more indirect.)
MHC is the tissue - antigen that allows the immune system (more specifically T cells) to bind to, recognize, and tolerate itself (autorecognition). MHC is also the chaperone for intracellular peptides that are complexed with MHCs and presented to T cell receptors (TCRs) as potential foreign antigens. MHC interacts with TCR and its co-receptors to optimize binding conditions for the TCR - antigen interaction, in terms of antigen binding affinity and specificity, and signal transduction effectiveness.
Essentially, the MHC - peptide complex is a complex of autoantigen / alloantigen. Upon binding, T cells should in principle tolerate the auto - antigen, but activate when exposed to the allo - antigen. Disease states occur when this principle is disrupted.
Antigen presentation: MHC molecules bind to both T cell receptor and CD4 / CD8 co-receptors on T lymphocytes, and the antigen epitope held in the peptide - binding groove of the MHC molecule interacts with the variable Ig - Like domain of the TCR to trigger T - cell activation
Autoimmune reaction: Having some MHC molecules increases the risk of autoimmune diseases more than having others. HLA - B27 is an example. It is unclear how exactly having the HLA - B27 tissue type increases the risk of ankylosing spondylitis and other associated inflammatory diseases, but mechanisms involving aberrant antigen presentation or T cell activation have been hypothesized.
Tissue allorecognition: MHC molecules in complex with peptide epitopes are essentially ligands for TCR. T cells become activated by binding to the peptide - binding grooves of any MHC molecule that T cells were not trained to recognize during thymus positive selection.
As a lineage of leukocytes, lymphocytes reside in peripheral lymphoid tissues, including lymphoid follicles and lymph nodes, and include B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells). B cells, which act specifically, secrete antibody molecules, but do not bind MHC. T cells, which act specifically, as well as NK cells, which act innately, interact with MHC. NK cells express Killer Ig - like receptors (KIRs) that bind to MHC I molecules and signal through ITIM (immunoreceptor tyrosine inhibition motif) recruitment and activation of protein tyrosine phosphatases. This means in contrast to CD8 / TCR interaction that activates Tc lymphocytes, NK cells becomes deactivated when bound to MHC I. When MHC class I expression is low, as is typically the case with abnormal cell function during viral infection or tumourigenesis, NK cells lose the inhibitory KIR signal and trigger programmed cell death of the abnormal cell. NK cells thus help prevent progress of cancerous cells by contributing to tumor surveillance.
MHC class II can be conditionally expressed by all cell types, but normally occurs only on professional antigen - presenting cells (APCs): macrophages, B cells, and especially dendritic cells (DCs). An APC takes up an antigen, performs antigen processing, and returns a molecular fraction of it -- a fraction termed the epitope -- to the APC 's surface, coupled within an MHC class II molecule mediating antigen presentation by displaying this epitope. On the cell 's surface, the epitope can contact its cognate region on immunologic structures recognizing that epitope. That molecular region which binds to -- or, in jargon, ligates -- the epitope is the paratope.
On surfaces of helper T cells are CD4 receptors, as well as T cell receptors (TCRs). When a naive helper T cell 's CD4 molecule docks to an APC 's MHC class II molecule, its TCR can meet and be imprinted by the epitope coupled within the MHC class II. This event primes the naive helper T cell. According to the local milieu, that is, the balance of cytokines secreted by APCs in the microenvironment, the naive helper T cell (Th) polarizes into either a memory Th cell or an effector Th cell of phenotype either type 1 (Th), type 2 (Th), type 17 (Th), or regulatory / suppressor (T), as so far identified, the Th cell 's terminal differentiation.
MHC class II thus mediates immunization to -- or, if APCs polarize Th cells principally to T cells, immune tolerance of -- an antigen. The polarization during primary exposure to an antigen is key in determining a number chronic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases and asthma, by skewing the immune response that memory Th cells coordinate when their memory recall is triggered upon secondary exposure to similar antigens. (B cells express MHC class II to present antigen to Th, but when their B cell receptors bind matching epitopes, interactions which are not mediated by MHC, these activated B cells secrete soluble immunoglobulins: antibody molecules mediating humoral immunity.)
MHC class I occurs on all nucleated cells and also in platelets -- in essence all cells but red blood cells. It presents epitopes to killer T cells, also called cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). A CTL expresses CD8 receptors, in addition to TCRs. When a CTL 's CD8 receptor docks to a MHC class I molecule, if the CTL 's TCR fits the epitope within the MHC class I molecule, the CTL triggers the cell to undergo programmed cell death by apoptosis. Thus, MHC class I helps mediate cellular immunity, a primary means to address intracellular pathogens, such as viruses and some bacteria, including bacterial L forms, bacterial genus Mycoplasma, and bacterial genus Rickettsia. In humans, MHC class I comprises HLA - A, HLA - B, and HLA - C molecules.
MHC gene families are found in all vertebrates, though they vary widely. In humans, the MHC region occurs on chromosome 6, between the flanking genetic markers MOG and COL11A2 (from 6p22. 1 to 6p21. 3 about 29Mb to 33Mb on the hg38 assembly), and contains 224 genes spanning 3.6 mega base pairs (3 600 000 bases). About half have known immune functions.
The same markers in the gray short - tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica), a marsupial, span 3.95 Mb, yielding 114 genes, 87 shared with humans. Marsupial MHC genotypic variation lies between eutherian mammals and birds, taken as minimal MHC encoding, but is closer in organization to that of non mammals, and MHC class I genes of marsupials have amplified within the class II region, yielding a unique class I / II region.
Class III functions very differently from class I and class II, but its locus occurs between the other two classes, on chromosome 6 in humans, and are frequently discussed together.
MHC proteins have immunoglobulin - like structure.
MHC I occurs as an α chain composed of three domains -- α1, α2, and α3. The α1 rests upon a unit of the non-MHC molecule β2 microglobulin (encoded on human chromosome 15). The α3 domain is transmembrane, anchoring the MHC class I molecule to the cell membrane. The peptide being presented is held by the floor of the peptide - binding groove, in the central region of the α1 / α2 heterodimer (a molecule composed of two nonidentical subunits). The genetically encoded and expressed sequence of amino acids, the sequence of residues, of the peptide - binding groove 's floor determines which particular peptide residues it binds.
Classical MHC molecules present epitopes to the TCRs of CD8+ T lymphocytes. Nonclassical molecules (MHC class IB) exhibit limited polymorphism, expression patterns, and presented antigens; this group is subdivided into a group encoded within MHC loci (e.g., HLA - E, - F, - G), as well as those not (e.g., stress ligands such as ULBPs, Rae1, and H60); the antigen / ligand for many of these molecules remain unknown, but they can interact with each of CD8+ T cells, NKT cells, and NK cells.
MHC class II is formed of two chains, α and β, each having two domains -- α1 and α2 and β1 and β2 -- each chain having a transmembrane domain, α2 and β2, respectively, anchoring the MHC class II molecule to the cell membrane. The peptide - binding groove is formed of the heterodimer of α1 and β1.
MHC class II molecules in humans have five to six isotypes. Classic molecules present peptides to CD4+ lymphocytes. Nonclassic molecules, accessories, with intracellular functions, are not exposed on cell membranes, but in internal membranes in lysosomes, normally loading the antigenic peptides onto classic MHC class II molecules.
Class III molecules have physiologic roles unlike classes I and II, but are encoded between them in the short arm of human chromosome 6. Class III molecules include several secreted proteins with immune functions: components of the complement system (such as C2, C4, and B factor), cytokines (such as TNF - α, LTA, and LTB), and heat shock proteins.
Peptides are processed and presented by two classical pathways:
In their development in the thymus, T lymphocytes are selected to recognize MHC molecules of the host, but not recognize other self antigens. Following selection, each T lymphocyte shows dual specificity: The TCR recognizes self MHC, but only non-self antigens.
MHC restriction occurs during lymphocyte development in the thymus through a process known as positive selection. T cells that do not receive a positive survival signal -- mediated mainly by thymic epithelial cells presenting self peptides bound to MHC molecules -- to their TCR undergo apoptosis. Positive selection ensures that mature T cells can functionally recognize MHC molecules in the periphery (i.e. elsewhere in the body).
The TCRs of T lymphocytes recognise only sequential epitopes, also called linear epitopes, of only peptides and only if coupled within an MHC molecule. (Antibody molecules secreted by activated B cells, though, ligate diverse epitopes -- peptide, lipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid -- and recognize conformational epitopes, which have three - dimensional structure.)
MHC molecules enable immune system surveillance of the population of protein molecules in a host cell, and greater MHC diversity permits greater diversity of antigen presentation. In 1976, Yamazaki et al demonstrated a sexual selection mate choice by male mice for females of a different MHC. Similar results have been obtained with fish. Some data find lower rates of early pregnancy loss in human couples of dissimilar MHC genes.
MHC may be related to mate choice in some human populations, a theory that found support by studies by Ober and colleagues in 1997, as well as by Chaix and colleagues in 2008. However, the latter findings have been controversial. If it exists, the phenomenon might be mediated by olfaction, as MHC phenotype appears strongly involved in the strength and pleasantness of perceived odour of compounds from sweat. Fatty acid esters -- such as methyl undecanoate, methyl decanoate, methyl nonanoate, methyl octanoate, and methyl hexanoate -- show strong connection to MHC.
In 1995, Claus Wedekind found that in a group of female college students who smelled T - shirts worn by male students for two nights (without deodorant, cologne, or scented soaps), by far most women chose shirts worn by men of dissimilar MHCs, a preference reversed if the women were on oral contraceptives. Results of a 2002 experiment likewise suggest HLA - associated odors influence odor preference and may mediate social cues. In 2005 in a group of 58 subjects, women were more indecisive when presented with MHCs like their own, although with oral contraceptives, the women showed no particular preference. No studies show the extent to which odor preference determines mate selection (or vice versa).
Most mammals have MHC variants similar to those of humans, who bear great allelic diversity, especially among the nine classical genes -- seemingly due largely to gene duplication -- though human MHC regions have many pseudogenes. The most diverse loci, namely HLA - A, HLA - B, and HLA - DRB1, have roughly 1000, 1600, and 870 known alleles, respectively. Many HLA alleles are ancient, sometimes of greater homology to a chimpanzee MHC alleles than to some other human alleles of the same gene.
MHC allelic diversity has challenged evolutionary biologists for explanation. Most posit balancing selection (see polymorphism (biology)), which is any natural selection process whereby no single allele is absolutely most fit, such as frequency - dependent selection and heterozygote advantage. Recent models suggest a high number of alleles is implausible via heterozygote advantage alone.
Pathogenic coevolution, a counterhypothesis, posits that common alleles are under greatest pathogenic pressure, driving positive selection of uncommon alleles -- moving targets, so to say, for pathogens. As pathogenic pressure on the previously common alleles decreases, their frequency in the population stabilizes, and remain circulating in a large population. Despite great MHC polymorphism at the population level, an individual bears at most 18 MHC I or II alleles.
Relatively low MHC diversity has been observed in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), and giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). In 2007 low MHC diversity was attributed a role in disease susceptibility in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), native to the isolated island of Tasmania, such that an antigen of a transmissible tumor, involved in devil facial tumour disease, appears to be recognized as a self antigen. To offset inbreeding, efforts to sustain genetic diversity in populations of endangered species and of captive animals have been suggested.
In a transplant procedure, as of an organ or stem cells, MHC molecules act themselves as antigens and can provoke immune response in the recipient, thus causing transplant rejection. MHC molecules were identified and named after their role in transplant rejection between mice of different strains, though it took over 20 years to clarify MHC 's role in presenting peptide antigens to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs).
Each human cell expresses six MHC class I alleles (one HLA - A, - B, and - C allele from each parent) and six to eight MHC class II alleles (one HLA - DP and - DQ, and one or two HLA - DR from each parent, and combinations of these). The MHC variation in the human population is high, at least 350 alleles for HLA - A genes, 620 alleles for HLA - B, 400 alleles for DR, and 90 alleles for DQ. Any two individuals who are not identical twins will express differing MHC molecules. All MHC molecules can mediate transplant rejection, but HLA - C and HLA - DP, showing low polymorphism, seem least important.
When maturing in the thymus, T lymphocytes are selected for their TCR incapacity to recognize self antigens, yet T lymphocytes can react against the donor MHC 's peptide - binding groove, the variable region of MHC holding the presented antigen 's epitope for recognition by TCR, the matching paratope. T lymphocytes of the recipient take the incompatible peptide - binding groove as nonself antigen. The T lymphocytes ' recognition of the foreign MHC as self is allorecognition.
Transplant rejection has various types known to be mediated by MHC (HLA):
In all of the above situations, immunity is directed at the transplanted organ, sustaining lesions. A cross-reaction test between potential donor cells and recipient serum seeks to detect presence of preformed anti-HLA antibodies in the potential recipient that recognize donor HLA molecules, so as to prevent hyperacute rejection. In normal circumstances, compatibility between HLA - A, - B, and - DR molecules is assessed. The higher the number of incompatibilities, the lower the five - year survival rate. Global databases of donor information enhance the search for compatible donors.
Human MHC class I and II are also called human leukocyte antigen (HLA). To clarify the usage, some of the biomedical literature uses HLA to refer specifically to the HLA protein molecules and reserves MHC for the region of the genome that encodes for this molecule, but this is not a consistent convention.
The most studied HLA genes are the nine classical MHC genes: HLA - A, HLA - B, HLA - C, HLA - DPA1, HLA - DPB1, HLA - DQA1, HLA - DQB1, HLA - DRA, and HLA - DRB1. In humans, the MHC gene cluster is divided into three regions: classes I, II, and III. The A, B and C genes belong to MHC class I, whereas the six D genes belong to class II.
MHC alleles are expressed in codominant fashion. This means the alleles (variants) inherited from both parents are expressed equally:
The set of alleles that is present in each chromosome is called the MHC haplotype. In humans, each HLA allele is named with a number. For instance, for a given individual, his haplotype might be HLA - A2, HLA - B5, HLA - DR3, etc... Each heterozygous individual will have two MHC haplotypes, one each from the paternal and maternal chromosomes.
The MHC genes are highly polymorphic; many different alleles exist in the different individuals inside a population. The polymorphism is so high, in a mixed population (non endogamic), no two individuals have exactly the same set of MHC molecules, with the exception of identical twins.
The polymorphic regions in each allele are located in the region for peptide contact. Of all the peptides that could be displayed by MHC, only a subset will bind strongly enough to any given HLA allele, so by carrying two alleles for each gene, a much larger set of peptides can be presented.
On the other hand, inside a population, the presence of many different alleles ensures there will always be an individual with a specific MHC molecule able to load the correct peptide to recognize a specific microbe. The evolution of the MHC polymorphism ensures that a population will not succumb to a new pathogen or a mutated one, because at least some individuals will be able to develop an adequate immune response to win over the pathogen. The variations in the MHC molecules (responsible for the polymorphism) are the result of the inheritance of different MHC molecules, and they are not induced by recombination, as it is the case for the antigen receptors.
Because of the high levels of allelic diversity found within its genes, MHC has also attracted the attention of many evolutionary biologists.
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when does strictly come dancing results get filmed | Strictly Come Dancing - wikipedia
Strictly Come Dancing (informally known as Strictly) is a British television dance contest, featuring celebrity contestants, with professional dance partners competing in a ballroom and Latin dance competition. Each couple is scored out of 10 by a panel of judges. The title of the show suggests a continuation of the long - running series Come Dancing, with an allusion to the film Strictly Ballroom. The format has been exported to over 40 other countries, and has also inspired a modern dance - themed spin - off Strictly Dance Fever. The show is currently presented by Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman.
The show has run on BBC One since 15 May 2004, primarily on Saturday evenings with a following Sunday night results show (with certain exceptions) and with its high viewing figures Strictly Come Dancing has become a significant programme in British popular culture. The thirteenth series ended on 19 December 2015. A further eleven stand - alone Christmas specials have also been produced, in consecutive years from 2004 onwards. Nine charity specials have also been produced since 2008. Since the fourth series, the show has also been aired in high definition on BBC HD, and BBC One HD from series 8.
On 7 November 2013 it was announced that Sir Bruce Forsyth would be retiring from presenting the main series. While intended to return as host for each Children in Need and Christmas special, he only did both in 2014 and Children in Need in 2015 (sending a video message for the 2015 Christmas special) and was thereafter unable to appear due to ill health. Forsyth died on 18 August 2017.
Producer Richard Hopkins, who had produced the first UK series of Big Brother, unsuccessfully pitched the idea of a modern Come Dancing to the BBC under the title of Pro-Celebrity Dancing in 2003. Later, entertainment executive Fenia Vardanis also suggested reviving Come Dancing, so Jane Lush, the then head of BBC Entertainment, put Hopkins and Vardanis together to develop the show.
Hopkins then called in Karen Smith, who had just produced Comic Relief Does Fame Academy for BBC One and The Games for Channel 4, to help lead the development of the show and launch the series. Smith was the show running Executive Producer of the first three series, and of sister show It Takes Two. She then took the role of Creative Director of BBC Entertainment whilst still overseeing series 4 and 5.
Hopkins later took the format to America himself when the BBC dismissed the idea of selling it abroad, as they felt it was too British.
From series 1 to 11, Sir Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly presented the pro-celebrity ballroom dancing competition. From series 8 to 11, Forsyth only presented the main show and was replaced for the results show by Claudia Winkleman, at which point Daly assumed Forsyth 's role as main presenter and Winkleman assumed Daly 's role as co-presenter. Winkleman has joined Daly as full - time co-presenter for series 12 following Forsyth 's departure after the 2013 series. Through telephone voting, viewers vote for who they would like to be in the next round, the results of the poll being combined with the ranking of the judges. For example, with ten contestants left, the judges ' favourite would receive ten points, second favourite nine points, and so on, and similarly with the viewers ' rankings. The bottom ranked couple gets one point. The profits from the telephone lines were donated to Sport Relief in series 1, and to Children in Need from series 2 to 5.
The show is broadcast live on BBC One on Saturday evenings, and is currently presented by Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman (however Zoë Ball covered for Winkleman for a number of weeks in 2014). Sir Bruce Forsyth presented the live shows alongside Daly from 2004 to 2013, announcing his departure in 2014. He was to continue to present special editions of the show. For some of the second series, Natasha Kaplinsky stood in temporarily for Daly while she took maternity leave; Claudia Winkleman hosted the results show and editions that Forsyth had missed between 2010 and 2013. The judging panel initially consisted of Bruno Tonioli, Arlene Phillips, Len Goodman and Craig Revel Horwood. Alesha Dixon took Phillips ' place from series 7 to 9, after which she left the programme to judge Britain 's Got Talent which led retired ballerina Darcey Bussell to replace her; Bussell remains a judge alongside Tonioli and Revel Horwood. Tonioli commutes weekly between Hollywood and London to judge both the American and British versions of the show simultaneously. Each judge gives the performance a mark out of ten, giving an overall total out of forty. The voice - over announcer is Alan Dedicoat. During series four, an hour - long highlights show was shown on Sundays at 19: 00 on BBC Two, and during series five and six, the results show moved to Sunday evenings, although it was filmed on Saturday and then broadcast "as live '' on the Sunday.
The singers on the show are Tommy Blaize, Hayley Sanderson, Lance Ellington, Andrea Grant and formerly the well known UK dance music vocalist Tara McDonald. The music director is David Arch. Tommy Blaize has been part of Strictly since its beginning. David Arch joined in the fourth series and Hayley Sanderson in the fifth.
The show was broadcast from a specially constructed set at the BBC Television Centre, moving to the Elstree Studios in 2013. However, in the first two series, shows were also filmed at the Tower Ballroom in Blackpool, where the original Come Dancing series was filmed in the 1970s.
In the second series, two shows were filmed at the Tower Ballroom, show five and the Grand Final which was broadcast live on 11 December 2004. In 2005 though the BBC announced that they would not be returning to the venue for the third series due to "logistical problems ''. In October 2008, Craig Revel Horwood called for the series to return to the Tower Ballroom, saying, "the atmosphere was electric. It 's huge and has so much history. The Tower Ballroom puts a lot of pressure on the professionals and the celebrities to perform to the best of their potential. What a wonderful place to go live to 12 million people. We have got to get the BBC to bring Strictly Come Dancing back to Blackpool. '' Eventually, the show did return to the Tower Ballroom, for series 7, where Blackpool - born Craig Kelly was eliminated. The episode was aired live on 7 November 2009. Strictly Come Dancing returned to Blackpool for the 2010 and 2011 series. Then after series 10 when Strictly Come Dancing did not go to Blackpool, they announced that they would return for series 11.
Key:
Some of the dancers form professional partnerships, dancing together competitively or on the show. Darren Bennet and Lilia Kopylova, and James and Ola Jordan are married, while Matthew and Nicole Cutler are divorced but still professional partners. Anton du Beke and Erin Boag have danced as professional couples since 1997; Vincent Simone and Flavia Cacace are a former Argentine Tango world champion couple. Brendan Cole and Katya Virshilas danced professionally for several years before parting in November 2009. Karen Hauer and Kevin Clifton were engaged when Kevin entered the show in 2013 and were married prior to the 2015 season, Janette Manrara and Aljaž Škorjanec were married in 2017. Neil and Katya Jones are also married.
On average dances last for approximately 90 seconds. The music for the dances are performed by The Strictly Come Dancing Band.
Prior to series 10, the dances performed in the early weeks are switched between one Ballroom and one Latin, and are divided as evenly as possible depending on the number of contestants left. As the competition progressed further, this system is abandoned and many styles, not just two, can be performed in one week by each of the remaining contestants. From series 4 through 7, the remaining contestants who made it to the semifinals are granted to perform the semifinal - exclusive Argentine Tango. Beginning with series 10, this has all changed. The contestants are now allowed to dance whichever dance they are bestowed to (not accustomed to any patterns), though the Argentine Tango remains to be somewhat reserved for the latter stages of the series. The Showdance, however, is still restricted only for the finalists from the very first series until now.
As of series four, coaches are Jaclyn Spencer and Chris Marques (aka Cuban Groove) for Salsa and Mambo, and Jenny Thomas and Ryan Francois for Swing, Jive, Rock n Roll and The Charleston. The Argentine Tango coaches in series three were Flavia Cacace and Vincent Simone, both of whom have subsequently competed in the show.
From Series 1 - 4, the results show was shown live, later on the Saturday after 1 hour after the performances.
From Series 5 onwards, the results show is recorded on the Saturday night directly after the live show and incorporates the result of the viewers ' votes which are completed by 21: 30. This was confirmed by the official BBC website in 2008:
The Sunday show is recorded on Saturday night but no element involving the results of the vote will start recording until after lines are closed and votes counted and verified.
Throughout the Sunday results show the presenters refer to ' last night ' in reference to the main show, due to the timing of the Sunday programme, and Tess Daly, Claudia Winkleman 's and the judges ' outfits are changed to present an illusion of a second live broadcast.
For Series 7, the Sunday results show was axed and put back to Saturday nights as a result of a revamp of the show. It was then put back on Sundays in Series 8.
A new system called the dance - off was introduced in series 5. It continued on the program through series 7, was not used for series 8 and 9, but was reinstated as of series 10 and has remained a feature of the show ever since. There are two couples in each dance - off, which occurs on the results show: the two who received the lowest totals that week from the combined judges ' scores and the public vote. The aim of the dance - off is for the couples to convince the judges that they deserve to go through to the following week 's competition. Before they attempt the dance a second time the couple sometimes gets advice from the judges. The judges decide who continues on the show and who is eliminated based on the second dance performances. If three of the judges agree that one of the couples should be "saved '', that couple is through to the following week 's competition and the Head Judge 's vote is not counted. If one couple has two votes and the other couple has one vote, then the deciding vote is cast by the Head Judge, originally Len Goodman and currently Shirley Ballas. Afterwards, the eliminated couple perform one final dance -- some people call it waltzing out of the ballroom. The Monday after they are eliminated they appear on It Takes Two to talk about their time on the show. The dance - off has been cancelled only once, in series 14, due to an injury sustained earlier by one of the contestants, Anastacia. She was unable to perform the dance - off, and the couple with the lowest total was eliminated.
During the run of Strictly Come Dancing, Strictly: It Takes Two is broadcast each weeknight on BBC Two. The series was previously hosted by Claudia Winkleman; but, due to her pregnancy in 2011, she had to leave the series, and Zoë Ball took over from Series 9.
The show features reviews of the performances during the previous Saturday 's show, and interviews with, and training footage of, the couples preparing for the next show. The judges and other celebrities also provide their opinions on how the couples are doing. It Takes Two replaced Strictly Come Dancing on Three, hosted by Justin Lee Collins, which ran on BBC Three during the first series. Prior to 2010, BBC Two Scotland aired the programme on four nights only, running their own Gaelic - language programming on Thursdays instead.
In Spring 2004, Strictly Come Dancing commenced its first series. The professional dancers were: Brendan, Hanna, Anton, Erin, John, Paul, Camilla and Kylie. This is the only series that took place in the Spring / Summer months. From the second series onwards, the show takes place from September / October to December each year. Natasha Kaplinsky & Brendan Cole were crowned the first winners of Strictly Come Dancing. This was the shortest series, with 8 weeks.
In Autumn 2004, the second series commenced. 5 of the 8 professionals returned. These professionals were: Brendan, Anton, Erin, Paul and Camilla. There were 5 new professionals who are: Darren, Ian, Lilia, Nicole and Hazel. Hazel only participated in this series while the other professionals competed in following series.
A new spin - off show called Strictly Come Dancing: It Takes Two presented by Claudia Winkleman was created this series and has continued to air alongside each following series, now hosted by Zoë Ball on BBC Two.
In 2005, the third series commenced. Brendan, Anton, Erin, Camilla, Darren, Ian and Lilia returned from last series. Nicole, Paul and Hazel did not return. They were replaced by Karen, Hanna, Izabela, Andrew and Matthew.
The celebrities that took part in this series were as follows:
The show ran from 7 October to 23 December 2006. Over 12 million votes were cast, raising £ 1.5 million for Children in Need. A peak of 13 million viewers tuned into the final show of series four to see Mark and Karen crowned 2006 Strictly Come Dancing champions.
This series introduced four new professional dancers -- Flavia Cacace, James Jordan, Ola Jordan and Vincent Simone. Andrew Cuerden, Hanna Haarala and Izabela Hannah did not return to the series. This series also saw the return of Nicole Cutler, who had taken part in Series 2 but not in Series 3.
The couples in order of elimination:
The fifth series of Strictly Come Dancing began on BBC One on 29 September 2007, with Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly returning as presenters. For the first and only time, the line up of professionals was unchanged from the previous series. The first programme was a catch - up show and preview to the new series, before the start of the competition on 6 October, which ran for 12 weeks.
The show featured 14 new celebrities, who were paired with 14 professional dancers. In a change to the previous format, the results show was recorded on Saturday and broadcast on Sunday, rather than shown live later on Saturday. In addition to this, the two couples who were at the bottom of the table after the viewers ' vote were subject to a dance - off, where they reprised their routine, for the judges to decide who left. Head Judge Len Goodman had the casting vote in case of a tie. The series raised just over a million pounds for Children in Need.
A sixth series of the show was confirmed after the dancers ' pay dispute was called off in late June 2008. The series lasted for 14 weeks, which is the longest series so far. The series involved three new professional dancers, Brian Fortuna, Hayley Holt and Kristina Rihanoff. Nicole Cutler did not return to the series.
In July 2008 it was reported that current EastEnders cast members were banned from taking part in the competition due to the length of the series.
The sixth series began on 13 September with a behind - the - scenes look at the new series, followed by the first live show on 20 September.
On 19 November 2008, John Sergeant announced that he would be leaving the show because he believed he may "win it ''.
The seventh series of Strictly Come Dancing ran from 18 September until 19 December 2009. Tess Daly signed a two - year deal to continue presenting the programme for at least the 2009 and 2010 series '.
On 9 July 2009, former competitor Alesha Dixon was confirmed to be joining the judging panel for this series, and that Darcey Bussell would be a guest judge towards the end of the series run. Dixon replaced Arlene Phillips who moved to The One Show as a Strictly Come Dancing expert. It has been reported in the media that many of the show 's professional dancers are furious at Phillips being replaced by Dixon. They apparently feel that they "will be judged by someone who knows less than they do about dancing ''. The BBC were also accused of sexism, as none of the male judges on the show had been replaced. The BBC received over 5,000 complaints. Dixon 's fans were also unhappy as she had to cancel a number of dates on her autumn tour to do the programme.
The official line - up was revealed on 25 August 2009 and the winner was BBC Breakfast presenter Chris Hollins:
The eighth series of Strictly Come Dancing began with a launch show on 11 September 2010, then three weeks later the live shows started on 1 October 2010. Three new professional dancers were announced, The celebrities were revealed on 8 September 2010 and the professional partners were revealed during the launch show.
Strictly returned with a launch show on 10 September 2011, with the final in December at the Tower Ballroom, Blackpool. Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly returned to front the main show, and Claudia Winkleman presented the Sunday night results show along with Daly.
For Strictly Come Dancing: It Takes Two, a new presenter joined the team. Winkleman had to pull out of the 2011 series as it would be difficult to do a daily programme so soon after giving birth and was replaced by Zoë Ball.
All of series eight 's judges returned to the show. Jennifer Grey served as a cover judge for Len Goodman during week six due to his break from the show. This was the last series to feature Alesha Dixon as a judge after she left the show after the final to become a judge on Britain 's Got Talent
The professional line - up was announced on 15 June 2011 with most of the Series 8 professionals returning, except for Jared Murillo who was replaced by Siberian dancer Pasha Kovalev. The celebrity line - up was announced on 6 September 2011 on The One Show and the couples were paired up for the first time on the launch show.
The tenth series began on 15 September 2012 with a launch show to reveal the celebrity / professional partnerships, and the live shows began on 5 October.
On 25 April 2012, it was confirmed that Darcey Bussell would be joining the judging panel, replacing Alesha Dixon who left the show to be a judge on Britain 's Got Talent.
Katya Virshilas was the only professional dancer not returning to this series, and she was replaced by Burn the Floor 's Karen Hauer. The full line - up was revealed on 10 September during The One Show.
Aliona Vilani was originally Johnny Ball 's partner, but injury resulted in her being replaced by Iveta Lukosiute.
Strictly Come Dancing returned with the launch show on 7 September 2013 and its live shows on 27 September 2013 for its eleventh series. Rod Stewart and Jessie J performed on the premiere show.
On 1 June 2013, it was announced that Aliona Vilani, Vincent Simone, Flavia Cacace, and Erin Boag would all leave this series. Aljaž Skorjanec, Emma Slater, Janette Manrara and Iveta Lukosiute, who partnered Johnny Ball in the first few weeks of series 10, would all join the cast. However, it was confirmed on 22 August 2013 that Anya Garnis and Kevin Clifton joined the series, replacing Slater. On 2 September 2013, it was announced that a foot fracture injury meant Natalie Lowe would not be able to participate this series, and she was replaced by returning professional Vilani.
The series started on 7 September 2014 with a launch show, followed by the live shows starting on 26 and 27 September. This series was the first not to be presented by Sir Bruce Forsyth after announcing his departure from the live shows on 4 April (He made his final regular appearance in this series ' launch show). However, Forsyth would continue to present special editions of the show, such as Children in Need and Christmas specials. It was announced on 9 May that Claudia Winkleman would join the main show as co-presenter and the duties would mirror the existing result show format, with Tess Daly taking over Forsyth 's role as main presenter and Winkleman taking Daly 's role as co-presenter.
It was announced on 1 June 2014 that professional dancers Artem Chigvintsev, James Jordan and Anya Garnis would not be returning for the new series, although Garnis would remain on the show 's choreography team. It was also announced that Tristan MacManus and Joanne Clifton would be joining the show 's professional line - up. It was then announced in August that Robin Windsor had pulled out of the competition due to a back injury. Windsor will be replaced by new professional Trent Whiddon. In the third week entertainer Donny Osmond joined the four regular judges, making the maximum score that week 50 points. Due to Winkleman 's absence in weeks 6, 7, and 8, It Takes Two presenter Zoë Ball co-presented with Daly.
Strictly Come Dancing returned for the thirteenth series with a launch show on 5 September 2015, followed by the live shows starting on 25 and 26 September.
On 23 April 2015, the list of professionals participating in the thirteenth series was revealed. Professionals from the last series who did not return included Trent Whiddon, Iveta Lukosiute and Joanne Clifton. Clifton would remain involved in group dances and would feature on Strictly Come Dancing: It Takes Two as a dance expert. Robin Windsor, absent from the previous series because of injury, also did not return for this series. Three new professional dancers were introduced: Russian dancer Gleb Savchenko (from the American, Australian, and Russian versions of Dancing with the Stars), South African dancer Oti Mabuse (from Germany 's Let 's Dance) and Italian dancer Giovanni Pernice.
On 3 October 2015, the judges performed The Strictly, a signature dance made up of some iconic moves from the show 's history for fans to do at home when they hear the theme tune; subsequently, a tutorial for the dance was made available on the show 's website and iPlayer hosted by Natalie Lowe and Tristan MacManus. Ola Jordan later announced that she had quit the show and claimed that the results were "fixed ''.
Series 13 was the last to feature Tristan MacManus, Kristina Rihanoff, Ola Jordan and Gleb Savchenko as professional dancers. Aliona Vilani announced three days after winning that she was leaving the show, however, she did do the 2016 live tour. Savchenko announced he was leaving the show on 28 June 2016. For series 14, Katya Jones, Gorka Márquez, Oksana Platero, and Joanne Clifton replaced them.
Strictly Come Dancing returned for its fourteenth series with a launch show on 3 September 2016 on BBC One. This was Len Goodman 's final series as head judge.
On 28 June 2016, the list of professionals who were returning for the fourteenth series was revealed. Professionals from the last series who would not return included last series ' champion and two - time professional winner of the show Aliona Vilani, former professional winner Ola Jordan, and two - times professional finalist Kristina Rihanoff as well as Gleb Savchenko and Tristan MacManus. Joanne Clifton was returning after a one series hiatus. The leaving professionals were replaced by Katya Jones, Burn the Floor dancer Gorka Márquez and former Dancing with the Stars U.S. troupe member Oksana Platero. On 26 July 2016, three more new professional dancers were announced as AJ Pritchard, Chloe Hewitt and Neil Jones, husband of new dancer Katya. Chloe Hewitt and Neil Jones did not partner a celebrity as the professionals outnumbered the celebrities, although they were still in group dances and appeared on It Takes Two.
On May 4, 2017, Series 7 finalist, Natalie Lowe announced that she would be departing the show. Five days later, Shirley Ballas announced that she would be replacing Len Goodman as head judge. On June 21, 2017, previous series professional champion, Joanne Clifton, as well as Oksana Platero announced that they would also be leaving. The new professionals replacing them are Australian Open champion, Dianne Buswell, Welsh dancer, Amy Dowden, and Ukrainian two - time world champion, Nadiya Bychkova. On 7 August, Nick Grimshaw announced that Mollie King is the first celebrity to be taking part this series. This is the first series to be broadcast since Sir Bruce Forsyth 's death in August that year.
The Christmas specials have been broadcast each year since 2004. The first special was broadcast the week before Christmas 2004, in 2005 it was broadcast on Christmas Eve, and from 2006 they have been broadcast on Christmas Day. Every Christmas Special has been hosted by Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly and Forsyth continued to host these editions from 2014 after he left the live shows until he announced he would not be appearing on the 2015 Christmas special - due to ill health - from which he died in 2017, so Daly and Winkleman have presented the special together since 2016.
Strictly Ice Dancing was broadcast as a one - off special on 26 December 2004; with Carol Smillie, Jessica Taylor, Scarlett Alice Johnson, Marcus Patric, David Seaman, and Rowland Rivron paired with professional skaters. This was won by David Seaman (who was a late replacement for Paul Gascoigne) and his partner Zoia Birmingham.
In order of elimination, the competitors were:
Strictly Ice Dancing was identical to the ITV format Dancing on Ice, although details of Dancing on Ice were revealed before Strictly Ice Dancing was commissioned.
A further one - off special was broadcast on BBC One on 9 July 2005 as part of the BBC 's Africa Lives season. It featured six celebrities of African descent performing traditional African dances with a professional troupe. The contestants were Tunde Baiyewu, Tupele Dorgu, Robbie Earle, Antonia Okonma, Louis Emerick, and Tessa Sanderson. The programme was presented by Natasha Kaplinsky and Martin Offiah, and the winner was Robbie Earle. Professional dancers Darren Bennett and Lilia Kopylova, who have appeared on Strictly Come Dancing since the second series, also appeared on this special to perform a traditional African Samba.
In order of elimination:
The London cast of the musical The Lion King, led by South - African actress Brown Lindiwe Mkhize, took part in this broadcast. The company performed the trademark song "Circle of Life ''.
A Strictly Come Dancing one - off special for Sport Relief was broadcast on 14 March 2008, with Craig Revel Horwood, Arlene Phillips and Len Goodman judging. Five former Strictly contestants related to sport partnered a new celebrity.
The results were as follows:
The ranking of the bottom three couples was not announced -- they were eliminated from the competition in a random order.
A BBC spokesperson commented: "Sport Relief features Strictly Come Dancing with a difference. ''
Strictly Come Dancing did an underwater special for Sport Relief 2012. The contestants were 2011 champion Harry Judd and runner - up Chelsee Healey. The judges were Len Goodman, Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Mark Foster. It was presented by Claudia Winkleman.
After the initial scores resulted in a draw, Len (as Head Judge) had the deciding vote. He chose Chelsee and Pasha therefore they won the contest.
Strictly Come Dancing did a Paralympians special for Sport Relief 2014. The contestants were David Clarke, Hannah Cockroft, Nathan Stephens and Martine Wright. The judges were Goodman, Tonioli, Darcey Bussell and Lee Pearson; however, no scores were given. The series was presented by Tess Daly.
A Strictly Come Dancing one - off special for Children in Need was broadcast on 14 November 2008, with Fearne Cotton presenting and Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli, Arlene Phillips and Craig Revel Horwood judging.
The results were as follows:
The dancers performed alongside Alesha Dixon singing The Boy Does Nothing at the start of the show and also Ricky Whittle was seen backstage, supporting the Hollyoaks cast who performed and Alesha told him to go back to rehearsals. The presenters and judges did not appear in this unlike the previous year when judges rated Terry 's performance.
A Strictly Come Dancing one - off special for Children in Need was broadcast on 19 November 2010, with Tess Daly presenting the show and Craig Revel Horwood, Len Goodman, Terry Wogan and Pudsey Bear judging.
The results were as follows:
In November 2011, BBC newsreaders Sian Williams, Sophie Raworth, Susanna Reid and Emily Maitlis performed a group dance to Katy Perry 's "Firework ''. Susanna and Robin won with three of the judges ' votes. Angela Rippon also made an appearance in the dance, alongside the women. Susanna then went on to compete as a contestant in the eleventh series of the show in 2013.
A one - off special for Children in Need 2012 was broadcast on 16 November 2012 with Sir Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly hosting, and judges Craig Revel Horwood, Darcey Bussell, Len Goodman, and Bruno Tonioli. Fan favourites Ann Widdecombe and Russell Grant made a special appearance in a parody of The Queen 's Olympic opening ceremony scene with Daniel Craig as James Bond, and danced an "Angels and Demons '' routine with their partners Anton du Beke and Flavia Cacace. Bruno voted for Ann and Anton, but Craig, Darcey, and Len all chose Russell and Flavia, who took home the Pudsey - on - a-glitter - ball trophy.
A one - off special was broadcast for Children in Need 2013 on 15 November 2013. Sir Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly hosted the show, and was judged by Len Goodman, Darcey Bussell and Bruno Tonioli. The show featured professional ice skaters Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, who were partnered with James Jordan and Aliona Vilani. Bussell voted for Chris and Aliona, but Tonioli and Goodman voted for Jayne and James, who won the show and took home the Pudsey - on - a-glitter - ball trophy.
The judges were: Revel Horwood, Bussell, Goodman & Tonioli. There were two teams with one children couple and one of the shows professional as a couple, Team Glitter 's pros were Natalie Lowe & Anton Du Beke and Team Sparkle 's pros were Aliona Vilani & Tristan MacManus. Team Glitter took home the trophy.
On 13 August 2015, it was announced that Call the Midwife actors Jenny Agutter, Laura Main, Stephen McGann and Jack Ashton would appear on the 2015 Children in Need special. Tess Daly hosted the show, along with former presenter Sir Bruce Forsyth in what was Forsyth 's final formal television appearance prior to his death in 2017.
On the 18 November 2016, British olympians Canoeist Joe Clarke, Hockey player Hollie Webb, Taekwando athlete, Lutalo Muhammad and Rower Helen Glover competed in the 2016 Children in Need Special. Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman presented the show, making it the first Children in Need not co-presented by Sir Bruce Forsyth.
The BBC announced that former and current Blue Peter presenters would take part in the 2017 special.
On 11 September 2014, the BBC announced that a special non-celebrity version of the show would air for Comic Relief 2015. It featured six inspirational heroes who underwent four weeks of training before performing live in the studio.
The series began airing on 25 February 2015 over four pre-recorded episodes, the first two episodes introduced the contestants, the third episode on 5 March followed their training and preparation for the show. The fourth episode on 11 March saw the couples take to the dance floor, with the winner decided via an online public vote and announced live on Red Nose Day 2015 on 13 March.
The series was hosted by Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman, and judged by Bussell, Tonioli and Goodman alongside guest judge Anton du Beke. Craig Revel Horwood did not take part as a judge due to prior commitments. The judges ' scores were for guidance only.
On 27 December 2008, a special episode of The Weakest Link was broadcast on BBC One featuring participants of Strictly Come Dancing. The game was won by series 6 celebrity Mark Foster, who beat professional dancer Anton du Beke in the final. Participants in order of elimination were:
Strictly Come Dancing went on tour at the beginning of 2008 for the first time. The tour was hosted by Kate Thornton, and judged by Craig Revel Horwood, Arlene Phillips, and Len Goodman. Bruno Tonioli was not a judge in this competition due to him being in Los Angeles. The tour began on 18 January 2008 in Glasgow and finished on 19 February 2008 in Birmingham.
Celebrity dancers taking part were:
Christopher Parker 's original partner Hannah Karttunen did not dance with him as she had left the show before this tour. Denise Lewis also had a different partner as her original partner Ian Waite danced with more recent partner Zoë Ball. Instead she danced with Matthew Cutler
Strictly Professionals James Jordan and Ola Jordan also performed a routine together.
The results of the tour are as follows:
Denise Lewis, Christopher Parker or James Martin were not winners or runners up at any stage of the tour.
The Strictly Come Dancing Tour returned in January and February 2009. Kate Thornton returned to host, and all four judges from the TV series took part.
Celebrity dancers taking part were:
The couples and results of the tour were as follows:
Gethin Jones and Julian Clary were paired with new professional partners -- Jones ' partner Camilla Dallerup danced with her series six celebrity Tom Chambers, whilst Clary 's partner (Erin Boag) did not take part in the tour, as she and her professional partner Anton du Beke were on their own Cheek To Cheek tour of the UK.
Strictly Come Dancing professionals Matthew Cutler and Kristina Rihanoff also performed a routine together.
The DVD was released on 9 November 2009.
The Strictly Come Dancing Live Tour took place in January and February 2010. Amanda Byram and Kate Thornton hosted on different nights.
The judging panel consisted of four members:
The following celebrities and professional dancers starred in the tour:
Two other pro dancers danced on the tour:
Nine professional show dancers took part in the first Strictly Come Dancing -- The Professionals Tour between April to July 2010. It featured:
The Strictly Come Dancing 2011 UK tour returned to UK arenas during January and February 2011. Zoë Ball joined as host. Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Len Goodman returned as judges. The celebrities and professionals who participated were:
Also making a guest appearance in the tour was Fever Dance Company and their amazing formation team.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2012 UK tour began its run on 20 January and finished on 26 February. The venues hosting the tour were:
Kate Thornton returned as host. Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Len Goodman returned as judges. Horwood directed the tour for the second year.
The celebrities and professionals who participated were:
Ian Waite performed with Natalie on the tour, but did not partner a celebrity.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2013 UK tour began its run on 18 January 2013. The confirmed line - up of celebrities and professionals for the tour is as follows:
Kate Thornton returned as host; Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Len Goodman returned as judges. Iveta Lukosiute also performed on the tour, but did not partner a celebrity. Louis Smith and Ola Jordan were the overall champions of the tour, with the most wins.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2014 UK Tour begun on 17 January 2014 at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham and ended at The O2 Arena on 7 February. The tour was hosted by former contestant Lisa Riley, and Bruno Tonioli, Craig Revel Horwood and Len Goodman returned as judges.
The following celebrities and professionals took part:
Natalie Lowe also featured on the tour, but did not partner a celebrity.
This is the first series of The Live Tour! in which all of the celebrities danced with their original partners.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2015 UK Tour began on 16 January 2015 at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham and concluded at The O2 Arena on 8 February 2015. The tour was hosted by former contestant and It Takes Two host Zoë Ball for the second time. Craig Revel Horwood returned as judge, but Len Goodman and Bruno Tonioli did not take part due to other commitments including Dancing with the Stars in the United States, so they were replaced by Series 6 champion Tom Chambers and his professional partner Camilla Dallerup. Anton du Beke was also a judge in the Echo Arena, Liverpool and Wembley Arena, London. Len Goodman was a judge just for the O2 show on 8 February and on that same show the presenter was Lisa Riley.
The following celebrities and professionals took part:
Caroline Flack danced with Tristan MacManus not her partner in the series Pasha Kovalev
Trent Whiddon also featured on the tour to dance with Iveta, but did not partner a celebrity. Simon Webbe and Kristina Rihanoff are the overall champions of the tour, with the most wins.
Pro Partners on the tour were as follows:
The 2016 tour started on 22 January and finished on 14 February. The new presenter was Mel Giedroyc and the judges were Craig Revel Horwood, Len Goodman and Bruno Tonioli.
Joanne Clifton was also featured on the tour, but not partner a celebrity.
Pro Partners on the tour were as follows:
Natalie Lowe was scheduled to dance on the tour but she sustained an injury during tour rehearsals. Karen Clifton, who was already set to dance on the tour without a celebrity partner, took over for Lowe.
Mel Giedroyc was ill on 9 February so Anita Rani hosted instead. However, she still performed her Paso Doble but not for votes.
The 2017 tour was presented by 2015 semi-finalist Anita Rani. The judges were Craig Revel Horwood, Len Goodman and Karen Hardy. The tour started on 20 January and finished on 12 February.
The full tour line up was announced on 14 December:
Due to Ed Balls not dancing in Manchester, Judge Rinder and Oksana Platero will replace him on the 4 and 5 February.
Extra Dancers on Tour who are dancing in Group Dances:
The scores presented below represent the best overall accumulative average scores the celebrities gained each series.
Female
Male
The scores presented below represent the worst overall accumulative average score the celebrities gained each series.
Female
Male
On forty - seven occasions, a perfect 40 out of 40 has been awarded inside the main series (including three perfect 50 out of 50s in Series 7). Caroline Flack and Pasha Kovalev, and Danny Mac and Oti Mabuse both hold the record for most perfect scores with four forties. Kovalev also holds the record for most perfect scores by a professional dancer with eight forties. On another eight occasions, a couple scored 40 / 40 on a Christmas Special. The Rumba is the only dance style not to have received the perfect score.
Here is a table showing all of the perfect scores achieved by number of perfect scores
By Celebrity:
By Professional:
The lowest score the judges have ever awarded was 8 / 40 (1, 1, 3, 3) to Quentin Willson and Hazel Newberry for their Cha Cha Cha. Nine individual ones have been awarded in the entirety of Strictly Come Dancing, with eight of those coming from Craig Revel Horwood and the other coming from Arlene Philips. Ann Widdecombe holds the current record for the most ones, receiving ones from Revel Horwood for her Salsa, Samba, and Rumba. The biggest margin between two singular judges scores is five, awarded to Jason Wood and Kylie Jones for their Rumba (2, 5, 7, 5), Christopher Parker and Hanna Karttunen for their Tango (2, 6, 7, 6), Gary Rhodes and Karen Hardy for their Cha - Cha - Cha (1, 5, 6, 5), Scott Maslen and Natalie Lowe for their Rumba (4, 9, 7, 8), Mark Benton and Iveta Lukosiute for their Cha - Cha - Cha (3, 8, 8, 7), and Scott Mills and Joanne Clifton for their Samba with Donny Osmond (2, 5, 7, 5, 6).
Ricky Whittle and his partner Natalie Lowe hold the record for the most tens with 28. However, if the four tens given by Darcey Bussell during her tenure as a fifth judge are removed, he is behind Danny Mac and Oti Mabuse, with 26 tens, and Rachel Stevens and her partner Vincent Simone and Harry Judd and his partner Aliona Vilani with 25 each. They are followed by Natalie Gumede and Artem Chigvintsev, and Ore Oduba and Joanne Clifton with 24 each, Caroline Flack and Pasha Kovalev with 23, Abbey Clancy and Aljaž Skorjanec with 22, Kara Tointon and Artem Chigvintsev with 21 and Lisa Snowdon and Brendan Cole, Kimberley Walsh and Pasha Kovalev and Denise van Outen and James Jordan with 20. Of these celebrities, Snowdon and Cole and Flack and Kovalev are the only pairings to receive straight tens from the judges in all of their dances in their respective series finals. Flack and Kovalev are the only pair to manage three sets of perfect 40 marks in the final, and also hold the records for the longest consecutive streak of 40 marks with four, that includes their Salsa in the semi-final show, and the longest consecutive streak of tens, that adds to a total of 16.
Gumede and Chigvintsev also have the best average score from the judges out of all contestants on every series being 36.9 / 40 for their dances. Danny Mac and Oti Mabuse, and Alesha Dixon and her partner Matthew Cutler, follow, with averages of 36.6 and 36.5 respectively. Quentin Willson, Diarmuid Gavin and Nicholas Owen hold averages of 8.0, 13.8 and 14.0, the lowest of any celebrities so far.
The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges ' marks (out of 40) are as follows (not including scores earned on Christmas or any other specials).
For a more accurate comparison Darcey Bussell 's scores have been subtracted from the totals of the Series 7 quarter - finalists where relevant; specifically Ali Bastian 's American Smooth, Chris Hollins ' Charleston and Ricky Whittle 's Quickstep. Bussell scored all of them a ten. Whittle 's Showdance has not been included as it did not receive the perfect score from Bussell, and therefore can not be considered the same standard. The Rumba is the only dance that has not received the full mark of 40, the highest score being 39 / 40. Winner of series 12, Caroline Flack, and runner - up of series 14, Danny Mac, hold the record for receiving the most perfect scores as a celebrity with four. With eight perfect scores, Flack 's partner Pasha Kovalev holds the record for most perfect scores by a professional dancer.
Television presenter Johnny Ball, who was 74 when he competed in 2012, is the oldest contestant; he was older than magician Paul Daniels and actress Lesley Joseph, who were 72 & 71 when they competed in 2010 & 2016 respectively. Actress Louisa Lytton, who was 17 when she competed in 2006, remains the youngest contestant. TV presenter Chris Hollins, who was 38 when he competed in 2009, is the oldest series winner and gymnast Louis Smith, who was 23 when he competed in 2012, is the youngest series winner. At 20, Christopher Parker and Matt Di Angelo are the youngest contestants to make it to the finale. while Dr. Pamela Stephenson is the oldest, at the age of 61.
Series 8 contestant Ann Widdecombe holds the record for the most lowest scores, with a highest score of 21 / 40 and lowest score of 12 / 40. Series 2 contestant Quentin Willson holds the record for the overall lowest score of 8 / 40 (1, 1, 3, 3) and lowest average 8.0 / 40.0. Series 11 contestant Natalie Gumede holds the highest average score with 36.9 / 40.0. Series 12 winner Caroline Flack and series 14 runner - up Danny Mac hold the record for the most perfect scores with four 40s. Series 13 contestant Jamelia holds the record for being in the most dance - offs, which is 5. Series 15 contestant Debbie McGee holds the record for getting the earliest ever 40 in the competition which was in week 7, for her Tango. This was also the first 40 with Shirley Ballas as the head judge.
In December 2008, the show hit the headlines when viewers were able to register telephone votes for a couple that effectively they could not save from the dance off irrespective of how many public votes were cast in their favour. Tom Chambers and Camilla Dallerup had finished bottom of the leaderboard, whilst the two other couples were tied above them; this meant they could not mathematically survive given the scoring system, however viewers were invited to call in to save their favourites at a cost of 15p per vote. This resulted in the elimination for that week being cancelled and all the votes being carried over to the final.
The decision to drop Arlene Phillips from the judging line - up for the 2009 series of Strictly Come Dancing led to much criticism being directed at the BBC by various UK newspapers, notably The Sun, running the axe as a headline story for its handling of older female television personalities. Accusations resurfaced that the BBC routinely discriminates against women in television based on their age. The most notable examples of purported age discrimination in the BBC include the release of newsreader Moira Stuart in 2007 and the retirement of Anna Ford in 2006. Other high - profile BBC personalities such as Selina Scott and Kate Adie accused the BBC of age discrimination towards women.
The axing of Phillips led to an unprecedented intervention from the government 's Minister for Women and Equality, Harriet Harman. During a session in the House of Commons, Harman responded to questions stating that she believed the decision to drop Phillips was motivated by age discrimination and called on the BBC to ensure that she would be taking part in the new series. The BBC has not formally responded to this request, but has repeated its comments that the decision was not due to age. The appointment of Alesha Dixon to the judging panel prompted 5,000 complaints to the BBC, and her judging debut was met with hostility among viewers and tabloids alike but she was subsequently believed by some to be a successful judge, giving both praise and constructive criticism. Dixon was lured away from the show after series 9 by ITV to join the judging panel of Britain 's Got Talent. Phillips was a popular media choice to replace her, but the role instead went to series 7 guest judge Darcey Bussell.
In 2009, a scandal embroiled the show involving professional dancer Anton du Beke, who in an off air conversation commented "Oh my God, you look like a Paki. '' to his dance partner of Moroccan descent Laila Rouass for which he has subsequently unreservedly apologised. Whilst both of the people involved insisted that the comments had been intended as humorous banter, the news nevertheless prompted numerous complaints filed by viewers calling for du Beke to be removed from his position.
In 2015, CJ de Mooi said that he was turned down for the show because he had wanted to dance with a same - sex partner. In response, the BBC said "Strictly is a family show and we have chosen the traditional format of mixed - sex couples ''. The issue came up again in 2016 when Will Young (who is gay) was due to appear on the show. The BBC said he would be appearing alongside a female dancer, and released a statement saying "The show has chosen the traditional Latin and Ballroom format of mixed - sex couples. ''
An example of Strictly Come Dancing 's popularity is that after episodes, electricity use in the United Kingdom rises significantly as viewers who have waited for the show to end begin boiling water for tea, a phenomenon known as TV pick - up. National Grid personnel watch the show to know when closing credits begin so they can prepare for the surge.
All ratings are from BARB. Series averages exclude Christmas special and launch show.
The show has won a highly prestigious Rose D'Or award for ' Best Variety Show ', beating off competition from reality shows from twelve other different countries. It has also won two awards for ' Best Reality Show ' at the TRIC Awards and two at the TV Quick Awards for ' Best Talent Show '. It has also received four BAFTA Award nominations.
The show won the award of ' Most Popular Talent Show ' at the National Television Awards in 2008, 2013, 2014, 2016 and 2017
In the Guinness Book of World Records 2010 edition, the format of Strictly Come Dancing was named the most successful television show with the format being sold to more than 38 countries worldwide.
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who led raids to hunt down suspected communists socialists and anarchists | Palmer raids - wikipedia
The Palmer Raids were a series of raids conducted by the United States Department of Justice to capture and arrest suspected radical leftists, especially anarchists, and deport them from the United States. The raids and arrests occurred in November 1919 and January 1920 under the leadership of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. Though more than 500 foreign citizens were deported, including a number of prominent leftist leaders, Palmer 's efforts were largely frustrated by officials at the U.S. Department of Labor, which had authority for deportations and objected to Palmer 's methods.
The Palmer Raids occurred in the larger context of the Red Scare, the term given to fear of and reaction against communist radicals in the U.S. in the years immediately following World War I. There were strikes that garnered national attention, race riots in more than 30 cities, and two sets of bombings in April and June 1919, including one bomb mailed to Palmer 's home.
During the First World War, there was a nationwide campaign in the United States against the real and imagined divided political loyalties of immigrants and ethnic groups, who were feared to have too much loyalty for their nations of origin. Particular targets were Germans, with sympathies for their homeland, and Irish, whose countrymen were in revolt against America 's ally, the United Kingdom. In 1915, President Wilson warned against hyphenated Americans who, he charged, had "poured the poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our national life. '' "Such creatures of passion, disloyalty and anarchy '', Wilson continued "must be crushed out ''. The Russian Revolution of 1917 added special force to fear of labor agitators and partisans of ideologies like anarchism and communism. The general strike in Seattle in February 1919 represented a new development in labor unrest that the war had suppressed.
The fears of Wilson and other government officials were confirmed when Galleanists -- Italian followers of the anarchist Luigi Galleani -- carried out a series of bombings in April and June 1919. At the end of April, some 30 Galleanist letter bombs had been mailed to a host of individuals, mostly prominent government officials and businessmen, but also law enforcement officials. Only a few reached their targets, and not all exploded when opened. Some people suffered injuries, including a housekeeper in Senator Thomas W. Hardwick 's residence, who had her hands blown off. On June 2, 1919, a second wave of bombings occurred, when several much larger package bombs were detonated by Galleanists in eight American cities, including one that damaged the home of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in Washington, D.C. At least one person was killed in this second attack, night watchman William Boehner, and fears were raised because it occurred in the capital. Flyers declaring war on capitalists in the name of anarchist principles accompanied each bomb.
In June 1919, Attorney General Palmer told the House Appropriations Committee that all evidence promised that radicals would "on a certain day... rise up and destroy the government at one fell swoop. '' He requested an increase in his budget to $2,000,000 from $1,500,000 to support his investigations of radicals, but Congress limited the increase to $100,000.
An initial raid in July 1919 against an anarchist group in Buffalo, New York, achieved little when a federal judge tossed out Palmer 's case. He found in the case that the three arrested radicals, charged under a law dating from the Civil War, had proposed transforming the government by using their free speech rights and not by violence. That taught Palmer that he needed to exploit the more powerful immigration statutes that authorized the deportation of alien anarchists, violent or not. To do that, he needed to enlist the cooperation of officials at the Department of Labor. Only the Secretary of Labor could issue warrants for the arrest of alien violators of the Immigrations Acts, and only he could sign deportation orders following a hearing by an immigration inspector.
On August 1, 1919, Palmer named 24 - year - old J. Edgar Hoover to head a new division of the Justice Department 's Bureau of Investigation, the General Intelligence Division (GID), with responsibility for investigating the programs of radical groups and identifying their members. The Boston Police Strike in early September raised concerns about possible threats to political and social stability. On October 17, the Senate passed a unanimous resolution demanding Palmer explain what actions he had or had not taken against radical aliens and why.
At 9 pm on November 7, 1919, a date chosen because it was the second anniversary of the Bolshevik revolution, agents of the Bureau of Investigation, together with local police, executed a series of well - publicized and violent raids against the Union of Russian Workers in 12 cities. Newspaper accounts reported some were "badly beaten '' during the arrests. Many later swore they were threatened and beaten during questioning. Government agents cast a wide net, bringing in some American citizens, passers - by who admitted being Russian, some not members of the Russian Workers. Others were teachers conducting night school classes in space shared with the targeted radical group. Arrests far exceeded the number of warrants. Of 650 arrested in New York City, the government managed to deport just 43.
When Palmer replied to the Senate 's questions of October 17, he reported that his department had amassed 60,000 names with great effort. Required by the statutes to work through the Department of Labor, they had arrested 250 dangerous radicals in the November 7 raids. He proposed a new Anti-Sedition Law to enhance his authority to prosecute anarchists.
As Attorney General Palmer struggled with exhaustion and devoted all his energies to the United Mine Workers coal strike in November and December 1919, Hoover organized the next raids. He successfully persuaded the Department of Labor to ease its insistence on promptly alerting those arrested of their right to an attorney. Instead Labor issued instructions that its representatives could wait until after the case against the defendant was established, "in order to protect government interests. '' Less openly, Hoover decided to interpret Labor 's agreement to act against the Communist Party to include a different organization, the Communist Labor Party. Finally, despite the fact that Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson insisted that more than membership in an organization was required for a warrant, Hoover worked with more compliant Labor officials and overwhelmed Labor staff to get the warrants he wanted. Justice Department officials, including Palmer and Hoover, later claimed ignorance of such details.
The Justice Department launched a series of raids on January 2, 1920, with follow up operations over the next few days. Smaller raids extended over the next 6 weeks. At least 3000 were arrested, and many others were held for various lengths of time. The entire enterprise replicated the November action on a larger scale, including arrests and seizures without search warrants, as well as detention in overcrowded and unsanitary holding facilities. Hoover later admitted "clear cases of brutality. '' The raids covered more than 30 cities and towns in 23 states, but those west of the Mississippi and south of the Ohio were "publicity gestures '' designed to make the effort appear nationwide in scope. Because the raids targeted entire organizations, agents arrested everyone found in organization meeting halls, not only arresting non-radical organization members but also visitors who did not belong to a target organization, and sometimes American citizens not eligible for arrest and deportation.
The Department of Justice at one point claimed to have taken possession of several bombs, but after a few iron balls were displayed to the press they were never mentioned again. All the raids netted a total of just four ordinary pistols.
While most press coverage continued to be positive, with criticism only from leftist publications like The Nation and The New Republic, one attorney raised the first noteworthy protest. Francis Fisher Kane, the U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, resigned in protest. In his letter of resignation to the President and the Attorney General he wrote: "It seems to me that the policy of raids against large numbers of individuals is generally unwise and very apt to result in injustice. People not really guilty are likely to be arrested and railroaded through their hearings... We appear to be attempting to repress a political party... By such methods we drive underground and make dangerous what was not dangerous before. '' Palmer replied that he could not use individual arrests to treat an "epidemic '' and asserted his own fidelity to constitutional principles. He added: "The Government should encourage free political thinking and political action, but it certainly has the right for its own preservation to discourage and prevent the use of force and violence to accomplish that which ought to be accomplished, if at all, by parliamentary or political methods. '' The Washington Post endorsed Palmer 's claim for urgency over legal process: "There is no time to waste on hairsplitting over infringement of liberties. ''
In a few weeks, after changes in personnel at the Department of Labor, Palmer faced a new and very independent - minded Acting Secretary of Labor in Assistant Secretary of Labor Louis Freeland Post, who canceled more than 2,000 warrants as being illegal. Of the 10,000 arrested, 3,500 were held by authorities in detention; 556 resident aliens were eventually deported under the Immigration Act of 1918.
At a Cabinet meeting in April 1920, Palmer called on Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson to fire Post, but Wilson defended him. The President listened to his feuding department heads and offered no comment about Post, but he ended the meeting by telling Palmer that he should "not let this country see red. '' Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, who made notes of the conversation, thought the Attorney General had merited the President 's "admonition '', because Palmer "was seeing red behind every bush and every demand for an increase in wages. ''
Palmer 's supporters in Congress responded with an attempt to impeach Louis Post or, failing that, to censure him. The drive against Post began to lose energy when Attorney General Palmer 's forecast of an attempted radical uprising on May Day 1920 failed to occur. Then, in testimony before the House Rules Committee on May 7 -- 8, Post proved "a convincing speaker with a caustic tongue '' and defended himself so successfully that Congressman Edward W. Pou, a Democrat presumed to be an enthusiastic supporter of Palmer, congratulated him: "I feel that you have followed your sense of duty absolutely. ''
On May 28, 1920, the nascent American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) published its Report Upon the Illegal Practices of the United States Department of Justice, which carefully documented unlawful activities in arresting suspected radicals, illegal entrapment by agents provocateur, and unlawful incommunicado detention. Such prominent lawyers and law professors as Felix Frankfurter, Roscoe Pound and Ernst Freund signed it. Harvard Professor Zechariah Chafee criticized the raids and attempts at deportations and the lack of legal process in his 1920 volume Freedom of Speech. He wrote: "That a Quaker should employ prison and exile to counteract evil - thinking is one of the saddest ironies of our time. '' The Rules Committee gave Palmer a hearing in June, where he attacked Post and other critics whose "tender solicitude for social revolution and perverted sympathy for the criminal anarchists... set at large among the people the very public enemies whom it was the desire and intention of the Congress to be rid of. '' The press saw the dispute as evidence of the Wilson administration 's ineffectiveness and division as it approached its final months.
In June 1920, a decision by Massachusetts District Court Judge George Anderson ordered the discharge of 17 arrested aliens and denounced the Department of Justice 's actions. He wrote that "a mob is a mob, whether made up of Government officials acting under instructions from the Department of Justice, or of criminals and loafers and the vicious classes. '' His decision effectively prevented any renewal of the raids.
Palmer, once seen as a likely presidential candidate, lost his bid to win the Democratic nomination for president later in the year. The anarchist bombing campaign continued intermittently for another twelve years.
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when does wheel of fortune start its new season | Wheel of Fortune (U.S. game show) - Wikipedia
Wheel of Fortune (often known simply as Wheel) is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin that debuted in 1975. The show features a competition in which contestants solve word puzzles, similar to those used in Hangman, to win cash and prizes determined by spinning a giant carnival wheel.
Wheel originally aired as a daytime series on NBC from January 6, 1975, to June 30, 1989. After some changes were made to its format, the daytime series moved to CBS from July 17, 1989, to January 11, 1991. It then returned to NBC from January 14, 1991, until it was cancelled on September 20, 1991. The popularity of the daytime series led to a nightly syndicated edition being developed, which premiered on September 19, 1983, and has aired continuously since.
The network version was originally hosted by Chuck Woolery and Susan Stafford, with Charlie O'Donnell as its announcer. O'Donnell left in 1980 and was replaced by Jack Clark. After Clark 's death in 1988, M.G. Kelly took over briefly as announcer until O'Donnell returned in 1989. O'Donnell remained on the network version until its cancellation, and continued to announce on the syndicated show until his death in 2010, when Jim Thornton succeeded him. Woolery left in 1981, and was replaced by Pat Sajak. Sajak left the network version in January 1989 to host his own late - night talk show, and was replaced on that version by Rolf Benirschke. Bob Goen replaced Benirschke when the network show moved to CBS, then remained as host until the network show was canceled altogether. Stafford left in 1982, and was replaced by Vanna White, who remained on the network show for the rest of its run. The syndicated version has been hosted continuously by Sajak and White since its inception.
Wheel of Fortune ranks as the longest - running syndicated game show in the United States, with over 6,000 episodes aired. TV Guide named it the "top - rated syndicated series '' in a 2008 article, and in 2013, the magazine ranked it at No. 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever. The program has also come to gain a worldwide following with sixty international adaptations. The syndicated series ' 36th season premiered on September 10, 2018.
The core game is based on Hangman. Each round has a category and a blank word puzzle, with each blank representing a letter in the answer, and punctuation revealed as needed. Most puzzles are straightforward figures of speech that fit within a mostly static list of categories, and this list has evolved over the course of the series. Crossword puzzles were added to the rotation in 2016. In such rounds, a clue bonding the words in the puzzle is given instead of a traditional category, and contestants win by solving all the words in the crossword. The titular Wheel of Fortune is a roulette - style wheel mechanism with 24 spaces, most of which are labeled with dollar amounts ranging from $500 to $900, plus a top dollar value: $2,500 in round 1, $3,500 in rounds 2 and 3, and $5,000 for round 4 and any subsequent rounds. The wheel also features two Bankrupt wedges and one Lose a Turn, both of which forfeit the contestant 's turn, with the former also eliminating any cash or prizes the contestant has accumulated within the round. Each game features three contestants, or occasionally, three two - contestant teams positioned behind a single scoreboard with its own flipper. The left scoreboard from the viewer 's perspective is colored red, the center yellow, and the right blue, with the contestants ' positions determined by a random selection prior to taping.
A contestant spins the wheel to determine a dollar value and guess a consonant. Calling a correct letter earns the value before the corresponding flipper, multiplied by the number of times that the letter appears in the puzzle. Calling a correct letter keeps the wheel in the contestant 's control, allowing the contestant to spin again, buy a vowel for a flat rate of $250, or attempt to solve the puzzle. Contestants may continue to buy vowels so long as they have enough money to keep doing so, until all of the vowels in the puzzle have been revealed. Control passes to the next contestant clockwise if the wheel lands on Lose a Turn or Bankrupt, if the contestant calls a letter that is not in the puzzle, calls a letter that has already been called in that round, fails to call a letter within five seconds of the wheel stopping, or attempts unsuccessfully to solve the puzzle. The only exception is the Free Play wedge, on which the contestant may call a consonant for $500 per occurrence, call a free vowel, or solve the puzzle, with no penalty for an incorrect letter or answer.
In the first three rounds, the wheel contains a Wild Card and a Gift Tag, while two 1⁄2 Car tags are present in rounds two and three only (except on episodes with two - player teams). The Wild Card may be used to call an additional consonant after any turn (for the amount that the contestant has just spun) or taken to the bonus round to call an extra consonant there. The Gift Tag offers either a $1,000 credit toward purchases from, or $1,000 in cash courtesy of the sponsoring company. The 1⁄2 Car tags award a car if the contestant wins the round (s) in which he or she claims both. Unlike the other tags, the 1⁄2 Car tags are replaced in subsequent rounds unless the car is won. A special wedge in the first two rounds awards a prize which is described by the announcer if won. All of the tags and the prize wedge are located over the $500 wedges, so calling a letter that appears in the puzzle when landed upon awards both the tag / wedge and $500 per every occurrence of that letter in the puzzle. The first three rounds also contain a special wedge which, if won and taken to the bonus round, offers an opportunity to play that round for $1,000,000. A contestant must solve the puzzle in order to keep any cash, prizes, or extras accumulated during that round except for the Wild Card, which is kept until the contestant either loses it to Bankrupt or uses it. Bankrupt does not affect score from previous rounds, but it does take away the Wild Card, individual 1⁄2 Car tags, and / or million dollar wedge if any was claimed in a previous round. Contestants who solve a round for less than $1,000 in cash and prizes ($2,000 on weeks with two - contestant teams) have their scores increased to that amount.
Each game also features three toss - up puzzles, which reveal the puzzle one random letter at a time, and award cash to whoever rings in with the right answer. The first determines who is interviewed first by the host, the second determines who starts round 1, and the third determines who starts round 4. Respectively, the toss - ups are valued at $1,000, $2,000, and $3,000. Contestants may only ring in once for each toss - up puzzle, and no cash is awarded if all three contestants fail to solve the puzzle, or if the last letter of the puzzle is revealed. In this case, the contestant in the position closest to the host is interviewed first or starts the round. In addition to these, each game has a minimum of four rounds, with more played if time permits. Rounds 2 and 3 are respectively started by the next two contestants clockwise from the contestant who began round 1.
Round 2 features two "mystery wedges ''. Calling a correct letter after landing upon one offers the contestant the chance to accept its face value of $1,000 per letter, or forfeit that amount to flip over the wedge and see whether its reverse side contains a $10,000 cash prize or Bankrupt. Once either mystery wedge is flipped over, the other becomes a standard $1,000 space and can not be flipped. Round 3 is a prize puzzle, which offers a prize (usually a trip) to the contestant who solves it. Starting with season 31 in 2013, an "Express '' wedge is also placed on the wheel in round 3. A contestant who lands on this space and calls a consonant that appears in the puzzle receives $1,000 per appearance. The contestant can then either "pass '' and continue the round normally, or "play '' and keep calling consonants for $1,000 each (without spinning) and buying vowels for $250. The Express play ends when the contestant either calls an incorrect letter (which has the same effect as landing on a Bankrupt wedge) or solves the puzzle.
The final round is always played at least in part in a "speed - up '' format, in which the host spins the wheel to determine the value of each consonant, with $1,000 being added to the value on which the wheel stops before the red contestant 's arrow. Vowels do not add or deduct money from the contestants ' scores in the speed - up round. The contestant in control calls one letter, and if it appears in the puzzle, the contestant is given three seconds to attempt to solve. Play proceeds clockwise, starting with the contestant who was in control at the time of the final spin, until the puzzle is solved. The three - second timer does not begin until the hostess has revealed all instances of a called letter and moved aside from the puzzle board, and the contestant may offer multiple guesses on his / her turn. After the speed - up round, the total winnings of the three contestants are compared. The contestant with the highest total winnings wins the game and advances to the bonus round. Contestants who fail to earn any cash or prizes in the game are awarded a consolation prize of $1,000 (or $2,000 on weeks with two - contestant teams).
If a tie for first place occurs after the speed - up round, an additional toss - up puzzle is played between the tied contestants. The contestant who solves the toss - up puzzle wins $1,000 and advances to the bonus round.
Before the bonus round begins, the winning contestant chooses one of three categories for his or her puzzle (prior to season 35, the puzzle and category were predetermined). After doing so, the contestant spins a smaller wheel with 24 envelopes to determine the prize. He or she is then shown a puzzle in the chosen category, and every instance of R, S, T, L, N, and E is revealed. The contestant provides three more consonants (four if he / she is holding the Wild Card) and one more vowel, then has 10 seconds to solve the puzzle after his or her other letters (if any) are revealed. The contestant may make as many guesses as necessary, so long as the contestant begins the correct answer before time expires. Whether or not the contestant solves the puzzle, the host opens the envelope at the end of the round to reveal the prize at stake. Prizes in the bonus round include various cash amounts (with the lowest being the season number multiplied by $1,000), a vehicle (or two vehicles during weeks with two - contestant teams), and a top prize of $100,000.
If the contestant has the Million Dollar Wedge, the $100,000 envelope is replaced with a $1,000,000 envelope. The $1,000,000 prize has been awarded three times: to Michelle Loewenstein (October 14, 2008), to Autumn Erhard (May 30, 2013), and to Sarah Manchester (September 17, 2014). Contestants who win the $1,000,000 may receive it in installments over 20 years, or in a lump sum of that amount 's present value. At the end of the Bonus Round, Sajak will reveal where the $1,000,000 envelope was on the prize wheel if the contestant failed to land on it.
Originally, after winning a round, contestants spent their winnings on prizes that were presented onstage. At any time during a shopping round, most often if the contestant did not have enough left to buy another prize, a contestant could choose to put his or her winnings on a gift certificate, or he or she could put the winnings "on account '' for use in a later shopping round. However, a contestant lost any money on account by landing on Bankrupt or failing to claim it by not winning subsequent rounds. The shopping element was eliminated from the syndicated version on the episode that aired October 5, 1987, both to speed up gameplay and to alleviate the taxes paid by contestants. However, the network version continued to use the shopping element until the end of its first NBC run on June 30, 1989.
Before the introduction of toss - up puzzles at the start of the 18th syndicated season in 2000, the contestant at the red arrow always started round 1, with the next contestant clockwise starting each subsequent round. In addition, if a tie for first place occurred, an additional speed - up round was played between the tied contestants for the right to go to the bonus round. The wheel formerly featured a Free Spin wedge, which automatically awarded a token that the contestant could turn in after a lost turn to keep control of the wheel. It was replaced in 1989 with a single Free Spin token placed over a selected cash wedge. Free Spin was retired, and Free Play introduced, at the start of the 27th syndicated season in 2009. Between September 16, 1996 and the end of season 30 in 2013, the show featured a progressive Jackpot wedge, which had been in several different rounds in its history. The jackpot started at $5,000 and had the value of every spin within the round added to it. To claim the jackpot, a contestant had to land on the wedge, call a correct letter, and solve the puzzle all in the same turn. In later years, it also offered $500 per correct letter and $500 to the jackpot, regardless of whether or not it was won in that turn.
The network version allowed champions to appear for up to five days originally, which was later reduced to three. The syndicated version, which originally retired contestants after one episode, adopted the three - day champion rule at the start of the seventh season in 1989. In 1996, this was changed to have the top three winners from the week 's first four shows returned to compete in the "Friday Finals ''. When the jackpot wedge was introduced, it began at $10,000 instead of $5,000 on Fridays. The rules allowing returning champions were eliminated permanently beginning with the syndicated episode aired September 21, 1998, and contestants appear only on a single episode, reverting to the pre-1989 rules.
Before December 1981, the show did not feature a bonus round. Under the bonus round 's original rules, no letters were provided automatically. The contestant asked for five consonants and a vowel, and then had fifteen seconds to attempt solving the puzzle. Also, bonus prizes were selected by the contestant at the start of the round. The current time limit and rules for letter selection were introduced on October 3, 1988. Starting on September 4, 1989, the first episode of the seventh syndicated season, bonus prizes were selected by the contestant choosing from one of five envelopes labeled W, H, E, E, and L. One prize was always $25,000 in cash, and the rest were changed weekly. Any prize that was won was taken out of rotation for the rest of the week. During seasons 16 through 18 (1998 -- 2001), the $25,000 remained in - place the entire week of shows regardless if it was won. At the start of season 19 on September 3, 2001, there were three car envelopes and two $25,000 envelopes, which were available the entire week of shows. These envelopes were replaced with the bonus wheel on October 22, 2001.
Merv Griffin conceived Wheel of Fortune just as the original version of Jeopardy!, another show he had created, was ending its 11 - year run on NBC with Art Fleming as its host. Griffin decided to create a Hangman - style game after recalling long car trips as a child, on which he and his sister played Hangman. After he discussed the idea with Merv Griffin Enterprises ' staff, they thought that the idea would work as a game show if it had a "hook ''. He decided to add a roulette - style wheel because he was always "drawn to '' such wheels when he saw them in casinos. He and MGE 's then - president Murray Schwartz consulted an executive of Caesars Palace to find out how to build such a wheel.
When Griffin pitched the idea for the show to Lin Bolen, then the head of NBC 's daytime programming division, she approved, but wanted the show to have more glamour to attract the female audience. She suggested that Griffin incorporate a shopping element into the gameplay, and so, in 1973, he created a pilot episode titled Shopper 's Bazaar, with Chuck Woolery as host and Mike Lawrence as announcer. The pilot started with the three contestants being introduced individually, with Lawrence describing the prizes that they chose to play for. The main game was played to four rounds, with the values on the wheel wedges increasing after the second round. Unlike the show it evolved into, Shopper 's Bazaar had a vertically mounted wheel, which was spun automatically rather than by the contestants. This wheel lacked the Bankrupt wedge and featured a wedge where a contestant could call a vowel for free, as well as a "Your Own Clue '' wedge that allowed contestants to pick up a rotary telephone and hear a private clue about the puzzle. At the end of the game, the highest - scoring contestant played a bonus round called the "Shopper 's Special '' where all the vowels in the puzzle were already there, and the contestant had 30 seconds to call out consonants in the puzzle.
Edd Byrnes, an actor from 77 Sunset Strip, served as host for the second and third pilots, both titled Wheel of Fortune. These pilots were directed by Marty Pasetta, who gave the show a "Vegas '' feel that more closely resembled the look and feel that the actual show ended up having, a wheel that was now spun by the contestants themselves, and a lighted mechanical puzzle board with letters that were now manually turnable. Showcase prizes on these pilots were located behind the puzzle board, and during shopping segments a list of prizes and their price values scrolled on the right of the screen. By the time production began in December 1974, Woolery was selected to host, the choice being made by Griffin after he reportedly heard Byrnes reciting "A-E-I-O-U '' to himself in an effort to remember the vowels. Susan Stafford turned the letters on Byrnes ' pilot episodes, a role that she also held when the show was picked up as a series.
The original host of Wheel of Fortune was Chuck Woolery, who hosted the series from its 1975 premiere until December 25, 1981, save for one week in August 1980 when Alex Trebek hosted in his place. Woolery 's departure came over a salary dispute with show creator Merv Griffin, and his contract was not renewed. On December 28, 1981, Pat Sajak made his debut as the host of Wheel. Griffin said that he chose Sajak for his "odd '' sense of humor. NBC president and CEO Fred Silverman objected as he felt Sajak, who at the time of his hiring was the weatherman for KNBC - TV, was "too local '' for a national audience. Griffin countered by telling Silverman he would stop production if Sajak was not allowed to become host, and Silverman acquiesced.
Sajak hosted the daytime series until January 9, 1989, when he left to host a late - night talk show for CBS. Rolf Benirschke, a former placekicker in the National Football League, was chosen as his replacement and hosted for a little more than five months. Benirschke 's term as host came to an end due to NBC 's cancellation of the daytime Wheel after fourteen years, with its final episode airing on June 30, 1989. When the newly formatted daytime series returned on CBS on July 17, 1989, Bob Goen became its host. The daytime program continued for a year and a half on CBS, then returned to NBC on January 14, 1991 and continued until September 20, 1991 when it was cancelled for a second and final time.
Susan Stafford was the original hostess, serving in that role from the premiere until October 1982. Stafford was absent for two extended periods, once in 1977 after fracturing two vertebrae in her back and once in 1979 after an automobile accident. During these two extended absences, former Miss USA Summer Bartholomew was Stafford 's most frequent substitute, with model Cynthia Washington and comedian Arte Johnson also filling in for Stafford.
After Stafford left to become a humanitarian worker, over two hundred applicants signed up for a nationwide search to be her replacement. Griffin eventually narrowed the list to three finalists, which consisted of Summer Bartholomew, former Playboy centerfold Vicki McCarty, and Vanna White. Griffin gave each of the three women an opportunity to win the job by putting them in a rotation for several weeks after Stafford 's departure. In December 1982, Griffin named White as Stafford 's successor, saying that he felt she was capable of activating the puzzle board letters (which is the primary role of the Wheel hostess) better than anyone else who had auditioned. White became highly popular among the young female demographic, and also gained a fanbase of adults interested in her daily wardrobe, in a phenomenon that has been referred to as "Vannamania ''. White remained on the daytime series for the rest of the time it was on the air.
Sajak and White have starred on the syndicated version continuously as host and hostess, respectively, since it began, except for very limited occasions. During two weeks in January 1991, Tricia Gist, the girlfriend and future wife of Griffin 's son Tony, filled in for White when she and her new husband, restaurateur George San Pietro, were honeymooning. Gist returned for the week of episodes airing March 11 through 15, 1991, because White had a cold at the time of taping. On an episode in November 1996, when Sajak proved unable to host the bonus round segment because of laryngitis, he and White traded places for that segment. On the March 4, 1997 episode, Rosie O'Donnell co-hosted the third round with White after O'Donnell's name was used in a puzzle.
On April 1, 1997, Sajak and Alex Trebek traded jobs for the day. Sajak hosted that day 's edition of Jeopardy! in place of Trebek, who presided over a special two - contestant Wheel celebrity match between Sajak and White, who were playing for the Boy Scouts of America and the American Cancer Society, respectively; Lesly Sajak, Pat 's wife, was the guest hostess for the day. In January and February 2011, the show held a "Vanna for a Day '' contest in which home viewers submitted video auditions to take White 's place for one episode, with the winner determined by a poll on the show 's website; the winner of this contest, Katie Cantrell of Wooster, Ohio (a student at the Savannah College of Art and Design), took White 's place for the second and third rounds on the episode that aired March 24, 2011.
Charlie O'Donnell was the program 's first and longest tenured announcer. In 1980, NBC was discussing cancelling Wheel and O'Donnell agreed to take the position as announcer on The Toni Tennille Show. The network decided against the cancellation but O'Donnell decided to honor his commitment and left the series. His replacement was Jack Clark, who added the syndicated series to his responsibilities when it premiered in 1983 and announced for both series until his death in July 1988. Los Angeles radio personality M.G. Kelly was Clark 's replacement, starting on the daytime series in August 1988 and on the syndicated series when its new season launched a month later. Kelly held these positions until O'Donnell was able to return to the announcer position, doing so after his duties with Barris Industries came to an end at the end of the 1988 -- 89 television season. O'Donnell remained with the series until shortly before his death in November 2010. Don Pardo, Don Morrow, and Johnny Gilbert have occasionally served as substitute announcers.
After O'Donnell's death, the producers sought a permanent replacement, and a series of substitutes filled out the rest of the season, including Gilbert, John Cramer, Joe Cipriano, Rich Fields, Lora Cain and Jim Thornton. For the show 's twenty - ninth season, which began in 2011, Thornton was chosen to be the new announcer for Wheel, and has been with the show ever since.
Wheel of Fortune typically employs a total of 100 in - house production personnel, with 60 to 100 local staff joining them for those episodes that are taped on location. Griffin was the executive producer of the network version throughout its entire run, and served as the syndicated version 's executive producer until his retirement in 2000. Since 1999, the title of executive producer has been held by Harry Friedman, who had shared his title with Griffin for his first year, and had earlier served as a producer starting in 1995.
John Rhinehart was the program 's first producer, but departed in August 1976 to become NBC 's West Coast Daytime Program Development Director. Afterwards, his co-producer, Nancy Jones, was promoted to sole producer, and served as such until 1995, when Friedman succeeded her. In the 15th syndicated season in 1997, Karen Griffith and Steve Schwartz joined Friedman as producers. They were later promoted to supervising producers, with Amanda Stern occupying Griffith 's and Schwartz 's former position.
The show 's original director was Jeff Goldstein, who was succeeded by Dick Carson (a brother of Johnny Carson) in 1978. Mark Corwin, who had served as associate director under Carson, took over for him upon his retirement at the end of the 1998 -- 99 season, and served as such until he himself died in July 2013 (although episodes already taped before his death continued airing until late 2013). Jeopardy! director Kevin McCarthy, Corwin 's associate director Bob Cisneros, and Wheel and Jeopardy! technical director Robert Ennis filled in at various points until Cisneros became full - time director in November 2013. Ennis returned as guest director for the weeks airing October 13 through 17 and November 17 through 21, 2014, as Cisneros was recovering from neck surgery at the time of taping. With the start of the 33rd season on September 14, 2015, Ennis was promoted to full - time director.
Wheel of Fortune is owned by Sony Pictures Television (previously known as Columbia TriStar Television, the successor company to original producer Merv Griffin Enterprises). The production company and copyright holder of all episodes to date is Califon Productions, Inc., which like SPT has Sony Pictures for its active registered agent, and whose name comes from a New Jersey town where Griffin once owned a farm. The rights to distribute the show worldwide are owned by CBS Television Distribution, into which original distributor King World Productions was folded in 2007.
The show was originally taped in Studio 4 at NBC Studios in Burbank. Upon NBC 's 1989 cancellation of the network series, production moved to Studio 33 at CBS Television City in Los Angeles, where it remained until 1995. Since then, the show has occupied Stage 11 at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City. Some episodes are also recorded on location, a tradition which began with two weeks of episodes taped at Radio City Music Hall in late 1988. Recording sessions usually last for five or six episodes in one day.
Various changes have been made to the basic set since the syndicated version 's premiere in 1983. In 1996, a large video display was added center stage, which was then upgraded in 2003 as the show began the transition into high - definition broadcasting. In the mid-1990s, the show began a long - standing tradition of nearly every week coming with its own unique theme. As a result, in addition to its generic design, the set also uses many alternate designs, which are unique to specific weekly sets of themed programs. The most recent set design was conceived by production designer Renee Hoss - Johnson, with later modifications by Jody Vaclav. Previous set designers included Ed Flesh and Dick Stiles.
The first pilot used a vertically mounted wheel which was often difficult to see on - screen. Flesh, who also designed the sets for The $25,000 Pyramid and Jeopardy!, designed the wheel mechanism. Originally made mostly of paint and cardboard, the modern wheel mechanism is framed on a steel tube surrounded with Plexiglas and more than 200 lighting instruments, and is held by a stainless steel shaft with roller bearings. Altogether, the wheel weighs approximately 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg).
The show 's original puzzle board had three rows of 13 manually operated trilons, for a total of 39 spaces. On December 21, 1981, a larger board with 48 trilons in four rows (11, 13, 13 and 11 trilons) was adopted. This board was surrounded by a double - arched border of lights which flashed at the beginning and end of the round. Each trilon had three sides: a green side to represent spaces not used by the puzzle, a blank side to indicate a letter that had not been revealed, and a side with a letter on it. While the viewer saw a seamless transition to the next puzzle, with these older boards in segments where more than one puzzle was present, a stop - down of taping took place during which the board was wheeled offstage and the new puzzle loaded in by hand out of sight of the contestants. On February 24, 1997, the show introduced a computerized puzzle board composed of 52 touch - activated monitors in four rows (12 on the top and bottom rows, 14 in the middle two). To illuminate a letter during regular gameplay, the hostess touches the right edge of the monitor to reveal it. The computerized board obviated the stop - downs, allowing tapings to finish quicker at a lower cost to the production company.
Although not typically seen by viewers, the set also includes a used letter board that shows contestants which letters are remaining in play, a scoreboard that is visible from the contestants ' perspective, and a countdown clock. The used letter board is also used during the bonus round, and in at least one case, helped the contestant to see unused letters to solve a difficult puzzle.
Alan Thicke composed the show 's original theme, which was titled "Big Wheels ''. In 1983, it was replaced by Griffin 's own composition, "Changing Keys '', to allow him to derive royalties from that composition 's use on both the network and syndicated versions. Steve Kaplan became music director starting with the premiere of the 15th syndicated season in 1997, and continued to serve as such until he was killed when the Cessna 421C Golden Eagle he was piloting crashed into a home in Claremont, California, in December 2003. His initial theme was a remix of "Changing Keys '', but by the 18th syndicated season (2000 -- 01), he had replaced it with a composition of his own, which was titled "Happy Wheels ''. Since 2006, music direction has been handled by Frankie Blue and John Hoke. Themes they have written for the show include a remix of "Happy Wheels '' and an original rock - based composition.
In addition to "Changing Keys '', Griffin also composed various incidental music cues for the syndicated version which were used for announcements of prizes in the show 's early years. Among them were "Frisco Disco '' (earlier the closing theme for a revival of Jeopardy! which aired in 1978 and 1979), "A Time for Tony '' (whose basic melody evolved into "Think! '', the longtime theme song for Jeopardy!), "Buzzword '' (later used as the theme for Merv Griffin 's Crosswords), "Nightwalk '', "Struttin ' on Sunset '', and an untitled vacation cue.
Anyone at least 18 years old has the potential to become a contestant through Wheel of Fortune 's audition process. Exceptions include employees and immediate family members of CBS Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries; any firm involved in supplying prizes for the show; and television stations that broadcast Wheel and / or Jeopardy!, their sister radio stations, and those advertising agencies that are affiliated with them. Also ineligible to apply as contestants are individuals who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year, three other game shows within the past ten years, or on any version of Wheel of Fortune itself.
Throughout the year, the show uses a custom - designed Winnebago recreational vehicle called the "Wheelmobile '' to travel across the United States, holding open auditions at various public venues. Participants are provided with entry forms which are then drawn randomly. Individuals whose names are drawn appear on stage, five at a time, and are interviewed by traveling host Marty Lublin. The group of five then plays a mock version of the speed - up round, and five more names are selected after a puzzle is solved. Everyone who is called onstage receives a themed prize, usually determined by the spin of a miniature wheel. Auditions typically last two days, with three one - hour segments per day. After each Wheelmobile event, the "most promising candidates '' are invited back to the city in which the first audition was held, to participate in a second audition. Alternatively, a participant may submit an audition form with a self - shot video through the show 's website to enter an audition. Contestants not appearing on stage at Wheelmobile events have their applications retained and get drawn at random to fill second - level audition vacancies. At the second audition, potential contestants play more mock games featuring a miniature wheel and puzzle board, followed by a 16 - puzzle test with some letters revealed. The contestants have five minutes to solve as many puzzles as they can by writing in the correct letters. The people who pass continue the audition, playing more mock games which are followed by interviews.
Wheel of Fortune premiered on January 6, 1975, at 10: 30 am (9: 30 Central) on NBC. Lin Bolen, then the head of daytime programming, purchased the show from Griffin to compensate him for canceling the original Jeopardy! series, which had one year remaining on its contract. Jeopardy! aired its final episode on the Friday before Wheel 's premiere. The original Wheel aired on NBC, in varying time slots between 10: 30 am and noon, until June 30, 1989. Throughout that version 's run, episodes were generally 30 minutes in length, except for six weeks of shows aired between December 1975 and January 1976 which were 60 minutes in length. NBC announced the cancellation of the show in August 1980, but it stayed on the air following a decision to cut the duration of The David Letterman Show from 90 to 60 minutes. The network Wheel moved to CBS on July 17, 1989, and remained there until January 14, 1991. After that, it briefly returned to NBC, replacing Let 's Make a Deal, but was canceled permanently on September 20 of that year.
The daily syndicated version of Wheel premiered on September 19, 1983, preceded by a series of episodes taped on location at the Ohio State Fair and aired on WBNS - TV in Columbus, Ohio. From its debut, the syndicated version offered a larger prize budget than its network counterpart. The show came from humble beginnings: King World chairmen Roger, Michael, and Robert King could initially find only 50 stations that were willing to carry the show, and since they could not find affiliates for the syndicated Wheel in New York, Los Angeles, or Chicago, Philadelphia was the largest market in which the show could succeed in its early days. Only nine stations carried the show from its beginning, but by midseason it was airing on all 50 of the stations that were initially willing to carry it, and by the beginning of 1984 the show was available to 99 percent of television households. Soon, Wheel succeeded Family Feud as the highest - rated syndicated show, and at the beginning of the 1984 -- 85 season, Griffin followed up on the show 's success by launching a syndicated revival of Jeopardy!, hosted by Alex Trebek. The syndicated success of Wheel and Jeopardy! siphoned ratings from the period 's three longest - running and most popular game shows, Tic - Tac - Dough, The Joker 's Wild, and Family Feud, to the point that all three series came to an end by the fall of 1986. At this point, Wheel had the highest ratings of any syndicated television series in history, and at the peak of the show 's popularity, over 40 million people were watching five nights per week. The series, along with companion series Jeopardy!, remained the most - watched syndicated program in the United States until dethroned by Judge Judy in 2011. The program has become America 's longest - running syndicated game show and its second - longest in either network or syndication, second to the version of The Price Is Right which began airing in 1972. The syndicated Wheel has become part of the consciousness of over 90 million Americans, and awarded a total of over $200 million in cash and prizes to contestants.
The popularity of Wheel of Fortune has led it to become a worldwide franchise, with over forty known adaptations in international markets outside the United States. Versions of the show have existed in such countries as Australia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Spain,, United Kingdom and Vietnam (Chiec Non Ky Dieu). The American version of Wheel has honored its international variants with an occasional theme of special weeks known as "Wheel Around the World '', the inaugural episode of which aired when the 23rd syndicated season premiered on September 12, 2005.
Between September 1997 and January 1998, CBS and Game Show Network concurrently aired a special children 's version of the show titled Wheel 2000. It was hosted by David Sidoni, with Tanika Ray providing voice and motion capture for a virtual reality hostess named "Cyber Lucy ''. Created by Scott Sternberg, the spin - off featured special gameplay in which numerous rules were changed. For example, the show 's child contestants competed for points and prizes instead of cash, with the eventual winner playing for a grand prize in the bonus round.
Wheel of Fortune has long been one of the highest - rated programs on U.S. syndicated television. It was the highest - rated show in all of syndication before it was dethroned by Two and a Half Men in the 28th season (2010 -- 11). The syndicated Wheel shared the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show with Jeopardy! in 2011, and Sajak won three Daytime Emmys for Outstanding Game Show Host -- in 1993, 1997, and 1998. In a 2001 issue, TV Guide ranked Wheel number 25 among the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and in 2013, the magazine ranked it number 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever, second only to Jeopardy! In August 2006, the show was ranked number 6 on GSN 's list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows.
Wheel was the subject of many nominations in GSN 's Game Show Awards special, which aired on June 6, 2009. The show was nominated for Best Game Show, but lost to Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?; Sajak and White were nominated for Best Game Show Host, but lost to Deal or No Deal 's Howie Mandel; and O'Donnell was considered for Best Announcer but lost to Rich Fields from The Price Is Right. One of the catchphrases uttered by contestants, "I 'd like to buy a vowel '', was considered for Favorite Game Show Catch Phrase, but lost to "Come on down! '', the announcer 's catchphrase welcoming new contestants to Price. The sound effect heard at the start of a new regular gameplay round won the award for Favorite Game Show Sound Effect. The sound heard when the wheel lands on Bankrupt was also nominated. Despite having been retired from the show for nearly a decade by that point, "Changing Keys '' was nominated for Best Game Show Theme Song. However, it lost to its fellow Griffin composition, "Think! '' from Jeopardy!
A hall of fame honoring Wheel of Fortune is part of the Sony Pictures Studios tour, and was introduced on the episode aired May 10, 2010. Located in the same stage as the show 's taping facility, this hall of fame features memorabilia related to Wheel 's syndicated history, including retired props, classic merchandise, photographs, videos, and a special case dedicated to White 's wardrobe. Two years later, in 2012, the show was honored with a Ride of Fame on a double decker tour bus in New York City.
Numerous board games based on Wheel of Fortune have been released by different toy companies. The games are all similar, incorporating a wheel, puzzle display board, play money and various accessories like Free Spin tokens. Milton Bradley released the first board game in 1975. In addition to all the supplies mentioned above, the game included 20 prize cards to simulate the "shopping '' prizes of the show, with prizes ranging in value from $100 to $3,000. Two editions were released, with the only differences being the box art and the included books of puzzles. Other home versions were released by Pressman Toy Corporation, Tyco / Mattel, Parker Brothers, Endless Games, and Irwin Toys.
Additionally, several video games based on the show have been released for personal computers, the Internet, and various gaming consoles spanning multiple hardware generations. Most games released in the 20th century were published by GameTek, which produced a dozen Wheel games on various platforms, starting with a Nintendo Entertainment System game released in 1987 and continuing until the company closed in 1998 after filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Subsequent games were published by Hasbro Interactive and its acquirer Infogrames / Atari; Sony Online Entertainment, THQ and Ubisoft.
Wheel has also been licensed to International Game Technology for use in its slot machines. The games are all loosely based on the show, with contestants given the chance to spin the wheel to win a jackpot prize. Since 1996, over 200 slot games based on the show have been created, both for real - world casinos and those on the Internet. With over 1,000 wins awarded in excess of $1,000,000 and over $3 billion in jackpots delivered, Wheel has been regarded as the most successful slots brand of all time.
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black and white birds in park city utah | Black - billed magpie - wikipedia
The black - billed magpie (Pica hudsonia), also known as the American magpie, is a bird in the crow family that inhabits the western half of North America, from Colorado, to southern coastal Alaska to northern California, northern Nevada, northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, central Kansas, and Nebraska. It is black and white, with black areas on the wings and tail showing iridescent hints of blue or blue - green. It is one of only four North American songbirds whose tail makes up half or more of the total body length (the others being the yellow - billed magpie, the scissor - tailed flycatcher, and the fork - tailed flycatcher).
This species prefers generally open habitats with clumps of trees. It can therefore be found in farmlands and suburban areas, where it comes into regular contact with people. Where persecuted it becomes very wary, but otherwise it is fairly tolerant of human presence. Historically associated with bison herds, it now lands on the back of cattle to clean ticks and insects from them. Large predators such as wolves are commonly followed by black - billed magpies, who scavenge from their kills. The species also walks on the ground, where it obtains such food items as beetles, grasshoppers, worms, and small rodents.
The black - billed magpie is one of the few North American birds that build a domed nest. This nest is made up of twigs and sits near the top of trees. Usually 6 -- 7 eggs are laid. Incubation, by the female only, starts when the clutch is complete, and lasts 16 -- 21 days. The nestling period is 3 -- 4 weeks.
Externally, The black - billed magpie is almost identical with the European magpie, Pica pica, and is considered conspecific by many sources. The American Ornithologists ' Union, however, splits it as a separate species, Pica hudsonia, on the grounds that its mtDNA sequence is closer to that of California 's yellow - billed magpie, Pica nuttalli, than to the European magpie. If this view is correct, the Korean subspecies of the European magpie, Pica pica sericea, should also be considered a separate species.
It appears that after the ancestral magpie spread over Eurasia, the Korean population became isolated, at which point the species crossed the Bering Land Bridge and colonized North America, where the two American magpies then differentiated. Fossil evidence indicates that the ancestral North American magpie had arrived in its current range around the mid-Pliocene (3 -- 4 mya) and that the yellow - billed magpie lineage split off rather soon thereafter due to the Sierra Nevada uplift and the beginning ice ages. A comparatively low genetic difference, however, suggests that some gene flow between the black - billed and yellow - billed magpies still occurred during interglacial periods until the Pleistocene.
The adult black - billed magpie is 45 -- 60 cm (18 -- 24 in) long and weighs 145 -- 210 g (5.1 -- 7.4 oz). Males are generally 6 -- 9 % larger and 16 -- 20 % heavier than females. The tail is long and makes up half of the bird 's length. Wingspan is about 60 cm (24 in). The bird is black with white shoulders, a white belly, and iridescent dark blue - green wings and tail. There are large white markings on the primaries, clearly visible in flight. The feet and bill are black.
Black - billed magpies range in the north from coastal southern Alaska, central British Columbia, and the southern halves of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, through the Rocky Mountains down south to all the Rocky Mountain states including New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and some bordering states as well. The range extends as far east as northern Minnesota and Iowa, with casual records in northern Wisconsin and upper Michigan, but is thought to be limited further east and south by high temperature and humidity.
Black - billed magpies frequent open country with thickets and scattered trees, especially riparian groves. They can be found near farms and within cities and suburbs. Dry open pine forests are another possible habitat.
The black - billed magpie is an opportunistic omnivore, eating many types of insects, carrion, seeds, rodents, berries, nuts, eggs, and also garbage and food from pets that are fed outside. Chicks are fed animal matter almost exclusively. Magpies typically forage on the ground, usually walking, sometimes hopping, and sometimes scratching with their feet to turn over ground litter. They sometimes land on large mammals, such as moose or cattle, to pick at the ticks that often plague these animals. They often follow large predators, such as wolves, to scavenge or steal from their kills.
Black - billed magpies are also known to make food caches in the ground, in scatter - hoarding fashion. To make a cache, the bird pushes or hammers its bill into the ground (or snow), forming a small hole into which it deposits the food items it was holding in a small pouch under its tongue. It may, however, then move the food to another location, particularly if other magpies are in the vicinity, watching. Cache robbing is fairly common so a magpie often makes several false caches before a real one. The final cache is covered with grass, leaves, or twigs. After this the bird cocks its head and stares at the cache, possibly to commit the site to memory. Such hoards are short - term; the food is usually recovered within several days, or the bird never returns. The bird relocates its caches by sight and also by smell; during cache robbing, smell is probably the primary cue.
Adult black - billed magpie pairs stay together year - round and often for life unless one dies, in which case the remaining magpie may find another mate. Divorces are possible: one South Dakota study found low rates of divorce (8 %) but one 7 - year study in Alberta found divorce rates up to 63 %.
Black - billed magpies nest individually, frequently toward the top of deciduous or evergreen trees. Only the nest tree and its immediate surroundings are defended, and so it is possible for nests to be somewhat clumped in space. When this happens (usually in areas with a limited number of trees or with abundant food resources), a diffuse colony is formed. In this the black - billed magpie is intermediate between the European magpie, whose nests are much more spread out because a large territory is defended around each nest, and the yellow - billed magpie, which is always loosely colonial.
Nests are loose but large accumulations of branches, twigs, mud, grass, rootlets, bark strips, vines, needles, and other materials, with branches and twigs constituting the base and framework. The nest cup is lined with fine rootlets, grass, and other soft material. Nests almost always include a hood or dome of loosely assembled twigs and branches, and usually have one or more side entrances. Nests are built by both sexes over 40 -- 50 days, starting in February (though later in northern parts of the range). Old nests can be repaired and used, or a new nest can be built on top, with older nests thus reaching 120 cm high by 100 cm wide (48 inches high by 40 inches wide). Other bird species, including small hawks and owls, often use old magpie nests.
The breeding season for magpies is generally from late March to early July. They nest once a year, but may re-nest if their first attempt fails early. The female lays up to thirteen eggs, but the usual clutch size is six or seven. The eggs are greenish grey, marked with browns, and 33 mm (about 1.3 inch) long. Only the female incubates, for 16 -- 21 days. The male feeds the female throughout incubation. Hatching is often asynchronous. Hatched young are altricial, brooded by the female but fed by both sexes. They fly 3 -- 4 weeks after hatching, feed with adults for about two months, and then fly off to join other juvenile magpies. Fledging success (usually 3 -- 4 young per nest) is lower than clutch size; this is not an unusual state of affairs in species with asynchronous hatching, as some nestlings often die of starvation.
Black - billed magpies breed for the first time at 1 or 2 years of age. The lifespan of the species in the wild is about four to six years.
The most common calls of this bird are a nasal inquisitive "mag mag mag '' or "yak yak yak '' uttered in a much higher pitch than that of the European magpies. Many other calls also exist such as begging calls by females to their mate, by young to their parents, idle songbird chatter, and distress calls when seized by predators.
This species is mainly a permanent resident. Some birds may move short distances south or to lower elevations in winter, while others may erratically wander east after the breeding season.
The black - billed magpie often forms loose flocks outside of the breeding season. Dominance hierarchies may develop within such flocks. Dominants can steal food from subordinates. Aggressive interactions also occur at point sources of food. Surprisingly, young males are often dominant over -- or maybe just tolerated by -- adult males.
Like American crows, magpies tend to roost communally in winter. Every evening they fly, often in groups and sometimes over long distances, to reach safe roosting sites such as dense trees or shrubs that impede predator movement, or, at higher latitudes, dense conifers that afford good wind protection. In Canada they arrive at the roosting site earlier in the evening and leave later in the morning on colder days. At the roosting site they tend to occupy trees singly; they do not huddle. They sleep with the bill tucked under the scapular (shoulder) and back feathers, adopting this position sooner on colder nights. During the night they may also regurgitate, in the form of pellets, the undigested parts of what they ate during the day. Such pellets can be found on the ground and then used to determine at least part of the birds ' diet.
Like other corvids, black - billed magpies indulge in anting (applying ants onto their plumage) and sun - bathing (back facing the sun, head down, wings drooped and spread wide, tail fanned, back feathers fluffed up). They also belong to that group of birds that scratch their head with their foot over the wing.
Molt begins earlier in males than in females, and in second - year birds than in older ones. Primaries, secondaries, tertials and rectrices are replaced sequentially, so the bird can still fly during molting.
Level flight is relatively slow. Maximum sustained speed is 14 m / s (31 mph). Non-flapping phases are often interspersed throughout the flight. Changes in direction can be extremely quick, probably helped by the bird 's long tail.
When Lewis and Clark first encountered magpies in 1804 in South Dakota, they reported the birds as being very bold, entering tents or taking food from the hand. Magpies formerly followed American bison herds (from which they gleaned ticks and insects), as well as the bands of Plains Indians that hunted the bison so they could scavenge carcasses. When the bison herds were devastated in the 1870s, magpies switched to cattle, and by the 1960s they had also moved into the emerging towns and cities of the North American West. Today black - billed magpies remain relatively tame in areas where they are not persecuted. However, they become very wary in areas where they are often shot at or disturbed. Especially during the first half of the 20th century, black - billed magpies were considered detrimental to game - bird populations (they sometimes steal bird eggs) and domestic stock (they sometimes peck at sores on cattle), and were systematically trapped or shot. Bounties of one cent per egg or two cents per head were offered in many states. In Idaho the death toll eventually amounted to an estimated 150,000. In 1933, 1,033 magpies were shot in Washington 's Okanogan valley by two teams of bounty hunters. Many magpies also died from eating poison set out for coyotes and other predators.
If regularly disturbed at the nest, magpie pairs will eventually either move the eggs or abandon the clutch altogether, but in the first instance they will defend the nest aggressively. Interestingly, biologists who have climbed nest trees to measure magpie eggs have reported that the parents recognized them personally on subsequent days and started to mob them, overlooking other people in the vicinity.
Many suburban songbird lovers dislike magpies because of their reputation for stealing eggs, but studies have shown that eggs make up only a small proportion of what magpies feed on during the reproductive season. In England, the European magpie also has a reputation for taking eggs, and yet when density of magpie populations increases, songbird density does not decrease; on the contrary, it increases too.
In the United States, black - billed magpies are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, but "(a) Federal permit shall not be required to control... magpies () when found committing or about to commit depredations upon ornamental or shade trees, agricultural crops, livestock, or wildlife, or when concentrated in such numbers and manner as to constitute a health hazard or other nuisance ". State or local regulations may limit or prohibit killing these birds as well. The species is not threatened and in some areas it has benefitted from forest fragmentation and agricultural developments. Like many corvids however, it is susceptible to West Nile virus.
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goa board of secondary and higher secondary education alto betim goa | Goa board of secondary & higher secondary education - Wikipedia
The Goa Board of Secondary & Higher Secondary Education (abbreviated GBSHSE) is the main state board of education in the Indian state of Goa, responsible for secondary and higher secondary education management in its affiliated schools. The board is an education board native to the state of Goa. It was established on 27 May 1975 under "The Goa, Daman and Diu Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board Act, 1975 ''.
The aims of the Board shall be to provide secondary and higher secondary education, for this purpose grant recognition to the required number of such schools in the territory; to pay special attention to the improvement of the secondary and higher secondary education so that it meets the required needs and standards of economic and social development; to provide adequate facilities for educational and professional advancement of socially and educationally backward communities; to take such steps and such measures as may lead to intellectual, academic, physical and cultural development of the youth.
Major Functions performed by the Goa Board include
Goa board conducts examination for
http://www.gbshse.gov.in/documents/gbcitizen.pdf
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who wins in batman v superman dawn of justice | Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice - Wikipedia
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is a 2016 American superhero film featuring the DC Comics characters Batman and Superman. Directed by Zack Snyder, it is the second installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), following 2013 's Man of Steel. It was written by Chris Terrio and David S. Goyer, and features an ensemble cast that includes Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Jesse Eisenberg, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Jeremy Irons, Holly Hunter, and Gal Gadot. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is the first live - action film to feature Batman and Superman together, as well as the first live - action cinematic portrayal of Wonder Woman. In the film, criminal mastermind Lex Luthor manipulates Batman into a preemptive battle with Superman, whom Luthor is obsessed with defeating.
The film was announced at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con after the release of Man of Steel. Snyder stated that the film would take inspiration from the Batman comic book series The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller, but clarified that it would follow an original premise. The incarnation of Batman in the film is different from the character 's previous portrayal in The Dark Knight Trilogy, serving as a cinematic reboot of the character. The film is also inspired by narrative elements from the "Death of Superman '' story arc. Pre-production began at East Los Angeles College in October 2013, with principal photography starting in May 2014 in Detroit. Additional filming also took place in Chicago.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, and was released in the United States on March 25, 2016 in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D, 4DX, premium large formats, and 70 mm prints by Warner Bros. Pictures. Following a strong debut that set new box office records, the film experienced a historic drop in its second weekend and never recovered. Despite turning a profit, it was deemed a box office disappointment and received generally unfavorable reviews from critics for its tone, screenplay and pacing, though some praised its visual style and acting performances. An extended cut dubbed the "Ultimate Edition '', which features 31 minutes of additional footage, was released digitally on June 28, 2016 and on Blu - ray and DVD on July 19, 2016. A follow - up sequel titled Justice League was released in November 2017, and a Superman solo sequel is in development.
Eighteen months after the battle between Superman and General Zod in Metropolis, Superman has become a controversial figure. Billionaire Bruce Wayne, who has operated in Gotham City as the vigilante Batman for two decades, sees Superman as an existential threat to humanity. After learning of Batman 's form of justice, Clark Kent seeks to expose him via Daily Planet articles. Wayne learns that Russian weapon trafficker Anatoli Knyazev has been contacting LexCorp mogul Lex Luthor. Meanwhile, Luthor unsuccessfully tries to persuade Senator June Finch to allow him to import kryptonite retrieved from the Indian Ocean following Zod 's terraforming attempt, claiming he wants to maintain it as a "deterrent '' against future Kryptonian threats. He instead makes alternative plans with Finch 's subordinate and gains access to Zod 's body and the Kryptonian scout ship.
Bruce attends a gala at LexCorp to steal encrypted data from the company 's mainframe, where he also encounters with Clark, but has it taken from him by an antiquities dealer named Diana Prince; she eventually returns it to Bruce. While decrypting the drive, Bruce dreams of a post-apocalyptic world, where he leads a group of rebels against a fascist Superman. He is awoken from his vision by an unidentified person who warns him of Lois Lane 's crucial role in the future, and urges him to find "the others ''. Wayne later discovers that Luthor is also investigating metahumans. One of them is Prince herself, who is shown in a photo taken during World War I. Wayne admits to Alfred Pennyworth that he plans to steal the kryptonite to weaponize it, should it become necessary to fight Superman.
At a congressional hearing, as Finch questions Superman on the validity of his actions, a bomb goes off and kills everyone present but Superman. Believing he should have detected the bomb, and frustrated by his failure to save them, Superman goes into self - imposed exile. Batman breaks into LexCorp and steals the kryptonite, planning to use it to battle Superman by building a powered exoskeleton, creating a kryptonite grenade launcher, and a kryptonite - tipped spear. Meanwhile, Luthor enters the Kryptonian ship and accesses a vast technology database accumulated from over 100,000 worlds.
Later, Luthor kidnaps Lois and Martha Kent, Clark 's adoptive mother, to bring Superman out of exile. He reveals to him that he manipulated Superman and Batman by fueling their distrust for each other. Luthor demands that Superman kill Batman in exchange for Martha 's life. Superman tries to explain the situation to Batman, but instead Batman fights Superman and eventually subdues him. Before Batman can kill him with the spear, Superman urges Batman to "save Martha '', whose name is also shared with Bruce 's late mother, confusing him long enough for Lois to arrive and explain what Superman meant. Realizing how far he has fallen and unwilling to let an innocent die, Batman rescues Martha, while Superman confronts Luthor on the scout ship.
Luthor executes his backup plan, unleashing a genetically engineered monster with DNA from both Zod 's body and his own. Diana Prince arrives unexpectedly; revealing her metahuman nature, she joins forces with Batman and Superman to eliminate the creature. When they are all outmatched, Superman realizes its vulnerability to kryptonite, and retrieves the spear to kill it. In the creature 's last moments, it fatally wounds Superman.
Luthor is arrested and Batman confronts him in prison, warning Luthor that he will always be watching him. Luthor gloats that Superman 's death has made the world vulnerable to powerful alien threats. A memorial is held for Superman in Metropolis. Clark is also declared dead, with various friends and family members including Bruce Wayne and Diana Prince attending for him in Smallville. Martha gives an envelope to Lois, which contains an engagement ring from Clark. After the funeral, Bruce expresses his regrets to Diana about how he failed Superman. He reveals to her that he plans to form a team of metahumans, starting with those from Luthor 's files, to help protect the world in Superman 's absence. After they leave, the dirt atop Clark 's coffin levitates.
Additionally, Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Lauren Cohan portray Thomas and Martha Wayne, Bruce Wayne 's deceased parents, Patrick Wilson portrays the President of the United States in a voice role, and Michael Cassidy portrays Jimmy Olsen, a CIA agent. Reprising their roles from Man of Steel are Harry Lennix as Secretary Calvin Swanwick, Christina Wren as Major Carrie Farris, Kevin Costner as Jonathan Kent, Rebecca Buller as Jenny Jurwich, Chad Krowchuk as Glen Woodburn, and Carla Gugino as the Kryptonian A.I. Kelor. The corpse of General Zod also appears in the film in a crucial role; however, Michael Shannon did not film any scenes for the film and the corpse was created using the physique of fitness model Greg Plitt and a head - shot of Shannon. Mark Edward Taylor portrays Jack O'Dwyer, an executive of Wayne Enterprises.
Ezra Miller, Jason Momoa, and Ray Fisher appear as Barry Allen / Flash, Arthur Curry / Aquaman, and Victor Stone / Cyborg respectively in brief appearances, which led to their inclusion in the Justice League film. Joe Morton appears in a role as Silas Stone, Victor 's father. U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy makes a cameo appearance as Senator Purrington, whilst U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow also makes a cameo as the Governor of New Jersey. Neil deGrasse Tyson, Soledad O'Brien, Anderson Cooper, Nancy Grace and Charlie Rose appear as themselves. Jena Malone was cast as S.T.A.R. Labs scientist Jenet Klyburn, but her scenes were cut from the theatrical release, along with Man of Steel characters Coburn Goss as Father Leone and Joseph Cranford as Pete Ross; they were restored for the Ultimate Edition home media release. Talk show host Jon Stewart has a cameo in the extended cut. To further establish the interconnection between the films of the shared universe, Chris Pine appears on Diana Prince 's photo as Steve Trevor, which he reprised in Wonder Woman.
In June 2013, Warner Bros. announced that director Zack Snyder and screenwriter David S. Goyer would return for a Man of Steel sequel, with the studio considering the release for the film in 2015. The following month, Snyder confirmed at San Diego Comic - Con International that the sequel to Man of Steel would feature Superman and Batman meeting for the first time on film. Goyer and Snyder would co-write the story, with Goyer authoring the script, and Christopher Nolan involved in an advisory role as executive producer. According to Snyder, the film would take inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns.
In November 2013, Snyder clarified his film would not be based upon the aforementioned graphic novel. "If you were going to do that, you would need a different Superman. We 're bringing Batman into the universe that now this Superman lives in. '' Batman v Superman marks the first appearance of Wonder Woman in a live - action, theatrical film, which Warner Bros. had been developing as far back as 1996. In December 2013, Chris Terrio was hired to rewrite the script, due to Goyer 's commitments to other projects. Further commenting on the influences, Terrio revealed in an article published by the Wall Street Journal that the movie would draw inspiration from Nolan 's Batman trilogy, Italian semiotician Umberto Eco 's 1972 essay "The Myth of Superman '', and the W.H. Auden poem "Musée des Beaux Arts '' which contrasts the quotidian details of normal people 's lives with the epic struggles of mythological figures. According to him, "In superhero stories, Batman is Pluto, god of the underworld, and Superman is Apollo, god of the sky. That began to be really interesting to me -- that their conflict is not just due to manipulation, but their very existence. '' The Joker and the Riddler were supposed to appear in the film, but Snyder ultimately decided to cut them from the final script.
The film 's official title, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, was revealed in May 2014. Snyder stated that having the "v '' in the title instead of "vs. '' was a way "to keep it from being a straight ' versus ' movie, even in the most subtle way ''. Henry Cavill later stated, "I would n't call this a Superman sequel (...) This is Batman versus Superman. It 's a separate entity altogether. It 's introducing the Batman character and expanding upon the universe, which was kicked off by Man of Steel. '' Forbes noted that although the film originated as a sequel to Man of Steel, it was "revamped into a backdoor pilot for Justice League and / or an eventual stand - alone Batman movie. '' As part of a settlement with his heirs, this is the first Batman production that lists Bill Finger as a co-creator.
Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Kevin Costner, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Harry Lennix and Christina Wren reprise their roles from Man of Steel. Joining the cast are Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Jesse Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth, Ray Fisher as Cyborg, Jason Momoa as Aquaman, and Tao Okamoto as Luthor 's assistant Mercy Graves. Scoot McNairy and Callan Mulvey were cast as Wallace Keefe and Anatoli Knyazev, while Jena Malone was cast as Jenet Klyburn, a character that was featured exclusively in the Ultimate Edition home media release.
Dawn of Justice is Affleck 's second film as a comic book superhero; he played Daredevil in the 2003 film of the same name, and was initially reluctant to accept playing Batman, citing that he "felt (he) did n't fit the traditional mold. But once Zack (Snyder) showed (him) the concept, and that it would be both different from the great movies that Chris (topher Nolan) and Christian (Bale) made, but still in keeping with tradition, (he) was excited. '' Affleck previously stated in 2006 that Daredevil had "inoculated (him) from ever playing another superhero ''.
Snyder cast an older Batman to be a layered juxtaposition against a younger Superman; while "bear (ing) the scars of a seasoned crime fighter, but retain (ing) the charm that the world sees in billionaire Bruce Wayne. '' Nolan was involved with the casting of Affleck and he was the first actor Snyder approached for the part. The director had also discussed the part with Josh Brolin. Bale admitted he wanted to play Batman again after The Dark Knight Rises, though he stated that his Batman does not belong in any other film and he was never approached by Warner Bros. to play the role again.
On casting Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Snyder offered, "Having Jesse in the role allows us to explore that interesting dynamic, and also take the character in some new and unexpected directions ''. Bryan Cranston was considered for the role before Eisenberg was cast. Producer Charles Roven revealed that this incarnation of Wonder Woman would use the character 's origins in The New 52, wherein the character would be a demigoddess, and the daughter of Zeus. This deviates from the character 's original origins, where she was "a clay figure brought to life by the gods ''. Olga Kurylenko was considered for the role of Wonder Woman before Gadot was cast. Dawn of Justice is Ray Fisher 's feature film debut, and the first live - action film to feature Cyborg, whose role will become more significant in future DC Comics films. It is also the live - action theatrical debut of Aquaman.
The casting of Affleck, Gadot, and Eisenberg was criticized. Affleck 's casting caused significant backlash from comic book fans, with multiple online petitions demanding his removal from the role; unlike previous Batman actors, he was not considered intimidating enough for the role by the protesters. Conversely, PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III supported Affleck 's casting as Batman, stating, "Way back when the news was new I wrote a PopMatters article defending the choice of Ben Affleck as Batman. I 'll let that one speak for itself. '' Via social media, fans criticized Gadot 's small frame in contrast to Wonder Woman 's warrior - like build in the comics. Responding to this, Gadot stated that she had been participating in various training regimens to achieve a body that stays closer to the source material. Fans also criticized Eisenberg 's casting, feeling that the then - 30 - year - old was too young for the role, and not physically imposing enough. Upon the film 's release, both Affleck and Gadot received considerable praise for their performances, despite the overall negative reception of the film itself.
Michael Wilkinson reprised his duties as costume designer. He updated the Superman suit from Man of Steel so that it "feels fresh and right for this installment of Zack Snyder 's comic - book universe ''. The first Batsuit featured in the film is influenced by The Dark Knight Returns; unlike the suits seen in previous live - action Batman films, it is made of cloth instead of armor and is a cast of the physique of fitness model Rossano Rea. An image of the Wonder Woman costume was revealed at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con, in which the costume desaturates the red, blue, and gold colors that make up the costume of most versions of the character.
A second Batsuit was also unveiled at Comic - Con, and unlike the first, it is armored. Aquaman 's look in this film shows him "tattooed in Maori - like patterns '', and wearing a suit "decked out in shades of gold, black and silver armor ''. According to the Warner Bros. Studios lot, the next generation Batmobile combined inspiration from both the sleek, streamlined design of classic Batmobiles and the high - suspension, military build from the more recent Tumbler from The Dark Knight Trilogy. Designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos, the Batmobile is about 20 feet long and 12 feet wide. The glasses Cavill wears as Clark Kent are made by British spectacle designer Tom Davies.
In September 2013, Larry Fong joined the crew as cinematographer, having previously worked with Zack Snyder on 300, Watchmen, and Sucker Punch. Initial filming commenced on October 19, 2013, at East Los Angeles College, to shoot an American football game between Gotham City University and rival Metropolis State University. At the end of the month, construction began on the Kent farm seen in Man of Steel for the film. Principal photography involving the main cast of the film began on May 19, 2014, in Detroit, Michigan, with scenes featuring Gal Gadot as Diana Prince being filmed early on May 16. While filming in Michigan, the production spent a total of $199 million in the state. The scene of a state funeral at the Arlington National Cemetery, a tribute by the United States Army, was actually filmed in Michigan as well, using green screen.
Additional filming began in Chicago, Illinois in November 2014. Other locations included the Michigan Motion Picture Studios, the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum at Michigan State University, Yorkville, Illinois, and New Mexico. Sequences of the film, including a scene depicting the murder of Bruce Wayne 's parents, were filmed using IMAX cameras. The planned shoot in Morocco was shifted to New Mexico due to incidents related to the 2014 Ebola outbreak. Principal photography wrapped on December 5, 2014.
Hans Zimmer composed the film score, emphasizing a challenge not to reuse the themes he established with the Batman character from Christopher Nolan 's trilogy. Junkie XL, who provided additional music in Man of Steel, also returned for this film, helping to compose the theme for Batman. Originally, Zimmer enlisted Junkie XL to compose the Batman material, with Zimmer planning to focus solely on the Superman side of the score, but the final Batman theme was written by both composers as a collaboration. Zimmer noted that he had significant trouble in finding a new angle from which to tell the story and after the release of the film, Zimmer announced that he was retired from superhero films. The soundtrack album of the film was released on March 18, 2016 by WaterTower Music.
Songs featured in the film include: "Kang Ling (An Instrument Made From A Human Thigh Bone) '', a traditional song performed by the monks of the Dip Tse Chok Ling Monastery, Dharamshala; "Night and Day '' and "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye '' written by Cole Porter and performed by Richard Cheese; "Shostakovich: Waltz II (Jazz Suite No. 2) '' written by Dmitri Shostakovich performed by the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Chailly; and "Amazing Grace '' arranged and performed by John Allan and again performed by the Canadian Scottish Regiment Pipes and Drums and the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.
In November 2013, it was announced that the film would be released on July 17, 2015. In January 2014, Warner Bros. announced that Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice was delayed from its original release date of July 17, 2015, and moved to May 6, 2016, in order to give the filmmakers "time to realize fully their vision, given the complex visual nature of the story. '' The release date was moved once again in August 2014 from May 6, 2016, to March 25, 2016, with a Warner Bros. insider saying the studio was "not flinching '' in regards to the previous opening date being on the same day as Marvel Studios ' Captain America: Civil War, but instead stating that March 2016 was a "fantastic corridor '' for them. According to sources obtained by The Hollywood Reporter, Warner Bros. considered the possibility of having a 70mm release for the film, which was partially shot in the 65mm IMAX format.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, followed by a New York City premiere on March 20 at Radio City Music Hall. Following the Brussels attacks, Warner Bros. originally cancelled the red carpet of the London premiere, but decided to carry on with the premiere for the fans. The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on March 25 in 3D. It opened simultaneously in North America, China and Japan, the world 's three largest film markets, as well as additional international territories, with the exception of Poland, where theaters do not open on Good Friday. The film debuted simultaneously across 30,000 screens in nearly every major foreign territory across 61 markets, including China, with domestic open across roughly 4,242 locations of which 3,500 theaters (85 %) were in 3D, 390 IMAX screens, 470 PLF locations, 150 D - Box theaters and ten 70 mm prints.
An estimated $165 million marketing effort helped promote Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. At the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder introduced the film 's first footage intended to be exclusive to the event. A teaser trailer was scheduled to be screened in selected cinemas on April 20, 2015. However, on April 16, the trailer leaked online, and within a few hours Snyder officially released the trailer to Twitter. At the 2015 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder and the cast attended to present an initial trailer of the film. The trailer was, unlike the teaser, which received mixed response, positively received by attendees, who gave the trailer a standing ovation. Mark Hughes of Forbes said the trailers "both set the stage for a story about the world 's distrust and fear of Superman, Batman 's rage at Superman and intention to duke it out with the Man of Steel, and Wonder Woman 's participation in a big fight featuring the ' Trinity. ' ''
Warner Bros. Consumer Products partnered - up with "a powerhouse slate of global licensees for a broad, multi-category licensing and merchandising program '', including Mattel, Lego, Rubies, Funko, Thinkway Toys, Hot Toys, Junkfood, Bioworld, Pez, Seiko, Converse and among many other licensees to sell merchandise related to the film. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was also a licensee for the film, offering a special edition Jeep Renegade in exchange for a near - exclusive product placement deal; aside from Bruce Wayne 's Aston Martin, all vehicles in the film were either from Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, Ram, or Iveco. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Cross Fire, an original companion novel tied to the film, telling a tie - in story set before the events of the movie, was published by Scholastic Corporation.
A five - issue comic - book prelude exploring what happened in the weeks and months leading up to the events of the film was released as a tie - in with Dr Pepper 's character - branded bottles. Also, there are a series of four minicomics found in Batman v Superman - branded General Mills cereals. Additionally, those who purchased Batman v Superman - themed Doritos Family Fun Mix at Walmart received the comic book prequel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Upstairs / Downstairs. Rocksteady Studios released a downloadable content for the video game Batman: Arkham Knight that featured the Batmobile and Batsuit from the film.
The third trailer debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on December 3, 2015. It received positive responses, with Scott Mendelson of Forbes calling the trailer a "Saturday morning cartoon nerd 's wildest dreams. '' Molly Driscoll of CS Monitor stated that it looks like the film "will continue the trend of adapting comic book stories as timely tales. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter noted that based on the trailer 's content, the film might be the anti-Civil War, referring to Marvel 's Captain America: Civil War as "Superman and Batman complete the comic book trope by overcoming their differences to fight a common foe, alongside a third hero, who saves them both -- that feels the most fresh, especially in light of the Civil War trailer. While that ended with a showdown between three heroes, this trailer moves beyond that to show three heroes standing united. '' However, it was criticized for revealing that, with Rob Tornoe of NewsWorks pointing out that this trailer was targeting the "broadest audience '' rather than just fans, as studios try to "maximize a film 's opening day box office. ''
Warner Bros. did not buy a Super Bowl 50 commercial; instead, they worked with Turkish Airlines to put together a pair of Batman v Superman - themed airline commercials. McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the spots "inform interested parties about the culture, geography and history of Batman and Superman 's individual stomping grounds, each one filled with Easter eggs for the comic book faithful and newcomer alike. '' Jesse Eisenberg 's part as Lex Luthor in these commercials was praised, as Dirk Libbey of CinemaBlend noted that "he matches up well with Bruce Wayne by playing the welcoming billionaire business man. It 's a far cry from the somewhat cartoonish villain we 've seen in the clips from the film. ''
The final trailer was released to the public on February 11, 2016, which was described as "intense '' by Kwame Opam of The Verge. Mendelson of Forbes felt that Warner Bros. "probably would n't have even dropped this one had the prior trailer back in December been received better. So now we have this fourth and final sell, and at least they are going out on a high note. '' Jonathon Dornbush of Entertainment Weekly said that the footage "works to establish Batman as his own independent crime fighting force, while also providing a deeper look at his existential struggle against Superman. ''
In February 2016, Warner Bros. and Doritos formed a partnership, creating a website offering fans the opportunity to enter codes found on Doritos purchases branded with the film 's logo, and enter to win movie tickets, tech toys, and a trip the premiere in New York City. Warner Bros also partnered with Omaze to give fans who donated a chance to win "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '', while benefiting three nonprofit organizations nominated by Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill and Jesse Eisenberg. "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '' offered a fan and their friend the chance to win tickets to the premiere of the film, as well as fly on a helicopter with Cavill or ride in the Batmobile with Affleck. Hendrick Motorsports drivers Jimmie Johnson and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. drove cars based on Superman and Batman respectively, at Auto Club Speedway on March 20, 2016. A tie - in endless runner video game to the film, entitled Batman vs Superman -- Who Will Win?, debuted March 16, 2016, released by Warner Bros. International Enterprises.
The film grossed $166 million in the USA & Canada in its opening weekend, the eighth - biggest opening of all time, ahead of The Dark Knight Rises ' $160.9 million. The film had a worldwide opening of $422.5 million, which stands as the second - biggest for Warner Bros. and the fifth - biggest of all time. It became the fourth film to have a global opening above $400 million. It also had an IMAX worldwide opening weekend total of $36 million from 945 IMAX screens, the third - biggest ever, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($48 million) and Jurassic World ($44 million). However, both inside and outside of the United States, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a notable poor Friday - to - Sunday hold and set a new record for the worst Friday - to - Sunday drop for a superhero movie release in modern box office history with a 58 % decline, which was previously held by Fantastic Four.
In its second weekend, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a "historic '' box - office drop, with an 81.2 % decline on Friday that was "one of the biggest Friday - to - Friday drops any blockbuster has ever seen '', and an overall 68.4 % drop for the weekend despite not "facing any big competition at the box office '', making it the second largest decline for a marquee superhero title, behind only 2003 's Hulk. Brad Brevet, writing for Box Office Mojo, reported that "it appeared Batman v Superman was looking at a drop anywhere from 58 -- 68 % and it ended up settling in on the wrong side of those expectations. '' Scott Mendelson, writing for Forbes, said "Whether or not the movie is any good, and whether or not audiences respond to the picture, is best measured by the second and third weekends... Yes, we 're still talking about a $15.35 million second Friday and a $50 m+ second weekend, but in terms of legs, this film sadly does n't seem to have any. '' Continuing this trend, in its third weekend, the film dropped by 54.3 % in which Brad Brevet concluded in a follow - up for Box Office Mojo that "the legs on this one are proving quite short. ''
In the weeks leading up to the film 's release, advance ticket sales outpaced The Dark Knight Rises, The Avengers, and Furious 7. Worldwide, it was estimated to gross between $300 -- 340 million in over 35,000 screens in its opening weekend. It passed the $50 million mark in IMAX ticket sales on its second weekend, grossing a total of $53.4 million from 571 IMAX screens. Warner Bros. domestic distribution chief Jeff Goldstein described the film 's box office performance as a "fantastic result, by any measure. '' Box office analyst Jeff Bock said "Still, outside of Christopher Nolan 's two Dark Knight movies, and Tim Burton 's Batman films when you adjust for inflation, this is the highest - grossing property in DC 's bullpen thus far. It tops Man of Steel by more than $200 million, '' and that "overall, BvS successfully relaunched DC 's cinematic universe, but they are nowhere near Disney / Marvel in terms of critical reception and box office prowess. One can only hope that bigger and better is still on the way. '' The film needed to reach $800 million in revenue at the box office to "recoup its investment '' according to financial analysts. Despite surpassing this amount, it was considered "a disappointment '' for failing to reach $1 billion, This resulted in Warner Bros., in May 2016, creating DC Films, giving a dedicated executive team responsibility for films based on DC Comics, similar to the dedicated Marvel Comics focus of Marvel Studios within the larger Walt Disney Studios group. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice grossed $330.4 million in North America and $543.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $873.6 million, making it the seventh - highest - grossing film of 2016 behind Captain America: Civil War, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, Finding Dory, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, and The Secret Life of Pets. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $105.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Following reports of pre-tickets sales in both the United States and Canada on February 29, many insiders and analysts predicted an opening weekend haul between $120 -- 140 million for Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, with projections as high as $185 million. However, Warner Bros. insiders were more conservative in their estimates projecting in the lower range of $110 million. According to Deadline.com, an undisclosed rival studio box office analyst indicated that if the film is truly pacing in tandem with The Dark Knight Rises, then Dawn of Justice could possibly be looking at a $180 million+ debut. The film also became Fandango 's top pre-selling superhero film ever, beating The Dark Knight Rises and Avengers: Age of Ultron, representing 90 % of the site 's weekend 's ticket sales. A survey carried out showed that the introduction of Wonder Woman is a primary draw for moviegoers. It pre-sold around $20 -- 25 million worth of advance tickets. Dawn of Justice made $27.7 million in Thursday previews from around 3,800 theaters which is the biggest of 2016, the biggest Easter weekend preview, the second - biggest for a superhero film (behind The Dark Knight Rises), and the seventh - biggest of all time of which $3.0 million came from IMAX showings, also a new record for Easter weekend.
On its opening day, it earned $81.59 million from 4,242 theaters, including previews, marking the biggest pre-summer opening day of all time, the second - biggest superhero Friday opening and the fourth - biggest opening - day and fourth - biggest single - day gross, with $9 million coming from IMAX showings. Excluding the Thursday previews, it earned $53.89 million on Friday which is the fifth - biggest ever. It fell 37.8 % on Saturday, which is the second - worst superhero opening Friday - to - Saturday drop, only behind the 40 % drop of The Dark Knight Rises. In total, it earned $166 million for its debut weekend, setting records for the biggest March and pre-summer openings, (these have since been broken by Beauty and the Beast) the biggest Easter opening, the second - biggest opening for Warner Bros., the biggest for a DC Comics property, and the eighth - biggest opening of all time. Conversely, the film holds the record for the worst superhero Friday - to - Sunday drop with a 58 % decline, eclipsing the previous 48 % decline record held by Fantastic Four in 2015. IMAX comprised 11 % or $18 million of the weekend 's gross from 388 theaters which is the fifth - biggest of all time (a record it shares with Age of Ultron) and 3D represented 40 % ($68 million) of the total ticket sales. RealD 3D comprised $47 million of the opening gross. Premium large formats generated $17.6 million (10 %), with $3.6 million of that coming from Cinemark XD auditoriums from 475 theaters.
Following its record breaking opening weekend, it posted the biggest March Monday with $15.05 million, a drop of 55 % from its Sunday gross. This broke The Hunger Games ' previous record of $10.8 million, and also the biggest March Tuesday with $12.2 million. It made $209 million in its first week full which stands at the eleventh - biggest opening week of all time and surpassed the lifetime total Batman Begins. Despite earning $15.35 million in its second Friday, the film dropped 81.2 % and broke the record for the biggest Friday - to - Friday drop for a comic book adaptation film, not including $27.7 million worth of previews which represented an even larger decline. It fell precipitously by 69.1 % in its second weekend, grossing $51.3 million from 4,256 theaters (an addition of 14 cinemas) due to poor reviews and mixed word of mouth, establishing itself an infamous record for the seventh steepest drop for a superhero / comic book adapted film and the steepest decline since the - 69 % posted by X-Men Origins: Wolverine in 2009, despite facing little to no competition or new wide - releases and having the added benefit of 30 % K -- 12 schools off, and 9 % of colleges on break, per ComScore. The steep drop also marks the fourth - biggest for a film that opened above $100 million (tied with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2). In its third weekend it was overtaken by the comedy The Boss after falling 54 % with $23.3 million.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice proved to be front - loaded, failing to generate significant revenue after its opening weekend / week release. It earned just 1.99 times ($330 million) its opening weekend numbers ($166 million), which is lower than Man of Steel 's 2.28 multiplier. Like other DC films, such as Watchmen, Green Lantern and Man of Steel, it opened to record breaking numbers but then dropped the following weekend onward due largely to bad critical reception and mixed word of mouth from audiences. It earned just 1.99 times its opening weekend, the worst (multiplier) for a film opening above $100 million. A similar result was followed by DC 's third superhero film, Suicide Squad released in August 2016, although Suicide Squad became less front loaded than Dawn of Justice.
Internationally, it was projected to open between $180 -- 200 million; however, Deadline.com pointed out that these figures were only early predictions pegged to the performance of similar films in their respective territories. It opened in ten countries on Wednesday, March 23, 2016, earning $7 million and debuting at No. 1 in all markets on approximately 5,900 screens. The following day, the film was released in 38 additional countries, earning $33.1 million on 19,700 screens for a two - day total of $44 million. On March 25, it opened in the remaining 17 countries delivering $67.2 million in revenue, for a three - day total of $115.3 million in 62 countries on more than 30,000 screens. Through Sunday, March 27, it earned an opening - weekend total of $256.5 million from 66 countries on over 40,000 screens, making it the biggest superhero opening weekend of all time, the biggest overall March opening, the second - biggest opening ever for Warner Bros., and the fifth - biggest international opening on record. The film 's accomplishements also included the second - biggest IMAX opening record of $18 million, behind only Jurassic World which tallied $23.5 million. 3D accounted 59 % or $149.86 million of the weekend gross led by China (98 %), Germany (88 %), Brazil (81 %), Russia (55 %), and France (51 %). As with North America, the film witnessed a steep decline in its second Friday internationally, falling 72 % to $19.2 million, with the biggest decline in the U.K. (77 %) and China (87 %). Its second weekend earnings fell 66 % overall to $85.25 million. Despite the decline, the film topped the box office for three consecutive weekends.
In Mexico, it had the biggest opening day for Warner Bros. and the second - biggest of all time with $5.8 million, including record - breaking midnight showings. It also scored the biggest opening day of all time in Brazil ($3.5 million) and the biggest opening day for a superhero film in Germany ($2.8 million). Elsewhere, it opened in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($9 million), Australia ($2.5 million), India ($2.54 million), Russia ($1.9 million), South Korea ($1.7 million), Japan ($1.2 million), the United Arab Emirates and Hong Kong ($1.1 million respectively). In China, it earned $21.22 million on its opening day, including around $1.34 million worth of previews, which is the biggest for Warner Bros. and the sixth - biggest Hollywood opening day of all time. However, other Chinese sources have the film open to around $20 million. In terms of opening weekends, the biggest openings were recorded in China ($57.2 million), the United Kingdom and Ireland ($20.7 million), Mexico ($18.2 million), Brazil ($12 million), South Korea ($10.2 million), Australia ($9.9 million), France ($8.6 million), Germany ($8.1 million), Russia ($7.7 million), India ($6.6 million), Spain ($6.1 million) and Japan ($4.5 million). It broke all - time opening record in Brazil and Warner Bros. opening records in Mexico, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it benefited from the long Easter weekend holiday and despite a distinctly mixed bag of reviews in the U.K. press, it posted an opening £ 14.62 million or $20.7 million from 612 theaters, a record for 2016 so far and for a superhero title on straight Friday to Sunday, but fell short of The Avengers and Avengers: Age of Ultron, when accounting for previews.
In Japan, it opened in third place, behind two local films, Assassination Classroom: Graduation and Doraemon: Nobita and the Birth of Japan 2016. In South Korea, it scored the biggest March opening after opening on a Tuesday and dominating 68.3 % of the market share with $10.2 million. In China, after scoring the biggest Hollywood opening Friday (behind Transformers: Age of Extinction), it earned an estimated $57.2 million from approximately 16,000 screens in its opening weekend, besting all other DC Comics adaption film just by its weekend haul except for Man of Steel and gave Warner Bros. its biggest three day opening there with $7 million coming from 557 IMAX screens. However, the opening figure fell below analysts projections of $70 -- 80 million. It held the top spot for its first seven days only, after which it faced stiff competitions from local productions, and fell dramatically from then onwards in accruing revenue. As a result, it fell to third place in its second weekend after falling enormously by 78 % to $12.7 million, a record for a superhero film.
It became the Warner Bros. ' highest - grossing film of all time in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. It also crossed $100 million Latin American markets, making it Warner Bros. ' second highest - grossing film there. In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America are China ($95 million), which analysts predicted that it would not cross $100 million there, followed by the UK ($52.1 million), Mexico ($36 million) and Brazil ($35.5 million).
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice received generally unfavorable reviews from film critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 27 % based on 374 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice smothers a potentially powerful story -- and some of America 's most iconic superheroes -- in a grim whirlwind of effects - driven action. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average to critics ' reviews, gave the film an average score of 44 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale. It earned "B -- '' from men, "B '' from women, a "B '' from those under 25 and a "B -- '' from those over 25. BBC News reported that, "the film had been widely praised by fans after its first screening in New York ''.
Critics generally reacted more harshly to the film. Lindy West in The Guardian described it as "153 minutes of a grown man whacking two dolls together '', asking "(h) as the definition of ' movie ' changed from ' motion picture story that a human wrote on purpose ' to ' 700 only tangentially related 12 - second grey and red vignettes '? '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote: "The point of Batman v Superman is n't fun, and it is n't thinking, either. It 's obedience. The theology is invoked... to buttress a spectacle of power. And in that way the film serves as a metaphor for its own aspirations. The corporations that produce movies like this one, and the ambitious hacks who sign up to make them, have no evident motive beyond their own aggrandizement. '' Writing in The Telegraph, Robbie Collin called the film "humourless '' and "the most incoherent blockbuster in years ''. Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters said, "As you 're watching this movie, you might also contemplate your own part, in being swayed into consuming so much of what you 've consumed before. '' Adding, "Wonder Woman 's remains Batman v Superman 's most compelling story, precisely because it 's untold. '' Matt Patches of Thrillist wrote "what Batman v Superman can do, it does, at the cost of coherency and thrills. The movie is bat - shit crazy. A dour, disdainful demeanor, plus a gluttony of complex plot twists, dissipates most of the contact high. '' Michael Philips of Chicago Tribune wrote, "A near - total drag, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice plays like a loose, unofficial quarter - billion - dollar remake of The Odd Couple, in which Oscar and Felix are literally trying to kill each other. '' On his podcast Hollywood Babble - On, film director Kevin Smith, a long - time friend and collaborator of Affleck, praised Affleck 's performance but panned the film, commenting that it "did n't really have a heart '' and was "humorless '', arguing that "there seems to be a fundamental lack of understanding of what those characters are about. It 's almost like Zack Snyder did n't read a bunch of comics, he read one comic once, and it was Dark Knight Returns, and his favorite part was the last part where Batman and Superman fight. '' On a second viewing, however, Smith via his Instagram lightened his stance. Jeremy Irons expressed displeasure with the film, feeling it was "deservedly so '' savaged by critics and calling the feature "very muddled '' while expressing hope that the forthcoming Justice League (2017) would be better due to its story being "... a lot smaller, it 's more linear ''.
Taking a softer tone, David Betancourt of The Washington Post and Scott Mendelson of Forbes praised the film 's visual spectacle and performances from Affleck and Gadot, though Mendelson also called the film "an utter mess of thinly sketched characters, haphazard plotting, surprisingly jumbled action ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "better than Man of Steel but below the high bar set by Nolan 's Dark Knight, '' adding that "Dawn of Justice is still a colossus, the stuff that DC Comics dreams are made of for that kid in all of us who yearns to see Batman and Superman suit up and go in for the kill. '' Jake Coyle of Associated Press wrote, "it hurtles not with the kinetic momentum of Mad Max: Fury Road nor the comparatively spry skip of a Marvel movie, but with an operatic grandeur it sometimes earns and often does n't. '' Mark Hughes of Forbes called it "the follow - up to The Dark Knight that many viewers and fans wanted or hoped for '', adding that it 's "visually stunning, with powerful emotional storytelling and awe - inspiring action spectacle. '' Andrew Barker of Variety said "as a pure visual spectacle... Batman V Superman ably blows the hinges off the multiplex doors. '' Charles Koplinski of the Illinois Times called it "a brooding, but most importantly intelligent take on the seminal figures of our 20th century pop culture mythology, a movie that at once pays tribute to these characters ' roots while offering up modern incarnations of them that ring true for our times. '' Nicolas Barber of the BBC called the film "a four - star epic '' praising Affleck 's performance as Batman and the visual grandeur of Fong 's cinematography. Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave an ambivalent review; he especially criticized the "very bad writing '', but conceded "there are a lot of moments... that work '' and praised Affleck and Gadot 's performances, calling Gadot as Wonder Woman the best thing in the film.
Multiple commentators criticized Eisenberg on the grounds that his interpretation of Lex Luthor hewed too close to character traits associated with another DC Comics villain, the Joker. Even before the film was released, Affleck compared Eisenberg 's performance to that of Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight. Once the film came out, critics lambasted Eisenberg 's take on Luthor. Sonny Bunch of The Washington Post lamented that "As the film progresses, Lex degenerates into a gibbering mad man, some strange mix of the Riddler and the Joker with a little bit of Mark Zuckerberg added for flair. '' Charlie Jane Anders of Gizmodo wrote that "Someone clearly told Jesse Eisenberg that this movie is the Dark Knight to Man of Steel 's Batman Begins, and he 's doing his damndest to give a Heath Ledger-esque performance... Watching the trailers, I had thought Eisenberg 's loopy acting might be this movie 's saving grace -- but a concentrated dose of his faux mania actually turns out to be the worst thing. '' Andy Scott of Grunge, in an article titled "How Jesse Eisenberg Ruined Batman v Superman, '' wrote that "Eisenberg 's speech patterns and mannerisms felt almost entirely lifted from Ledger 's iconic performance, to the point where he walked the dangerous grey line between respectful homage and downright thievery. ''
An extended cut of the film dubbed the Ultimate Edition was released on home media platforms, alongside the theatrical cut. This version received an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America, for more violence than the PG - 13 rated theatrical cut, and is longer by 31 minutes. With the release of the Ultimate Edition, which was the director 's original version of the film before additional editing, critics noted that the film would have likely been better received with the additional footage. Ben Kendrick of ScreenRant stated that while it was more "intelligible '', character portrayal was not "fundamentally changed '' and "for viewers who did n't like Man of Steel or Batman v Superman for larger reasons, such as tone, approach, and the darker characterization of DC 's most iconic heroes, the Ultimate Edition is only a longer... version of a film that... is likely to remain divisive, even if the final product is a better film. '' Phil Owens of TheWrap called it an improvement upon the original cut, writing, "Lo and behold somehow Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice has become something that approaches a functional movie. In the process, it only makes the original cut even more inexplicable and terrible. ''
The film debuted in first place on the home video sales chart for the week ending July 24, 2016. As of November 25, 2017, it has made $21.1 million in DVD sales and $54.7 million in Blu - Ray sales, totaling nearly $75.9 million.
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who played belle in beauty and the beast 1991 | Beauty and the Beast (1991 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 1991 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 30th Disney animated feature film and the third released during the Disney Renaissance period, it is based on the French fairy tale of the same name by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont (who was also credited in the English version as well as in the French version), and ideas from the 1946 French film of the same name directed by Jean Cocteau. Beauty and the Beast focuses on the relationship between the Beast (voice of Robby Benson), a prince who is magically transformed into a monster and his servants into household objects as punishment for his arrogance, and Belle (voice of Paige O'Hara), a young woman whom he imprisons in his castle. To become a prince again, Beast must learn to love Belle and earn her love in return before the last petal from the enchanted rose that the enchantress who cursed the Beast had offered falls, or else the Beast will remain a monster forever. The film also features the voices of Richard White, Jerry Orbach, David Ogden Stiers, and Angela Lansbury.
Walt Disney first attempted unsuccessfully to adapt Beauty and the Beast into an animated film during the 1930s and 1950s. Following the success of The Little Mermaid (1989), Walt Disney Pictures decided to adapt the fairy tale, which Richard Purdum originally conceived as a non-musical. Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg eventually dismissed Purdum 's idea and ordered that the film be a musical similar to The Little Mermaid instead. The film was directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise, with a screenplay by Linda Woolverton story first credited to Roger Allers. Lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken wrote the film 's songs. Ashman, who additionally served as the film 's executive producer, died of AIDS - related complications eight months before the film 's release, and the film is thus dedicated to his memory.
Beauty and the Beast premiered as an unfinished film at the New York Film Festival on September 29, 1991, followed by its theatrical release as a completed film at the El Capitan Theatre on November 13. The film was a box office success, grossing $425 million worldwide on a $25 million budget. Beauty and the Beast won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy and became the first animated film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. It won the Academy Award for Best Original Score and Best Original Song for its title song. In April 1994, Beauty and the Beast became Disney 's first animated film to be adapted into a Broadway musical. The success of the film spawned two direct - to - video follow - ups: Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997) and Beauty and the Beast: Belle 's Magical World (1998), both of which take place in the timeline of the original. This was followed by a spin - off television series, Sing Me a Story with Belle.
An IMAX version of the film was released in 2002, and included "Human Again '', a new five - minute musical sequence. That same year, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. After the success of the 3D re-release of The Lion King, the film was reissued in 3D in 2012. A live - action remake of the film directed by Bill Condon was released on March 17, 2017.
One winter 's night, an enchantress disguised as a beggar offers a cold - hearted prince a rose in exchange for shelter. When he refuses, she transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects. She bestows the Beast with a magic mirror before hexing the rose and warning him that, unless he learns to love another and earns their love in return by the time the last petal falls, he and his servants will lose their humanity forever.
Ten years later, a beautiful girl named Belle dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant hunter. Lost in the forest while traveling to a fair to present his latest invention, Belle 's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle. After Maurice befriends the castle 's servants, however, the Beast discovers and imprisons him. Belle ventures out in search for him and finds him locked in the castle 's dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Befriending the castle 's servants, Belle is treated to a spectacular dinner ("Be Our Guest ''). When she wanders into the forbidden West Wing (where the rose is kept), the Beast flies into a rage, causing Belle to flee the castle and into the woods. She is attacked by wolves, but the Beast rescues Belle and gets injured in the process. He begins to develop feelings for her ("Something There '') while she nurses his wounds and he delights her by showing his extensive library.
Returning to the village, Maurice tells the townsfolk of Belle 's predicament, but Gaston convinces the townsfolk to send Maurice to an insane asylum if Belle refuses to marry Gaston.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast ("Beauty and the Beast ''), Belle discovers her father 's predicament using the magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. Back at the village, Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by revealing the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, Gaston has her thrown into the basement with her father and rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to kill the Beast ("The Mob Song ''). With Chip 's aid, Maurice and Belle escape and rush back to the castle.
During the battle, the servants fend off the villagers, including Gaston 's companion Lefou. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his will upon seeing Belle return. He spares Gaston 's life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston stabs the Beast, but he loses his footing and falls to his death. The Beast dies from Gaston 's stab before the last petal falls. When Belle tearfully professes her love to him, the curse is broken, repairing the castle and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
After the success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937, Walt Disney sought out other stories to adapt into feature films, with Beauty and the Beast being among the stories he considered. Attempts to develop the Beauty and the Beast story into a film were made in the 1930s and 1950s, but were ultimately given up because it "proved to be a challenge '' for the story team. Peter M. Nichols states Disney may later have been discouraged by Jean Cocteau having already done his 1946 version.
Decades later, during the production of Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1987, the Disney studio resurrected Beauty and the Beast as a project for the satellite animation studio it had set up in London, England to work on Roger Rabbit. Richard Williams, who had directed the animated portions of Roger Rabbit, was approached to direct but declined in favor of continuing work on his long - gestating project The Thief and the Cobbler. In his place, Williams recommended his colleague, English animation director Richard Purdum, and work began under producer Don Hahn on a non-musical version of Beauty and the Beast set in 19th - century France. At the behest of Disney CEO Michael Eisner, Beauty and the Beast became the first Disney animated film to use a screenwriter. This was an unusual production move for an animated film, which is traditionally developed on storyboards rather than in scripted form. Linda Woolverton wrote the original draft of the story before storyboarding began, and worked with the story team to retool and develop the film.
Upon seeing the initial storyboard reels in 1989, Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered that the film be scrapped and started over from scratch. A few months after starting anew, Purdum resigned as director. The studio had approached Ron Clements and John Musker to direct the film, but they turned down the offer, saying they were "tired '' after just having finished directing Disney 's recent success The Little Mermaid. Disney then hired first - time feature directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale. Wise and Trousdale had previously directed the animated sections of Cranium Command, a short film for a Disney EPCOT theme park attraction. In addition, Katzenberg asked songwriters Howard Ashman and Alan Menken, who had written the song score for The Little Mermaid, to turn Beauty and the Beast into a Broadway - style musical film in the same vein as Mermaid. Ashman, who at the time had learned he was dying of complications from AIDS, had been working with Disney on a pet project of his, Aladdin, and only reluctantly agreed to join the struggling production team. To accommodate Ashman 's failing health, pre-production of Beauty and the Beast was moved from London to the Residence Inn in Fishkill, New York, close to Ashman 's New York City home. Here, Ashman and Menken joined Wise, Trousdale, Hahn, and Woolverton in retooling the film 's script. Since the original story had only two major characters, the filmmakers enhanced them, added new characters in the form of enchanted household items who "add warmth and comedy to a gloomy story '' and guide the audience through the film, and added a "real villain '' in the form of Gaston.
These ideas were somewhat similar to elements of the 1946 French film version of Beauty and the Beast, which introduced the character of Avenant, an oafish suitor somewhat similar to Gaston, as well as inanimate objects coming to life in the Beast 's castle. The animated objects were, however, given distinct personalities in the Disney version. By early 1990, Katzenberg had approved the revised script, and storyboarding began again. The production flew story artists back and forth between California and New York for storyboard approvals from Ashman, though the team was not told the reason why.
Disney had originally considered casting Jodi Benson from The Little Mermaid as Belle. They eventually decided upon Broadway actress and singer Paige O'Hara in favor of having a heroine who sounded "more like a woman than a girl ''. According to co-director Kirk Wise, O'Hara was given the role because she "had a unique quality, a tone she would hit that made her special '', reminiscent to that of American actress and singer Judy Garland. O'Hara, who, after reading about the film in The New York Times, competed for the role against 500 hopefuls, believes the fact that lyricist Howard Ashman admired her cast recording of the musical Show Boat proved integral in her being cast.
Production of Beauty and the Beast was to be completed on a compressed timeline of two years rather than the traditional four - year Disney Feature Animation production schedule; this was due to the loss of production time spent developing the earlier Purdum version of the film. Most of the production was done at the main Feature Animation studio, housed in the Air Way facility in Glendale, California. A smaller team at the Disney - MGM Studios theme park in Lake Buena Vista, Florida assisted the California team on several scenes, particularly the "Be Our Guest '' number.
Beauty and the Beast was the second film, after The Rescuers Down Under, produced using CAPS (Computer Animation Production System), a digital scanning, ink, paint, and compositing system of software and hardware developed for Disney by Pixar. The software allowed for a wider range of colors, as well as soft shading and colored line effects for the characters, techniques lost when the Disney studio abandoned hand inking for xerography in the late 1950s. CAPS also allowed the production crew to simulate multiplane effects: placing characters and / or backgrounds on separate layers and moving them towards / away from the camera on the Z - axis to give the illusion of depth, as well as altering the focus of each layer.
In addition, CAPS allowed an easier combination of hand - drawn art with computer - generated imagery, which before had to be plotted to animation paper and then xeroxed and painted traditionally. This technique was put to significant use during the "Beauty and the Beast '' waltz sequence, in which Belle and Beast dance through a computer - generated ballroom as the camera dollies around them in simulated 3D space. The filmmakers had originally decided against the use of computers in favor of traditional animation, but later, when the technology had improved, decided it could be used for the one scene in the ballroom. The success of the ballroom sequence helped convince studio executives to further invest in computer animation.
Ashman and Menken wrote the Beauty song score during the pre-production process in Fishkill, the opening operetta - styled "Belle '' being their first composition for the film. Other songs included "Be Our Guest, '' sung (in its original version) to Maurice by the objects when he becomes the first visitor to eat at the castle in a decade, "Gaston, '' a solo for the swaggering villain, "Human Again, '' a song describing Belle and Beast 's growing love from the objects ' perspective, the love ballad "Beauty and the Beast (Tale as Old as Time) '' and the climactic "The Mob Song. '' As story and song development came to a close, full production began in Burbank while voice and song recording began in New York City. The Beauty songs were mostly recorded live with the orchestra and the voice cast performing simultaneously rather than overdubbed separately, in order to give the songs a cast album - like "energy '' the filmmakers and songwriters desired.
During the course of production, many changes were made to the structure of the film, necessitating the replacement and re-purposing of songs. After screening a mostly animated version of the "Be Our Guest '' sequence, story artist Bruce Woodside suggested that the objects should be singing the song to Belle rather than her father. Wise and Trousdale agreed, and the sequence and song were retooled to replace Maurice with Belle. The film 's title song went through a noted bit of uncertainty during production. Originally conceived as a rock - oriented song, it was changed to a slow, romantic ballad. Howard Ashman and Alan Menken asked Angela Lansbury to perform the song, but she did not think her voice was suited for the melody. When she voiced her doubts, Menken and Ashman asked her for at least one take and told her to perform the song as she saw fit. Lansbury reportedly reduced everyone in the studio to tears with her rendition, nailing the song in the one take asked of her. This version went on to win the Oscar for Best Original Song. "Human Again '' was dropped from the film before animation began, as its lyrics caused story problems about the timeline over which the story takes place. This required Ashman and Menken to write a new song in its place. "Something There, '' in which Belle and Beast sing (via voiceover) of their growing fondness for each other, was composed late in production and inserted into the script in place of "Human Again. ''
Menken would later revise "Human Again '' for inclusion in the 1994 Broadway stage version of Beauty and the Beast, and another revised version of the song was added to the film itself in a new sequence created for the film 's Special Edition re-release in 2002. Ashman died of AIDS - related complications at the age of 40 on March 14, 1991, eight months before the film 's release. He never saw the finished film, though he did get to see it in its unfinished format. Ashman 's work on Aladdin was completed by another lyricist, Tim Rice. Before Ashman 's death, members of the film 's production team visited him after the film 's well - received first screening, with Don Hahn commenting that "the film would be a great success. Who 'd have thought it? '', to which Ashman replied with "I would. '' A tribute to the lyricist was included at the end of the credits crawl: "To our friend, Howard, who gave a mermaid her voice, and a beast his soul. We will be forever grateful. Howard Ashman: 1950 -- 1991. '' A pop version of the "Beauty and the Beast '' theme, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson over the end credits, was released as a commercial single from the film 's soundtrack, supported with a music video. The Dion / Bryson version of "Beauty and the Beast '' became an international pop hit and performed considerably well on charts around the world. The song became Dion 's second single to land within the top - 10 of the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number nine. The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart. In Canada, "Beauty and the Beast '' peaked at number two. Outside of North America, the song peaked within the top ten in New Zealand and the United Kingdom, while peaking within the top twenty in Australia, Netherlands, and Ireland. The song sold over a million copies worldwide. This version of the song was also nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year at the Grammys, and it won the Grammy for Dion and Bryson for Best Pop Duo / Group Vocal Performance.
In a first - time accomplishment for The Walt Disney Company, an unfinished version of Beauty and the Beast was shown at the New York Film Festival on September 29, 1991. The film was deemed a "work in progress '' because roughly only 70 % of the animation had been completed; storyboards and pencil tests were used in replacement of the remaining 30 %. Additionally, certain segments of the film that had already been finished were reverted to previous stages of completion. At the end of the screening, Beauty and the Beast received a ten - minute - long standing ovation from the film festival audience. The completed film was also screened out of competition at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival. The finished film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on November 13, 1991, beginning a limited release before expanding wide on November 22.
The film was restored and remastered for its New Year 's Day, 2002 re-release in IMAX theatres in a special - edition edit, including a new musical sequence. For this version of the film, much of the animation was cleaned up, a new sequence set to the deleted song "Human Again '' was inserted into the film 's second act, and a new digital master from the original CAPS production files was used to make the high - resolution IMAX film negative.
A sing along edition of the film, hosted by Jordin Sparks, was released in select theaters on September 29 and October 2, 2010. Prior to the showing of the film, Sparks showed an exclusive behind - the - scenes look at the newly restored film and the making of her new Beauty and the Beast music video. There was also commentary from producer Don Hahn, interviews with the cast and an inside look at how the animation was created.
A Disney Digital 3D version of the film, the second of a traditionally animated film, was originally scheduled to be released in US theatres on February 12, 2010, but the project was postponed. On August 25, 2011, Disney announced that the 3D version of the film would make its American debut at Hollywood 's El Capitan Theatre from September 2 -- 15, 2011. Disney spent less than $10 million on the 3D conversion. After the successful 3D re-release of The Lion King, Disney announced a wide 3D re-release of Beauty and the Beast in North America beginning January 13, 2012.
The film was released to VHS on October 30, 1992 as part of the Walt Disney Classics series, and was later put on moratorium on April 30, 1993; it was not included in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection line. This version contains a minor edit to the film: skulls that appear in Gaston 's pupils for two frames during his climactic fall to his death were removed for the original home video release. No such edit was made to later reissues of the film. The "work - in - progress '' version screened at the New York Film Festival was also released on VHS and LaserDisc at this time; however, said version was the only one available on the latter format until the fall of 1993, when the completed theatrical version was released. This measure was to diminish the threat of video pirates making copies derived from the LaserDisc (which are not copy - protected) and selling them in international markets, where the film was yet to be available for home release.
Beauty and the Beast: Special Edition, as the enhanced version of the film released in IMAX / large - format is called, was released on two - disc "Platinum Edition '' DVD and VHS on October 8, 2002. The DVD set features three versions of the film: the extended IMAX Special Edition with the "Human Again '' sequence added, the original theatrical version, and the New York Film Festival "work - in - progress '' version. This release went to "Disney Vault '' moratorium status in January 2003, along with its direct - to - video follow - ups Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas and Belle 's Magical World.
The film was released from the vault on October 5, 2010 as the second of Disney 's Diamond Editions, in the form of a three - disc Blu - ray Disc and DVD combination pack -- the first release of Beauty and the Beast on home video in high - definition format. This edition consists of four versions of the film: the original theatrical version, an extended version, the New York Film Festival storyboard - only version, and a fourth iteration displaying the storyboards via picture - in - picture alongside the original theatrical version. Upon its first week of release, the Blu - ray sold 1.1 million units, topping the Blu - ray sales chart and finishing in third place on the combined Blu - ray and DVD sales chart for the week ending on October 10, 2010. It was the second - best - selling Blu - ray of 2010, behind Avatar. A two - disc DVD edition was released on November 23, 2010. A five - disc combo pack, featuring Blu - ray 3D, Blu - ray 2D, DVD and a digital copy, was released on October 4, 2011. The 3D combo pack is identical to the original Diamond Edition, except for the added 3D disc and digital copy. The Blu - ray release went into the Disney Vault along with the two sequels on April 30, 2012.
A 25th - anniversary Signature Edition was released on Digital HD September 6, 2016 and was followed by Blu - ray / DVD combo pack on September 20, 2016. Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S., the film topped the Blu - ray Disc sales chart, and debuted at number 3 in the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks overall disc sales, behind Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows and Captain America: Civil War.
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 93 % and an average of 8.4 out of 10 based on reviews from 103 critics. The website 's general consensus reads, "Enchanting, sweepingly romantic, and featuring plenty of wonderful musical numbers, Beauty and the Beast is one of Disney 's most elegant animated offerings. '' The film also holds a 95 / 100 on Metacritic. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A + '' grade.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the film with the following statement, "Two years ago, Walt Disney Pictures reinvented the animated feature, not only with an eye toward pleasing children, but also with an older, savvier audience in mind. Disney truly bridged a generation gap with The Little Mermaid... Now, lightning has definitely struck twice with Beauty and the Beast. '' Awarding the film a perfect score of four stars, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times compared Beauty and the Beast positively to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Pinocchio, writing, "Beauty and the Beast reaches back to an older and healthier Hollywood tradition in which the best writers, musicians and filmmakers are gathered for a project on the assumption that a family audience deserves great entertainment, too. '' In 2001 Ebert again gave the IMAX re-release a full 4 out of 4 stars. James Berardinelli of ReelViews rated the film similarly while hailing it as "the finest animated movie ever made '', writing, "Beauty and the Beast attains a nearly - perfect mix of romance, music, invention, and animation. '' The use of computer animation, particularly in the ballroom sequence, was singled out in several reviews as one of the film 's highlights. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review, calling the film "A delightfully satisfying modern fable, a near - masterpiece that draws on the sublime traditions of the past while remaining completely in sync with the sensibility of its time. '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, saying "It is a surprise, in a time of sequels and retreads, that the new film is so fresh and altogether triumphant in its own right. '' Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Beauty and the Beast is certainly adequate holiday entertainment for children and their more indulgent parents... But the film has little of the technical facility, vivid characterization and emotional impact of Disney past. ''
Jay Boyar of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film four out of five stars, saying "It 's not an especially scary movie, but right from the start, you can tell that this Beauty and the Beast has a beauty of a bite. '' John Hartl of The Seattle Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "It 's exceptionally difficult to make an audience care for animated characters unless they 're mermaids or anthropomorphized animals or insects, yet the Disney animators, with a big assist from the vocal talents of a superb cast, have pulled it off. '' Gene Siskel, also of the Chicago Tribune, gave the film four out of four stars, saying "Beauty and the Beast is one of the year 's most entertaining films for both adults and children. '' On their Beauty and the Beast edition of Siskel & Ebert, both Siskel and Roger Ebert proclaimed that the film is "a legitimate contender for Oscar consideration as Best Picture of the Year. '' Michael Sragow of The New Yorker gave the film a positive review, saying "It 's got storytelling vigor and clarity, bright, eclectic animation, and a frisky musical wit. '' Eric Smoodin writes in his book Animating Culture that the studio was trying to make up for earlier gender stereotypes with this film. Smoodin also states that, in the way it has been viewed as bringing together traditional fairy tales and feminism as well as computer and traditional animation, the film 's "greatness could be proved in terms of technology narrative or even politics ''. Animation legend Chuck Jones praised the film, in a 1992 guest appearance on Later with Bob Costas he claimed he "Loved it. I think it should have won (Best Picture)... I think the animation on the beast is one of the greatest pieces of animation I 've seen ''.
Animation historian Michael Barrier wrote that Belle "becomes a sort of intellectual less by actually reading books, it seems, than by hanging out with them '', but says that the film comes closer than other "Disney - studio '' films to "accepting challenges of the kind that the finest Walt Disney features met ''. David Whitley writes in The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation that Belle is different from earlier Disney heroines in that she is mostly free from the burdens of domestic housework, although her role is somewhat undefined in the same way that "contemporary culture now requires most adolescent girls to contribute little in the way of domestic work before they leave home and have to take on the fraught, multiple responsibilities of the working mother ''. Whitley also notes other themes and modern influences, such as the film 's critical view of Gaston 's chauvinism and attitude towards nature, the cyborg - like servants, and the father 's role as an inventor rather than a merchant.
In 2010, IGN named Beauty and the Beast as the greatest animated film of all time, directly ahead of WALL - E, The Incredibles, Toy Story 2, and The Iron Giant.
Several critics regard the 1991 animated film as superior to the 2017 live - action remake. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 1991 film "worked wonderfully because it was pure Broadway, written for the screen, blending comedy and romance and magic and just enough snark in the margins '', while the 2017 remake got lost in translation since "The movie takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips also wrote of the 2017 film that "too often we 're watching highly qualified performers, plus a few less conspicuously talented ones (Watson, primarily), stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality ''. Dana Schwartz of the Observer criticized some of the 2017 film changes to the characters like Gaston and the Beast as regressive by watering down their distinguishing personalities from the 1991 film, also arguing that the added backstory to the characters in the 2017 version failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way ''. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''.
During its initial release in 1991, the film grossed $145.9 million in revenues in North America and $351.9 million worldwide. It ranked as the third-most successful film of 1991 in North America, surpassed only by the summer blockbusters Terminator 2: Judgment Day and Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves. At the time Beauty and the Beast was the most successful animated Disney film release, and the first animated film to reach $100 million in North America. In its IMAX re-release, it earned $25.5 million in North America and $5.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $31 million. It also earned $9.8 million from its 3D re-release overseas. During the opening weekend of its North American 3D re-release in 2012, Beauty and the Beast grossed $17.8 million, coming in at the No. 2 spot, behind Contraband, and achieved the highest opening weekend for an animated film in January. The film was expected to make $17.5 million over the weekend; however, the results topped its forecast and the expectations of box office analysts. The re-release ended its run on May 3, 2012, and earned $47.6 million, which brought the film 's total gross in North America to $219 million. It made an estimated $206 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $425 million.
Alan Menken and Howard Ashman 's song "Beauty and the Beast '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song, while Menken 's score won the award for Best Original Score. Two other Menken and Ashman songs from the film, "Belle '' and "Be Our Guest '', were also nominated for Best Original Song. Beauty and the Beast was the first picture to receive three Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song, a feat that would be repeated by The Lion King (1994), Dreamgirls (2006), and Enchanted (2007). Academy rules have since been changed to limit each film to two nominations in this category, due to the consecutive unintentional failures of Dreamgirls and Enchanted to win the award.
The film was also nominated for Best Picture and Best Sound. It was the first animated film ever to be nominated for Best Picture, and remained the only animated film nominated until 2009 when the Best Picture field was widened to ten nominees, and it remains the only animated film nominated for the award when it had five nominees. It became the first musical in twelve years to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture of the Year, following All That Jazz (1979), and the last one to be nominated until Moulin Rouge! (2001), ten years later. It lost the Best Picture award to The Silence of the Lambs. With six nominations, the film currently shares the record for the most nominations for an animated film with WALL - E (2008), although, with three nominations in the Best Original Song category, Beauty and the Beast 's nominations span only four categories, while WALL - E 's nominations cover six individual categories.
While The Little Mermaid was the first to be nominated, Beauty and the Beast became the first animated film to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. This feat was later repeated by The Lion King and Toy Story 2.
In 2002, Beauty and the Beast was added to the United States National Film Registry as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "Ten Top Ten '' lists of the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres, based on polls of over 1,500 people from the creative community. Beauty and the Beast was acknowledged as the seventh - best film in the animation genre. In previous lists, it ranked number 22 on the Institutes 's list of best musicals and number 34 on its list of the best romantic American films. On the list of the greatest songs from American films, Beauty and the Beast ranked number 62.
American Film Institute recognition:
According to an article in the Houston Chronicle, "The catalyst for Disney 's braving the stage was an article by The New York Times theater critic Frank Rich that praised Beauty and the Beast as 1991 's best musical... Theatre Under The Stars executive director Frank Young had been trying to get Disney interested in a stage version of Beauty about the same time Eisner and Katzenberg were mulling over Rich 's column. But Young could n't seem to get in touch with the right person in the Disney empire. Nothing happened till the Disney execs started to pursue the project from their end... When they asked George Ives, the head of Actors Equity on the West Coast, which Los Angeles theater would be the best venue for launching a new musical, Ives said the best theater for that purpose would be TUTS. Not long after that, Disney 's Don Frantz and Bettina Buckley contacted Young, and the partnership was under way. '' A stage condensation of the film, directed by Robert Jess Roth and choreographed by Matt West, both of whom moved on to the Broadway development, had already been presented at Disneyland at what was then called the Videopolis stage. Beauty and the Beast premiered in a joint production of Theatre Under The Stars and Disney Theatricals at the Music Hall, Houston, Texas, from November 28, 1993, through December 26, 1993.
On Monday, April 18, 1994, Beauty and the Beast premiered on Broadway at the Palace Theatre in New York City to mixed reviews. The show transferred to the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre on November 11, 1999. The commercial (though not critical) success of the show led to productions in the West End, Toronto, and all over the world. The Broadway version, which ran for over a decade, received a Tony Award, and became the first of a whole line of Disney stage productions. The original Broadway cast included Terrence Mann as the Beast, Susan Egan as Belle, Burke Moses as Gaston, Gary Beach as Lumière, Heath Lamberts as Cogsworth, Tom Bosley as Maurice, Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts, and Stacey Logan as Babette the feather duster. Many well - known actors and singers also starred in the Broadway production during its thirteen - year run, including Kerry Butler, Debbie Gibson, Toni Braxton, Andrea McArdle, Jamie - Lynn Sigler, Christy Carlson Romano, Ashley Brown, and Anneliese van der Pol as Belle; Chuck Wagner, James Barbour, and Jeff McCarthy as the Beast; Meshach Taylor, Patrick Page, Bryan Batt, Jacob Young, and John Tartaglia as Lumière; and Marc Kudisch, Christopher Sieber, and Donny Osmond as Gaston. The show ended its Broadway run on July 29, 2007 after 46 previews and 5,461 performances. As of 2017, it is Broadway 's tenth - longest - running show in history.
In June 2014, Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live - action film adaptation of the original film was in the works, with Bill Condon directing and Evan Spiliotopoulos writing the script. Condon originally planned on not only drawing inspiration from the original film, but also to include most, if not all, of the Menken / Rice songs from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. In September 2014, it was announced that Stephen Chbosky (The Perks of Being a Wallflower) would re-write the script. In January 2015, Emma Watson announced on her Facebook page that she would portray Belle in the new live action remake film. In March 2015, Dan Stevens, Luke Evans, Emma Thompson, Josh Gad, Audra McDonald, and Kevin Kline joined the film as the Beast, Gaston, Mrs. Potts, Lefou, Garderobe, and Maurice, respectively. The following month, Ian McKellen, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, and Gugu Mbatha - Raw joined the cast, as Cogsworth, Lumière, Cadenza, and Plumette, respectively. Composer Alan Menken returned to score the film 's music, with new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. In June 2015, Menken said the film would not include the songs that were written for the Broadway musical. Filming began on May 18, 2015 in London, and production officially wrapped in August 2015. The film was released on March 17, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast merchandise cover a wide variety of products, among them storybook versions of the film 's story, a comic book based on the film published by Disney Comics, toys, children 's costumes, and other items. In addition, the character of Belle has been integrated into the "Disney Princess '' line of Disney 's Consumer Products division, and appears on merchandise related to that franchise. In 1995, a live - action children 's series entitled Sing Me a Story with Belle began running in syndication, remaining on the air through 1999. Two direct - to - video followups (which take place during the timeline depicted in the original film) were produced by Walt Disney Television Animation: Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas in 1997 and Belle 's Magical World in 1998; in contrast to the universal acclaim of the original, reception to the sequels was extremely negative. Disney on Ice produced an ice version of the movie that opened in 1992 in Lakeland, Florida. The show was such a huge commercial and critical success, touring around the world to sell - out crowds, that a television special was made when it toured Spain in 1994. The show ended its run in 2006, after 14 years.
There are several video games that are loosely based on the film:
The first video game based on the film was titled Beauty and the Beast: Belle 's Quest and is an action platformer for the Sega Genesis. Developed by Software Creations, the game was released in North America in 1993. It is one of two video games based on the film that Sunsoft published for the Genesis, the other being Beauty & The Beast: Roar of the Beast. Characters from the film like Gaston can help the player past tricky situations. As Belle, the player must reach the Beast 's castle and break the spell to live happily ever after. To succeed, she must explore the village, forest, castle, and snowy forest to solve puzzles and mini-games while ducking or jumping over enemies. Belle 's health is represented by a stack of blue books, which diminishes when she touches bats, rats, and other hazards in the game. Extra lives, keys and other items are hidden throughout the levels. While there is no continue or game saving ability, players can use a code to start the game at any of the seven levels.
The second video game based on the film was titled ' Beauty and the Beast: Roar of the Beast and is a side - scrolling video game for the Genesis. As the Beast, the player must successfully complete several levels, based on scenes from the film, in order to protect the castle from invading villagers and forest animals and rescue Belle from Gaston.
The third and fourth video games based on the film are action platformers developed by Probe Software and published by Hudson Soft. One, titled Beauty and the Beast, was released in Europe in 1994 for the NES, while the other, Disney 's Beauty and the Beast, was released in North America in July 1994 and in Europe on February 23 1995 for the SNES. The entire games are played through the perspective of the Beast. As the Beast, the player must get Belle to fall in love so that the curse cast upon him and his castle will be broken. The final boss of the game is Gaston. The Beast can walk, jump, swipe, stomp, super stomp, and roar, the last of which is used to both damage enemies and reveal hidden objects.
The fifth video game based on the film was titled Disney 's Beauty and the Beast: A Boardgame Adventure and is a Disney Boardgame adventure for the Game Boy Color. It was released on October 25, 1999.
The video game series Kingdom Hearts features a world based on the film, named "Beast 's Castle '', along with several of the film 's characters. In the first game, the world has been destroyed and Belle kidnapped by the Heartless, led by Maleficent, but the Beast travels to Maleficent 's stronghold and works with Sora to defeat Maleficent and rescue Belle and the other captured princesses. In Kingdom Hearts II, the world has since been restored following Ansem 's defeat, but Beast and Belle are having difficulties due to the enigmatic Xaldin of Organization XIII attempting to bring out the Beast 's darker side in order to turn him into a Heartless and a Nobody, but the Beast eventually comes to his senses and works with Sora once again to defeat Xaldin once and for all. In the game 's ending credits, the Beast turns back into the Prince. In Kingdom Hearts: 358 / 2 Days, the world is featured as a playable level but the story is not essential to the main plot. In Kingdom Hearts χ, the world is featured again and follows the plot of the movie more closely. The characters featured in the series are Beast, Belle, Lumiere, Gaston, Cogsworth, Mrs. Potts, Chip, Maurice, and the Wardrobe. Gaston and Maurice do not appear until Kingdom Hearts χ, which takes place before the main series. After Gaston is defeated, the world 's primary antagonist becomes Xaldin, an original character created for the series, but who shares several traits with Forte, the main antagonist of Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas.
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who are the characters in gotham supposed to be | List of Gotham characters - wikipedia
Gotham is an American crime television series developed by Bruno Heller, based on characters appearing in and published by DC Comics in their Batman franchise, primarily those of James Gordon and Bruce Wayne. The series premiered in the United States on September 22, 2014 on Fox television network. The series stars Ben McKenzie as the young Gordon while Heller executive produces along with Danny Cannon, who also directed the pilot.
As originally conceived, the series would have served as a straightforward story of Gordon 's early days on the Gotham City Police Department, but the idea evolved, not only to include the Wayne 's "transformation '' into Batman, but also to explore the origin stories of several of his villains, such as Penguin, Riddler, Catwoman and several others.
The following is a list of characters who have appeared in the television series. In addition to directly adapted characters from DC Comics, many other characters in the series are based on, inspired by and / or otherwise reference preexisting characters without sharing the exact same identities.
James Gordon is a war veteran and homicide detective at the Gotham City Police Department in its 1st Grade working to find the man who killed Bruce Wayne 's parents and battling the corruption of Gotham City 's Police Department. His father was Gotham City 's District Attorney before his death in a car accident when Gordon was 13 years old.
In September 2013, it was reported that Fox was developing a TV series centered on James Gordon 's early days as a police detective and the origin stories of various Batman villains. In February 2014, McKenzie was cast as the lead character. When describing his character in an interview, McKenzie stated that Gordon "is a truly honest man. The last honest man in a city full of crooked people. He 's not an anti-hero, he 's a true hero -- but he will have to compromise. McKenzie did not audition for the role. Heller, with whom he had worked before, wrote the role for McKenzie, who described the character as "an old - fashioned hero in an age of anti-heroes. A throwback. Jim 's a lawman, that restricts him in some ways. But also means he can become powerful within the system and change things for the better ''.
After the conflict with Hugo Strange at Arkham Asylum, Gordon left Gotham to find Leslie Thompkins, who had left Gotham. However, Gordon later discovered that she was in a new relationship with Mario Calvi, discouraging him from pursuing her.
Six months later, Gordon is working as a bounty hunter, forming an uneasy alliance with reporter Valerie Vale. After experiencing a hallucination of his father, Gordon decides to rejoin the department. After Mario is infected by Alice Tetch 's poisonous blood, Mario manipulates Lee into turning against Gordon. Before Mario can kill Lee, Gordon kills him in self - defense. This destroys any relationship Jim or Lee ever had. As his career goes on, Jim finds out his father and Uncle Frank were members of the Court of Owls. After Frank reveals he killed Gordon 's father to prevent him from spreading info about the Court, Frank commits suicide, but not before telling Gordon that he must join the Court. Gordon takes the blame for Frank 's death and meets with the Court.
After saving some of his fellow police officers and some of Oswald Cobblepot 's men from Professor Pyg, Jim Gordon is promoted to captain by Mayor Burke.
Harvey Bullock is a detective who is Gordon 's loyal partner and ally. Bullock is a seemingly corrupt and brutish detective who has gradually become loyal to Jim Gordon.
At the beginning of the second season, Bullock resigns from the police force but rejoins following the Maniax attack on the GCPD. After Gordon is framed for the murder of Carl Pinkney, Bullock enlists Carmine Falcone to help break Jim out of prison. After Captain Barnes is hospitalized after an attack by Azrael, Harvey is declared the de facto Captain until further notice and is trusted by Jim to protect Gotham after new threats emerge while he is away.
Six months later, Harvey is working with Barnes to protect Gotham and while Jim refuses to return to the department, Harvey vows to never turn his back on him. When Nathaniel Barnes gets infected with the Alice Tetch virus and is remanded to Arkham Asylum, Harvey becomes the acting captain.
In light of being promoted to captain by Mayor Burke after saving some police officers and some of Oswald Cobblepot 's men from Professor Pyg 's trap, Gordon reluctantly relieves Bullock of his position of acting captain.
Bruce Wayne is the orphaned son of Thomas and Martha Wayne, who is under the care of Alfred Pennyworth. Traumatised by the murder of his parents, which he witnessed, Bruce has been doing his part to find the identity of his parents ' killer, while showing concern of some illegal activities performed by members of his father 's company.
Bruce displays a fervent tendency to train himself as investigator and combatant but is still navigating the remainder of his childhood with Alfred 's guidance.
After he is kidnapped by the Court, Bruce finds himself in a dungeon surrounded by snowy mountains. Meeting a Shaman there, Bruce begins his combat training. After breaking free from Ra 's al Ghul 's control, Bruce makes plans to protect Gotham City.
In later life, Bruce will go on to fight crime in his adulthood as the masked vigilante Batman.
Oswald Cobblepot is a cunning, well - spoken criminal "snitch. '' He starts out as an attendant for Fish Mooney at her nightclub, and early on displays a sadistic, violent streak despite his small size. After he is discovered to be an informant for the GCPD, he is brutally beaten, leaving him with an odd way of walking furthering his nickname "Penguin ''. He escapes an attempt on his life, collaborating with Don Falcone when Gordon deliberately misfires at the pier where Oswald has been sent for execution. After a stint in the Maroni crime family as a restaurant manager, he convinces Maroni of his loyalty, even setting up a robbery by some actors in which he feigns heroism to show his devotion. He later kills the three actors with poisoned cannolis and presumably keeps the stolen cash they had on them. Oswald later assumes Mooney 's position in the Falcone crime family when Mooney 's plot against the Don is uncovered. At the end of season one, Oswald is Gotham City 's sole remaining mob boss, with all of his rivals either dead, missing, or having fled Gotham.
Theo Galavan and Tabitha kidnap his mother, forcing him to help them. After they kill her, Oswald swears revenge and is later wounded during an attack on an event where Theo is holding his victory party for his election. After recuperating at Edward Nygma 's place, he and Gabe follow Theo Galavan 's henchmen where they save Jim Gordon from him. After the battle against the Saint Dumas, Oswald knocks out Nathaniel Barnes and convinces Gordon that Theo may never be convicted and must be killed. He and Jim then take Galavan to an isolated area, and Oswald mercilessly beats Galavan for killing his mother, before Gordon finishes Theo off with a gunshot.
After Theo 's death, Oswald 's men abandon him, and he is later found and arrested by the GCPD. After telling Barnes he 's "insane, '' Oswald is taken to Arkham Asylum, where he meets Hugo Strange. After noticing and asking a fellow inmate at Arkham, he later finds out that he is to be experimented on. Following some experiments, Oswald is released from Arkham. He later meets his biological father Elijah Van Dahl when at his mother 's grave. After his step - family murders Elijah to gain the family 's fortune, Oswald awakens from his condition and slaughters his step - family in vengeance. After finding out that Azrael happens to be the resurrected Theo Galavan, Oswald and Butch kill Galavan with an RPG. After finding out about Hugo Strange 's experiments, Oswald, Butch, and his gang knock down the bus supposedly containing Strange, but a shocked Oswald is knocked out by a resurrected Fish Mooney, prompting Butch and the gang to flee.
The third season of Gotham explores Oswald 's continued struggle against the monsters, a final confrontation with Fish Mooney, and his rise and fall as Mayor of Gotham. After working with Edward Nygma to get into office, Oswald develops romantic feelings for him, resulting in consequences within the political and criminal worlds of the city. After his downfall, Oswald forms an alliance with Ivy Pepper and exacts revenge on those who betrayed him.
Upon establishing the Pax Penguina where criminals can get a license from him to commit a crime, Oswald Cobblepot has his encounter with Sofia Falcone. After figuring out Sofia 's plot, Oswald ends up in a gang war with her. Later on when Gotham City becomes a no man 's land, Oswald kills Butch Gilzean as part of his revenge on Tabitha for killing his mother. He then has Hugo Strange work on saving the lives of Leslie Thompkins and Riddler while he claims some territory.
Barbara Kean is the daughter of a wealthy couple and the owner of an art gallery, Barbara Kean is the ex-fiancée of James Gordon and the ex-lover of Renee Montoya. After a hiatus from Gordon following attempts on her life by the Maroni and Falcone crime families. Barbara has stayed with Renee Montoya and her parents before planning to rekindle her relationship with James Gordon. Barbara even befriends Selina Kyle and Ivy Pepper when they took refuge in James Gordon 's penthouse. After finding out that Gordon had moved on to a relationship with Leslie Tompkins, Barbara later had a romantic encounter with the wealthy Jason Lennon, the serial killer known as the Ogre. She was severely traumatized after she was kidnapped by Lennon and forced to murder her own parents. The Ogre 's malevolent insanity appears to live on in her psyche. When she attempted to kill Leslie during an informal counseling session, the latter rendered her unconscious.
She was incarcerated in Arkham Asylum until she is among those sprung from Arkham Asylum by Tabitha Galavan on her brother Theo 's orders. A convoluted and failed attempt on Gordon 's life at Gotham Cathedral occurs when Barbara wears the wedding dress she had originally ordered for their wedding and has Arkham escapees as priest and witnesses. During an apparent last attempt to kill Gordon, Barbara falls out a window and is grabbed by Gordon. She lets go and falls, ending up in the hospital and put into some sort of induced coma before being transferred to Arkham Asylum 's medical wing. When news of James Gordon being found guilty and being sentenced to 40 years at Blackgate Penitentiary is heard on Arkham Asylum 's radio, Barbara awakens from her coma. A nurse notices this and shouts for someone to get Hugo Strange. Hugo Strange later releases Barbara from Arkham so that he can study her. After helping Gordon get info about who contracted the hit on Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne, Barbara found her way to where Butch Gilzean and Tabitha Galavan were residing. Butch later kicks Barbara out. She later exposes "Gordon '' at the Police Station as being an imposter when visiting the Police Station, thus causing Harvey Bullock and Alfred Pennyworth to quickly realise the real Gordon alongside Bruce Wayne and Lucius Fox were being held at Arkham Asylum.
Six months later, Barbara and Tabitha have opened Sirens Nightclub, and while she and Barbara are shown to be in a romantic relationship, she still harbors some feelings for Gordon. After Barbara learns that Penguin has romantic feeling for Nygma, she informs Nygma of this after correctly deducing that Penguin killed Nygma 's girlfriend Isabella 's. Afterwards, Nygma forms a partnership with Barbara, Tabitha, and Butch to destroy everything Penguin loves. After Nygma shoots Penguin in the harbor docks, Barbara is hired by Jim to interrogate a worker in the dock to find info of a Court weapon. Before they can get more info, Barbara and Tabitha are attacked by Talon, who kills their henchmen, although Barbara and Tabitha managed to escape.
As the chaos caused by the Alice Tetch Virus comes to a close, Barbara (apparently) kills Butch, having heard his and Tabitha 's plans to betray her. During a fight against Tabitha at her safe house, Barbara ends up being electrocuted to death.
She later returns to life upon Ra 's al Ghul bathing her in the Lazarus Pit as she tries to get Tabitha Galavan and Selina Kyle to work for her in an arms race against Cobblepot while targeting an embalming knife. At the time when Ra 's al Ghul was in Blackgate, he transferred some energy for Barbara Kean to use at a later date.
After the incident with the Speed Demonz biker gang, Oswald Cobblepot sends Barbara Kean, Tabitha Galavan, and Selina Kyle to the Narrows to bring him Edward Nygma. When Firefly crashes the fight between Tabitha Galavan and Solomon Grundy, Barbara Kean shoots Cherry after Leslie Thompkins disabled Firefly. Barbara Kean then declares to the crowd that they are defecting from Cobblepot 's services. After abducting Sofia while thinking that she is on Cobblepot 's side, Barbara learns that Sofia is against Cobblepot while seeing that she was right about her claim when Victor Zsasz uses a rocket launcher to destroy her lair. Afterwards, Barbara, Tabitha, and Selina side with Sofia in her war against Cobblepot.
The energy that Ra 's al Ghul placed in Barbara Kean turned out to be a beacon for the rest of the League of Shadows as they arrive at The Sirens club. After relinquishing it to a revived Ra 's al Ghul, she assists Alfred Pennyworth in rescuing Bruce Wayne as she manipulates events that has her forcing Bruce Wayne 's hand into thrusting the embalming knife into Ra 's al Ghul. After hearing from Tabitha about Butch 's death at the hands of Oswald Cobblepot, Barbara plans to make the Sirens ' territory a female - only area by killing the males that were with Ra 's al Ghul at the time.
Sarah Essen is the Captain of the Gotham City Police Department 's homicide squad and the boss of James Gordon and Harvey Bullock. She is an honest cop that wants to do something about the rampant corruption in her department, but fears for her family 's safety.
Following Gillian Loeb 's resignation, Sarah Essen is sworn in as the new police commissioner. She is later killed by Jerome Valeska during the Maniax 's raid on the Gotham City Police Department.
Alfred Pennyworth, an ex-Special Air Service operative, is the butler and legal guardian of Bruce Wayne. Though technically Bruce 's legal guardian, Alfred is still more willing to go along with Bruce 's whims of investigating leads to the murder of his parents. Alfred is teaching Bruce basic self - defense.
At one point, he even let Bruce use his father 's watch as improvised brass knuckles to beat up Thomas Elliot for insulting the late Waynes. He often helps Bruce and Jim with certain situations. Although he still looks after Bruce, Alfred allows him to go his own way sometimes.
During the chaos caused by the Alice Tetch Virus outbreak, Bruce stabs Alfred and then uses the Lazarus Pit 's waters to cauterise the wound as Alfred recuperates in the hospital.
Following the incident where Bruce ended up having to stab Ra 's al Ghul with the embalming knife, Alfred works to get Bruce back to normal when he starts partying with his friends from school.
When Gotham City is made a no man 's land, Bruce persuades Alfred to be evacuated with a recuperating Selina. Alfred vows to come back when Selina fully recovers.
She later appears as part of Cobblepot 's gang and develops a rivalry with Silver St. Cloud for the affection of Bruce. Selina later helps Bruce to expose Silver and find a hint to who killed his parents while also helping to rescue Bruce from the Order of St. Dumas. She allowed Bruce to live on the streets with her for a while until Gordon ended up on the lam and played a part in Edward Nygma 's arrest. When Bruce decided to go back home, Selina to storm out in anger. Selina later infiltrated Arkham Asylum to find Hugo Strange 's experiments and a newly reformed Pike, calling herself Firefly, after being told about her survival by Bruce. Selina later asks to be Firefly 's servant and is released later from Arkham after freeing Gordon, Bruce, and Lucius.
Selina is later shown to have re-aligned with Fish Mooney following her revival. When one of Fish Mooney 's minions catches Ivy, Selina tries to intervene which led to her witnessing Fish Mooney 's minion Marv touching Ivy prior to her falling into the river.
After being unable to get Bruce 's help to find Ivy, Selina is approached by James Gordon if she knows any info about Alice Tetch. She did tell him that she was a one - time member of Fish Mooney 's latest gang before she parted ways with her. Later on, she encounters Subject 514A who was posing as Bruce Wayne. While suspicious about Bruce Wayne 's look - a-like, Selina decides to go out to dinner with him. Eventually, after 514A saves Selina after she fails to rob a bar, she sees 514A 's scars and realizes he is n't Bruce. 514A explains the situation, and Selina tells him he 's more normal than Bruce. With that, 514A kisses Selina and the two part ways. Later, while Selina is stealing wallets at the Penguin 's party, she encounters an older Ivy, though she does n't recognize her. After Bruce confesses his feelings for her, Selina kisses him. Once Ivy reveals herself, Selina is shocked and unclear of whether she and Bruce are in a relationship or not. After trying to help Bruce and Alfred break into a Court building, they are assisted by Selina 's long - lost mother. Although Selina 's mother seems to want to reconnect with her daughter, Selina later discovers that her mother only returned to extort money from Bruce Wayne. Selina then tearfully tells her mother to never return to Gotham. Selina gets mad at Bruce once she finds out he kept it from her. Later, however, Selina and Bruce show some signs of reconciling.
Upon her latest encounter with Subject 514A and being surprised that Bruce is not in Gotham City, Selina tries to warn Alfred only to be pushed out the window by 514A. The stray cats then swarm over her body. Her body was found by the police and was taken to the hospital. Thanks to Ivy Pepper 's plants, Selina recovered and plans to go to Wayne Manor to get revenge on Subject 514A. Even though she and Alfred fail to defeat Subject 514A, Selina was n't interested in helping Alfred find Bruce.
After her friendship with Bruce is strained during the chaos caused by Alice Tetch Virus and Alfred getting stabbed, Selina meets up with Tabitha Galavan where she tests her talents on Tabitha 's whip upon telling Tabitha that she is "done just surviving ''. Eventually, Selina and Tabitha work for a revived Barbara Kean after she made amends with them even when Barbara aligns herself with Sofia Falcone.
Selina is later shot in the waist by Jeremiah Valeska. While she survived the surgery, she did get a damaged spine. When Gotham City becomes a no man 's land, Bruce convinces Alfred to go with Selina to oversee her recovery.
Edward Nygma is a forensics operative who works for the Gotham City Police Department and often presents his information in riddles. He initially starts off as an awkward but intelligent man with an unrequited crush on archivist Kristen Kringle, but over the course of the show, transforms into a murderous and manipulative criminal. After being constantly mistreated by his fellow co-workers (except Bullock and Gordon, who tolerate him), Nygma murdered a fellow officer, Tom, who was also Kringle 's abusive boyfriend causing a mental breakdown that results in a second personality. He succeeded in becoming Kristen 's boyfriend, however he was dumped after he told Kristen about having killed her abusive ex-boyfriend, Tom. When Edward tries to stop her from calling the police, he accidentally chokes her to death. Edward starts to give in to his narcissistic dark side. While burying her body in the woods, a passerby approaches and interferes. Nygma kills him as well and has to bury both bodies. After helping Cobblepot recuperate, Nygma allows Cobblepot to live with him while helping to heal Gordon after he was beaten up by Theo Galavan.
Nygma later figures out Gordon 's hand in Theo Galavan 's death and orchestrates his arrest by framing him for the death of Carl Pinkney. During the confrontation with Gordon at the spot where Kristin Kringle was buried, Nygma 's plot was exposed thanks to Gordon 's plan by getting him to confess his actions with Nathaniel Barnes and the other police officers nearby. Nygma is arrested by the police and remanded to Arkham Asylum. After he investigates and finds out who Hugo Strange is and his experiments, Nygma escapes but is caught and recaptured after a brief encounter with Selina. He later aids Hugo Strange in interrogating Bruce Wayne and Lucius Fox but was re-incarcerated afterwards.
Six months later, Penguin has him declared sane and has him released from Arkham Asylum so that he can help Penguin become mayor. Later, Nygma buys back the money that Butch was bribing people with in order to vote for Penguin. However, Penguin still wins regardless, proving Nygma 's point that the people of Gotham loved Penguin anyway. Later, Nygma meets and becomes infatuated with a woman striking the resemblance to Kringle and also likes riddles, Isabella. After forming a relationship with Isabella, Penguin orders Gabriel to cut the brakes off of Isabella 's car, killing her. After Nygma is informed by Barbara of Penguin 's romantic feelings for him, Nygma discovers that Penguin indeed killed Isabella. Later, Nygma forms a partnership with Barbara, Tabitha, and Butch to destroy everything Penguin loves. After breaking his sanity and destroying his reputation, Nygma shoots Penguin in the harbor docks, although Penguin claims to love Nygma still. Nygma later starts a killing spree of those who ca n't solve his riddles and even gets Lucius Fox involved. Taking pills that cause him to have tormenting hallucinations of Penguin, Nygma admits that he ca n't do everything without Penguin. Later, Nygma throws the pills away, and finally embraces his new role as "The Riddler. ''
In order to get the Court of Owls to reveal themselves, Riddler takes Mayor Aubrey James captive. Meeting with Gordon at the police station, Riddler agrees to Gordon 's terms to accompany him. When on a road, Riddler agrees to go along with Kathryn and the Talon after Kathryn referenced the fact that Hugo Strange left Riddler 's "who actually runs Gotham '' question. As the Talon loads Nygma into the car, Kathryn tells Gordon that they 'll find a use for Riddler before departing. Nygma later discovered that Oswald Cobblepot is his neighbouring prisoner. Both of them work together to escape from their prison.
At the conclusion of the chaos caused by the Alice Tetch Virus, Oswald outsmarts Riddler and has Victor Fries use his freeze gun on him. Oswald then plans to use Riddler 's frozen body as the centerpiece of his Iceberg Lounge and as a reminder to never let love be his downfall again.
Riddler is later freed by a woman named Myrtle Jenkins who tries to get him back to good health and remember the classic riddles. After hitting Myrtle with the riddle book for children, Riddler leaves her apartment and heads out to plan revenge on Oswald Cobblepot. Due to his brain still recovering from the ice, Riddler was unable to do his usual riddles on Oswald Cobblepot who ended up sparing Riddler from Victor Fries. Riddler later encountered Butch Gilzean in his new form of Solomon Grundy. As they work to recover their minds, they go to Cherry 's fight club where Riddler persuades Cherry to let him fight there.
When Selina Kyle manages to catch Edward Nygma while Barbara Kean and Tabitha Galavan were busy with their side - agendas, Leslie Thompkins suggested a "Code of the Narrows '' to pit the champions of both sides against each other for the fate of Edward Nygma. When Firefly crashes the fight to finish the job that Oswald Cobblepot gave her, Riddler witnessed Leslie disabling Firefly and Barbara shooting Cherry. While Solomon Grundy was having his wounds tended to, Nygma suggests to Leslie that she takes the position that Cherry had. Leslie later figures out that Nygma 's error of not doing his usual problems was a psychological error.
The Riddler persona soon returns to cause problems for Nygma and he eventually resorts to attempting suicide by hanging before opting to return to Arkham. As he contemplates signing the papers, a delighted Penguin reveals that he sent a letter to him hoping the Riddler would read it and Nygma would return to Arkham. He adds that he can truly see who he is and finally calls him Riddler.
When Gotham City becomes a no man 's land, Riddler ends up in a mutual stabbing with Leslie Thompkins. Their bodies are found by Penguin 's men as Hugo Strange is instructed to work on them.
Fish Mooney is a former nightclub owner and mobster who led a gang under Don Falcone and was the former boss of Oswald Cobblepot. She operated in Gotham City 's red - light district despite the heavy presence of the Italian Mafia. Mooney sometimes provides information to Detective Bullock, who has a sweet spot for her. Mooney has secret plans to overthrow Falcone, whom she hates for his otherwise unspecified role in Fish 's own mother 's death, makes her as the main antagonist of season 1. Her plan involved hiring a girl named Liza to seduce Falcone and secretly blowing up Falcone 's money supply. After her plans to overthrow Falcone are exposed by Oswald Cobblepot, who has been blackmailing Liza to get information about both Falcone and Mooney, Don Falcone strangles Liza to death and has Mooney and Butch Gilzean was taken prisoner while the remnants ended up on Oswald Cobblepot 's side. After escaping from Falcone 's men, Mooney tries to leave Gotham City by water and is captured by the minions of the Dollmaker. Mooney was eventually able to escape with some of her fellow prisoners. She returned to Gotham City during the gang war between Falcone and Maroni and formed her gang from street children, including Selina Kyle. Mooney was pushed off of a building into the ocean in a battle with the Penguin, which seemingly killed her.
In the second season 's fall finale, Fish 's body is seen at Indian Hill, a scientific division of Wayne Enterprises that secretly performs illegal experiments. Fish is eventually revived in the second season finale while augmented with the help of cuttlefish DNA, being the only one of Hugo Strange 's patients have her memories intact for unknown reasons. The side - effects of the revival gave Mooney the ability to take control of anyone that comes in contact with her. She manages to escape from Arkham and knocks out a shocked Penguin on the street.
With some of the Indian Hill escapees on her side as members of her latest gang and even realigning herself with Selina Kyle, Fish Mooney begins raiding every pharmacy for drugs. After learning from Ethel Peabody about the new cells being rejected by her body and that Hugo Strange would fix her, Fish Mooney has her fellow escapee Marv steal her youth. Then Fish Mooney plans to find Hugo Strange in order to get him to make more monsters for her gang. When Fish Mooney 's follower Nancy catches Ivy Pepper, Selina tries to vouch for her only for Fish Mooney to sic Marv on her.
Fish Mooney was successful at freeing Hugo Strange. Because of what Mooney said to him, Cobblepot decides not to kill her and allows her to leave with Hugo Strange while telling her not to return.
Fish Mooney later returned to Gotham City with some armed men where she saves Cobblepot from Riddler, Barbara Kean, Tabitha Galavan, and Butch Gilzean. She then makes off with Cobblepot where she forgives him and mends her relationship with Cobblepot.
After obtaining a fleeing Hugo Strange, Fish Mooney has him take her, Oswald Cobblepot, Victor Fries, and Bridgit Pike to the slaughterhouse where the antidotes to Alice Tetch 's blood is. During a fight between Fish Mooney 's followers, James Gordon, and the League of Assassins ' ninjas, Fish Mooney is accidentally stabbed by James Gordon. When Cobblepot tells Mooney that they 'll get her some help, Mooney turns her down stating that this would happen and for Cobblepot to either take control of Gotham City or burn it to the ground as she dies again.
Renee Montoya is a detective in the Major Crimes Unit of the Gotham City Police Department who is dedicated to fighting police corruption. She initially believed that Jim had actually murdered Oswald Cobblepot and was obsessed with arresting him, mostly due to her past relationship with Barbara Kean mixing with her sense of duty, until it was shown that Cobblepot was still alive. She later occasionally assists him in fighting Gotham 's corruption after she and Crispus saved Jim from being killed by Victor Zsasz. Renee was revealed to have had a relationship with Barbara Kean.
Crispus Allen is a detective in the Major Crimes Unit of the Gotham City Police Department who is Renee Montoya 's partner. He was with Renee when she was looking for clues to see if Jim Gordon had actually killed Oswald Cobblepot or not. Crispus later occasionally assists Gordon in fighting Gotham 's corruption after he and Renee save Jim from being killed by Victor Zsasz.
Carmine Falcone is the Don of the Falcone Crime Family and businessman who is the father of Mario Calvi. He is Fish Mooney 's superior and has specific members of both the Gotham City government and the Gotham City Police Department on his payroll (examples being Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb and Mayor Aubrey James) as well as having connections with the Court of Owls. While heading a traditional Cosa Nostra family, Carmine also controls a series of various other criminal organizations in Gotham City including the Triads, the Irish Mob, and Russian Mob as well as other Gotham City gangs such as Fish Mooney 's gang.
Upon first encountering Gordon after preventing Fish Mooney 's men from killing him and Bullock, he at first dismisses his idealism as naive. His hold on Gotham City is challenged by the rival Maroni family and his allies such as Fish Mooney and the Russian Mob. Several of his caporegimes like Jimmy Saviano have also shown signs of treachery. Following the end of his mob war with the late Sal Maroni and Fish Mooney, Falcone retired and leaves Gotham. Before leaving, he reveals that he used to be friends with Gordon 's father prior to being in the mob and gives Gordon a knife that had belonged to Gordon 's father and parts on good terms stating that it is time for some real law and order in Gotham.
Falcone later returned to help Harvey Bullock get Jim Gordon out of Blackgate Penitentiary with help from his contacts from within the prison.
Upon Leslie and Mario returning to Gotham City, he gives his approval to Mario for his relationship to Leslie. He also wanted to throw an engagement party for them and was shown to be angered at the Court of Owls for targeting Mario when it later turns out that he was infected with Alice Tetch 's poisonous blood. While he was displeased that Gordon gunned down Mario in self - defense, Leslie talked Falcone into calling off Victor Zsasz 's hit on Gordon knowing that Mario would 've ended up like Nathaniel Barnes did. Carmine later reluctantly helped Gordon by giving him the information on the person who had him hire a lawyer for the drunk driver that caused the car accident that killed Peter Gordon.
Upon heading down to Florida, Gordon tries to get Carmine Falcone to help in the war against Oswald Cobblepot. Carmine declines due to the fact that he is dying and that being in warmer climates would help him but agrees to let his daughter Sofia go in his place. Hearing reports of Sofia 's ruthless pursuit of Gotham, Falcone arrives to take her home, telling her she has failed their family and is endangering the family reputation to get revenge for her brother 's death. Before he can take her, Falcone is shot and killed by a group of gunmen. Sofia is wounded but later reveals that she is responsible for her father 's murder.
Leslie Thompkins is a physician at Arkham Asylum who works in the female ward. After enlisting as a medical examiner at Gotham City Police Department, she enters into a relationship with James Gordon. Proving herself an observant and energetic partner at the GCPD, she often persists in trying to keep actively involved as a means to further Jim 's work, making him uncomfortable with potentially endangering her as with Barbara following Cobblepot 's return. She is later revealed to be pregnant and Jim proposes to her after Theo Galavan 's death. At the time when Gordon was incarcerated at Blackgate, he learned from Harvey that Leslie miscarried and that she went south.
When Gordon tracks down Leslie outside of Gotham City in order to repair their relationship. However, he discovers that she is engaged to Mario Calvi, the son of the former crime lord Carmine Falcone. However, Gordon made peace with it by the time Leslie returned to Gotham with Mario. Gordon and Leslie reconciled after Gordon gave his best wishes to Mario. She and Valerie Vale were eventually kidnapped by Jervis Tetch as part of his revenge against Jim Gordon. Tetch then forced Gordon to choose between Lee or Valerie being killed, and after Gordon chooses Lee to be killed, Tetch shoots Valerie instead. It is implied that Gordon knew Tetch would shoot Valerie instead of Lee; as he is still in love with the latter. It is also implied that Lee is still in love with Gordon, despite her being in engaged to Mario Calvi. However, after Mario is infected by the Tetch Virus and shot dead by Gordon, she begins to grow hostile towards Gordon due to grief and rage (mainly because Leslie is unwilling / refuses to accept the truth; that Mario tried to kill her when he was infected by Alice Tetch 's blood) by doing everything she can to make Gordon uncomfortable.
Due to Gordon refusing to tell her about what 's happening in Gotham out of fear that the Court of Owls will take action, Leslie resigns from the police department. She later takes a sample of Alice Tetch 's blood that Hugo Strange gave James Gordon and injects herself with it. She was eventually cured along with Gordon. She then left Gotham, leaving behind a note saying that while she 's not sure if Gotham deserves to be saved, Leslie does have hope that Gordon would save the city before reaffirming her love for him.
Leslie later appeared at Cherry 's fight club working as its doctor when she is called to tend to the burns on Solomon Grundy. She does agree to a partnership with Edward Nygma in order to help her side - job. At the time when Barbara Kean, Tabitha Galavan, and Selina Kyle arrived at Cherry 's fight club to look for Edward Nygma, Leslie was approached by Barbara Kean where Leslie is not pleased with her appearance. She also stated that she does n't know who Jim is. When Selina Kyle manages to catch Edward Nygma while Barbara Kean and Tabitha Galavan were busy with their side - agendas, Leslie Thompkins suggested a "Code of the Narrows '' to pit the champions of both sides against each other for the fate of Edward Nygma. When Firefly crashes the fight to finish the job that Oswald Cobblepot gave her, Riddler witnessed Leslie disabling Firefly and Barbara shooting Cherry. While Solomon Grundy was having his wounds tended to, Nygma suggests to Leslie that she takes the position that Cherry had. Leslie takes that suggestion and her first decree was "drinks on the house ''.
Leslie later solves some issues with the inhabitants of the Narrows like dealing with competitive street businesses and even uses mixed medicines and an antidote to get Sampson out of the southern parts of the Narrows.
When Gotham City becomes a no man 's land, Leslie Thompkins ends up in a mutual stabbing with Riddler. Their bodies are found by Penguin 's men as Hugo Strange is instructed to work on them.
Theo Galavan is a charismatic billionaire industrialist whose sister is Tabitha Galavan and whose step - niece is Silver St. Cloud, both of whom do his bidding. He is the main antagonist of first half of season 2 Rise of the Villains, who 's responsible for creating chaos and violence in Gotham City, as part of his master plan to finally carry out a centuries - old vendetta. Galavan 's family, originally called the Dumas family, were one of Gotham City 's most prominent families and said to have built Gotham City. But the family was ruined financially and socially by the Wayne family after an act of violence was perpetrated by a member of the Dumas family against a member of the Wayne family many years earlier. Those Dumas who remained in Gotham changed their surname to Galavan.
Theo starts his campaign by orchestrating the abduction of Mayor Aubrey James. As the chairman of the Gotham Chamber of Commerce, he oversaw Gillian Loeb 's resignation as police commissioner and Sarah Essen being sworn in as the new police commissioner. Using Zaardon the Soul Reaper, Theo has Tabitha spring Jerome Valeska, Barbara Kean, Aaron Helzinger, Richard Sionis, Robert Greenwood, and Arnold Dobkins from Arkham Asylum to assist him. Sionis was the only one who declined and he had Tabitha kill him to serve as a warning to the others. Theo poses as a caring father figure to Bruce Wayne after ostensibly saving him from Jerome Valeska during a hostage crisis. With Mayor James still missing and Deputy Mayor Harrison Kane dead, Theo then exhorts Oswald Cobblepot into targeting the mayoral candidates by holding Oswald 's mother Gertrud hostage while acting like he missed Galavan. While Oswald was successful at killing Janice Caulfield, Victor Zsasz fails at kidnapping Randall Hobbs who drops out of the race. As the only remaining candidate, Theo wins the election, but his true goal is to avenge the Dumas family against the Wayne family. After Tabitha killed Gertrud, Oswald swore revenge on Theo which led to a fight between Cobblepot 's group and the police which ended with Oswald getting wounded and Gordon getting suspicious. He is later arrested by Jim Gordon after Mayor James is found alive following Barbara Kean ending up hospitalized. While Gordon and Barnes were searching Galavan 's apartment, they did find a cassock behind one of the paintings where they assumed that Galavan had some religious connections. While awaiting trial, Theo reprimanded Tabitha for acting out against his orders and states that his next plan is in motion.
When it came to the trial, Mayor James testifies in court that it was Oswald Cobblepot who abducted him. The judge drops the case against Theo whose henchmen, posing as police officers, abduct Gordon while he was being taken out of the courthouse. With Gordon in his clutches, Galavan stated that the Order of St Dumas protected his family and that his real surname is Dumas. Galavan toys with Gordon but quickly overpowers him, using some martial arts skills which Theo not previously displayed. He orders his henchmen to kill Gordon slowly and leaves to claim Bruce Wayne 's life. During the final battle at Galavan 's tower, Tabitha tells Theo he has lost and she is going to look out for herself, saving Silver and Bruce Wayne, as Gordon and Penguin come to the rescue, albeit for very different reasons. Gordon and Cobblepot take him to an isolated place outside Gotham where Cobblepot beats him mercilessly until Gordon stops him and shoots Galavan dead. Cobblepot puts an umbrella in the corpse 's mouth to make it look like that he killed Galavan. Galavan 's body is then taken to the underground Indian Hill facility.
As Patient 44, he is successfully resurrected by the Indian Hill facility 's doctors but the shock of the process scrambled his memories. Strange, inspired by Nygma, misleads Galavan to believe himself to be the order 's legendary knight Azrael before sending him after Gordon. When it came to the fight at the Gotham City Police Department, Theo was unmasked upon his helm being knocked off by Nathaniel Barnes. He manages to use the broken part of the fake Sword of Sin to stab Nathaniel Barnes. As he makes his escape, his face was shown to the reporters as Oswald Cobblepot, Tabitha Galavan, and Bruce Wayne sees it on the news. Theo then began to look for the real Sword of Sin where he confronted Gordon and Bullock at a crypt which ends with Tabitha ending up hospitalised. During the fight with Gordon and Bruce Wayne at Wayne Manor, Azrael is eventually confronted by Cobblepot and then blasted by an RPG wielded by Butch Gilzean, end his life once and for all; His body become shreds before police can get a DNA variation.
Tabitha Galavan is Theo Galavan 's whip - wielding, violent, loyal sister and the step - aunt of Silver St. Cloud. She serves as her brother 's henchwoman and lead enforcer who gets pleasure from causing mayhem even when it comes to making sure that none of the criminal activities is traced back to her brother, with whom she enjoys an unhealthy relationship. She always wears a cover over her nose and mouth to avoid being identified. She even develops a relationship with Barbara Kean and found a way to reprogram Butch Gilzean to serve Theo. During the fight between Gordon and Kean, Tabitha was shot in the shoulder and managed to escape. When it comes to the battle between Oswald Cobbleport 's group and the Order of St. Dumas, Tabitha turns against Theo telling him he has lost and that she needs to look out for herself as she escapes with Silver.
Four weeks later, Tabitha visits Butch Gilzean and becomes his partner while starting a relationship with her. After the warrior Azrael is revealed to be the resurrected Theo Galavan, Tabitha teams up with Gordon and Bullock to find him. After helping Theo regain some of his memory, Theo remembers his mission and stabs Tabitha, resulting in her being hospitalised.
Six weeks after the Indian Hill incident, Tabitha and Barbara started a club called Sirens Nightclub. After Butch was exposed by Edward Nygma as the leader of the new Red Hood leader, Tabitha broke him out of the prison transport bus and took him to a safe house.
After Barbara killed Butch Gilzean, Tabitha fought Barbara at her safe house which ended with Barbara getting electrocuted. Later on, she is approached by Selina Kyle where she states to Tabitha that she is done surviving. Before they begin to work together, Tabitha does allow Selina to test her abilities with her whip.
Tabitha and Selina end up aligning with a revived Barbara. At the time when Barbara, Tabitha, and Selina were sent to Cherry 's fight club to find Edward Nygma, Tabitha found Butch Gilzean having transformed into Solomon Grundy where he barely remembers her. When Leslie Thompkins calls for the "Code of the Narrows '' upon Selina apprehending Nygma, Tabitha (referred to as The Tigress) is paired up against Solomon Grundy where the fight does n't go well. Firefly crashes the fight to finish the job that Oswald Cobblepot gave her. Tabitha then witnessed Leslie disabling Firefly and Barbara shooting Cherry. Tabitha, Barbara, and Selina later abduct Sofia Falcone upon thinking that she was friends with Cobblepot until she states that she is against Cobblepot. After Victor Zsasz destroys Barbara 's club, Tabitha was present when Barbara sides with Sofia Falcone.
Tabitha hears about what happened to Selina Kyle as she assists Barbara, Alfred, and Penguin into fighting Jeremiah Valeska and Ra 's al Ghul 's men. When Gotham City becomes a no man 's land, she finds that Butch is restored. However, Penguin kills him as part of his revenge on Tabitha for what she did to his mother and then shoots her in the leg. When Barbara hears from Tabitha what happened to Butch, they make their territory a female - only territory as they kill the males that were with Ra 's al Ghul.
Fox later encountered Alfred at a bar. Alfred convinced Fox to help Bruce Wayne repair a computer that Alfred had wrecked. After Bruce is kidnapped by Theo Galavan, Lucius finishes fixing the computer hard drive and does his part to help the Gotham City Police Department locate Bruce Wayne. He later helps identify "The Philosopher '', the man who ordered the Waynes to be killed. He and Bruce are later kidnapped by Hugo Strange but are freed by Selina Kyle afterwards.
Lucius later leaves Wayne Enterprises and becomes a science expert at the Gotham City Police Department.
When Gotham City becomes a no man 's land, Lucius is among the GCPD members that remain behind.
To infiltrate Theo Galavan 's group, Cobblepot cut off Gilzean 's left hand so that Gilzean would win sympathy from the Galavans, who gave Gilzean a new mallet - shaped left hand and other attachments. Tabitha later freed Gilzean from Cobblepot 's control.
Four weeks following the death of Theo Galavan, Butch Gilzean rose to power and started a relationship with Tabitha Galavan. After Azrael was revealed to be the resurrected Theo Galavan, Butch and Penguin killed Theo with an RPG. Butch and his gang later accompanied Oswald into going after Hugo Strange. After a resurrected Fish Mooney knocked out Penguin on the street, Butch and his gang fled.
During the man - hunt for Fish Mooney, Gilzean supports Penguin 's campaign by paying people to vote for him. He starts to get suspicious with Edward Nygma during his campaign. He realizes that Nygma bought back the money, but Penguin wins regardless, which causes Butch to feel left out while Penguin and Nygma start to work together more. Butch starts being the benefactor of a second version of the Red Hood gang and kills them so he can win back Penguin 's approval, but Nygma later exposes him. While being transported on a prison bus, Tabitha breaks him out and takes him to a safe house.
After Isabella was murdered, Nygma put the clues together and claims to Mayor Cobblepot that Butch killed her in revenge on both of them.
As the chaos caused by the Alice Tetch Virus is winding down, Butch and Tabitha plan to dispose of Barbara Kean. During the confrontation, Barbara shoots Butch in the head. His body is reviewed by doctors and his birth name is revealed as Cyrus Gold.
When his body is dumped into Slaughter Swamp by the hospital 's orderlies, chemicals associated with Indian Hill revived Cyrus Gold while regenerating his hand. The transformation also gave him super-strength while also making him have a fear of fire. He makes his way to Gotham City and runs into Riddler who asks for his help remembering who he is. After getting a burn from one of the men he earlier attacked, Riddler takes him to Cherry 's nightclub to enter him in a fight where Cherry has her latest doctor Leslie Thompkins tend to his burn. Solomon Grundy manages to win most of his death matches.
During his fight with Mr. Murder Face, Solomon Grundy started experiencing fragments of memories of his life as Butch Gilzean upon being hit in the head. At the time when Barbara Kean, Tabitha Galavan, and Selina Kyle arrived at Cherry 's fight club to find Edward Nygma, Tabitha encountered Solomon Grundy where he does n't remember him. When Leslie Thompkins calls for the "Code of the Narrows '' upon Selina apprehending Nygma, Tabitha is paired up against Solomon Grundy where the fight does n't go well. Firefly crashes the fight to finish the job that Oswald Cobblepot gave her. Solomon Grundy prepares to attack only to be frightened by Firefly 's fire attacks. After Firefly was disabled by Leslie Thompkins and Barbara Kean shot Cherry, Solomon Grundy 's injuries were tended to by Leslie.
Penguin later instructs Hugo Strange to restore Butch Gilzean back to normal. While Strange was successful, Penguin kills Butch anyway as part of his revenge on Tabitha for killing his mother.
Harvey Dent is a "handsome, warm and engaging '' Assistant District Attorney. He works with Gordon to find the man who killed Thomas and Martha Wayne.
Harvey Dent was the prosecutor at Theo Galavan 's trial where Aubrey James fearfully told him that Oswald Cobblepot was the one who abducted him and not Theo Galavan.
Along with Captain Nathaniel Barnes, Harvey later questioned Jim about his role in Theo 's death.
When Gordon has been framed for the death of Carl Pinkney and sentenced to Blackgate Penitentiary, the news reporter stated that Harvey Dent could not be reached for a comment. After Warden Carlson Grey moved Gordon into Blackgate Penitentiary 's F - Wing, Bullock calls up Dent telling him what happened and to do everything he can to get Gordon out like either a transfer to another prison, a retrial, or reopening the case.
A tough, no - nonsense martinet of a police captain at Gotham City Police Department after the death of Sarah Essen, he serves a strong ally to James Gordon, but will one day become Gordon 's enemy. Unafraid to make such enemies, Barnes is a strict "law and order zealot ''. He first appeared where he dismisses Officers Pollard, Guthrie, Coulson, Drowler, Brooks and Hightower, and Detective Perez for corruption, bribery, drug abuse, racketeering, and extortion. Nathaniel promotes Gordon to his second - in - command as they start a Strike Team made up of the graduates from the Gotham City Police Academy.
In "Rise of the Villains: A Bitter Pill to Swallow '', it was revealed that Nathaniel once served in the United States Marine Corps. After Gordon becomes a fugitive for punching Theo Galavan in court after being found innocent, Barnes attempts to arrest Gordon after the battle with the Order of Saint Dumas but is knocked out by Cobblepot.
After Cobblepot was apprehended and backed up Gordon 's claim, Barnes told Gordon not to make a fool out of him. When Jim was framed for the murder of Carl Pinkney at the hands of Edward Nygma, Barnes believed that Jim committed the crime and the judge sentenced him to Blackgate Penitentiary. After Jim was proven innocent and Nygma was arrested upon the police being in the listening distance of Nygma 's confession, Barnes apologised and told Jim he owed him a favour. He also gave Jim the remaining Wayne files and Lee 's number. During Azrael 's attack on the Gotham City Police Department, Barnes fought Azrael on the roof which led to Azrael 's mask coming off and Barnes getting stabbed by Azrael. This led to Barnes being hospitalised.
While still recuperating, Nathaniel initiates a manhunt for Fish Mooney and the Indian Hill escapees, which ends with Fish and Strange fleeing Gotham and the rest of the minions being burned to death by an angry mob.
Later, Barnes is infected with Alice Tetch 's poisonous blood that dropped onto him. He then goes on a vigilante spree killing criminals until he is subjected by James Gordon and remanded to Arkham Asylum while in a straitjacket. While incarcerated at Arkham, Barnes keeps screaming "Guilty! ''.
Leslie Thompkins later talks to Nathaniel Barnes about the blood he is infected with that also infected Mario Calvic. Barnes calls it a gift and states that when he gets out of Arkham, he is going to bathe the corruption of Gotham City in blood starting with Jim Gordon 's blood.
Barnes is taken to a private lab owned by the Court of Owls where Kathryn had Hugo Strange extract Alice Tetch 's poisonous blood from him. After James Gordon used Penguin to interfere with the Court of Owls ' plans to use the weaponized blood on a Daughters of Gotham event, Kathryn cuts a deal with Nathaniel Barnes to dispose of Gordon. With a special outfit and an axe - tipped glove, Nathaniel Barnes targets James Gordon. During the fight at the Gotham City Police Department, Nathaniel Barnes beheads Kathryn and has his left hand shot off by James Gordon. Even though Barnes was detained, Alvarez told Gordon and Bullock that Barnes escaped from the Arkham Asylum transport upon killing the three guards.
Ivy is a young vegan girl who is the abused daughter of Mario Pepper (who was framed for the Wayne murders). She enjoys tending to her plants.
After her mother committed suicide by cutting her wrists sometime after her father 's death, Ivy escaped from the juvenile hall (which was part of Mayor Aubrey James ' plan for street kids) and lives on the streets while maintaining contact with Selina Kyle. Like Selina Kyle, Ivy Pepper has befriended Barbara Kean.
Ivy later works for Sonny Gilzean where she grows his "magic mushrooms '' to sell on the streets.
After an encounter with a Bruce Wayne look - a-like, Ivy gets caught by Fish Mooney 's minion Nancy while trying to warn Selina. After Selina fails to vouch for her, Ivy is then chased by Fish Mooney 's minion Marv. After being briefly touched by Marv, Ivy falls into the drain pipe and is swept away by the current.
The effects of Marv 's brief touch causes Ivy to turn into an adult enough to outgrow her clothes by the time she awakens on the shore of the river. She later obtains the clothes belonging to the ex-wife of the man who found her where she knocked out offscreen for neglecting his plants.
At some point, Ivy takes refuge in an abandoned house that has a greenhouse. After Oswald Cobblepot was shot by Edward Nygma, Ivy Pepper nurses him back to good health and helps to dispose of Gabe and those who came with them by having them buried in her garden of moving plants. Ivy then persuades Oswald Cobblepot to let her help in his plans to get revenge on Edward Nygma by stating that they will need an army of freaks. The two of them managed to get Victor Fries and Bridgit Pike on their side. Upon hearing what happened to Selina Kyle, Ivy Pepper uses her special perfume to control the nurses into bringing plants into Selina 's room. When Selina finally was awoken, Ivy was against her plan to go to Wayne Manor.
Following the chaos caused by the Alice Tetch Virus, Ivy Pepper assists Oswald Cobblepot in the development of the Iceberg Lounge. She starts to feel neglected and goes to an apothecary where she consumes some chemicals held in the owner 's safe. This gives her the ability to be more connected to plant life and the scratches she does causes anyone hit by them to grow poison ivy in their system.
After hypnotizing a doctor during a show at the Sirens, he has him kill his wife and then himself in order to get his residence. Jervis approaches James Gordon to help find Alice. Following his hypnosis on Barbara Kean during another show at The Sirens, Gordon visits him again where he starts to ask about Alice 's condition. Jervis ends up hypnotising → him. Before he can have Gordon jump off the roof of The Sirens, Jervis is attacked by Alice who does n't want to go with him with the resulting fight snapping Gordon out of his hypnosis. After Jervis escapes, Alice is handcuffed by Gordon. Alice later reveals that Jervis controlled most of Alice when they were kids, and put thoughts in her head that "no brother should have ''.
Later, Tetch hires the wrestlers known as the "Tweedle Brothers '' to break Alice out of the GCPD. While Jervis, Dumfree, and Deever made off with Alice, the other two Tweeds were killed and the youngest of them was placed in police custody. Jervis then dressed Alice in the Alice costume from "Alice in Wonderland '' and tries to have a tea party with her and the two remaining Tweedle Brothers, telling Alice that she is the only thing in his life keeping him from going mad. Gordon and Harvey arrive and a fight ensues. When Alice tries to escape, she accidentally falls on a pipe, impaling her. A devastated Tetch flees the scene.
Jervis Tetch later uses the Red Queen plant on Jim Gordon to incapacitate him. Then he crashes the Gotham City Founders ' Dinner presided over by Mayor Oswald Cobblepot in order to make them drink the tainted water. His plans are thwarted by the Gotham City Police Department as Jervis starts to see some of his sister in Nathaniel Barnes due to him being infected with her blood. Jervis, Dumfree Tweed, and Deever Tweed are arrested and remanded to Arkham Asylum.
Jervis Tetch later witnessed the Court of Owls obtaining Nathaniel Barnes. Leslie Thompkins later visited Jervis at Arkham Asylum to know if he infected Mario Calvi. Jervis stated that he did it after seeing how Gordon look at her the day he wounded Valerie Vale and states that she 's to blame for Mario 's suffering.
The transport carrying Jervis Tetch was later intercepted by Butch Gilzean and Tabitha Galavan so that Barbara Kean can hold him for ransom. After being freed by Gordon, Jervis was drained of some of his blood with the part the blood came from being patched up. It was later mentioned by Harvey Bullock that the doctors patched Jervis back up and had him shipped back to Arkham Asylum. He is referred to as the Mad Hatter by Penguin after he escapes from Arkham with Jerome and his Legion of Horribles.
Ra 's al Ghul is the enigmatic person behind the Court of Owls ' activities and leader of the League of Shadows. With a past shrouded in mystery, the powerful supervillain uses cunning and deception to lay waste to his foes. His identity is foreshadowed upon the death of Shaman who works for Ra 's al Ghul. When Bruce Wayne meets Ra 's al Ghul in the bowels of the Yuyan Building, Ra 's al Ghul mentioned that he wanted Bruce to be his heir and does a final test where he wants him to kill Alfred Pennyworth. After Bruce stabs Alfred, he angrily tries to attack Ra 's al Ghul who gets away where he advises to Bruce to use the Lazarus Pit 's waters to heal Alfred.
Siddig was promoted to a series regular for season 4. During this time, it is revealed that he had revived Barbara Kean through the Lazarus Pit and is seeking a specific embalming knife.
After killing Niles Winthrop and later Alex Winthrop in front of Bruce and Gordon, Ra 's al Ghul surrenders and is remanded to Blackgate Penitentiary to await trial. While also transferring some of his energy to a visiting Barbara, Ra 's al Ghul also had some of his men infiltrate Blackgate Penitentiary by posing as the prison guards. After doing a threat to Bruce Wayne to return to bother him when he starts a family, Bruce reluctantly uses the embalming knife on Ra 's al Ghul which reduces him to a skeleton just as Gordon and Alfred arrive. Gordon came up with a cover story that Ra 's al Ghul 's men infiltrated the prison and made off with him.
The League of Shadows members that were loyal to Ra 's al Ghul used a ritual that involved Bruce Wayne 's blood to bring Ra 's al Ghul to life when they think that Barbara is not living up to her potential. Following a duel where her abilities show her different outcomes like her getting stabbed or Tabitha 's neck getting slit, Barbara relinquishes the abilities which fully restores Ra 's al Ghul. Afterwards, he later pays a visit to Bruce when Selina is around where he states that an upcoming fire in Gotham City will shape him into a Dark Knight... if it does n't consume him first.
After Ra 's al Ghul 's men help Jeremiah Valeska abduct Bruce in order to further his destiny, Ra 's al Ghul and Jeremiah come into conflict with Alfred Pennyworth, Barbara Kean, Penguin, and Tabitha Galavan. Barbara manipulates Bruce 's hand into using the reforged embalming knife to stab Ra 's al Ghul again. As Gotham City starts to become a no man 's land, Ra 's al Ghul advises Bruce in his dying breath to embrace his destiny.
The only daughter of Carmine Falcone and the sister of Mario Calvi. She is a strong, intelligent and calculating woman who has run the Falcone operation in the south for the past 10 years and is returning to Gotham to help Gordon take down the Penguin.
Reed was promoted to a series regular for season 4. At the time when James Gordon visits Carmine Falcone to ask for his help in dealing with Oswald Cobblepot, Sofia wanted to take over her father 's business to which Carmine would n't let her. She ends up secretly following Gordon back to Gotham City to do so anyway.
Sofia started by meeting with Mayor Burke and the zoning commissioner where she established the Falcone Home and School for Orphans.
Following Professor Pyg 's attack, Cobblepot had the Dentist torture her where Sofia did a bluff that fooled the Dentist into releasing her. She is then abducted by Barbara Kean, Tabitha Galavan, and Selina Kyle where they think she is allies with Cobblepot. Sofia tells them that she is against Cobblepot and her point is proven when Victor Zsasz shows up outside of Barbara 's lair with a rocket launcher that destroys the lair. Following the confrontation with Cobblepot, Sofia persuades Barbara 's group to ally with her.
During a gunfight with Gordon when targeting Arthur Penn, Sofia is shot by Leslie Thompkins enough to put her in a coma.
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how many military bases does the us have in south korea | List of United States army installations in South Korea - Wikipedia
This is an incomplete list of current / former U.S. Army posts in South Korea, although a number have been closed or are in caretaker status:
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basic rules and regulations of track and field | Track and field - wikipedia
Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running, jumping, and throwing. The name is derived from the sport 's typical venue: a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and some of the jumping events take place. Track and field is categorized under the umbrella sport of athletics, which also includes road running, cross country running, and race walking.
The foot racing events, which include sprints, middle - and long - distance events, race walking and hurdling, are won by the athlete with the fastest time. The jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who achieves the greatest distance or height. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also "combined events '' or "multi events '', such as the pentathlon consisting of five events, heptathlon consisting of seven events, and decathlon consisting of ten events. In these, athletes participate in a combination of track and field events. Most track and field events are individual sports with a single victor; the most prominent team events are relay races, which typically feature teams of four. Events are almost exclusively divided by gender, although both the men 's and women 's competitions are usually held at the same venue. If a race has too many people to run all at once, preliminary heats will be run to narrow down the field of participants.
Track and field is one of the oldest sports. In ancient times, it was an event held in conjunction with festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece. In modern times, the two most prestigious international track and field competitions are athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body.
Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, right down to a personal level. However, if athletes are deemed to have violated the event 's rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased.
In North America, the term track and field may be used to refer to other athletics events, such as the marathon, rather than strictly track - based events.
The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory. Track and field - style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace. The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions, but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognized today -- it comprised a five - event competition of the long jump, javelin throw, discus throw, stadion footrace, and wrestling.
Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC. After the period of Classical antiquity (in which the sport was largely Greco - Roman influenced) new track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages. The stone put and weight throw competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modern shot put and hammer throw events. One of the last track and field events to develop was the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century.
Discrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were first recorded in the 19th century. These were typically organised by educational institutions, military organisations and sports clubs as competitions between rival establishments. Competitions in the English public schools were conceived as human equivalents of horse racing, fox hunting and hare coursing, influenced by a Classics - rich curriculum. The Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt is the oldest running club in the world, with written records going back to 1831 and evidence that it was established by 1819. The school organised Paper Chase races in which runners followed a trail of paper shreds left by two "foxes ''; even today RSSH runners are called "hounds '' and a race victory is a "kill ''. The first definite record of Shrewsbury 's (cross-country) Annual Steeplechase is in 1834, making it the oldest running race of the modern era. The school also lays claim to the oldest track and field meeting still in existence, originating in the Second Spring Meeting first documented in 1840. This featured a series of throwing and jumping events with mock horse races including the Derby Stakes, the Hurdle Race and the Trial Stakes. Runners were entered by "owners '' and named as though they were horses. 13 miles (21 km) away and a decade later, the first Wenlock Olympian Games were held at Much Wenlock racecourse. Events at the 1851 Wenlock Games included a "half - mile foot race '' (805 m) and a "leaping in distance '' competition.
In 1865, Dr William Penny Brookes of Wenlock helped set up the National Olympian Association, which held their first Olympian Games in 1866 at The Crystal Palace in London. This national event was a great success, attracting a crowd of over ten thousand people. In response, that same year the Amateur Athletic Club was formed and held a championship for "gentlemen amateurs '' in an attempt to reclaim the sport for the educated elite. Ultimately the "allcomers '' ethos of the NOA won through and the AAC was reconstituted as the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880, the first national body for the sport of athletics. The AAA Championships, the de facto British national championships despite being for England only, have been held annually since 3 July 1880 with breaks only during two world wars and 2006 -- 2008. The AAA was effectively a global governing body in the early years of the sport, codifying its rules for the first time.
Meanwhile, the United States began holding an annual national competition -- the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships -- first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club. The establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States (the Amateur Athletic Union in 1888) and France (the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889) put the sport on a formal footing and meant that international competitions became possible.
The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high for track and field. The Olympic athletics programme, comprising track and field events plus a marathon race, contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events, both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws. The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades, and track and field contests remained among the Games ' most prominent. The Olympics was the elite competition for track and field, and only amateur sportsmen could compete. Track and field continued to be a largely amateur sport, as this rule was strictly enforced: Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was revealed that he had taken expense money for playing baseball, violating Olympic amateurism rules, before the 1912 Games. His medals were reinstated 29 years after his death.
That same year, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was established, becoming the international governing body for track and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport. The National Collegiate Athletic Association held their first Men 's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921, making it one of the most prestigious competitions for students, and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student Games in 1923. The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships, which was followed by the European Athletics Championships in 1934.
Up until the early 1920s, track and field had been almost exclusively a male - only pursuit. Alice Milliat argued for the inclusion of women at the Olympics, but the International Olympic Committee refused. She founded the International Women 's Sports Federation in 1921 and, alongside a growing women 's sports movement in Europe and North America, the group initiated of the Women 's Olympiad (held annually from 1921 to 1923). Working in conjunction with the English Women 's Amateur Athletic Association (WAAA), the Women 's World Games was held four times between 1922 and 1934, as well as a Women 's International and British Games in London in 1924. These events ultimately led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics. In China, women 's track and field events were being held in the 1920s, but were subject to criticism and disrespect from audiences. National women 's events were established in this period, with 1923 seeing the First British Track & Field championships for women and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) sponsoring the First American Track & Field championships for women. Also in 1923, physical education advocate Zhang Ruizhen called for greater equality and participation of women in Chinese track and field. The rise of Kinue Hitomi and her 1928 Olympic medal for Japan signified the growth of women 's track and field in East Asia. More women 's events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of the century that the men 's and women 's programmes approached parity of events). Marking an increasingly inclusive approach to the sport, major track and field competitions for disabled athletes were first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics.
With the rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in Olympic - style multi-sport events (such as the Commonwealth Games and the Pan-American Games), competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread. From the 1960s onwards, the sport gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations. After over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s. As a result, the Amateur Athletic Union was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non-amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics: The Athletics Congress (later USA Track and Field). The IAAF soon followed suit in 1982, abandoning amateurism, and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations. The following year saw the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics -- the first ever global competition just for athletics -- which, with the Olympics, became one of track and field 's most prestigious competitions.
The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 1980s, with a number of athletes becoming household names (such as Carl Lewis, Sergey Bubka, Sebastian Coe, Zola Budd and Florence Griffith - Joyner). Many world records were broken in this period, and the added political element between competitors of the United States, East Germany, and the Soviet Union, in reaction to the Cold War, only served to stoke the sport 's popularity. The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science, and there were many changes to coaching methods, athlete 's diet regimes, training facilities and sports equipment. This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance - enhancing drugs. State - sponsored doping in 1970s and 1980s East Germany and early 21st century Russia, as well as prominent individual cases such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and Marion Jones, damaged the public image and marketability of the sport.
From the 1990s onwards, track and field became increasingly more professional and international, as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations. The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997, and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League -- an annual series of major track and field meetings in Europe -- provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a US $1 million jackpot. In 2010, the series was replaced by the more lucrative IAAF Diamond League, a fourteen - meeting series held in Europe, Asia, North America and the Middle East -- the first ever worldwide annual series of track and field meetings.
Track and field events are divided into three broad categories: track events, field events, and combined events. The majority of athletes tend to specialise in just one event (or event type) with the aim of perfecting their performances, although the aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines. Track events involve running on a track over a specified distances and -- in the case of the hurdling and steeplechase events -- obstacles may be placed on the track. There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a baton to their team member at the end of a certain distance.
There are two types of field events: jumps, and throws. In jumping competitions, athletes are judged on either the length or height of their jumps. The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker, and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled. In the jumps for height, an athlete must clear their body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards. The majority of jumping events are unaided, although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose - built sticks in the pole vault.
The throwing events involve hurling an implement (such as a heavy weight, javelin or discus) from a set point, with athletes being judged on the distance that the object is thrown. Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events. Points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end of all events is the winner.
Races over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event, the stadion race, which was a race from one end of the stadium to the other. Sprinting events are focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed. Three sprinting events are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements that later changed to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100 - yard dash, the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1 / 8 of a mile), and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter - mile race.
At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete 's maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance. Human physiology dictates that a runner 's near - top speed can not be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so because lactic acid builds up once leg muscles begin to suffer oxygen deprivation. Top speed can only be maintained for up to 20 metres.
The 60 metres is a common indoor event and indoor world championship event. Less - common events include the 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are run in some high school and collegiate competitions in the United States. The 150 metres, though rarely competed, has a star - studded history: Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983, Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head - to - head over the distance in 1997, and Usain Bolt improved Mennea 's record in 2009.
The most common middle - distance track events are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle - distance event. The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear of the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s. The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.
Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starter 's pistol they head towards the innermost track to follow the quickest route to the finish. In 800 m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 100 m of the race. This rule was introduced to reduce the amount of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race. Physiologically, these middle - distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strong speed endurance.
The 1500 m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events. Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other 's 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s. The prominence of the distances were maintained by Roger Bannister, who (in 1954) was the first to run the long - elusive four - minute mile, and Jim Ryun 's exploits served to popularise interval training. Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle - distance running in the 1980s. From the 1990s onwards, North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to dominate the 1500 and mile events.
Beyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athlete 's reactions and top speed becomes less important, while qualities such as pace, race tactics and endurance become more so.
There are three common long distance running events in track and field competitions: 3000 metres, 5000 metres and 10,000 metres. The latter two races are both Olympic and World Championship events outdoors, while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships. The 5000 m and 10,000 m events have their historical roots in the 3 - mile and 6 - mile races. The 3000 m was historically used as a women 's long distance event, entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984, but this was abandoned in favour of a women 's 5000 m event in 1995.
In terms of competition rules and physical demands, long distance track races have much in common with middle - distance races, except that pacing, stamina, and race tactics become much greater factors in performances. However, a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle - and long - distance events, including Saïd Aouita who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m. The use of pace - setters in long distance events is very common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to win.
The long distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the "Flying Finns '', such as multiple Olympic champion Paavo Nurmi. The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods, but Ron Clarke 's world record - breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even - paced running. The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners in long distance events. Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in these events.
Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams. Typically, a team is made up of four runners of the same sex. Each runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a leg) before handing over a baton to a teammate, who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton. There is usually a designated area where athletes must exchange the baton. Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the change within the area, or if the baton is dropped during the race. A team may also be disqualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors.
Relay races emerged in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races between firemen, who would hand a red pennant on to teammates every 300 yards. There are two very common relay events: the 4 × 100 metres relay and the 4 × 400 metres relay. Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one - off men 's medley relay featured in 1908 Olympics. The 4 × 100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of the track. Teams in a 4 × 400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner-most part of the circuit. For the second and third baton change overs, teammates must align themselves in respect of their team position -- leading teams take the inner lanes while teammates of the slower teams must await the baton on outer lanes.
The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays. As with 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m events, all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being the 4 × 200 m, 4 × 800 m and 4 × 1500 m relays. Other events include the distance medley relay (comprising legs of 1200 m, 400 m, 800 m, and 1600 m), which is frequently held in the United States, and a sprint relay, known as the Swedish medley relay, which is popular in Scandinavia and held at the World Youth Championships in Athletics programme. Relay events have significant participation in the United States, where a number of large meetings (or relay carnivals) are focused almost exclusively on relay events.
Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England. The first known event, held in 1830, was a variation of the 100 - yard dash that included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this, holding a 120 - yard race (110 m) with ten hurdles of 3 - foot and 6 inches (1.06 m) in height (each placed 10 yards (9 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the start and finish, respectively. French organisers adapted the race into metric (adding 28 cm) and the basics of this race, the men 's 110 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged. The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford, where (around 1860) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1.06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics: the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3 - foot (91.44 cm) hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish, respectively. Women 's hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm (2 ft 9 in) for the 100 m event and 76 cm (2 ft 6 in) for the 400 m event.
By far the most common events are the 100 metres hurdles for women, 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes. The men 's 110 m has been featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men 's 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games. Women 's initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event, which entered the Olympic programme in 1932. This was extended to the 100 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics, but it was not until 1984 that a women 's 400 m hurdles event took place at the Olympics (having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year).
Outside of the hurdles events, the steeplechase race is the other track and field event with obstacles. Just as the hurdling events, the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford, England. However, this event was born as a human variation on the original steeplechase competition found in horse racing. A steeplechase event was held on a track for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men 's 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races. The event was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the standard event. The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954, and the event is held on a 400 m circuit that includes a water jump on each lap. Despite the long history of men 's steeplechase in track and field, the women 's steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005, with its first Olympic appearance coming in 2008.
The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest. The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumped farthest. Small weights (Halteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end to gain extra momentum and distance. The modern long jump, standardised in England and the United States around 1860, bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. Athletes sprint along a length of track that leads to a jumping board and a sandpit. The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand disturbed by the athlete 's body.
The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men 's long jump competition and a women 's competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics. Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. However, athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed. In addition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jump contest exists which requires that athletes leap from a static position without a run - up. A men 's version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912.
Similar to the long jump, the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit. Originally, athletes would hop on the same leg twice before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current "hop, step and jump '' pattern from 1900 onwards. There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece: while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games, others such as Stephen G. Miller believe this is incorrect, suggesting that the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Croton having jumped 55 ancient feet (around 16.3 m). The Book of Leinster, a 12th - century Irish manuscript, records the existence of geal - ruith (triple jump) contests at the Tailteann Games.
The men 's triple jump competition has been ever - present at the modern Olympics, but it was not until 1993 that a women 's version gained World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later. The men 's standing triple jump event featured at the Olympics in 1900 and 1904, but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used as a non-competitive exercise drill.
The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century. Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there. Athletes have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area. The men 's high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women 's competition followed in 1928.
Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event. High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century, using either the Scissors, Eastern cut - off or Western roll technique. The straddle technique became prominent in the mid-20th century, but Dick Fosbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head - first technique in the late 1960s -- the Fosbury Flop -- which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics. This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards. The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912, but is now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill.
In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe, and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in Germany in the 1770s. One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria, England in 1843. The basic rules and technique of the event originated in the United States. The rules required that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces the bar. Bamboo poles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became standard. Landing mattresses were introduced in the mid-20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.
The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal box, and vault over the horizontal bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing mattress. While earlier versions used wooden, metal or bamboo, modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglass or carbon fibre. The pole vault has been an Olympic event since 1896 for men, but it was over 100 years later that the first women 's world championship competition was held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships. The first women 's Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000.
Track and field contains some of the foremost kinds of throwing sports, and the four major disciplines are the only pure throwing events to feature at the Olympic Games.
The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre-historic competitions with rocks: in the Middle ages the stone put was known in Scotland and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland. In the 17th century, cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport. The term "shot '' originates from the use of round shot - style ammunition for the sport. The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and required that competitors take legal throws within a square throwing area of seven feet (2.13 m) on each side. This was amended to a circle area with a seven - foot diameter in 1906, and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds (7.26 kg). Throwing technique was also refined over this period, with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side - step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876.
The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women 's competition using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) shot was added in 1948. Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post-war era: in the 1950s Parry O'Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the "glide '', breaking the world record 17 times along the way, while Aleksandr Baryshnikov and Brian Oldfield introduced the "spin '' or rotational technique in 1976.
In the discus throw, athletes compete to throw a heavy disc the farthest. In standard competitions, athletes throw the disc from a set circular arc and take turns in a series of throw, with the singular best effort deciding the victor. As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC. In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics. This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing. By the 1912 Olympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2.5 m squared throwing area became the standard. The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg (4.4 pounds) in weight and 22 cm (8 inches) in diameter in 1907. The women 's discus was among the first women 's events on the Olympic programme, being introduced in 1928. The first modern athlete to throw the discus while rotating the whole body was Czech athlete Frantisek Janda - Su, who invented the technique when studying the position of the famous statue of Discobolus and won the 1900 Olympic silver medal.
As an implement of war and hunting, javelin throwing began in prehistoric times. Along with the discus, the javelin was the second throwing event in the ancient Olympic pentathlon. Records from 708 BC show two javelin competition types co-existing: throwing at a target and throwing the javelin for distance. It was the latter type from which the modern event derives. In ancient competitions, athletes would wrap an ankyle (thin leather strip) around the javelin that acted as a sling to facilitate extra distance. The javelin throw gained much popularity in Scandinavia in the late 19th century and athletes from the region are still among the most dominant throwers in men 's competitions. The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases the javelin before the foul line.
The first Olympic men 's javelin throw contest was held in 1908 and a women 's competition was introduced in 1932. The first javelins were made of various types of wood, but in the 1950s, former athlete Bud Held introduced a hollow javelin, then a metal javelin, both of which increased throwers performances. Another former athlete, Miklós Németh invented the rough - tailed javelin and throws reached in excess of 100 m -- edging towards the limits of stadia. The distances and the increasing number of horizontal landings led the IAAF to redesign the men 's javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement 's downward pitching moment to allow for easier measurement. Rough - tailed designs were banned in 1991 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed from the record books. The women 's javelin underwent a similar redesign in 1999. The current javelin specifications are 2.6 to 2.7 m in length and 800 grams in weight for men, and 2.2 to 2.3 m and 600 g for women.
The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann Games of ancient Ireland, which featured events such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope, a large rock on a wooden handle, or even a chariot wheel on a wooden axle. Other ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle -- the root of the term "hammer throw '' due to their resemblance to the tools. In 16th century England, contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith 's Sledgehammers were recorded. The hammer implement was standardised in 1887 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event. The weight of the metal ball was set at 16 pounds (7.26 kg) while the attached wire had to measure between 1.175 m and 1.215 m.
The men 's hammer throw became an Olympic event in 1900 but the women 's event -- using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) weight -- was not widely competed until much later, finally featuring on the women 's Olympic programme in 2000. The distances thrown by male athletes became greater from the 1950s onwards as a result of improved equipment using the denser metals, a switch to concrete throwing areas, and more advanced training techniques. Professional hammer throwers as historically large, strong, sturdy athletes. However, qualities such as refined technique, speed and flexibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legal throwing area has been reduced from 90 to 34.92 degrees and throwing technique involves three to four controlled rotations.
Combined (or multi-discipline) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earning points for their performance in each event, which adds to a total points score. Outdoors, the most common combined events are the men 's decathlon (ten events) and the women 's heptathlon (seven events). Due to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events, resulting in the men 's heptathlon and the women 's pentathlon. Athletes are allocated points based on an international - standard points scoring system, such as the decathlon scoring table.
The Ancient Olympic pentathlon (comprising long jump, javelin, discus, the stadion race and wrestling) was a precursor to the track and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics (Intercalated Games). A men 's all - around was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics, contested between five American and two British athletes.
The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums that first hosted such competitions. The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval - shaped running track and an area of turf within this track -- the field. In earlier competitions, track lengths varied: the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333.33 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics, while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile (536.45 m) at Francis Field. As the sport developed, the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks must be split into six to eight running lanes. Precise widths for the lanes were established, as were regulations regarding the curvature of the track. Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard in the late 1960s. 3M 's Tartan track (an all - weather running track of polyurethane) gained popularity after its use at the 1968 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard for the sport. Many track and field stadiums are multi-purpose stadiums, with the running track surrounding a field built for other sports, such as the various types of football.
The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events. The long jump and triple jump areas comprise a straight, narrow 40 - metre running track with a sandpit at one or both ends. Jumps are measured from a take off board -- typically a small strip of wood with a plasticine marker attached -- which ensures athletes jump from behind the measurement line. The pole vault area is also a 40 - metre running track and has an indentation in the ground (the box) where vaulters plant their poles to propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto cushioned landing mats. The high jump is a stripped down version of this, with an open area of track or field that leads to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it.
The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium. The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track. The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently across the Pitch (sports field) in the middle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of causing damage or injury. The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage usually situated in one of the corners of the field. The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field of play and throws travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium. The shot put features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end. The throwing area is a sector. Some stadia also have a water jump area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races.
Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums, which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events. Full - size indoor arenas (i.e. those fully equipped to host all events for the World Indoor Championships) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents. Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 200 - metre oval track with four to eight lanes. The track can be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably. Some have a second running track going straight across the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit. This track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events, which are held almost exclusively indoors.
Another common adaptation in the United States is a 160 - yard track (11 laps to a mile) that fits into a common basketball court - sized arena. This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances, which gradually was phased out by different organizations in the 1970s and 1980s. Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden, and the Sunkist Invitational formerly held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena.
All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues. The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts. The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track. Shot put (or weight throw) is the only throwing event held indoors due to size restrictions. The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event, but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier.
In addition to hosting the World Indoor Championships, the IAAF has hosted the IAAF World Indoor Tour since 2016.
The rules of track athletics or of track events in athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009. Key rules of track events are those regarding starting, running and finishing.
The start of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. In all races that are not run in lanes the start line must be curved, so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish. Starting blocks may be used for all races up to and including 400 m (including the first leg of the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m) and may not be used for any other race. No part of the starting block may overlap the start line or extend into another lane.
All races must be started by the report of the starter 's gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after they have ascertained that athletes are steady and in the correct starting position. An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with their hands or feet when on their marks.
For sprint races up to 400 m, the starter gives two commands: "on your marks '' to instruct athletes to approach the start line, followed by "set '' to advise the athletes that the start of the race is imminent. The commands of the starter are typically given in the native language in national competitions, or in English or French in international competitions. Once all athletes are set in their starting position, the gun or an approved starting apparatus must be fired or activated. If the starter is not satisfied that all are ready to proceed, the athletes may be called out of the blocks and the process started over.
There are different types of starts for races of different distances. Middle - and long - distance races mainly use the waterfall start. This is when all athletes begin on a curved line that moves farther out at the outer edge of the track. Competitors are allowed to move towards the inside lane right away, as long as it is safe to do so. For some middle - distance races, such as 800 m, each athlete starts in their own lane. Once the gun fires, they must run in the lane they began in until markers on the track notify them it is time to move towards the inside lane. For sprint races, athletes begin in start blocks and must stay in their own lane for the entire race.
An athlete, after assuming a final set position, may not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun, or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgment of the starter or recallers, he does so any earlier, it is considered a false start. It is deemed a false start if, in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands "on your marks '' or "set '' as appropriate after a reasonable time; or an athlete after the command "on your marks '' disturbs other athletes in the race through sound or otherwise. If the runner is in the "set '' position and moves, then the runner is also disqualified. As of 2010, any athlete making a false start is disqualified.
In International elite competition, electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes. If the athlete reacts in less than 0.1 second, an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start.
For sprinting events (bar the 4 × 400 m relay and the indoor 400 metres), each athlete must run the race within their allocated lane from start to finish. If an athlete leaves their lane or steps on the line demarking each lane the athlete will be disqualified. Lane rules also apply for initial periods of other track races, for example, the beginning of the 800 m. Similar rules apply for longer distance races when a large field of athletes is present and separate starting points are designated, with the field merging into one group shortly after the starting phase.
Any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete, in a way that impedes his progress, should be disqualified from that event. However, if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane, and if no material advantage is gained, the athlete should not be disqualified.
The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. The finishing position of athletes is determined by the order in which any part of their torso (as distinguished from the head, neck, arms, legs, hands or feet) reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line. Fully automatic timing systems (photo timing) are becoming more and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets, improving the accuracy, while eliminating the need for eagle - eyed officials on the finish line. Fully automatic timing (FAT) is required for high level meets and any time a sprint record is set (though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches).
With the accuracy of the timing systems, ties are rare. Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows: In determining whether there has been a tie in any round for a qualifying position for the next round based on time, a judge (called the chief photo finish judge) must consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second. If the judge decides that there has been a tie, the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or, if that is not practicable, lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round. In the case of a tie for first place in any final, the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete again. If he decides it is not, the result stands. Ties in other placings remain.
In general, most field events allow a competitor to take their attempt individually, under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition. Each attempt is measured to determine who achieved the greatest distance.
Vertical jumps (high jump and pole vault) set a bar at a particular height. The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar (flat). Three failures in a row ends the competitor 's participation in the event. The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt, which can be used to strategic advantage (of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses). A pass could be used to save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings. After all competitors have either cleared, passed or failed their attempts at a height, the bar goes up. The amount the bar goes up is predetermined before the competition, though when one competitor remains, that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts. A record is kept of each attempt by each competitor. After all competitors have taken their attempts, the one jumping the highest is the winner, and so on down the other competitors in the event. Ties are broken by first, the number of attempts taken at the highest height (fewest wins), and then if still tied, by the total number of misses in the competition as a whole. The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for first place or a qualifying position. If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers, all tied competitors take a fourth jump at the last height. If they still miss, the bar goes down one increment where they again jump. This process continues until the tie is broken.
Horizontal jumps (long jump and triple jump) and all throws must be initiated behind a line. In the case of horizontal jumps, that line is a straight line perpendicular to the runway. In the case of throws, that line is an arc or a circle. Crossing the line while initiating the attempt invalidates the attempt -- it becomes a foul. All landings must occur in a sector. For the jumps, that is a sand filled pit, for throws it is a defined sector. A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a foul (the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector). Assuming a proper attempt, officials measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line. The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest distance between the point and the line. To accomplish this, the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line in jumps, or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws. The officials at the landing end of the tape have the zero, while the officials at the point of initiation measure and record the length. Whenever a record (or potential record) occurs, that measurement is taken (again) with a steel tape, and observed by at least three officials (plus usually the meet referee). Steel tapes are easily bent and damaged, so are not used to measure everyday competitions. For major competitions, each competitor gets three tries. The top competitors (usually 8 or 9 depending on that competition 's rules or the number of lanes on the track) gets three more tries. At that level of competition, the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set -- so the competitor in first place at the end of the third round is last, while the last competitor to qualify goes first. Some meets rearrange the competition order again for the final round, so the final attempt is taken by the leader at that point. At other competitions, meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts. Whatever the format, all competitors get an equal number of attempts.
Men and women have different weights for their throwing implements -- men 's javelin is 800 grams compared to 600 for women, men 's weight throw is 35 pounds compared to 20 for women, men 's discus is 2 kilograms to women 's 1, men 's shot put is 16 pounds compared to 8 pounds for women, and men 's hammer throw is also 16 pounds to the women 's 8. Additionally, men 's high hurdles are at height of 42 inches compared to women 's hurdles which are 33 inches. For the intermediate hurdles (400 meter hurdles), the men 's hurdle height is 36 inches compared to 30 inches for women.
The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics organisations. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the global governing body for track and field, and athletics as a whole. The governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies. Some national federations are named after the sport, including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association, but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies. These national federations regulate sub-national and local track and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.
The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics. Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic and Paralympic athletics programmes, which occur every four years. Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympics since its inception in 1896, and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Events such as the 100 metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic or Paralympic sporting event.
The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the IAAF. The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913, but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 -- the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon and racewalking competitions. Initially, this worked on a quadrennial basis but, after 1991, it changed to a biennial format. In terms of indoor track and field, the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics has been held every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events.
Similar to the event programmes at the Olympics, Paralympics and World Championships, track and field forms a significant part of continental championships. The South American Championships in Athletics, created in 1919, was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championships became the second championships of this type in 1934. The Asian Athletics Championships and African Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania started its championships in 1990.
There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe (European Athletics Indoor Championships) and Asia (Asian Indoor Athletics Championships). There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America, which may be (in part) due to the success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships. Most countries have a national championship in track and field and, for athletes, these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions. Some countries hold many track and field championships at high school and college - level, which help develop younger athletes. Some of these have gained significant exposure and prestige, such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships. However, the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country to country.
Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics and Paralympics, the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of many major multi-sport events. Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic - style model were the World University Games in 1923, the Commonwealth Games in 1930, and the Maccabiah Games in 1932. The number of major multi-sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them. Typically, track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games.
After the Olympic and Paralympic Games, the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three IOC - sanctioned continental games: the All - Africa Games, Asian Games, and the Pan American Games. Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade, and World Masters Games have significant participation from track and field athletes. Track and field is also present at the national games level, with competitions such as the Chinese National Games serving as the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes.
One - day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport -- they are the most basic level of track and field competition. Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club, or by a group or business that serves as the meeting promoter. In the case of the former, athletes are selected to represent their club or institution. In the case of privately run or independent meetings, athletes participate on an invitation - only basis.
The most basic type of meetings are all - comers track meets, which are largely small, local, informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete. As meetings become more organized they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport.
At the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the "Golden Four '' competition, comprising meetings in Zürich, Brussels, Berlin and Oslo. This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998, which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour. In 2010, the Golden League idea was expanded globally as the IAAF Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one - day track and field meetings.
The IAAF introduced a world ranking system for the 2018 season. An athletes position within the ranking will be determined by points scored based on their performance and importance of the competition. The points will be considered for eligibility for the World Championships in Athletics and Olympic Games. This system will affect athlete participation, which has typically been determined by national bodies, either through selection panels or national trials events.
Athletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions. Doing so can not only serve as a way of determining the winner in an event, but it can also be used for historical comparison (i.e. a record). A large variety of record types exist and men 's and women 's performances are recorded separately. The foremost types of records organise athlete 's performances by the region they represent -- beginning with national records, then continental records, up to the global or world record level. National governing bodies control the national record lists, the area associations organise their respective continental lists, and the IAAF ratifies world records.
The IAAF ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria. The IAAF first published a world records list in 1914, initially for men 's events only. There were 53 recognised records in running, hurdling and relay, and 12 field records. World records in women 's events began in 1936 as more events were gradually added to the list, but significant changes were made in the late 1970s. First, all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 1976, with the sole exceptional being the mile run due to the prestige and history of the event. The following year, all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic timing was used (as opposed to the traditional hand - timing stopwatch method). In 1981, electronic timing was made compulsory for all world record runs in track and field, with times being recorded to within one hundredth of a second. Two additional types of world record were introduced in 1987: world records for indoor competitions, and world records for junior athletes under 20 years old.
The next most important record type are those achieved at a specific competition. For example, the Olympic records represent the best performances by athletes at the Summer Olympics. All major championships and games have their relevant competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a note of their meet records. Other record types include: stadium records, records by age range, records by disability, and records by institution or organisation. Cash bonuses are usually offered to athletes if they break significant records, as doing so can generate greater interest and public attendance in track and field competitions.
Track and field athletes are banned from ingesting or using certain substances by governing bodies for the sport, from the national to the international level. The IAAF 's constitution incorporates the World Anti-Doping Code among other anti-doping measures. Practices such as blood doping and the use of anabolic steroids, peptide hormones, stimulants, or diuretics can give athletes a physical competitive advantage in track and field. The use of such substances in track and field is opposed on both ethical and medical grounds. Given that the sport functions by measuring and comparing athletes ' performances, performance - enhancing substances create an uneven playing field -- athletes who do not use doping substances have a disadvantage over rivals who do. Medically, the use of banned substances may have an adverse effect upon athletes ' health. However, some exemptions are made for athletes who take banned substances for therapeutic use, and athletes are not sanctioned for usage in these cases, such as Kim Collins ' failed drug test due to asthma medication.
Athletes have historically been willing to take legal and health risks to improve their performance, with some even stating their willingness to risk their lives, as exemplified by research by Mirkin, Goldman and Connor in researching attitudes to the so - called Goldman dilemma. To prevent use of performance - enhancing substances, athletes must submit to drug tests that are conducted both in and out of competition by anti-doping officials or accredited medical staff. Penalized athletes are susceptible to higher testing upon return to competition. Athletes found to have taken substances on the World Anti-Doping Agency 's banned list receive sanctions and may be banned from competition for a period of time that corresponds to the seriousness of the infraction. However, the use of substances not on the prohibited list may also result in sanctions if the substance is deemed similar to a banned substance in either composition or effect. Athletes may also be sanctioned for missing tests, seeking to avoid testing or tampering with results, refusing to submit to testing, through circumstantial evidence, or confession of use.
Doping has played a significant part in the modern history of track and field. State - sponsored doping in East Germany with hormones and anabolic steroids marked the rise of women from the German Democratic Republic in track and field from the late 1960s to the 1980s. A number of these women, such as Marita Koch, broke world records and were highly successful at international competitions. Some athletes, who were following a doping plan from their teenage years, suffered significant health problems as a result of the regime. Ben Johnson ran a new world record in the 100 metres at the 1988 Seoul Olympics but was later banned for using anabolic steroids. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, the BALCO Scandal eventually resulted in the downfall of prominent sprinters such as Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery, among others, through their usage of banned substances. The revelation state - sponsored doping in Russia led to an international ban on all its athletes in 2016, with Russians having to apply to the IAAF to compete as Authorised Neutral Athletes at events such as the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2017 World Championships in Athletics. Doping has affected countries on all continents and has occurred in individual, team and national settings.
Track and field bears most similarity to the others categorised under the sport of athletics, specifically cross country running, and road forms of racewalking and running. All these forms of racing tend to record finishing times, have strictly defined start and finish points, and are generally individual in nature. Middle - and long - distance runners usually participate in cross country and road events, in addition to the track. Track racewalkers are most typically road specialists as well. It is unusual for track and field athletes outside of these two groups to compete in cross country or road events.
Varieties of strength athletics, such as the World 's Strongest Man and highland games, often incorporate forms of footracing carrying heavy objects as well as throwing events such as the caber toss and keg toss, which bear similarities to track and field throwing events.
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how much is a shilling worth in american money | Shilling - wikipedia
The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. The word shilling comes from scilling, an accounting term that dates back to Anglo - Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse, where it means "division ''.
Slang terms for the old shilling coins include "bob '' and "hog ''. While the derivation of "bob '' is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was "bobstick '' and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole.
One abbreviation for shilling is s (for solidus, see £ sd). Often it was represented by a solidus symbol ("/ ''), which may have originally stood for a long s or s, thus 1 / 9 would be one shilling and ninepence (and equivalent to 21 d; the shilling itself was equal to 12 d). A price with no pence was sometimes written with a solidus and a dash: 11 / --.
The solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh.
During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound (weighing 5760 grains or 373 g) of standard (0.925 fine) silver into 66 shillings, or its equivalent in other denominations. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, when a new smaller 5p coin was introduced.
In the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere.
A shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII (or Edward VI around 1550). The shilling continued in use after the Acts of Union of 1707 created a new United Kingdom from the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, and under Article 16 of the Articles of Union, a common currency for the new United Kingdom was created.
The term shilling (Scots: schilling) was in use in Scotland from early medieval times.
The common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, and thus there were 240 pence in a pound.
Three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. They were:
At decimalisation in 1971, the shilling coin was superseded by the new five - pence piece, which initially was of identical size and weight and had the same value, and inherited the shilling 's slang name of a bob.
Between 1701 and the unification of the currencies in 1825, the Irish shilling was valued at 13 pence and known as the "black hog '', as opposed to the 12 - pence English shillings which were known as "white hogs ''.
In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish. It was worth 1 / 20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side. The first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75 % silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin (retained after decimalisation)) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, when a smaller five pence coin was introduced.
Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new ram 's head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963. In 1966, Australia 's currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin (Australian), where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar.
The slang term for a shilling coin in Australia was "deener ''. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was "bob '', the same as in the United Kingdom.
After 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10 - cent coins of the same size and weight.
New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933 and featured the image of a Maori warrior carrying a taiaha "in a warlike attitude '' on the reverse. In 1967, New Zealand 's currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight. Smaller 10 - cent coins were introduced in 2006.
Shillings were used in Malta, prior to decimalisation in 1972, and had a face value of five Maltese cents.
In British Ceylon, a shilling (Sinhalese: Silima, Tamil: Silin) was equivalent to eight fanams. With the replacement of the rixdollar by the rupee in 1852, a shilling was deemed to be equivalent to half a rupee. On the decimalisation of the currency in 1869, a shilling was deemed to be equivalent to 50 Ceylon cents. The term continued to be used colloquially until the late 20th century.
The East African shilling was in use in the British colonies and protectorates of British Somaliland, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda and Zanzibar from 1920, when it replaced the rupee, until after those countries became independent, and in Tanzania after that country was formed by the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Upon independence in 1960, the East African shilling in the State of Somaliland (former British Somaliland) and the Somali somalo in the Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) were replaced by the Somali shilling.
In 1966, the East African Monetary Union broke up, and the member countries replaced their currencies with the Kenyan shilling, the Ugandan shilling and the Tanzanian shilling, respectively. Though all these currencies have different values at present, there were plans to reintroduce the East African shilling as a new common currency by 2009, although this has not come about.
In the thirteen British colonies that became the United States in 1776, British money was often in circulation. Each colony issued its own paper money, with pounds, shillings, and pence used as the standard units of account. Some coins were minted in the colonies, such as the 1652 pine - tree shilling in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. After the United States adopted the dollar as its unit of currency and accepted the gold standard, one British shilling was worth 24 US cents. Due to ongoing shortages of US coins in some regions, shillings continued to circulate well into the 19th century. Shillings are described as the standard monetary unit throughout the autobiography of Solomon Northup (1853) and mentioned several times in the Horatio Alger, Jr. story, Ragged Dick (1868).
The Somali shilling is the official currency of Somalia. It is subdivided into 100 cents (English), senti (Somali, also سنت) or centesimi (Italian).
The Somali shilling has been the currency of parts of Somalia since 1921, when the East African shilling was introduced to the former British Somaliland protectorate. Following independence in 1960, the somalo of Italian Somaliland and the East African shilling (which were equal in value) were replaced at par in 1962 by the Somali shilling. Names used for the denominations were cent, centesimo (plural: centesimi) and سنت (plurals: سنتيمات and سنتيما) together with shilling, scellino (plural: scellini) and شلن.
That same year, the Banca Nazionale Somala issued notes for 5, 10, 20 and 100 scellini / shillings. In 1975, the Bankiga Qaranka Soomaaliyeed (Somali National Bank) introduced notes for 5, 10, 20 and 100 shilin / shillings. These were followed in 1978 by notes of the same denominations issued by the Bankiga Dhexe Ee Soomaaliya (Central Bank of Somalia). 50 shilin / shillings notes were introduced in 1983, followed by 500 shilin / shillings in 1989 and 1000 shilin / shillings in 1990. Also in 1990 there was an attempt to reform the currency at 100 to 1, with new banknotes of 20 and 50 new shilin prepared for the redenomination.
Following the breakdown in central authority that accompanied the civil war, which began in the early 1990s, the value of the Somali shilling was disrupted. The Central Bank of Somalia, the nation 's monetary authority, also shut down operations. Rival producers of the local currency, including autonomous regional entities such as the Somaliland territory, subsequently emerged.
Somalia 's newly established Transitional Federal Government revived the defunct Central Bank of Somalia in the late 2000s. In terms of financial management, the monetary authority is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing monetary policy. Owing to a lack of confidence in the Somali shilling, the US dollar is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling. Dollarization notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fueled price hikes, especially for low value transactions. This inflationary environment, however, is expected to come to an end as soon as the Central Bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector.
The Somaliland shilling is the official currency of Somaliland, a self - declared republic that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia. The currency is not recognised as legal tender by the international community, and it currently has no official exchange rate. It is regulated by the Bank of Somaliland, the territory 's central bank. Although the authorities in Somaliland have attempted to bar usage of the Somali shilling, Somalia 's official currency is still the preferred means of exchange for many peoples in the region.
Elsewhere in the former British Empire, forms of the word shilling remain in informal use. In Vanuatu and Solomon Islands, selen is used in Bislama and Pijin to mean "money ''; in Malaysia, syiling (pronounced like shilling) means "coin ''. In Egypt and Jordan the shillin (Arabic: شلن ) is equal to 1 / 20th (five qirshes -- Arabic: قرش , English: piastres) of the Egyptian pound or the Jordanian dinar. In Belize, the term shilling is commonly used to refer to twenty - five cents.
The Austrian schilling was the currency of Austria between 1924 and 1938 and again between 1945 and 2002. It was replaced by the euro at a fixed parity of € 1 = 13.7603 schilling. The schilling was divided into 100 groschen.
Shillings were issued in the Scandinavian countries (skilling) until the Scandinavian Monetary Union of 1873, and in the city of Hamburg, Germany.
In Poland szeląg was used.
In the principalities covering present Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg, the cognate term schelling was used as an equivalent ' arithmetic ' currency, a ' solidus ' representing 12 ' denarii ' or 1 / 20 ' pound ', while actual coins were rarely physical multiples of it, but still expressed in these terms.
The sol, later the sou, both also derived from the Roman solidus, were the equivalent coins in France, while the (nuevo) sol (PEN) remains the currency of Peru.
As in France, the Peruvian sol was originally named after the Roman solidus, but the name of the Peruvian currency is now much more closely linked to the Spanish word for the sun (sol). This helps explain the name of its temporary replacement, the inti, named for the Incan sun god.
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ashley williams on how i met your mother | Ashley Williams (actress) - wikipedia
Ashley Williams Dodson (professional name Ashley Williams) (born November 12, 1978) is an American film, television, and theater actress. She is best known for her starring in the television series The Jim Gaffigan Show on TV Land and in the NBC series Good Morning Miami. Over the many years of its run, Williams played fan favorite Victoria on the hit CBS series How I Met Your Mother opposite Josh Radnor. She has starred in more than a dozen different television pilots over the years and done over 150 episodes of television in addition to television movies for The Hallmark Channel, Lifetime Television, and ABC Family. She 's worked in studio and independent films, regional theater, Off - Broadway, and on Broadway. Williams is also a certified birth doula.
Williams was born in Westchester County, New York, the daughter of Linda Barbara (née Payne), a fundraiser for The Michael J. Fox Foundation, and Gurney Williams III, a freelance health and science writer. She is the younger sister of actress Kimberly Williams - Paisley and is sister - in - law to country music star Brad Paisley.
Williams attended Rye High School in Rye, New York. In May 2001 she received her Bachelor of Fine Arts from the Boston University College of Fine Arts School of Theatre.
Williams married independent film producer Neal Dodson on May 29, 2011. They have two sons: Gus Williams Dodson (b. October 5, 2014) and Odie Sal Dodson (b. May 17, 2017). In the summer of 2016, Williams was two months pregnant and suffered a miscarriage. She partnered with the Human Development Project to speak publicly about the experience, in hopes of reducing the stigma of miscarriage and encouraging more women to talk openly about it.
Williams made her big - screen acting debut in a non-speaking role in the 1993 drama Indian Summer, which also featured her sister Kimberly. She then spent from 1994 to 1996 playing teenage Danielle Andropoulos on the soap opera As the World Turns.
Williams starred in the television series Good Morning, Miami (2002 -- 2004). Since then she has also appeared in episodes of Psych, How I Met Your Mother, multiple episodes of E-Ring, multiple episodes of Huff, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, multiple episodes of Side Order of Life, The Mentalist, Monk, C.S.I., Royal Pains, multiple episodes of Saving Grace, Love Bites, The Protector, The Mentalist, Retired at 35, and multiple episodes of Warehouse 13. Williams also had a guest - starring role on American Dreams, playing singer Sandie Shaw and performing Shaw 's 1964 hit "(There 's) Always Something There to Remind Me '' on American Bandstand.
In 2006, she starred in the Off Broadway play Burleigh Grime $ and appeared as Victoria, a cupcake baker, on six episodes of the television series How I Met Your Mother; a role she reprised in the concluding seasons of the show.
In 2010, she starred in the made - for - TV Lifetime movies, Patricia Cornwell 's The Front and At Risk, which premiered on the channel on April 17, 2010. She also won an on - line straw poll conducted by the How I Met Your Mother production staff as to which ex-girlfriend of Ted Mosby, the show 's main character, is the fans ' favorite. Her character, Victoria, won 128 to 117 over Robin Scherbatsky, with a smattering of votes for other candidates.
In 2011 and 2012, she played the role of Claire in a film adaptation of Something Borrowed opposite Kate Hudson, John Krasinski, and her college roommate Ginnifer Goodwin, and she also reprised her role as Victoria on How I Met Your Mother.
She made her Broadway debut in John Grisham 's A Time To Kill playing law student Ellen Roarke, on September 28, 2013, with the opening night on October 20, 2013. She had previously worked at the Williamstown Theater Festival, and also worked as the understudy for both Rachel Weisz and Gretchen Mol opposite Paul Rudd in the world premiere Off - Broadway production of Neil LaBute 's play The Shape of Things. She performed both lead female roles multiple times during the run.
In 2015 and 2016, Williams starred as a fictionalized version of comedian Jim Gaffigan 's real life wife in The Jim Gaffigan Show on Comedy central, a sitcom about a couple raising their five young children in a two - bedroom New York City apartment which also starred Michael Ian Black and Adam Goldberg.
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who developed and patented the electrical telegraph in the united states in 1837 | Electrical telegraph - wikipedia
An electrical telegraph is a telegraph that uses electrical signals, usually conveyed via dedicated telecommunication circuit or radio.
The electrical telegraph, or more commonly just telegraph, superseded optical semaphore telegraph systems, thus becoming the first form of electrical telecommunications. In a matter of decades after their creation in the 1830s, electrical telegraph networks permitted people and commerce to transmit messages across both continents and oceans almost instantly, with widespread social and economic impacts.
From early studies of electricity, electrical phenomena were known to travel with great speed, and many experimenters worked on the application of electricity to communications at a distance.
All the known effects of electricity - such as sparks, electrostatic attraction, chemical changes, electric shocks, and later electromagnetism - were applied to the problems of detecting controlled transmissions of electricity at various distances.
In 1753, an anonymous writer in the Scots Magazine suggested an electrostatic telegraph. Using one wire for each letter of the alphabet, a message could be transmitted by connecting the wire terminals in turn to an electrostatic machine, and observing the deflection of pith balls at the far end. Telegraphs employing electrostatic attraction were the basis of early experiments in electrical telegraphy in Europe, but were abandoned as being impractical and were never developed into a useful communication system.
In 1774, Georges - Louis Le Sage realised an early electric telegraph. The telegraph had a separate wire for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet and its range was only between two rooms of his home.
In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, allowing for a continuous current of electricity for experimentation. This became a source of a low - voltage current that could be used to produce more distinct effects, and which was far less limited than the momentary discharge of an electrostatic machine, which with Leyden jars were the only previously known man - made sources of electricity.
Another very early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an ' electrochemical telegraph ' created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) to represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmering 's design), with each of the telegraph receiver 's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each digit of a message; at the recipient 's end the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver 's operator would watch the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message. This is in contrast to later telegraphs that used a single wire (with ground return).
Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field which will deflect a compass needle. In the same year Johann Schweigger invented the galvanometer, with a coil of wire around a compass, which could be used as a sensitive indicator for an electric current. In 1821, André - Marie Ampère suggested that telegraphy could be done by a system of galvanometers, with one wire per galvanometer to indicate each letter, and said he had experimented successfully with such a system. In 1824, Peter Barlow said that such a system only worked to a distance of about 200 feet (61 m), and so was impractical.
In 1825, William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, with a single winding of uninsulated wire on a piece of varnished iron, which increased the magnetic force produced by electric current. Joseph Henry improved it in 1828 by placing several windings of insulated wire around the bar, creating a much more powerful electromagnet which could operate a telegraph through the high resistance of long telegraph wires. During his tenure at The Albany Academy from 1826 to 1832, Henry first demonstrated the theory of the ' magnetic telegraph ' by ringing a bell through a mile of wire strung around the room.
In 1835, Joseph Henry and Edward Davy invented the critical electrical relay. Davy 's relay used a magnetic needle which dipped into a mercury contact when an electric current passed through the surrounding coil. This allowed a weak current to switch a larger current to operate a powerful local electromagnet over very long distances. Davy demonstrated his telegraph system in Regent 's Park in 1837 and was granted a patent on 4 July 1838. He also developed an electric relay.
The first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity. At the family home on Hammersmith Mall, he set up a complete subterranean system in a 175 yard long trench as well as an eight mile long overhead telegraph. The lines were connected at both ends to revolving dials marked with the letters of the alphabet and electrical impulses sent along the wire were used to transmit messages. Offering his invention to the Admiralty in July 1816, it was rejected as "wholly unnecessary ''. His account of the scheme and the possibilities of rapid global communication in Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph and of some other Electrical Apparatus was the first published work on electric telegraphy and even described the risk of signal retardation due to induction. Elements of Ronalds ' design were utilised in the subsequent commercialisation of the telegraph over 20 years later.
The telegraph invented by Baron Schilling von Canstatt in 1832 had a transmitting device which consisted of a keyboard with 16 black - and - white keys. These served for switching the electric current. The receiving instrument consisted of six galvanometers with magnetic needles, suspended from silk threads. Both stations of Schilling 's telegraph were connected by eight wires; six were connected with the galvanometers, one served for the return current and one for a signal bell. When at the starting station the operator pressed a key, the corresponding pointer was deflected at the receiving station. Different positions of black and white flags on different disks gave combinations which corresponded to the letters or numbers. Pavel Schilling subsequently improved its apparatus. He reduced the number of connecting wires from eight to two.
On 21 October 1832, Schilling managed a short - distance transmission of signals between two telegraphs in different rooms of his apartment. In 1836, the British government attempted to buy the design but Schilling instead accepted overtures from Nicholas I of Russia. Schilling 's telegraph was tested on a 5 - kilometre - long (3.1 mi) experimental underground and underwater cable, laid around the building of the main Admiralty in Saint Petersburg and was approved for a telegraph between the imperial palace at Peterhof and the naval base at Kronstadt. However, the project was cancelled following Schilling 's death in 1837. Schilling was also one of the first to put into practice the idea of the binary system of signal transmission.
In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss, together with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber in Göttingen installed a 1,200 - metre - long (3,900 ft) wire above the town 's roofs. Gauss combined the Poggendorff - Schweigger multiplicator with his magnetometer to build a more sensitive device, the galvanometer. To change the direction of the electric current, he constructed a commutator of his own. As a result, he was able to make the distant needle move in the direction set by the commutator on the other end of the line.
At first, Gauss and Weber used the telegraph to coordinate time, but soon they developed other signals; finally, their own alphabet. The alphabet was encoded in a binary code which was transmitted by positive or negative voltage pulses which were generated by means of moving an induction coil up and down over a permanent magnet and connecting the coil with the transmission wires by means of the commutator. The page of Gauss ' laboratory notebook containing both his code and the first message transmitted, as well as a replica of the telegraph made in the 1850s under the instructions of Weber are kept in the faculty of physics at the University of Göttingen, in Germany.
Gauss was convinced that this communication would be a help to his kingdom 's towns. Later in the same year, instead of a Voltaic pile, Gauss used an induction pulse, enabling him to transmit seven letters a minute instead of two. The inventors and university were too poor to develop the telegraph on their own, but they received funding from Alexander von Humboldt. Carl August Steinheil in Munich was able to build a telegraph network within the city in 1835 - 6. He installed a telegraph line along the first German railroad in 1835.
In 1836, an American scientist, Dr. David Alter, invented the first known American electric telegraph, in Elderton, Pennsylvania, one year before the Morse telegraph. Alter demonstrated it to witnesses but never developed the idea into a practical system. When Alter was interviewed for the book Biographical and Historical Cyclopedia of Indiana and Armstrong Counties, he said: "I may say that there is no connection at all between the telegraph of Morse and others and that of myself... Professor Morse most probably never heard of me or my Elderton telegraph. ''
Samuel Morse independently developed and patented a recording electric telegraph in 1837. Morse 's assistant Alfred Vail developed an instrument that was called the register for recording the received messages. It embossed dots and dashes on a moving paper tape by a stylus which was operated by an electromagnet. Morse and Vail developed the Morse code signalling alphabet. The first telegram in the United States was sent by Morse on 11 January 1838, across two miles (3 km) of wire at Speedwell Ironworks near Morristown, New Jersey, although it was only later, in 1844, that he sent the message "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT? '' over the 44 miles (71 km) from the Capitol in Washington to the old Mt. Clare Depot in Baltimore.
The first commercial electrical telegraph, the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, was co-developed by William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone. In May 1837 they patented a telegraph system which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet. The patent recommended a five - needle system, but any number of needles could be used depending on the number of characters it was required to code. A four - needle system was installed between Euston and Camden Town in London on a rail line being constructed by Robert Stephenson between London and Birmingham. It was successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837. Euston needed to signal to an engine house at Camden Town to start hauling the locomotive up the incline. As at Liverpool, the electric telegraph was in the end rejected in favour of a pneumatic system with whistles.
Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a system installed on the Great Western Railway over the 13 miles (21 km) from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838, the first commercial telegraph in the world. This was a five - needle, six - wire system. The cables were originally installed underground in a steel conduit. However, the cables soon began to fail as a result of deteriorating insulation and were replaced with uninsulated wires on poles. As an interim measure, a two - needle system was used with three of the remaining working underground wires, which despite using only two needles had a greater number of codes. But when the line was extended to Slough in 1843, a one - needle, two - wire system was installed.
From this point the use of the electric telegraph started to grow on the new railways being built from London. The London and Blackwall Railway (another rope - hauled application) was equipped with the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph when it opened in 1840, and many others followed. The one - needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways, and 15,000 sets were still in use at the end of the nineteenth century. Some remained in service in the 1930s. In September 1845 the financier John Lewis Ricardo and Cooke formed the Electric Telegraph Company, the first public telegraphy company in the world. This company bought out the Cooke and Wheatstone patents and solidly established the telegraph business.
In the United States, the Morse / Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the two decades following the first demonstration. The overland telegraph connected the west coast of the continent to the east coast by 24 October 1861, bringing an end to the Pony Express.
As well as the rapid expansion of the use of the telegraphs along the railways, they soon spread into the field of mass communication with the instruments being installed in post offices. The era of mass personal communication had begun.
A continuing goal in telegraphy was to reduce the cost per message by reducing hand - work, or increasing the sending rate. There were many experiments with moving pointers, and various electrical encodings. However, most systems were too complicated and unreliable. A successful expedient to reduce the cost per message was the development of telegraphese.
The first system that did n't require skilled technicians to operate, was Charles Wheatstone 's ABC system in 1840 where the letters of the alphabet were arranged around a clock - face, and the signal caused a needle to indicate the letter. This early system required the receiver to be present in real time to record the message and it reached speeds of up to 15 words a minute.
In 1846, Alexander Bain patented a chemical telegraph in Edinburgh. The signal current moved an iron pen across a moving paper tape soaked in a mixture of ammonium nitrate and potassium ferrocyanide, decomposing the chemical and producing readable blue marks in Morse code. The speed of the printing telegraph was 1000 words per hour, but messages still required translation into English by live copyists. Chemical telegraphy came to an end in the US in 1851, when the Morse group defeated the Bain patent in the US District Court.
For a brief period, starting with the New York - Boston line in 1848, some telegraph networks began to employ sound operators, who were trained to understand Morse code aurally. Gradually, the use of sound operators eliminated the need for telegraph receivers to include register and tape. Instead, the receiving instrument was developed into a "sounder '', an electromagnet that was energized by a current and attracted a small iron lever. When the sounding key was opened or closed, the sounder lever struck an anvil. The Morse operator distinguished a dot and a dash by the short or long interval between the two clicks. The message was then written out in long - hand.
Royal Earl House developed and patented a letter - printing telegraph system in 1846 which employed an alphabetic keyboard for the transmitter and automatically printed the letters on paper at the receiver, and followed this up with a steam - powered version in 1852. Advocates of printing telegraphy said it would eliminate Morse operators ' errors. The House machine was used on four main American telegraph lines by 1852. The speed of the House machine was announced as 2600 words an hour.
David Edward Hughes invented the printing telegraph in 1855; it used a keyboard of 26 keys for the alphabet and a spinning type wheel that determined the letter being transmitted by the length of time that had elapsed since the previous transmission. The system allowed for automatic recording on the receiving end. The system was very stable and accurate and became the accepted around the world.
The next improvement was the Baudot code of 1874. French engineer Émile Baudot patented a printing telegraph in which the signals were translated automatically into typographic characters. Each character was assigned a five - bit code, mechanically interpreted from the state of five on / off switches. Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute.
By this point reception had been automated, but the speed and accuracy of the transmission was still limited to the skill of the human operator. The first practical automated system was patented by Charles Wheatstone, the original inventor of the telegraph. The message (in Morse code) was typed onto a piece of perforated tape using a keyboard - like device called the ' Stick Punch '. The transmitter automatically ran the tape through and transmitted the message at the then exceptionally high speed of 70 words per minute.
An early successful teleprinter was invented by Frederick G. Creed. In Glasgow he created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals on to paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system was adopted by the Daily Mail for daily transmission of the newspaper contents.
With the invention of the teletypewriter, telegraphic encoding became fully automated. Early teletypewriters used the ITA - 1 Baudot code, a five - bit code. This yielded only thirty - two codes, so it was over-defined into two "shifts '', "letters '' and "figures ''. An explicit, unshared shift code prefaced each set of letters and figures.
By the 1930s teleprinters were being produced by Teletype in the US, Creed in Britain and Siemens in Germany.
By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation. Large telegraphy providers began to develop systems that used telephone - like rotary dialling to connect teletypewriters. These machines were called "Telex '' (TELegraph EXchange). Telex machines first performed rotary - telephone - style pulse dialling for circuit switching, and then sent data by ITA2. This "type A '' Telex routing functionally automated message routing.
The first wide - coverage Telex network was implemented in Germany during the 1930s as a network used to communicate within the government.
At the rate of 45.45 (± 0.5 %) baud -- considered speedy at the time -- up to 25 telex channels could share a single long - distance telephone channel by using voice frequency telegraphy multiplexing, making telex the least expensive method of reliable long - distance communication.
Automatic teleprinter exchange service was introduced into Canada by CPR Telegraphs and CN Telegraph in July 1957 and in 1958, Western Union started to build a Telex network in the United States.
Soon after the first successful telegraph systems were operational, the possibility of transmitting messages across the sea by way of submarine communications cables was first proposed. One of the primary technical challenges was to sufficiently insulate the submarine cable to prevent the current from leaking out into the water. In 1842, a Scottish surgeon William Montgomerie introduced gutta - percha, the adhesive juice of the Palaquium gutta tree, to Europe. Michael Faraday and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta - percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from Dover to Calais. It was tried on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne. In 1849, C.V. Walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a two - mile wire coated with gutta - percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully.
John Watkins Brett, an engineer from Bristol, sought and obtained permission from Louis - Philippe in 1847 to establish telegraphic communication between France and England. The first undersea cable was laid in 1850, connecting the two countries and was followed by connections to Ireland and the Low Countries.
The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in London in 1856 to undertake to construct a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. It was successfully completed on 18 July 1866 by the ship SS Great Eastern, captained by Sir James Anderson after many mishaps along the away. Earlier transatlantic submarine cables installations were attempted in 1857, 1858 and 1865. The 1857 cable only operated intermittently for a few days or weeks before it failed. The study of underwater telegraph cables accelerated interest in mathematical analysis of very long transmission lines. The telegraph lines from Britain to India were connected in 1870 (those several companies combined to form the Eastern Telegraph Company in 1872).
Australia was first linked to the rest of the world in October 1872 by a submarine telegraph cable at Darwin. This brought news reportage from the rest of the world. The telegraph across the Pacific was completed in 1902, finally encircling the world.
From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the All Red Line. In 1896, there were thirty cable laying ships in the world and twenty - four of them were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two - thirds of the world 's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent. During World War I, Britain 's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany 's cables worldwide.
Before the American Civil War, the telegraph systems were primarily used in the commercial sector. The Government buildings were n't connect to each other via telegraph lines, but instead relied on runners to carry messages back and forth between buildings and offices. < / ref > Before the war the Government saw no need to connect lines within city limits, however, they did see the use in connections between cities. With the Washington D.C. being the hub of the American Government, it had the most connections, but it only had a few lines running north and south out of the city. It was n't until the Civil War broke out that the Government saw the true potential of the telegraph system. Soon after the shelling of Fort Sumter, the South cut telegraph lines running into D.C. This put the city in a state of panic for they feared an immediate southern invasion.
Due to its large and robust telegraph system, as well as its industrial base, the North had a large advantage over the South during the course of the War. Within 6 months of the war breaking out, the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps (USMT) had laid approximately 300 miles of line. By war 's end they laid approximately 15,000 miles of cable, 8,000 for military and 5,000 for commercial, and had handled approximately 6.5 million messages. The telegraph was not only important for communication within the armed forces, but also in the civilian sector, helping political leaders to maintain control over their districts.
Even before the war, the American Telegraph Company censored suspect messages informally to block aid to the secession movement.
During the war, Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, and later Edwin Stanton, wanted control over the telegraph lines to maintain the flow of information. Early in the war, one of Stanton 's first acts of Secretary of War, was to move telegraph lines from ending at McClellan 's headquarters to ending at the War Department. Even Stanton himself said "(telegraph) is my right arm ''. Many Northern victories were found due to the use of the telegraph. Victories include the Battle of Antietam (1862), the Battle of Chickamauga (1863), the Battle of the Crater at Petersburg (1864), as well as Sherman 's March (1865).
The telegraph system was n't without its flaws. The USMT, while the main source of telegraphers and cable, was still a civilian agency. Most operators were first hired by the telegraph companies and then contracted out to the War Department. This created tension between Generals and their operators. One source of irritation was that USMT operators did n't have to follow military authority, they usually performed without hesitation, but they did n't have to. To remedy this problem Albert Myer created a U.S. Army Signal Corps in February 1863. As the new head of the Signal Corps, Myer tried to push all telegraph and flag signaling under his command, and therefore subject to military disipline. After creating the Signal Corps, Myer pushed to further develop new telegraph systems. While the USMT relied primarily on civilian lines and operators, the Signal Corp 's new field telegraph could be deployed and dismantled faster than USMT 's system.
The most expensive aspect of a telegraph system was the installation -- the laying of the wire, which was often very long. The costs would be better covered by finding a way to send more than one message at a time through the single wire, thus increasing revenue per wire. In the latter half of the 1800s, several inventors worked towards creating a method for doing just that, including: Charles Bourseul, Thomas Edison, Elisha Gray, and Alexander Graham Bell. One approach was to have oscillators of several different frequencies act as carriers of a modulated on - off signal (see frequency - division multiplexing). These various frequencies, referred to as harmonics, could then be combined into one complex signal and sent down the single wire. On the receiving end, the frequencies would be separated with a matching set of oscillators. With a set of frequencies being carried down a single wire, it was realized that the human voice itself could be transmitted electrically through the wire. This effort led to the invention of the telephone. (While the work toward packing multiple telegraph signals onto one wire led to telephony, later advances would pack multiple voice signals onto one wire by increasing the bandwidth by modulating frequencies much higher than human hearing. Eventually the bandwidth was widened much further by using laser light signals sent through fiber optic cables. Fiber optic transmission can carry thousands of telegraph signals simultaneously down a single line.)
In America, the end of the telegraph era can be associated with the fall of the Western Union Telegraph Company. Western Union was the leading telegraph provider for America and was seen as the best competition for the National Bell Telephone Company. Western Union and Bell were both invested in telegraphy and telephone technology. Western Union 's decision to allow Bell to gain the advantage in telephone technology was the result of Western Union 's upper management 's failure to foresee the surpassing of the telephone over the, at the time, dominant telegraph system. Western Union soon lost the legal battle for the rights to their telephone copyrights. This led to Western Union agreeing to a lesser position in the telephone competition, which in turn led to the lessening of the telegraph.
While the telegraph was not the focus of the legal battles that occurred around 1878, the companies that were affected by the effects of the battle were the main powers of telegraphy at the time. Western Union thought that the agreement of 1878 would solidify telegraphs as the long - range communication of choice. However, due to the underestimates of telegraph 's future and poor contracts, Western Union found itself declining. This led to the majority acquisition of Western Union by AT&T in 1909.
India 's state - owned telecom company, BSNL, ended its telegraph service on 14 July 2013. It was reportedly the world 's last existing true electric telegraph system.
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what do you pay tax on in america | Taxation in the United States - wikipedia
The United States of America has separate federal, state, and local government (s) with taxes imposed at each of these levels. Taxes are levied on income, payroll, property, sales, capital gains, dividends, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. In 2010, taxes collected by federal, state, and municipal governments amounted to 24.8 % of GDP. In the OECD, only Chile and Mexico are taxed less as a share of their GDP.
However, taxes fall much more heavily on labor income than on capital income. Divergent taxes and subsidies for different forms of income and spending can also constitute a form of indirect taxation of some activities over others. For example, individual spending on higher education can be said to be "taxed '' at a high rate, compared to other forms of personal expenditure which are formally recognized as investments.
Taxes are imposed on net income of individuals and corporations by the federal, most state, and some local governments. Citizens and residents are taxed on worldwide income and allowed a credit for foreign taxes. Income subject to tax is determined under tax accounting rules, not financial accounting principles, and includes almost all income from whatever source. Most business expenses reduce taxable income, though limits apply to a few expenses. Individuals are permitted to reduce taxable income by personal allowances and certain non-business expenses, including home mortgage interest, state and local taxes, charitable contributions, and medical and certain other expenses incurred above certain percentages of income. State rules for determining taxable income often differ from federal rules. Federal marginal tax rates vary from 10 % to 39.6 % of taxable income. State and local tax rates vary widely by jurisdiction, from 0 % to 13.30 % of income, and many are graduated. State taxes are generally treated as a deductible expense for federal tax computation. In 2013, the top marginal income tax rate for a high - income California resident would be 52.9 %.
The United States is one of two countries in the world that taxes its non-resident citizens on worldwide income, in the same manner and rates as residents; the other is Eritrea. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of imposition of such a tax in the case of Cook v. Tait.
Payroll taxes are imposed by the federal and all state governments. These include Social Security and Medicare taxes imposed on both employers and employees, at a combined rate of 15.3 % (13.3 % for 2011 and 2012). Social Security tax applies only to the first $106,800 of wages in 2009 through 2011. However, benefits are only accrued on the first $106,800 of wages. Employers must withhold income taxes on wages. An unemployment tax and certain other levies apply to employers. Payroll taxes have dramatically increased as a share of federal revenue since the 1950s, while corporate income taxes have fallen as a share of revenue. (Corporate profits have not fallen as a share of GDP).
Property taxes are imposed by most local governments and many special purpose authorities based on the fair market value of property. School and other authorities are often separately governed, and impose separate taxes. Property tax is generally imposed only on realty, though some jurisdictions tax some forms of business property. Property tax rules and rates vary widely with annual median rates ranging from 0.2 % to 1.9 % of a property 's value depending on the state.
Sales taxes are imposed by most states and some localities on the price at retail sale of many goods and some services. Sales tax rates vary widely among jurisdictions, from 0 % to 16 %, and may vary within a jurisdiction based on the particular goods or services taxed. Sales tax is collected by the seller at the time of sale, or remitted as use tax by buyers of taxable items who did not pay sales tax.
The United States imposes tariffs or customs duties on the import of many types of goods from many jurisdictions. These tariffs or duties must be paid before the goods can be legally imported. Rates of duty vary from 0 % to more than 20 %, based on the particular goods and country of origin.
Estate and gift taxes are imposed by the federal and some state governments on the transfer of property inheritance, by will, or by lifetime donation. Similar to federal income taxes, federal estate and gift taxes are imposed on worldwide property of citizens and residents and allow a credit for foreign taxes.
The United States has an assortment of federal, state, local, and special - purpose governmental jurisdictions. Each imposes taxes to fully or partly fund its operations. These taxes may be imposed on the same income, property or activity, often without offset of one tax against another. The types of tax imposed at each level of government vary, in part due to constitutional restrictions. Income taxes are imposed at the federal and most state levels. Taxes on property are typically imposed only at the local level, though there may be multiple local jurisdictions that tax the same property. Other excise taxes are imposed by the federal and some state governments. Sales taxes are imposed by most states and many local governments. Customs duties or tariffs are only imposed by the federal government. A wide variety of user fees or license fees are also imposed.
A federal wealth tax would be required by the United States Constitution to be distributed to the States according to their populations, as this type of tax is considered a direct tax. State and local government property taxes are wealth taxes on real estate.
Taxes may be imposed on individuals (natural persons), business entities, estates, trusts, or other forms of organization. Taxes may be based on property, income, transactions, transfers, importations of goods, business activities, or a variety of factors, and are generally imposed on the type of taxpayer for whom such tax base is relevant. Thus, property taxes tend to be imposed on property owners. In addition, certain taxes, particularly income taxes, may be imposed on the members of organizations for the organization 's activities. Thus, partners are taxed on the income of their partnership.
With few exceptions, one level of government does not impose tax on another level of government or its instrumentalities.
Taxes based on income are imposed at the federal, most state, and some local levels within the United States. The tax systems within each jurisdiction may define taxable income separately. Many states refer to some extent to federal concepts for determining taxable income.
The first Income tax in the United States was implemented with the Revenue Act of 1861 by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. In 1895 the Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. federal income tax on interest income, dividend income and rental income was unconstitutional in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co., because it was a direct tax. The Pollock decision was overruled by the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, and by subsequent U.S. Supreme Court decisions including Graves v. New York ex rel. O'Keefe, South Carolina v. Baker, and Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co.
The U.S. income tax system imposes a tax based on income on individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts. The tax is taxable income, as defined, times a specified tax rate. This tax may be reduced by credits, some of which may be refunded if they exceed the tax calculated. Taxable income may differ from income for other purposes (such as for financial reporting). The definition of taxable income for federal purposes is used by many, but far from all states. Income and deductions are recognized under tax rules, and there are variations within the rules among the states. Book and tax income may differ. Income is divided into "capital gains '', which are taxed at a lower rate and only when the taxpayer chooses to "realize '' them, and "ordinary income '', which is taxed at higher rates and on an annual basis. Because of this distinction, capital is taxed much more lightly than labor.
Under the U.S. system, individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts are subject to income tax. Partnerships are not taxed; rather, their partners are subject to income tax on their shares of income and deductions, and take their shares of credits. Some types of business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships.
Taxpayers are required to file tax returns and self assess tax. Tax may be withheld from payments of income (e.g., withholding of tax from wages). To the extent taxes are not covered by withholdings, taxpayers must make estimated tax payments, generally quarterly. Tax returns are subject to review and adjustment by taxing authorities, though far fewer than all returns are reviewed.
Taxable income is gross income less exemptions, deductions, and personal exemptions. Gross income includes "all income from whatever source ''. Certain income, however, is subject to tax exemption at the federal or state levels. This income is reduced by tax deductions including most business and some nonbusiness expenses. Individuals are also allowed a deduction for personal exemptions, a fixed dollar allowance. The allowance of some nonbusiness deductions is phased out at higher income levels.
The U.S. federal and most state income tax systems tax the worldwide income of citizens and residents. A federal foreign tax credit is granted for foreign income taxes. Individuals residing abroad may also claim the foreign earned income exclusion. Individuals may be a citizen or resident of the United States but not a resident of a state. Many states grant a similar credit for taxes paid to other states. These credits are generally limited to the amount of tax on income from foreign (or other state) sources.
Federal and state income tax is calculated, and returns filed, for each taxpayer. Two married individuals may calculate tax and file returns jointly or separately. In addition, unmarried individuals supporting children or certain other relatives may file a return as a head of household. Parent - subsidiary groups of companies may elect to file a consolidated return.
Income tax rates differ at the federal and state levels for corporations and individuals. Federal and many state income tax rates are higher (graduated) at higher levels of income. The income level at which various tax rates apply for individuals varies by filing status. The income level at which each rate starts generally is higher (i.e., tax is lower) for married couples filing a joint return or single individuals filing as head of household.
Individuals are subject to federal graduated tax rates from 10 % to 39.6 %. Corporations are subject to federal graduated rates of tax from 15 % to 35 %; a rate of 34 % applies to income from $335,000 to $15,000,000. State income tax rates vary from 1 % to 16 %, including local income tax where applicable. State and local taxes are generally deductible in computing federal taxable income. Federal and many state individual income tax rate schedules differ based on the individual 's filing status.
Taxable income is gross income less adjustments and allowable tax deductions. Gross income for federal and most states is receipts and gains from all sources less cost of goods sold. Gross income includes "all income from whatever source '', and is not limited to cash received. Income from illegal activities is taxable and must be reported to the IRS.
The amount of income recognized is generally the value received or which the taxpayer has a right to receive. Certain types of income are specifically excluded from gross income. The time at which gross income becomes taxable is determined under federal tax rules. This may differ in some cases from accounting rules.
Certain types of income are excluded from gross income (and therefore subject to tax exemption). The exclusions differ at federal and state levels. For federal income tax, interest income on state and local bonds is exempt, while few states exempt any interest income except from municipalities within that state. In addition, certain types of receipts, such as gifts and inheritances, and certain types of benefits, such as employer - provided health insurance, are excluded from income.
Foreign non-resident persons are taxed only on income from U.S. sources or from a U.S. business. Tax on foreign non-resident persons on non-business income is at 30 % of the gross income, but reduced under many tax treaties.
* These brackets are the taxable income plus the standard deduction for a joint return. That deduction is the first bracket. For example, a couple earning $88,600 by September owes $10,453; $1,865 for 10 % of the income from $12,700 to $31,500, plus $8,588 for 15 % of the income from $31,500 to $88,600. Now, for every $100 they earn, $25 is taxed until they reach the next bracket.
After making $400 more; going down to the 89,000 row the tax is $100 more. The next column is the tax divided by 89,000. The new law is the next column. This tax equals 10 % of their income from $24,000 to $43,050 plus 12 % from $43,050 to $89,000. The singles ' sets of markers can be set up quickly. The brackets with its tax are cut in half.
Itemizers can figure the tax without moving the scale by taking the difference off the top. The couple above, having receipts for $22,700 in deductions, means that the last $10,000 of their income is tax free. After seven years the papers can be destroyed; if unchallenged.
The U.S. system allows reduction of taxable income for both business and some nonbusiness expenditures, called deductions. Businesses selling goods reduce gross income directly by the cost of goods sold. In addition, businesses may deduct most types of expenses incurred in the business. Some of these deductions are subject to limitations. For example, only 50 % of the amount incurred for any meals or entertainment may be deducted. The amount and timing of deductions for business expenses is determined under the taxpayer 's tax accounting method, which may differ from methods used in accounting records.
Some types of business expenses are deductible over a period of years rather than when incurred. These include the cost of long lived assets such as buildings and equipment. The cost of such assets is recovered through deductions for depreciation or amortization.
In addition to business expenses, individuals may reduce income by an allowance for personal exemptions and either a fixed standard deduction or itemized deductions. One personal exemption is allowed per taxpayer, and additional such deductions are allowed for each child or certain other individuals supported by the taxpayer. The standard deduction amount varies by taxpayer filing status. Itemized deductions by individuals include home mortgage interest, property taxes, certain other taxes, contributions to recognized charities, medical expenses in excess of 7.5 % of adjusted gross income, and certain other amounts.
Personal exemptions, the standard deduction, and itemized deductions are limited (phased out) above certain income levels.
Corporations must pay tax on their taxable income independently of their shareholders. Shareholders are also subject to tax on dividends received from corporations. By contrast, partnerships are not subject to income tax, but their partners calculate their taxes by including their shares of partnership items. Corporations owned entirely by U.S. citizens or residents (S corporations) may elect to be treated similarly to partnerships. A limited liability company and certain other business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships. States generally follow such characterization. Many states also allow corporations to elect S corporation status. Charitable organizations are subject to tax on business income.
Certain transactions of business entities are not subject to tax. These include many types of formation or reorganization.
A wide variety of tax credits may reduce income tax at the federal and state levels. Some credits are available only to individuals, such as the child tax credit for each dependent child, American Opportunity Tax Credit for education expenses, or the Earned Income Tax Credit for low income wage earners. Some credits, such as the Work Opportunity Tax Credit, are available to businesses, including various special industry incentives. A few credits, such as the foreign tax credit, are available to all types of taxpayers.
The United States federal and state income tax systems are self - assessment systems. Taxpayers must declare and pay tax without assessment by the taxing authority. Quarterly payments of tax estimated to be due are required to the extent taxes are not paid through withholdings. Employers must withhold income tax, as well as Social Security and Medicare taxes, from wages. Amounts to be withheld are computed by employers based on representations of tax status by employees on Form W - 4, with limited government review.
43 states and many localities in the United States impose an income tax on individuals. 47 states and many localities impose a tax on the income of corporations. Tax rates vary by state and locality, and may be fixed or graduated. Most rates are the same for all types of income. State and local income taxes are imposed in addition to federal income tax. State income tax is allowed as a deduction in computing federal income tax, subject to limitations for individuals.
State and local taxable income is determined under state law, and often is based on federal taxable income. Most states conform to many federal concepts and definitions, including defining income and business deductions and timing thereof. State rules vary widely with regard to individual itemized deductions. Most states do not allow a deduction for state income taxes for individuals or corporations, and impose tax on certain types of income exempt at the federal level.
Some states have alternative measures of taxable income, or alternative taxes, especially for corporations.
States imposing an income tax generally tax all income of corporations organized in the state and individuals residing in the state. Taxpayers from another state are subject to tax only on income earned in the state or apportioned to the state. Businesses are subject to income tax in a state only if they have sufficient nexus in (connection to) the state.
Foreign individuals and corporations not resident in the United States are subject to federal income tax only on income from a U.S. business and certain types of income from U.S. sources. States tax individuals resident outside the state and corporations organized outside the state only on wages or business income within the state. Payers of some types of income to non-residents must withhold federal or state income tax on the payment. Federal withholding of 30 % on such income may be reduced under a tax treaty. Such treaties do not apply to state taxes.
An alternative minimum tax (AMT) is imposed at the federal level on a somewhat modified version of taxable income. The tax applies to individuals and corporations. The tax base is adjusted gross income reduced by a fixed deduction that varies by taxpayer filing status. Itemized deductions of individuals are limited to home mortgage interest, charitable contributions, and a portion of medical expenses. AMT is imposed at a rate of 26 % or 28 % for individuals and 20 % for corporations, less the amount of regular tax. A credit against future regular income tax is allowed for such excess, with certain restrictions.
Many states impose minimum income taxes on corporations or a tax computed on an alternative tax base. These include taxes based on capital of corporations and alternative measures of income for individuals. Details vary widely by state.
In the United States, taxable income is computed under rules that differ materially from U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. Since only publicly traded companies are required to prepare financial statements, many non-public companies opt to keep their financial records under tax rules. Corporations that present financial statements using other than tax rules must include a detailed reconciliation of their financial statement income to their taxable income as part of their tax returns. Key areas of difference include depreciation and amortization, timing of recognition of income or deductions, assumptions for cost of goods sold, and certain items (such as meals and entertainment) the tax deduction for which is limited.
Income taxes in the United States are self - assessed by taxpayers by filing required tax returns. Taxpayers, as well as certain non-tax - paying entities, like partnerships, must file annual tax returns at the federal and applicable state levels. These returns disclose a complete computation of taxable income under tax principles. Taxpayers compute all income, deductions, and credits themselves, and determine the amount of tax due after applying required prepayments and taxes withheld. Federal and state tax authorities provide preprinted forms that must be used to file tax returns. IRS Form 1040 series is required for individuals, Form 1120 series for corporations, Form 1065 for partnerships, and Form 990 series for tax exempt organizations.
The state forms vary widely, and rarely correspond to federal forms. Tax returns vary from the two - page (Form 1040EZ) used by nearly 70 % of individual filers to thousands of pages of forms and attachments for large entities. Groups of corporations may elect to file consolidated returns at the federal level and with a few states. Electronic filing of federal and many state returns is widely encouraged and in some cases required, and many vendors offer computer software for use by taxpayers and paid return preparers to prepare and electronically file returns.
Individuals and corporations pay U.S. federal income tax on the net total of all their capital gains. The tax rate depends on both the investor 's tax bracket and the amount of time the investment was held. Short - term capital gains are taxed at the investor 's ordinary income tax rate and are defined as investments held for a year or less before being sold. Long - term capital gains, on dispositions of assets held for more than one year, are taxed at a lower rate.
In the United States, payroll taxes are assessed by the federal government, many states, the District of Columbia, and numerous cities. These taxes are imposed on employers and employees and on various compensation bases. They are collected and paid to the taxing jurisdiction by the employers. Most jurisdictions imposing payroll taxes require reporting quarterly and annually in most cases, and electronic reporting is generally required for all but small employers. Because payroll taxes are imposed only on wages and not on income from investments, taxes on labor income are much heavier than taxes on income from capital.
Federal, state, and local withholding taxes are required in those jurisdictions imposing an income tax. Employers having contact with the jurisdiction must withhold the tax from wages paid to their employees in those jurisdictions. Computation of the amount of tax to withhold is performed by the employer based on representations by the employee regarding his / her tax status on IRS Form W - 4. Amounts of income tax so withheld must be paid to the taxing jurisdiction, and are available as refundable tax credits to the employees. Income taxes withheld from payroll are not final taxes, merely prepayments. Employees must still file income tax returns and self assess tax, claiming amounts withheld as payments.
Federal social insurance taxes are imposed equally on employers and employees, consisting of a tax of 6.2 % of wages up to an annual wage maximum ($118,500 in 2015) for Social Security plus a tax of 1.45 % of total wages for Medicare. For 2011, the employee 's contribution was reduced to 4.2 %, while the employer 's portion remained at 6.2 %. To the extent an employee 's portion of the 6.2 % tax exceeds the maximum by reason of multiple employers (each of whom will collect up to the annual wage maximum), the employee is entitled to a refundable tax credit upon filing an income tax return for the year.
Employers are subject to unemployment taxes by the federal and all state governments. The tax is a percentage of taxable wages with a cap. The tax rate and cap vary by jurisdiction and by employer 's industry and experience rating. For 2009, the typical maximum tax per employee was under $1,000. Some states also impose unemployment, disability insurance, or similar taxes on employees.
Employers must report payroll taxes to the appropriate taxing jurisdiction in the manner each jurisdiction provides. Quarterly reporting of aggregate income tax withholding and Social Security taxes is required in most jurisdictions. Employers must file reports of aggregate unemployment tax quarterly and annually with each applicable state, and annually at the federal level.
Each employer is required to provide each employee an annual report on IRS Form W - 2 of wages paid and federal, state and local taxes withheld, with a copy sent to the IRS and the taxation authority of the state. These are due by January 31 and February 28 (March 31 if filed electronically), respectively, following the calendar year in which wages are paid. The Form W - 2 constitutes proof of payment of tax for the employee.
Employers are required to pay payroll taxes to the taxing jurisdiction under varying rules, in many cases within 1 banking day. Payment of federal and many state payroll taxes is required to be made by electronic funds transfer if certain dollar thresholds are met, or by deposit with a bank for the benefit of the taxing jurisdiction.
Failure to timely and properly pay federal payroll taxes results in an automatic penalty of 2 % to 10 %. Similar state and local penalties apply. Failure to properly file monthly or quarterly returns may result in additional penalties. Failure to file Forms W - 2 results in an automatic penalty of up to $50 per form not timely filed. State and local penalties vary by jurisdiction.
A particularly severe penalty applies where federal income tax withholding and Social Security taxes are not paid to the IRS. The penalty of up to 100 % of the amount not paid can be assessed against the employer entity as well as any person (such as a corporate officer) having control or custody of the funds from which payment should have been made.
There is no federal sales or use tax in the United States. All but five states impose sales and use taxes on retail sale, lease and rental of many goods, as well as some services. Many cities, counties, transit authorities and special purpose districts impose an additional local sales or use tax. Sales and use tax is calculated as the purchase price times the appropriate tax rate. Tax rates vary widely by jurisdiction from less than 1 % to over 10 %. Sales tax is collected by the seller at the time of sale. Use tax is self assessed by a buyer who has not paid sales tax on a taxable purchase.
Unlike value added tax, sales tax is imposed only once, at the retail level, on any particular goods. Nearly all jurisdictions provide numerous categories of goods and services that are exempt from sales tax, or taxed at a reduced rate. Purchase of goods for further manufacture or for resale is uniformly exempt from sales tax. Most jurisdictions exempt food sold in grocery stores, prescription medications, and many agricultural supplies. Generally cash discounts, including coupons, are not included in the price used in computing tax.
Sales taxes, including those imposed by local governments, are generally administered at the state level. States imposing sales tax require retail sellers to register with the state, collect tax from customers, file returns, and remit the tax to the state. Procedural rules vary widely. Sellers generally must collect tax from in - state purchasers unless the purchaser provides an exemption certificate. Most states allow or require electronic remittance of tax to the state. States are prohibited from requiring out of state sellers to collect tax unless the seller has some minimal connection with the state.
Excise taxes may be imposed on the sales price of goods or on a per unit or other basis. Excise tax may be required to be paid by the manufacturer at wholesale sale, or may be collected from the customer at retail sale. Excise taxes are imposed at the federal and state levels on a variety of goods, including alcohol, tobacco, tires, gasoline, diesel fuel, coal, firearms, telephone service, air transportation, unregistered bonds, and many other goods and services. Some jurisdictions require that tax stamps be affixed to goods to demonstrate payment of the tax.
Most jurisdictions below the state level in the United States impose a tax on interests in real property (land, buildings, and permanent improvements). Some jurisdictions also tax some types of business personal property. Rules vary widely by jurisdiction. Many overlapping jurisdictions (counties, cities, school districts) may have authority to tax the same property. Few states impose a tax on the value of property.
Property tax is based on fair market value of the subject property. The amount of tax is determined annually based on the market value of each property on a particular date, and most jurisdictions require redeterminations of value periodically. The tax is computed as the determined market value times an assessment ratio times the tax rate. Assessment ratios and tax rates vary widely among jurisdictions, and may vary by type of property within a jurisdiction. Where a property has recently been sold between unrelated sellers, such sale establishes fair market value. In other (i.e., most) cases, the value must be estimated. Common estimation techniques include comparable sales, depreciated cost, and an income approach. Property owners may also declare a value, which is subject to change by the tax assessor.
Property taxes are most commonly applied to real estate and business property. Real property generally includes all interests considered under that state 's law to be ownership interests in land, buildings, and improvements. Ownership interests include ownership of title as well as certain other rights to property. Automobile and boat registration fees are a subset of this tax. Usually, other nonbusiness goods are not subject to property tax.
The assessment process varies by state, and sometimes within a state. Each taxing jurisdiction determines values of property within the jurisdiction and then determines the amount of tax to assess based on the value of the property. Tax assessors for taxing jurisdictions are generally responsible for determining property values. The determination of values and calculation of tax is generally performed by an official referred to as a tax assessor. Property owners have rights in each jurisdiction to declare or contest the value so determined. Property values generally must be coordinated among jurisdictions, and such coordination is often performed by a board of equalization.
Once value is determined, the assessor typically notifies the last known property owner of the value determination. After values are settled, property tax bills or notices are sent to property owners. Payment times and terms vary widely. If a property owner fails to pay the tax, the taxing jurisdiction has various remedies for collection, in many cases including seizure and sale of the property. Property taxes constitute a lien on the property to which transfers are also subject. Mortgage companies often collect taxes from property owners and remit them on behalf of the owner.
The United States imposes tariffs or customs duties on imports of goods. The duty is levied at the time of import and is paid by the importer of record. Customs duties vary by country of origin and product. Goods from many countries are exempt from duty under various trade agreements. Certain types of goods are exempt from duty regardless of source. Customs rules differ from other import restrictions. Failure to properly comply with customs rules can result in seizure of goods and criminal penalties against involved parties. United States Customs and Border Protection ("CBP '') enforces customs rules.
Goods may be imported to the United States subject to import restrictions. Importers of goods may be subject to tax ("customs duty '' or "tariff '') on the imported value of the goods. "Imported goods are not legally entered until after the shipment has arrived within the port of entry, delivery of the merchandise has been authorized by CBP, and estimated duties have been paid. '' Importation and declaration and payment of customs duties is done by the importer of record, which may be the owner of the goods, the purchaser, or a licensed customs broker. Goods may be stored in a bonded warehouse or a Foreign - Trade Zone in the United States for up to five years without payment of duties. Goods must be declared for entry into the U.S. within 15 days of arrival or prior to leaving a bonded warehouse or foreign trade zone. Many importers participate in a voluntary self - assessment program with CBP. Special rules apply to goods imported by mail. All goods imported into the United States are subject to inspection by CBP. Some goods may be temporarily imported to the United States under a system similar to the ATA Carnet system. Examples include laptop computers used by persons traveling in the U.S. and samples used by salesmen.
Rates of tax on transaction values vary by country of origin. Goods must be individually labeled to indicate country of origin, with exceptions for specific types of goods. Goods are considered to originate in the country with the highest rate of duties for the particular goods unless the goods meet certain minimum content requirements. Extensive modifications to normal duties and classifications apply to goods originating in Canada or Mexico under the North American Free Trade Agreement.
All goods that are not exempt are subject to duty computed according to the Harmonized Tariff Schedule published by CBP and the U.S. International Trade Commission. This lengthy schedule provides rates of duty for each class of goods. Most goods are classified based on the nature of the goods, though some classifications are based on use.
Customs duty rates may be expressed as a percentage of value or dollars and cents per unit. Rates based on value vary from zero to 20 % in the 2011 schedule. Rates may be based on relevant units for the particular type of goods (per ton, per kilogram, per square meter, etc.). Some duties are based in part on value and in part on quantity.
Where goods subject to different rates of duty are commingled, the entire shipment may be taxed at the highest applicable duty rate.
Imported goods are generally accompanied by a bill of lading or air waybill describing the goods. For purposes of customs duty assessment, they must also be accompanied by an invoice documenting the transaction value. The goods on the bill of lading and invoice are classified and duty is computed by the importer or CBP. The amount of this duty is payable immediately, and must be paid before the goods can be imported. Most assessments of goods are now done by the importer and documentation filed with CBP electronically.
After duties have been paid, CBP approves the goods for import. They can then be removed from the port of entry, bonded warehouse, or Free - Trade Zone.
After duty has been paid on particular goods, the importer can seek a refund of duties if the goods are exported without substantial modification. The process of claiming a refund is known as duty drawback.
Certain civil penalties apply for failures to follow CBP rules and pay duty. Goods of persons subject to such penalties may be seized and sold by CBP. In addition, criminal penalties may apply for certain offenses. Criminal penalties may be as high as twice the value of the goods plus twenty years in jail.
Foreign - Trade Zones are secure areas physically in the United States but legally outside the customs territory of the United States. Such zones are generally near ports of entry. They may be within the warehouse of an importer. Such zones are limited in scope and operation based on approval of the Foreign - Trade Zones Board. Goods in a Foreign - Trade Zone are not considered imported to the United States until they leave the Zone. Foreign goods may be used to manufacture other goods within the zone for export without payment of customs duties.
Estate and gift taxes in the United States are imposed by the federal and some state governments. The estate tax is an excise tax levied on the right to pass property at death. It is imposed on the estate, not the beneficiary. Some states impose an inheritance tax on recipients of bequests. Gift taxes are levied on the giver (donor) of property where the property is transferred for less than adequate consideration. An additional generation - skipping transfer (GST) tax is imposed by the federal and some state governments on transfers to grandchildren (or their descendants).
The federal gift tax is applicable to the donor, not the recipient, and is computed based on cumulative taxable gifts, and is reduced by prior gift taxes paid. The federal estate tax is computed on the sum of taxable estate and taxable gifts, and is reduced by prior gift taxes paid. These taxes are computed as the taxable amount times a graduated tax rate (up to 35 % in 2011). The estate and gift taxes are also reduced by a "unified credit '' equivalent to an exclusion ($5 million in 2011). Rates and exclusions have varied, and the benefits of lower rates and the credit have been phased out during some years.
Taxable gifts are certain gifts of U.S. property by nonresident aliens, most gifts of any property by citizens or residents, in excess of an annual exclusion ($13,000 for gifts made in 2011) per donor per donee. Taxable estates are certain U.S. property of non-resident alien decedents, and most property of citizens or residents. For aliens, residence for estate tax purposes is primarily based on domicile, but U.S. citizens are taxed regardless of their country of residence. U.S. real estate and most tangible property in the U.S. are subject to estate and gift tax whether the decedent or donor is resident or nonresident, citizen or alien.
The taxable amount of a gift is the fair market value of the property in excess of consideration received at the date of gift. The taxable amount of an estate is the gross fair market value of all rights considered property at the date of death (or an alternative valuation date) ("gross estate ''), less liabilities of the decedent, costs of administration (including funeral expenses) and certain other deductions. State estate taxes are deductible, with limitations, in computing the federal taxable estate. Bequests to charities reduce the taxable estate.
Gift tax applies to all irrevocable transfers of interests in tangible or intangible property. Estate tax applies to all property owned in whole or in part by a citizen or resident at the time of his or her death, to the extent of the interest in the property. Generally, all types of property are subject to estate tax. Whether a decedent has sufficient interest in property for the property to be subject to gift or estate tax is determined under applicable state property laws. Certain interests in property that lapse at death (such as life insurance) are included in the taxable estate.
Taxable values of estates and gifts are the fair market value. For some assets, such as widely traded stocks and bonds, the value may be determined by market listings. The value of other property may be determined by appraisals, which are subject to potential contest by the taxing authority. Special use valuation applies to farms and closely held businesses, subject to limited dollar amount and other conditions. Monetary assets, such as cash, mortgages, and notes, are valued at the face amount, unless another value is clearly established.
Life insurance proceeds are included in the gross estate. The value of a right of a beneficiary of an estate to receive an annuity is included in the gross estate. Certain transfers during lifetime may be included in the gross estate. Certain powers of a decedent to control the disposition of property by another are included in the gross estate.
The taxable estate of a married decedent is reduced by a deduction for all property passing to the decedent 's spouse. Certain terminable interests are included. Other conditions may apply.
Donors of gifts in excess of the annual exclusion must file gift tax returns on IRS Form 709 and pay the tax. Executors of estates with a gross value in excess of the unified credit must file an estate tax return on IRS Form 706 and pay the tax from the estate. Returns are required if the gifts or gross estate exceed the exclusions. Each state has its own forms and filing requirements. Tax authorities may examine and adjust gift and estate tax returns.
Many jurisdictions within the United States impose taxes or fees on the privilege of carrying on a particular business or maintaining a particular professional certification. These licensing or occupational taxes may be a fixed dollar amount per year for the licensee, an amount based on the number of practitioners in the firm, a percentage of revenue, or any of several other bases. Persons providing professional or personal services are often subject to such fees. Common examples include accountants, attorneys, barbers, casinos, dentists, doctors, auto mechanics, plumbers, and stock brokers. In addition to the tax, other requirements may be imposed for licensure.
All 50 states impose vehicle license fee. Generally, the fees are based on type and size of vehicle and are imposed annually or biannually. All states and the District of Columbia also impose a fee for a driver 's license, which generally must be renewed with payment of fee every few years.
Fees are often imposed by governments for use of certain facilities or services. Such fees are generally imposed at the time of use. Multi-use permits may be available. For example, fees are imposed for use of national or state parks, for requesting and obtaining certain rulings from the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS), for the use of certain highways (called "tolls '' or toll roads), for parking on public streets, and for the use of public transit.
Taxes in the United States are administered by hundreds of tax authorities. At the federal level there are three tax administrations. Most domestic federal taxes are administered by the Internal Revenue Service, which is part of the Department of the Treasury. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms taxes are administered by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB). Taxes on imports (customs duties) are administered by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). TTB is also part of the Department of the Treasury and CBP belongs to the Department of Homeland Security.
Organization of state and local tax administrations varies widely. Every state maintains a tax administration. A few states administer some local taxes in whole or part. Most localities also maintain a tax administration or share one with neighboring localities.
The Internal Revenue Service administers all U.S. federal tax laws on domestic activities, except those taxes administered by TTB. IRS functions include:
The IRS maintains several Service Centers at which tax returns are processed. Taxpayers generally file most types of tax returns by mail with these Service Centers, or file electronically. The IRS also maintains a National Office in Washington, DC, and numerous local offices providing taxpayer services and administering tax examinations.
Tax returns filed with the IRS are subject to examination and adjustment, commonly called an IRS audit. Only a small percentage of returns (about 1 % of individual returns in IRS FY 2008) are examined each year. The selection of returns uses a variety of methods based on IRS experiences. On examination, the IRS may request additional information from the taxpayer by mail, in person at IRS local offices, or at the business location of the taxpayer. The taxpayer is entitled to representation by an attorney, Certified Public Accountant (CPA), or enrolled agent, at the expense of the taxpayer, who may make representations to the IRS on behalf of the taxpayer.
Taxpayers have certain rights in an audit. Upon conclusion of the audit, the IRS may accept the tax return as filed or propose adjustments to the return. The IRS may also assess penalties and interest. Generally, adjustments must be proposed within three years of the due date of the tax return. Certain circumstances extend this time limit, including substantial understatement of income and fraud. The taxpayer and the IRS may agree to allow the IRS additional time to conclude an audit. If the IRS proposes adjustments, the taxpayer may agree to the adjustment, appeal within the IRS, or seek judicial determination of the tax.
In addition to enforcing tax laws, the IRS provides formal and informal guidance to taxpayers. While often referred to as IRS Regulations, the regulations under the Internal Revenue Code are issued by the Department of Treasury. IRS guidance consists of:
The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax Trade Bureau (TTB), a division of the Department of the Treasury, enforces federal excise tax laws related to alcohol, tobacco, and firearms. TTB has six divisions, each with discrete functions:
Criminal enforcement related to TTB is done by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, a division of the Justice Department.
U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security, collects customs duties and regulates international trade. It has a workforce of over 58,000 employees covering over 300 official ports of entry to the United States. CBP has authority to seize and dispose of cargo in the case of certain violations of customs rules.
Every state in the United States has its own tax administration, subject to the rules of that state 's law and regulations. These are referred to in most states as the Department of Revenue or Department of Taxation. The powers of the state taxing authorities vary widely. Most enforce all state level taxes but not most local taxes. However, many states have unified state - level sales tax administration, including for local sales taxes.
State tax returns are filed separately with those tax administrations, not with the federal tax administrations. Each state has its own procedural rules, which vary widely.
Most localities within the United States administer most of their own taxes. In many cases, there are multiple local taxing jurisdictions with respect to a particular taxpayer or property. For property taxes, the taxing jurisdiction is typically represented by a tax assessor / collector whose offices are located at the taxing jurisdiction 's facilities.
The United States Constitution provides that Congress "shall have the power to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts, and Excises... but all Duties, Imposts, and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. '' Prior to amendment, it provided that "No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be Laid unless in proportion to the Census... '' The 16th Amendment provided that "Congress shall have the power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. '' The 10th Amendment provided that "powers not delegated to the United States by this Constitution, nor prohibited to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ''
Congress has enacted numerous laws dealing with taxes since adoption of the Constitution. Those laws are now codified as Title 19, Customs Duties, Title 26, Internal Revenue Code, and various other provisions. These laws specifically authorize the United States Secretary of the Treasury to delegate various powers related to levy, assessment and collection of taxes.
State constitutions uniformly grant the state government the right to levy and collect taxes. Limitations under state constitutions vary widely.
Various individuals and groups have questioned the legitimacy of United States federal income tax. These arguments are varied, but have been uniformly rejected by the Internal Revenue Service and by the courts and ruled to be frivolous.
Commentators Benjamin Page, Larry Bartels and Jason Seawright contend that Federal tax policy in relation to regulation and reform in the United States tends to favor wealthy Americans. They assert that political influence is a legal right the wealthy can exercise by contributing funds to lobby for their policy preference.
Each major type of tax in the United States has been used by some jurisdiction at some time as a tool of social policy. Both liberals and conservatives have called for more progressive taxes in the U.S. Page, Bartels and Seawright assert that although members of the government favor a move toward progressive taxes, due to budget deficits upper class citizens are not yet willing to make a push for the change. Tax cuts were provided during the Bush administration, and were extended in 2010, making federal income taxes less progressive.
The Internal Revenue Service estimated that in 2001, the tax gap was $345 billion. The tax gap is the difference between the amount of tax legally owed and the amount actually collected by the government. The tax gap in 2006 was estimated to be $450 billion. The tax gap two years later in 2008 was estimated to be in the range of $450 -- $500 billion and unreported income was estimated to be approximately $2 trillion. Therefore, 18 -- 19 percent of total reportable income was not properly reported to the IRS.
Before 1776, the American Colonies were subject to taxation by the United Kingdom, and also imposed local taxes. Property taxes were imposed in the Colonies as early as 1634. In 1673, the English Parliament imposed a tax on exports from the American Colonies, and with it created the first tax administration in what would become the United States. Other tariffs and taxes were imposed by Parliament. Most of the colonies and many localities adopted property taxes.
Under Article VIII of the Articles of Confederation, the United States government did not have the power to tax. All such power lay with the states. The United States Constitution, adopted in 1787, authorized the federal government to lay and collect taxes, but required that some types of tax revenues be given to the states in proportion to population. Tariffs were the principal federal tax through the 1800s.
By 1796, state and local governments in fourteen of the 15 states taxed land. Delaware taxed the income from property. The War of 1812 required a federal sales tax on specific luxury items due to its costs. However, internal taxes were dropped in 1817 in favor of import tariffs that went to the federal government. By the American Civil War, the principle of taxation of property at a uniform rate had developed, and many of the states relied on property taxes as a major source of revenue. However, the increasing importance of intangible property, such as corporate stock, caused the states to shift to other forms of taxation in the 1900s.
Income taxes in the form of "faculty '' taxes were imposed by the colonies. These combined income and property tax characteristics, and the income element persisted after 1776 in a few states. Several states adopted income taxes in 1837. Wisconsin adopted a corporate and individual income tax in 1911, and was the first to administer the tax with a state tax administration.
The first federal income tax was adopted as part of the Revenue Act of 1861. The tax lapsed after the American Civil War. Subsequently enacted income taxes were held to be unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co. because they did not apportion taxes on property by state population. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified, permitting the federal government to levy an income tax on both property and labor.
The federal income tax enacted in 1913 included corporate and individual income taxes. It defined income using language from prior laws, incorporated in the Sixteenth Amendment, as "all income from whatever source derived ''. The tax allowed deductions for business expenses, but few non-business deductions. In 1918 the income tax law was expanded to include a foreign tax credit and more comprehensive definitions of income and deduction items. Various aspects of the present system of definitions were expanded through 1926, when U.S. law was organized as the United States Code. Income, estate, gift, and excise tax provisions, plus provisions relating to tax returns and enforcement, were codified as Title 26, also known as the Internal Revenue Code. This was reorganized and somewhat expanded in 1954, and remains in the same general form.
Federal taxes were expanded greatly during World War I. In 1921, Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon engineered a series of significant income tax cuts under three presidents. Mellon argued that tax cuts would spur growth. Taxes were raised again in the latter part of the Great Depression, and during World War II. Income tax rates were reduced significantly during the Johnson, Nixon, and Reagan presidencies. Significant tax cuts for corporations and all individuals were enacted during the second Bush presidency.
In 1986, Congress adopted, with little modification, a major expansion of the income tax portion of the IRS Code proposed in 1985 by the U.S. Treasury Department under President Reagan. The thousand - page Tax Reform Act of 1986 significantly lowered tax rates, adopted sweeping expansions of international rules, eliminated the lower individual tax rate for capital gains, added significant inventory accounting rules, and made substantial other expansions of the law.
Federal income tax rates have been modified frequently. Tax rates were changed in 34 of the 97 years between 1913 and 2010. The rate structure has been graduated since the 1913 act.
The first individual income tax return Form 1040 under the 1913 law was four pages long. In 1915, some Congressmen complained about the complexity of the form. In 1921, Congress considered but did not enact replacement of the income tax with a national sales tax.
By the 1920s, many states had adopted income taxes on individuals and corporations. Many of the state taxes were simply based on the federal definitions. The states generally taxed residents on all of their income, including income earned in other states, as well as income of nonresidents earned in the state. This led to a long line of Supreme Court cases limiting the ability of states to tax income of nonresidents.
The states had also come to rely heavily on retail sales taxes. However, as of the beginning of World War II, only two cities (New York and New Orleans) had local sales taxes.
The Federal Estate Tax was introduced in 1916, and Gift Tax in 1924. Unlike many inheritance taxes, the Gift and Estate taxes were imposed on the transferor rather than the recipient. Many states adopted either inheritance taxes or estate and gift taxes, often computed as the amount allowed as a deduction for federal purposes. These taxes remained under 1 % of government revenues through the 1990s.
All governments within the United States provide tax exemption for some income, property, or persons. These exemptions have their roots both in tax theory, federal and state legislative history, and the United States Constitution.
Government sources:
Law & regulations:
Standard texts (most updated annually):
Reference works:
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what is the acceleration in meters per square second due to gravity on the surface of the moon | Surface gravity - wikipedia
The surface gravity, g, of an astronomical or other object is the gravitational acceleration experienced at its surface. The surface gravity may be thought of as the acceleration due to gravity experienced by a hypothetical test particle which is very close to the object 's surface and which, in order not to disturb the system, has negligible mass.
Surface gravity is measured in units of acceleration, which, in the SI system, are meters per second squared. It may also be expressed as a multiple of the Earth 's standard surface gravity, g = 9.80665 m / s2. In astrophysics, the surface gravity may be expressed as log g, which is obtained by first expressing the gravity in cgs units, where the unit of acceleration is centimeters per second squared, and then taking the base - 10 logarithm. Therefore, the surface gravity of Earth could be expressed in cgs units as 980.665 cm / s2, with a base - 10 logarithm (log g) of 2.992.
The surface gravity of a white dwarf is very high, and of a neutron star even higher. The neutron star 's compactness gives it a surface gravity of up to 7 × 10 m / s2 with typical values of order 10 m / s2 (that is more than 10 times that of Earth). One measure of such immense gravity is that neutron stars have an escape velocity of around 100,000 km / s, about a third of the speed of light.
In the Newtonian theory of gravity, the gravitational force exerted by an object is proportional to its mass: an object with twice the mass - produces twice as much force. Newtonian gravity also follows an inverse square law, so that moving an object twice as far away divides its gravitational force by four, and moving it ten times as far away divides it by 100. This is similar to the intensity of light, which also follows an inverse square law: with relation to distance, light becomes less visible. Generally speaking, this can be understood as geometric dilution corresponding to point - source radiation into three - dimensional space.
A large object, such as a planet or star, will usually be approximately round, approaching hydrostatic equilibrium (where all points on the surface have the same amount of gravitational potential energy). On a small scale, higher parts of the terrain are eroded, with eroded material deposited in lower parts of the terrain. On a large scale, the planet or star itself deforms until equilibrium is reached. For most celestial objects, the result is that the planet or star in question can be treated as a near - perfect sphere when the rotation rate is low. However, for young, massive stars, the equatorial azimuthal velocity can be quite high -- up to 200 km / s or more -- causing a significant amount of equatorial bulge. Examples of such rapidly rotating stars include Achernar, Altair, Regulus A and Vega.
The fact that many large celestial objects are approximately spheres makes it easier to calculate their surface gravity. The gravitational force outside a spherically symmetric body is the same as if its entire mass were concentrated in the center, as was established by Sir Isaac Newton. Therefore, the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given mass will be approximately inversely proportional to the square of its radius, and the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given average density will be approximately proportional to its radius. For example, the recently discovered planet, Gliese 581 c, has at least 5 times the mass of Earth, but is unlikely to have 5 times its surface gravity. If its mass is no more than 5 times that of the Earth, as is expected, and if it is a rocky planet with a large iron core, it should have a radius approximately 50 % larger than that of Earth. Gravity on such a planet 's surface would be approximately 2.2 times as strong as on Earth. If it is an icy or watery planet, its radius might be as large as twice the Earth 's, in which case its surface gravity might be no more than 1.25 times as strong as the Earth 's.
These proportionalities may be expressed by the formula:
where g is the surface gravity of an object, expressed as a multiple of the Earth 's, m is its mass, expressed as a multiple of the Earth 's mass (5.976 10 kg) and r its radius, expressed as a multiple of the Earth 's (mean) radius (6,371 km). For instance, Mars has a mass of 6.4185 10 kg = 0.107 Earth masses and a mean radius of 3,390 km = 0.532 Earth radii. The surface gravity of Mars is therefore approximately
times that of Earth. Without using the Earth as a reference body, the surface gravity may also be calculated directly from Newton 's law of universal gravitation, which gives the formula
where M is the mass of the object, r is its radius, and G is the gravitational constant. If we let ρ = M / V denote the mean density of the object, we can also write this as
so that, for fixed mean density, the surface gravity g is proportional to the radius r.
Since gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, a space station 400 km above the Earth feels almost the same gravitational force as we do on the Earth 's surface. The reason a space station does not plummet to the ground is not that it is not subject to gravity, but that it is in a free - fall orbit.
Most real astronomical objects are not absolutely spherically symmetric. One reason for this is that they are often rotating, which means that they are affected by the combined effects of gravitational force and centrifugal force. This causes stars and planets to be oblate, which means that their surface gravity is smaller at the equator than at the poles. This effect was exploited by Hal Clement in his SF novel Mission of Gravity, dealing with a massive, fast - spinning planet where gravity was much higher at the poles than at the equator.
To the extent that an object 's internal distribution of mass differs from a symmetric model, we may use the measured surface gravity to deduce things about the object 's internal structure. This fact has been put to practical use since 1915 -- 1916, when Roland Eötvös 's torsion balance was used to prospect for oil near the city of Egbell (now Gbely, Slovakia.) In 1924, the torsion balance was used to locate the Nash Dome oil fields in Texas.
It is sometimes useful to calculate the surface gravity of simple hypothetical objects which are not found in nature. The surface gravity of infinite planes, tubes, lines, hollow shells, cones, and even more unrealistic structures may be used to provide insights into the behavior of real structures.
In relativity, the Newtonian concept of acceleration turns out not to be clear cut. For a black hole, which must be treated relativistically, one can not define a surface gravity as the acceleration experienced by a test body at the object 's surface. This is because the acceleration of a test body at the event horizon of a black hole turns out to be infinite in relativity. Because of this, a renormalized value is used that corresponds to the Newtonian value in the non-relativistic limit. The value used is generally the local proper acceleration (which diverges at the event horizon) multiplied by the gravitational time dilation factor (which goes to zero at the event horizon). For the Schwarzschild case, this value is mathematically well behaved for all non-zero values of r and M.
When one talks about the surface gravity of a black hole, one is defining a notion that behaves analogously to the Newtonian surface gravity, but is not the same thing. In fact, the surface gravity of a general black hole is not well defined. However, one can define the surface gravity for a black hole whose event horizon is a Killing horizon.
The surface gravity κ (\ displaystyle \ kappa) of a static Killing horizon is the acceleration, as exerted at infinity, needed to keep an object at the horizon. Mathematically, if k a (\ displaystyle k ^ (a)) is a suitably normalized Killing vector, then the surface gravity is defined by
where the equation is evaluated at the horizon. For a static and asymptotically flat spacetime, the normalization should be chosen so that k a k a → − 1 (\ displaystyle k ^ (a) k_ (a) \ rightarrow - 1) as r → ∞ (\ displaystyle r \ rightarrow \ infty), and so that κ ≥ 0 (\ displaystyle \ kappa \ geq 0). For the Schwarzschild solution, we take k a (\ displaystyle k ^ (a)) to be the time translation Killing vector k a ∂ a = ∂ ∂ t (\ displaystyle k ^ (a) \ partial _ (a) = (\ frac (\ partial) (\ partial t))), and more generally for the Kerr -- Newman solution we take k a ∂ a = ∂ ∂ t + Ω ∂ ∂ φ (\ displaystyle k ^ (a) \ partial _ (a) = (\ frac (\ partial) (\ partial t)) + \ Omega (\ frac (\ partial) (\ partial \ varphi))), the linear combination of the time translation and axisymmetry Killing vectors which is null at the horizon, where Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega) is the angular velocity.
Since k a (\ displaystyle k ^ (a)) is a Killing vector k a ∇ a k b = κ k b (\ displaystyle k ^ (a) \, \ nabla _ (a) k ^ (b) = \ kappa k ^ (b)) implies − k a ∇ b k a = κ k b (\ displaystyle - k ^ (a) \, \ nabla ^ (b) k_ (a) = \ kappa k ^ (b)). In (t, r, θ, φ) (\ displaystyle (t, r, \ theta, \ varphi)) coordinates k a = (1, 0, 0, 0) (\ displaystyle k ^ (a) = (1, 0, 0, 0)). Performing a coordinate change to the advanced Eddington -- Finklestein coordinates v = t + r + 2 M ln r − 2 M (\ displaystyle v = t + r + 2M \ ln r - 2M) causes the metric to take the form
Under a general change of coordinates the Killing vector transforms as k v = A t v k t (\ displaystyle k ^ (v) = A_ (t) ^ (v) k ^ (t)) giving the vectors k a ′ = (1, 0, 0, 0) (\ displaystyle k ^ (a ') = (1, 0, 0, 0)) and k a ′ = (− 1 + 2 M r, 1, 0, 0). (\ displaystyle k_ (a ') = \ left (- 1 + (\ frac (2M) (r)), 1, 0, 0 \ right).)
Considering the b = v entry for k a ∇ a k b = κ k b (\ displaystyle k ^ (a) \, \ nabla _ (a) k ^ (b) = \ kappa k ^ (b)) gives the differential equation − 1 2 ∂ ∂ r (− 1 + 2 M r) = κ. (\ displaystyle - (\ frac (1) (2)) (\ frac (\ partial) (\ partial r)) \ left (- 1 + (\ frac (2M) (r)) \ right) = \ kappa.)
Therefore, the surface gravity for the Schwarzschild solution with mass M (\ displaystyle M) is κ = 1 4 M. (\ displaystyle \ kappa = (\ frac (1) (4M)).)
The surface gravity for the uncharged, rotating black hole is, simply
where g = 1 4 M (\ displaystyle g = (\ frac (1) (4M))) is the Schwarzschild surface gravity, and k: = M Ω + 2 (\ displaystyle k: = M \ Omega _ (+) ^ (2)) is the spring constant of the rotating black hole. Ω + (\ displaystyle \ Omega _ (+)) is the angular velocity at the event horizon. This expression gives a simple Hawking temperature of 2 π T = g − k (\ displaystyle 2 \ pi T = g-k).
The surface gravity for the Kerr -- Newman solution is
where Q (\ displaystyle Q) is the electric charge, J (\ displaystyle J) is the angular momentum, we define r ±: = M ± M 2 − Q 2 − J 2 / M 2 (\ displaystyle r_ (\ pm): = M \ pm (\ sqrt (M ^ (2) - Q ^ (2) - J ^ (2) / M ^ (2)))) to be the locations of the two horizons and a: = J / M (\ displaystyle a: = J / M).
Surface gravity for stationary black holes is well defined. This is because all stationary black holes have a horizon that is Killing. Recently there has been a shift towards defining the surface gravity of dynamical black holes whose spacetime does not admit a Killing vector (field). Several definitions have been proposed over the years by various authors. As of current, there is no consensus or agreement of which definition, if any, is correct.
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who plays the teacher in how the grinch stole christmas | How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000 film) - wikipedia
How the Grinch Stole Christmas (also known as Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas) is a 2000 American Christmas comedy film directed by Ron Howard and written by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman based on the 1957 story of the same name by Dr. Seuss. The film was released by Universal Pictures on November 17, 2000. It was the first Dr. Seuss book to be adapted into a full - length feature film.
Because the film is based on a children 's picture book, many additions were made to the storyline to bring it up to feature - length, including some information about the backstory of the title character and reworking the story 's minor character Cindy Lou Who as a main character. Most of the rhymes that were used in the book were also used in the film, though some of the lines were to some degree changed, and several new rhymes were put in.
The film also borrowed some music and character elements (such as the Grinch 's green skin tone) that originated in the 1966 animated TV special How the Grinch Stole Christmas!. The film was produced by Howard and Brian Grazer, and starring Jim Carrey, Jeffrey Tambor, Christine Baranski, Bill Irwin, Molly Shannon, Josh Ryan Evans (in his final theatrical role), and introducing Taylor Momsen as Cindy Lou Who.
The film spent four weeks at # 1 in the United States and grossed $260 million in the United States and over $345 million worldwide, becoming the second highest - grossing holiday film of all time, with Home Alone being the first.
It won the Academy Award for Best Makeup, and was also nominated for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design.
The people in Whoville enjoy celebrating Christmas with much happiness and joy, except the Grinch, who despises Christmas and the Whos. He occasionally pulls dangerous and harmful practical jokes on them with vengeance. As a result, no one likes or cares for the Grinch. Meanwhile, six - year - old Cindy Lou believes everyone is missing the point about Christmas by being more concerned about the gifts and festivities. She herself has a face - to - face encounter with the Grinch at the post office, in which he reluctantly saves her life, and she becomes interested in his history. She then asks everyone what they know about him, and soon discovers that he has a tragic past.
The Grinch actually arrived in Whoville by mistake when he was a baby, and was adopted by two elderly sisters. Although he showed some sadistic tendencies as a child, he was rather good and timid, not as cruel as he would later become. In school, he was bullied by his classmates, led by Augustus May Who, who grew up to become mayor of Whoville, because of his appearance, with the exception of Martha May Whovier, whom both the Grinch and May Who had feelings for. One Christmas season, the Grinch made a gift for Martha, but attempted to shave his face after being made fun of for having a "beard '', cutting himself by accident. When his classmates saw his cut face the next morning, May Who and the others ridiculed him. He lost his temper, trashed the classroom, and fled to live on Mount Crumpit, a mountain north of Whoville.
Cindy Lou, inspired by this story, decides to make the Grinch the main participant of the Whobilation, much to the displeasure of Mayor May Who, who reluctantly agrees after pressure from the townspeople, who have been warmed by Cindy Lou 's generous spirit. When Cindy Lou goes to Mount Crumpit and offers an invitation to the Grinch, he turns her down. He gradually changes his mind due to the promise of an award, the presence of Martha at the celebration and the chance to upset the Mayor. Just as the Grinch is enjoying himself, May Who gives him an electric shaver as a present, reminding him of his humiliation at school. May Who then asks Martha to marry him, promising her a new car in return. In response, the Grinch berates the Whos, and criticizes Christmas, claiming that the holiday is only about gifts that they will just dispose of later, in the hopes of making them too ashamed to celebrate the holiday. The Grinch then goes on to ruin the party by burning the Christmas tree and causing chaos throughout Whoville, but his actions prove to be fruitless as the Whos have a spare tree, which the Grinch sees them erect before he leaves. May Who then accuses Cindy Lou for inviting the Grinch, making her feel ashamed.
The Grinch, knowing that his attack has failed to remove the Whos ' Christmas spirit, instead concocts a plan to steal all of their presents while they are sleeping. Creating a Santa suit and sleigh with his own dog Max as a "reindeer '', the Grinch arrives at Whoville, stealing all of the Whos ' Christmas gifts. He is almost discovered by Cindy Lou, but lies to her in order to escape. On Christmas morning, the Whos discover the Grinch 's scheme, and May Who blames Cindy Lou for the whole thing. However, her father, Lou Lou Who, the Whoville postmaster, finally stands up to him, and reminds everyone that they still have Christmas spirit, and that the principal meaning of Christmas is to spend it with family and friends. The people agree and begin to sing. Hoping that the change of mood would inspire the Grinch, Cindy Lou goes to Mount Crumpit to find him.
The Grinch intends to push the stolen gifts off the top of the mountain. However, he hears the joyful singing of the Whos. Infuriated over the failure of his plan, the Grinch has an epiphany about what Christmas is really about: not material gifts, but spending time with loved ones, an insight that profoundly inspires him, and causes his heart to grow to three times its original size. When the sleigh full of stolen gifts begins to go over the edge of the cliff, the Grinch desperately tries to save them to no avail. However, when he realizes that Cindy Lou has come to wish him a merry Christmas and is in danger of falling off the cliff with the sleigh, the Grinch finds enough strength to lift the sleigh, the gifts, and Cindy Lou to safety. The Grinch returns to Whoville with Max, Cindy, and the gifts. He confesses to the burglary, tearfully apologizes for his actions towards the Whos, and surrenders himself to the police as they arrive, but the Whos reconcile with him, much to May Who 's dismay. Martha turns down May Who 's proposal and decides that she would rather stay with the Grinch instead. The redeemed Grinch (along with Max) starts a new life with the Whos, commemorating the Christmas feast with them in his cave.
Before his death in 1991, Dr. Seuss had refused offers to sell the film rights to his books. However, his widow, Audrey Geisel, agreed to several merchandising deals, including clothing lines, accessories, and CDs. In July 1998, Geisel 's agents announced via letter she would auction the film rights of How the Grinch Stole Christmas. In order to pitch their ideas to Geisel, the suitors ultimately had to be willing to pay $5 million for the material, and hand over 4 percent of the box - office gross, 50 percent of the merchandising revenue and music - related material, and 70 percent of the income from book tie - ins. The letter also stated that "any actor submitted for the Grinch must be of comparable stature to Jack Nicholson, Jim Carrey, Robin Williams and Dustin Hoffman. '' Additionally, it was stipulated that the estate would not consider a director or writer who had n't earned at least $1 million on a previous picture.
20th Century Fox pitched its version with director Tom Shadyac and producers Dave Phillips and John Davis in attendance, in which Jack Nicholson was in mind to play the Grinch. Additionally, the Farrelly brothers and John Hughes pitched their separate versions. Universal Pictures held its pitch presentation with Brian Grazer and Gary Ross in attendance, but Geisel refused such offer. Grazer then enlisted his producing partner Ron Howard to help with the negotiations. At the time, Howard was developing a film adaptation of The Sea Wolf, and did not express interest in Grinch, but Grazer talked Howard into traveling to Geisel 's residence for the pitch meeting. While studying the book, Howard became interested in the character, Cindy Lou Who, and pitched a film in which she would have a larger role, as well as a materialistic representation of the Whos and an expanded backstory of the Grinch.
On September 16, 1998, it was announced that Howard would direct and co-produce a live - action adaptation of How the Grinch Stole Christmas with Jim Carrey attached to star. It was also reported that Universal Pictures, who had acquired the distribution rights, paid $9 million for the film rights for an adaptation of Grinch and Oh, the Places You 'll Go to Audrey Geisel. Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman wrote the final screenplay following eight drafts, but Geisel also had veto power over the script. She objected to several jokes and sexual innuendos in the screenplay, some including about one family who did not have a Christmas tree or presents jokingly called the "Who - steins '' and the placement of a stuffed trophy of the Cat in the Hat on the Grinch 's wall. Alec Berg, David Mandel and Jeff Schaffer did an uncredited rewrite of the script.
The film was shot between September 1999 and January 2000. Dr. Seuss ' wife, Audrey, visited the set in October 1999. Much of the Whoville set was constructed on the backlot of Universal Studios behind the Bates Motel. During a break in filming, Jim Carrey scared tourists on the Studio Tour by running out of the motel in a dress and brandishing a knife. Despite this, none of the Universal employees and tourists on the tour recognized him. Jim Carrey 's Grinch suit was covered in yak hair, which was dyed green, and sewed onto a spandex suit. The first application of the makeup took eight hours, after which a frustrated Carrey kicked a hole in the wall of his trailer, wanting to quit the film. The production brought in CIA operative who instructed agents how to endure extreme torture techniques to coach Carrey to remain calm during the process. The process was later refined so that it took only three hours in the morning getting in, and one hour in the evening to get out. In total, Carrey spent 92 days in the Grinch make - up, and became a "Zen Master '' while sitting in the make - up chair.
Legend: * Dialogue + Instrumental ~ Includes Narration and Dialogue ^ Includes "Welcome Christmas ''
How the Grinch Stole Christmas grossed $260.0 million domestically and $85.1 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $345.1 million, becoming the sixth highest - grossing film of 2000.
In the United States, The Grinch opened at number - one on its opening day, making $15.6 million, with a weekend gross of $55.0 million, for an average of $17,615 from 3,127 theaters. The film still holds the record for the highest opening weekend for a Christmas - themed film. In its second weekend, the film grossed $52.1 million, dropping only 5.1 %, settling a new record for highest - grossing second weekend for any film. The film stayed at the top of the box office for four weekends, until it was overtaken by What Women Want in mid-December. The Grinch closed on April 30, 2001, after five months, with a final gross of $260,044,825. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 48.1 million tickets in North America. The film was released on VHS and DVD on November 20, 2001. The extended version on VHS and DVD is released on October 29, 2002. The network TV version was premiered in November 30, 2003. A Blu - ray / DVD combo pack was released on October 13, 2009.
Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 53 %; the critical consensus reads, "Jim Carrey shines as the Grinch. Unfortunately, it 's not enough to save this movie. You 'd be better off watching the TV cartoon. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 46 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars, referring to it as "a dank, eerie, weird movie about a sour creature '' and said, "There should be... a jollier production design and a brighter look overall... It 's just not much fun. '' Ebert observed that Carrey "works as hard as an actor has ever worked in a movie, to small avail. '' Nevertheless, he decided that "adults may appreciate Carrey 's remarkable performance in an intellectual sort of way and give him points for what was obviously a supreme effort. ''
Paul Clinton of CNN declared that Carrey "was born to play this role '' and noted that "Carrey carries nearly every scene. In fact, if he 's not in the scene, there is no scene. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly began his review of the film analyzing the Grinch 's "mischievously divided, now - I 'm - calm / now - I 'm - a-raving - sarcastic - PSYCH - o! personality '' and summed up Carrey 's Grinch as "a slobby, self - loathing elitist ruled by the secret fear that he 's always being left out of things. '' Gleiberman expressed surprise at "how affecting Carrey makes the Grinch 's ultimate big - hearted turnaround, as Carrey the actor sneaks up on Carrey the wild - man dervish. In whichever mode, he carreys (sic) the movie. ''
Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle said, "Nobody could play the Grinch better than Jim Carrey, whose rubbery antics and maniacal sense of mischief are so well suited to How the Grinch Stole Christmas. Dr. Seuss himself might have turned to Carrey as a model for the classic curmudgeon had the actor been around in 1957. '' However, he wondered why Carrey "made himself sound like Sean Connery '' and warned that the character 's intensity may frighten small children. James Berardinelli of ReelViews wrote that Carrey 's "off - the - wall performance is reminiscent of what he accomplished in The Mask, except that here he never allows the special effects to upstage him. Carrey 's Grinch is a combination of Seuss ' creation and Carrey 's personality, with a voice that sounds far more like a weird amalgamation of Sean Connery and Jim Backus (Bond meets Magoo!) than it does Karloff. '' He concluded that Carrey "brings animation to the live action, and, surrounded by glittering, fantastical sets and computer - spun special effects, Carrey enables Ron Howard 's version of the classic story to come across as more of a welcome endeavor than a pointless re-tread. ''
Some reviews were more middling. Stephanie Zacharek of Salon, in a generally negative review of the film, wrote, "Carrey pulls off an admirable impersonation of an animated figure... It 's fine as mimicry goes -- but mimicry is n't the best playground for comic genius. Should n't we be asking more of a man who 's very likely the most gifted comic actor of his generation? '' She concluded that in spite of "a few terrific ad - libs (...) his jokes come off as nothing more than a desperate effort to inject some offbeat humor into an otherwise numbingly unhip, nonsensical and just plain dull story. ''
Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote, "Carrey tries out all sorts of intonations, vocal pitches and delivery styles, his tough guy posturing reminding at times of Cagney and his sibilant S 's recalling Bogart. His antic gesturing and face - making hit the mark at times, but at other moments seem arbitrary and scattershot. Furthermore, his free - flowing tirades, full of catch - all allusions and references, are pitched for adult appreciation and look destined to sail right over the heads of pre-teens. ''
Despite receiving mixed reviews, the film was still able to be nominated for as well as win several awards. It garnered three Academy Award nominations, including Best Costume Design (Rita Ryack) and Best Art Direction (Michael Corenblith and Merideth Boswell), and nominees Rick Baker and Gail Rowell - Ryan won the Academy Award for Best Makeup. At the Golden Globes, Carrey was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, losing the award to George Clooney for O Brother, Where Art Thou?.
It also won the Blimp Awards for Favorite Movie and Favorite Movie Actor at the 2001 Kids ' Choice Awards. The film won a Saturn Award for Best Music and a Saturn Award for Best Make - Up. However, it was also nominated for two 2000 Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Screenplay, but lost to Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2 and Battlefield Earth respectively.
Carrey 's performance earned him a Best Villain at 2001 MTV Movie Awards.
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what is the difference between the ant and the grasshopper in the tale | The ant and the grasshopper - wikipedia
The Ant and the Grasshopper, alternatively titled The Grasshopper and the Ant (or Ants), is one of Aesop 's Fables, numbered 373 in the Perry Index. The fable describes how a hungry grasshopper begs for food from an ant when winter comes and is refused. The situation sums up moral lessons about the virtues of hard work and planning for the future.
Even in Classical times, however, the advice was mistrusted and an alternative story represented the ant 's industry as mean and self - serving. Jean de la Fontaine 's delicately ironical retelling in French later widened the debate to cover the themes of compassion and charity. Since the 18th century the grasshopper has been seen as the type of the artist and the question of the place of culture in society has also been included. Argument over the fable 's ambivalent meaning has generally been conducted through adaptation or reinterpretation of the fable in literature, arts, and music.
The fable concerns a grasshopper (in the original, a cicada) that has spent the summer singing while the ant (or ants in some versions) worked to store up food for winter. When that season arrives, the grasshopper finds itself dying of hunger and begs the ant for food. However, the ant rebukes its idleness and tells it to dance the winter away now. Versions of the fable are found in the verse collections of Babrius (140) and Avianus (34), and in several prose collections including those attributed to Syntipas and Aphthonius of Antioch. The fable 's Greek original cicada is kept in the Latin and Romance translations. A variant fable, separately numbered 112 in the Perry Index, features a dung beetle as the improvident insect which finds that the winter rains wash away the dung on which it feeds.
The fable is found in a large number of mediaeval Latin sources and also figures as a moral ballade among the poems of Eustache Deschamps under the title of La fourmi et le céraseron. From the start it assumes prior knowledge of the fable and presents human examples of provident and improvident behaviour as typified by the insects. As well as appearing in vernacular collections of Aesop 's fables in Renaissance times, a number of Neo-Latin poets used it as a subject, including Gabriele Faerno (1563), Hieronymus Osius (1564) and Candidus Pantaleon (1604).
The story has been used to teach the virtues of hard work and the perils of improvidence. Some versions state a moral at the end along the lines of "Idleness brings want '', "To work today is to eat tomorrow '', "Beware of winter before it comes ''. In La Fontaine 's Fables no final judgment is made, although it has been argued that the author is there making sly fun of his own notoriously improvident ways. But the point of view in most retellings of the fable is supportive of the ant. It is also influenced by the commendation in the biblical Book of Proverbs, which mentions the ant twice. The first proverb admonishes, "Go to the ant, you sluggard! Consider her ways and be wise, which having no captain, overseer or ruler, provides her supplies in the summer, and gathers her food in the harvest '' (6.6 - 9). Later, in a parallel saying of Agur, the insects figure among the ' four things that are little upon the earth but they are exceeding wise. The ants are a people not strong, yet they provide their food in the summer. ' (30.24 - 5)
There was, nevertheless, an alternative tradition also ascribed to Aesop in which the ant was seen as a bad example. This appears as a counter-fable and is numbered 166 in the Perry Index. It relates that the ant was once a man who was always busy farming. Not satisfied with the results of his own labour, he plundered his neighbours ' crops at night. This angered the king of the gods, who turned him into what is now an ant. Yet even though the man had changed his shape, he did not change his habits and to this day goes around the fields gathering the fruits of other people 's labour, storing them up for himself. The moral given the fable in old Greek sources was that it is easier to change in appearance than to change one 's moral nature. It has rarely been noticed since Classical times. Among the few prominent collectors of fables who recorded it later were Gabriele Faerno (1564), and Roger L'Estrange (1692). The latter 's comment is that the ant 's "Vertue and Vice, in many Cases, are hardly Distinguishable but by the Name ''.
Because of the influence of La Fontaine 's Fables, in which La cigale et la fourmi stands at the beginning, the cicada then became the proverbial example of improvidence in France: so much so that Jules - Joseph Lefebvre (1836 -- 1911) could paint a picture of a female nude biting one of her nails among the falling leaves and be sure viewers would understand the point by giving it the title La Cigale. The painting was exhibited at the 1872 Salon with a quotation from La Fontaine, Quand la bise fut venue (When the north wind blew), and was seen as a critique of the lately deposed Napoleon III, who had led the nation into a disastrous war with Prussia. Another with the same title, alternatively known as "Girl with a Mandolin '' (1890), was painted by Edouard Bisson (1856 -- 1939) and depicts a gypsy musician in a sleeveless dress shivering in the falling snow. Also so - named is the painting by Henrietta Rae (a student of Lefebvre 's) of a naked girl with a mandolin slung over her back who is cowering among the falling leaves at the root of a tree.
The grasshopper and the ant are generally depicted as women because both words for the insects are of the feminine gender in most Romance languages. Picturing the grasshopper as a musician, generally carrying a mandolin or guitar, was a convention that grew up when the insect was portrayed as a human being, since singers accompanied themselves on those instruments. The sculptor and painter Ignaz Stern (1679 -- 1748) also has the grasshopper thinly clad and shivering in the paired statues he produced under the title of the fable, while the jovial ant is more warmly dressed. But the anticlerical painter Jehan Georges Vibert has male characters in his picture of "La cigale et la fourmi '' from 1875. It is painted as a mediaeval scene in which a minstrel with a tall lute on his back encounters a monk on a snow - covered upland. The warmly shrouded monk has been out gathering alms and may be supposed to be giving the musician a lecture on his improvidence. By contrast, the Naturalist Victor - Gabriel Gilbert (1847 -- 1933) pictures the fable as being enacted in the marketplace of a small town in Northern France. An elderly stall - keeper is frowning at a decrepit woman who has paused nearby, while her younger companion looks on in distress. In his lithograph from the Volpini Suite, "Les cigales et les fourmis '' (1889), Paul Gauguin avoids making a judgment. Subtitled ' a souvenir of Martinique ', it pictures a group of women sitting or lying on the ground while in the background other women walk past with baskets on their heads. He is content that they exemplify the behaviour proverbially assigned to the insects without moral comment.
For a long time, the illustrators of fable books had tended to concentrate on picturing winter landscapes, with the encounter between the insects occupying only the lower foreground. In the 19th century the insects grew in size and began to take on human dress. It was this tendency that was reproduced in that curiosity of publishing, the 1894 Choix de Fables de La Fontaine, Illustrée par un Groupe des Meilleurs Artistes de Tokio, which was printed in Japan and illustrated by some of the foremost woodblock artists of the day. Kajita Hanko 's treatment of the story takes place in a typical snowy landscape with the cricket approaching a thatched cottage, watched through a window by the robed ant. An earlier Chinese treatment, commissioned mid-century by Baron Félix - Sébastien Feuillet de Conches through his diplomatic contacts, uses human figures to depict the situation. An old woman in a ragged dress approaches the lady of the house, who is working at her spinning wheel on an open verandah.
Use of the insects to point a moral lesson extends into the 20th century. In Jean Vernon 's bronze medal from the 1930s, the supplicant cicada is depicted as crouching on a branch while the ant rears up below with its legs about a beechnut. Engraved to one side is its sharp reply, Vous chantiez, j'en suis fort aise. / Eh bien, dansez maintenant. (You sang? I 'm glad; now you can dance.) Jacob Lawrence depicts much the same scene in his 1969 ink drawing of the fable, but with a different moral intent. There a weeping grasshopper stands before a seated ant who reaches back to lock his storeroom door. It is notable that artistic sentiment has by now moved against the ant with the recognition that improvidence is not always the only cause of poverty. Nevertheless, Hungary used the fable to promote a savings campaign on a 60 forint stamp in 1958. The following year it appeared again in a series depicting fairy tales, as it did as one of many pendents on a 1.50 tögrög stamp from Mongolia. In this case the main stamp was commemorating the 1970 World 's Fair in Japan with a picture of the Sumitomo fairy tale pavilion.
La Fontaine 's portrayal of the Ant as a flawed character, reinforced by the ambivalence of the alternative fable, led to that insect too being viewed as anything but an example of virtue. Jules Massenet 's two - act ballet Cigale, first performed at the Opéra - Comique in Paris in 1904, portrays the cicada as a charitable woman who takes pity on "La Pauvrette '' (the poor little one). But La Pauvrette, after being taken in and fed, is rude and heartless when the situation is reversed. Cigale is left to die in the snow at the close of the ballet.
La Fontaine 's poem has also been subverted by several French parodies. Tristan Corbière 's A Marcelle - le poete et la cigale is a light - hearted literary criticism of a bad poet. In the 20th century, Jean Anouilh uses it as the basis for two almost independent fables. In La fourmi et la cigale the ant becomes an overworked housewife whom the dust follows into the grave. The cicada 's comment is that she prefers to employ a maid. In La Cigale, Anouilh engages with the reality of the artistic life, reviewing the cicada as the type of the female musician. In this fable she figures as a night - club singer who asks a fox to act as her agent. He believes that she will be an easy victim for his manipulations but she handles him with such frosty finesse that he takes up singing himself. Pierre Perret 's 1990 version in urban slang satirises the cicada 's more traditional role as a thoughtless ' queen of the hit parade '. The subversion lies in the four - line moral at the end, in which he advises that it is better to be an impresario than a performer.
Roland Bacri takes the tale into fresh territory with his Fable Electorale. An unelected politician out of funds visits the ant and, on being asked what he did during the past election, replied that he sang the national anthem. Playing on the final words of La Fontaine 's fable (Eh bien, dansez maintenant), the industrialist advises him to stand for president (presidensez maintenant). On the other hand, Francoise Sagan turns the satire against the too industrious. Her ant has been stockpiling all winter and urges the grasshopper to invest in her wares when spring comes. But the grasshopper 's needs are few and she advises holding a discount sale instead. To take a final example, the Anti-Cancer League has turned the fable into an attack on smoking. The grasshopper 's appeal, out of pocket and desperate for a cigarette, is turned down by another play on the original ending. So, she had smoked all through the summer? OK, now cough (Et bien, toussez).
The English writer W. Somerset Maugham reverses the moral order in a different way in his short story, "The Ant and The Grasshopper '' (1924). It concerns two brothers, one of whom is a dissolute waster whose hard - working brother has constantly to bail out of difficulties. At the end the latter is enraged to discover that his ' grasshopper ' brother has married a rich widow, who then dies and leaves him a fortune. The story was later adapted in the film Encore (1951) and the English television series Somerset Maugham Hour (1960). James Joyce also adapts the fable into a tale of brotherly conflict in "The Ondt and the Gracehoper '' episode in Finnegans Wake (1939) and makes of the twin brothers Shem and Shaun opposing tendencies within the human personality:
In America, John Ciardi 's poetical fable for children, "John J. Plenty and Fiddler Dan '' (1963), makes an argument for poetry over fanatical hard work. Ciardi 's ant, John J. Plenty, is so bent upon saving that he eats very little of what he has saved. Meanwhile, Fiddler Dan the grasshopper and his non-conforming ant wife survive the winter without help and resume playing music with the return of spring.
John Updike 's 1987 short story "Brother Grasshopper '' deals with a pair of brothers - in - law whose lives parallel the fable of the ant and the grasshopper. One, Fred Barrow, lives a conservative, restrained existence; the other, Carlyle Lothrop, spends his money profligately, especially on joint vacations for the two men 's families, even as he becomes financially insolvent. However, at the end comes an unexpected inversion of the characters ' archetypal roles. When Carlyle dies, Fred, now divorced and lonely, realizes that he has been left with a rich store of memories which would not have existed without his friend 's largesse.
La Fontaine 's version of the fable was set by the following French composers:
There were two comic operas that went under the title La cigale et la fourmi in the 19th century. The one by Ferdinand Poise was in one act and dated 1870. The one by Edmond Audran was in three acts and performed in Paris in 1886, in London in 1890 and in New York in 1891. This was shortly followed by the darker mood of Jules Massenet 's ballet Cigale, mentioned above. Later adaptations of the fable to ballet include Henri Sauguet 's La cigale at la fourmi (1941) and the third episode in Francis Poulenc 's Les Animaux Modèles (Model Animals, 1941). In the 21st century there has been "La C et la F de la F '', in which the dancers interact with the text, choreographed by Herman Diephuis for Annie Sellem 's composite presentation of the fables in 2004. It also figures among the four in the film Les Fables à la Fontaine directed by Marie - Hélène Rebois in 2004.
The Belgian composer Joseph Jongen set La Fontaine 's fable for children 's chorus and piano (op. 118, 1941) and the Dutch composer Rudolf Koumans set the French text in Vijf fabels van La Fontaine (op. 25, 1964) for school chorus and orchestra. There is a happier ending in the American composer Shawn Allen 's children 's opera, The Ant and the Grasshopper (1999). At the end of this thirty - minute work, the two insects become musical partners during the winter after the ant revives the dying grasshopper.
A Russian version of the fable by Ivan Krylov was written under the title "The dragonfly and the ant '' (Strekoza i muravej). This was set for voice and piano by Anton Rubinstein in 1851; a German version (Der Ameise und die Libelle) was later published in Leipzig in 1864 as part of his Fünf Fabeln (Op. 64). In the following century the Russian text was again set by Dmitri Shostakovich in Two Fables of Krylov for mezzo - soprano, female chorus and chamber orchestra (op. 4, 1922). A Hungarian translation of the fable by Dezső Kosztolányi was also set for mezzo - soprano, four - part mixed chorus and 4 guitars or piano by Ferenc Farkas in 1977. The Catalan composer Xavier Benguerel i Godó set the fable in his 7 Fábulas de la Fontaine for recitation with orchestra in 1995. These used a Catalan translation by his father, the writer Xavier Benguerel i Llobet (ca).
There have also been purely instrumental pieces; these include the first of Antal Dorati 's 5 Pieces for Oboe (1980) and the first of Karim Al - Zand 's Four Fables for flute, clarinet and piano (2003).
Settings of the Aesop version have been much rarer. It was among Mabel Wood Hill 's Aesop 's Fables Interpreted Through Music (New York, 1920). It was also included among David Edgar Walther 's ' short operatic dramas ' in 2009. In 2010 Lefteris Kordis set the Greek text as the second fable in his "Aesop Project '' for octet and voice.
La Fontaine 's fable lent itself to animated film features from early on, the first being a version by George Méliès in France in 1897. Others produced under the title La cigale et la fourmi were directed by Louis Feuillade (1909) and Georges Monca (1910). There were also Italian films under the title La cicala e la formica by Mario Caserini (1908) and Renato Molinari (1919). The Russo - Polish producer Ladislaw Starewicz made two versions using animated models. The first was in Russia in 1913 under the title Strekoza i muravey, based on Ivan Krylov 's Russian adaptation of La Fontaine; then, following his flight to France, and using the simplified name of Ladislas Starevich, he filmed a version under the French title (1927). In the UK, The Grasshopper and the Ant was created from cut - out silhouettes by Lotte Reiniger in 1954. In this the main characters, Grasshopper and Miss Ant, are portrayed as humanoid while the rest of the animals and insects are naturalistic. After being refused food and warmth by Miss Ant, Grasshopper is rescued from dying in the snow by squirrels and plays his fiddle for them. Miss Ant wistfully asks if she can join the party and is turned away by the rescuers until Grasshopper intervenes and asks her in to dance with them.
In America the Aesop 's Film Fables studio had included The Ants and the Grasshopper (1921) among its early animated cartoon productions. Then in 1934 Walt Disney provided the story with a socially responsible conclusion in The Grasshopper and the Ants (discussed in the next section). He also adapted the story less directly in the Mickey 's Young Readers Library segment, Mickey and the Big Storm; in this, Donald Duck and Goofy spend the first day of a winter snowstorm playing out in the snow and do n't bother to stock up on supplies. Fortunately for them, Mickey has more than enough for himself and his friends. Friz Freleng also adapted the tale in his Warner Bros. cartoon Porky 's Bear Facts in which Porky Pig works hard while his lazy neighbor refuses to do anything, only to suffer during winter. Although Porky at last gives him a meal out of good - neighborly feeling, the bear fails to learn his lesson when spring arrives.
In the later 20th century, there were a number of cynical subversions in TV shows. A typical example was the Muppet Show sketch in which Sam the Eagle 's reading of the fable is undermined as the ant is stepped on at the end and the grasshopper drives off to Florida in his sports car.
La Fontaine follows ancient sources in his 17th century retelling of the fable, where the ant suggests at the end that since the grasshopper has sung all summer she should now dance for its entertainment. However, his only direct criticism of the ant is that it lacked generosity. The Grasshopper had asked for a loan which it promised to pay back with interest, but "The Ant had a failing, / She was n't a lender ''.
The readers of his time were aware of the Christian duty of charity and therefore sensed the moral ambiguity of the fable. This is further brought out by Gustave Doré 's 1880s print which pictures the story as a human situation. A female musician stands at a door in the snow with the children of the house looking up at her with sympathy. Their mother looks down from the top of the steps. Her tireless industry is indicated by the fact that she continues knitting but, in a country where the knitting - women (les tricoteuses) had jeered at the victims of the guillotine during the French Revolution, this activity would also have been associated with lack of pity.
Other French fabulists since La Fontaine had already started the counter-attack on the self - righteous ant. In around 1800 Jean - Jacques Boisard has the cricket answering the ant 's criticism of his enjoyment of life with the philosophical proposition that since we must all die in the end, Hoarding is folly, enjoyment is wise. In a Catholic educational work (Fables, 1851) Jacques - Melchior Villefranche offers a sequel in which the ant loses its stores and asks the bee for help. The ant 's former taunt to the grasshopper is now turned on himself:
Are you hungry? Well then, Turn a pirouette, Dine on a mazurka, Have polka for supper.
But then the bee reveals that it has already given the grasshopper shelter and invites the ant to join him since ' All who are suffering / Deserve help equally. '
In the 20th century the fable enters the political arena. Walt Disney 's cartoon version, The Grasshopper and the Ants (1934) confronts the dilemma of how to deal with improvidence from the point of view of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal. The Grasshopper 's irresponsibility is underlined by his song "The World Owes us a Living '', which later that year became a Shirley Temple hit, rewritten to encase the story of the earlier cartoon. In the end the ants take pity on the grasshopper on certain conditions. The Queen of the Ants decrees that the grasshopper may stay, but he must play his fiddle in return for his room and board. He agrees to this arrangement, finally learning that he needs to make himself useful, and ' changes his tune ' to
Oh I owe the world a living... You ants were right the time you said You 've got to work for all you get.
In recent times, the fable has again been put to political use by both sides in the social debate between the enterprise culture and those who consider the advantaged have a responsibility towards the disadvantaged. A modern satirical version of the story, originally written in 1994, has the grasshopper calling a press conference at the beginning of the winter to complain about socio - economic inequity, and being given the ant 's house. This version was written by Pittsburgh talk show guru Jim Quinn as an attack on the Clinton administration 's social programme in the USA. In 2008 Conservative columnist Michelle Malkin also updated the story to satirize the policies of ' Barack Cicada '. There have been adaptations into other languages as well. But the commentary at the end of an Indian reworking explains such social conflict as the result of selective media presentation that exploits envy and fear.
The fable is equally pressed into service in the debate over the artist 's place within the work ethic. In Marie de France 's mediaeval version the grasshopper had pleaded that its work was ' to sing and bring pleasure to all creatures, but I find none who will now return the same to me. ' The ant 's reply is thoroughly materialistic, however: ' Why should I give food to thee / When you can not give aid to me? ' At the end of the 15th century, Laurentius Abstemius makes a utilitarian point using different insects in his similar fable of the gnat and the bee. The gnat applies to the bee for food and shelter in winter and offers to teach her children music in return. The bee 's reply is that she prefers to teach the children a useful trade that will preserve them from hunger and cold.
The fable of "A Gnat and a Bee '' was later to be included by Thomas Bewick in his 1818 edition of Aesop 's Fables. The conclusion he draws there is that ' The many unhappy people whom we see daily singing up and down in order to divert other people, though with very heavy hearts of their own, should warn all those who have the education of children how necessary it is to bring them up to industry and business, be their present prospects ever so hopeful. ' The arts are no more highly regarded by the French revolutionary Pierre - Louis Ginguené whose "New Fables '' (1810) include "The Grasshopper and the Other Insects ''. There the Grasshopper exhorts the others to follow his example of tireless artistic activity and is answered that the only justification for poetry can be if it is socially useful.
Such utilitarianism was soon to be challenged by Romanticism and its championship of the artist has coloured later attitudes. In the early decades of the 20th century, the Romanian poet George Topîrceanu was to make the case for pure artistic creation in "The ballad of a small grasshopper '' (Balada unui greier mic), although more in the telling than by outright moralising. A cricket passes the summer in singing; autumn arrives, but he continues. It is only in icy winter that the cricket realizes that he has n't provided for himself. He goes to his neighbour, the ant, to ask for something to eat, but the ant refuses saying, "You wasted your time all summer long. '' The English folk - singer and children 's writer Leon Rosselson subtly turns the tables in much the same way in his 1970s song The Ant and the Grasshopper, using the story to rebuke the self - righteous ant (and those humans with his mindset) for letting his fellow creatures die of want and for his blindness to the joy of life.
In the field of children 's literature, Slade and Toni Morrison 's rap retelling of the fable, Who 's Got Game?: The Ant or the Grasshopper? (2003), where the grasshopper represents the artisan, provokes a discussion about the importance of art. An earlier improvisation on the story that involves art and its value was written by the Silesian artist Janosch under the title "Die Fiedelgrille und der Maulwurf '' (The fiddling cricket and the mole), originally published in 1982 and in English translation in 1983. There the cricket fiddles for the entertainment of the animals all summer but is rejected by the stag beetle and the mouse when winter comes. She eventually encounters the mole who loves her music, especially because he is blind. and invites her to stay with him.
The theme had been treated at an even further distance in Leo Lionni 's Frederick (1967). Here a fieldmouse, in a community narrowly focused on efficiently gathering for the winter, concentrates instead on gathering impressions. When the other mice question the usefulness of this, Frederick insists that ' gathering sun rays for the cold dark winter days ' is also work. Indeed, the community comes to recognise this after the food has run out and morale is low, when it is Frederick 's poetry that raises spirits.
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who made the quote with great power comes great responsibility | Uncle Ben - wikipedia
Benjamin "Ben '' Parker, usually called Uncle Ben, is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, commonly in association with the superhero Spider - Man. Uncle Ben first appeared in Amazing Fantasy # 15 (August 1962) and was created by writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko. Modeled after American founding father Benjamin Franklin, the character plays an influential role in the Spider - Man comic books.
Uncle Ben first appeared in Amazing Fantasy # 15 (August 1962) and was killed in the very same issue. Although his history as a supporting character was very brief, Uncle Ben is an overshadowing figure in Spider - Man 's life, often appearing in flashbacks.
The murder of Uncle Ben is notable as one of the few comic book deaths (along with the death of Gwen Stacy, although she has been recently revived) that has never been reversed in terms of official continuity. He was a member of the "Big Three '', referring also to Jason Todd (an associate of Batman) and Bucky (an associate of Captain America) whose notable deaths, along with Ben 's, gave rise to the phrase: "No one in comics stays dead except for Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben ''. Later, the revivals of both Bucky and Jason in 2005 led to the amendment, "No one in comics stays dead except Uncle Ben ''. The violent killing of Uncle Ben, done by a common street criminal, also shares multiple similarities to the death of Thomas and Martha Wayne, the parents of Batman, which sometimes is included in the saying.
There have been examples of Uncle Ben remaining alive in alternative timelines, including stories featured in Marvel 's What If (one of which he forces Peter to unmask in front of J. Jonah Jameson), and a storyline of the 1994 Spider - Man animated series featured a universe where Uncle Ben had never died, and Peter Parker became a successful industrialist, having never really bothered to use his powers responsibly as everything always seemed to work out for him. This fact is used to defeat the rampaging Spider - Carnage by exposing him to the one person he will trust and listen to: the Uncle Ben of that reality.
A story - line in the official series Friendly Neighborhood Spider - Man seemingly suggested that Ben may be alive. This Ben, however, was actually from a parallel universe where Aunt May died in a random accident, leaving him to raise Peter. This alternate Ben came to the planet Earth of regular Marvel comics (the 616 reality) as part of an evil plan devised by the Hobgoblin of 2211 to defeat the Spider - Men of different eras.
During the Clone Conspiracy storyline, when Peter 's clone Ben Reilly who named himself after Uncle Ben and Aunt May, taking Ben 's first name and May 's last to differentiate himself from Peter used the Jackal 's technology to revive various old enemies and allies of Peter Parker, he offered to bring Uncle Ben back to life while trying to win Peter to his point of view, but although tempted at the offer, Peter concluded that the reason Ben had not brought ' their ' uncle back on his own was that he knew that Uncle Ben would disapprove of his "nephew 's actions '', as Ben 's plan would see everyone on Earth granted immortality while dependent on him to supply the medication needed to stabilize their cloned bodies.
Ben Parker was born in Brooklyn, New York. He trained to be a military police officer, and also spent time as a singer in a band. He had known his future wife, May Reilly since their high school days, but she in turn was naively interested in a boy who was involved in criminal activities. When he came to her one night and proposed to her on the spot, Ben was there to expose him as a murderer, and to comfort the heart - broken May when the boy was arrested. Their relationship evolved into love, and they enjoyed a happily married life. When Ben 's younger brother Richard Parker and his wife Mary were killed in a plane crash, Ben and May took in their orphaned son Peter and raised him as their own.
Ben was very protective of Peter, going as far as fighting some of the bullies that tormented young Parker. Peter became friends with Charlie Weiderman in high school, a teen even more unpopular than he was. However, Charlie often provoked the trouble with the other teens. One day, he was chased to the Parker home by a group of bullies led by Rich and Ben intervened. Ben told them that if they wanted Charlie, they would have to go through him. Rich tried to, but was surprised by Ben 's army training. As soon as the bullies were gone, he told the boy that he was not welcome at the house or with Peter because of his provoking the bullies and not being able to tell the truth.
In high school, a radioactive spider bite gave Peter superhuman powers. Creating the costumed identity of Spider - Man for himself, Peter sought first to exploit his newfound powers as a masked wrestler and then as a television star. Coming from a television appearance, Spider - Man saw a burglar being chased by a security guard. The guard called for Spider - Man to stop the thief, but the nascent Spidey refused on the grounds that catching criminals was not his job. The robber got away.
When Peter later returned home, he was informed by a police officer that his beloved Uncle Ben had been killed by a burglar. Outraged, he donned his Spider - Man costume and captured the man only to realize to his horror that it was the same burglar whom he could have effortlessly captured earlier at the studio. As a result, Peter considered himself morally responsible for Ben 's death and resolved to fight crime as a superhero -- realizing that with great power comes great responsibility -- and vowing never to let another innocent person come to harm if he could help it.
Ben Parker 's death was truly avenged when the burglar returned for the money once more, threatening Aunt May. The burglar died from a heart attack upon beholding his old nemesis Spider - Man once again and learning that Spider - Man and Peter Parker were one and the same person.
In Amazing Spider - Man Family # 7, May relates to Peter her account of meeting Ben for the first time.
Ben briefly appeared in Amazing Spider - Man # 500; after Spider - Man played a vital role in preventing the resurrection of Dormammu, an unidentified higher power provided Doctor Strange with a small box that he felt he had to give to Spider - Man as a reward for his role in events. When Peter opened the box on the roof of his apartment building, it contained a note saying "You have five minutes. Spend them as you will '', followed by Ben appearing on the roof. It was revealed that this Ben - whether a ghost or Ben having been temporally relocated from the moment before his death - remembered being out for the walk that resulted in him getting shot but nothing afterwards, although he concluded that the events leading to him being on that roof were not important. In their talk Ben said that the only thing that would disappoint him about Peter is if Peter ever settled for less because he was afraid of reaching for more. This helps Peter to see that he had a good life for all its hardships, recognizing that he has always used what he has, and Ben assures Peter that he is proud of him before he vanishes.
During the 2008 -- 2009 "Dark Reign '' storyline, Uncle Ben makes an appearance in the Underworld when Hercules attends the trial of Zeus, directing Amadeus Cho as he attempted to find his parents in the afterlife. In the "Amazing Grace '' storyline, Ben appears as an apparition to Spider - Man while battling a horde of demons and gargoyles, telling him that his death is not Peter 's or anyone 's fault. However, one enemy notices him and attacked only to disappear. This left Spider - Man puzzled if he was imagining Ben or he was really talking to his ghost.
When Ben Reilly adopted the identity of the Jackal and set up an elaborate plan to use Warren 's new cloning process to make the world immortal, he attempted to win Peter 's allegiance by showing him Ben 's coffin and offering to bring Ben back to life. However, although tempted by the idea, Peter realized that Ben never intended to bring ' their ' uncle back to life because he would have done it already, coldly informing his clone that Uncle Ben would tell him that he was wrong. At the conclusion of the crisis, Peter takes a moment beside the coffin containing Ben 's corpse, acknowledging that Reilly 's actions were wrong but wishing that he was there regardless.
A version of Ben appeared in the Mark Millar, Terry Dodson 2003 limited series, "Trouble '', with his brother Richie, who were involved with teenagers, May and Mary.
None of the characters ' last names were revealed. The story did not become canon because of its negative reception.
In this alternate reality, a young Ben Parker is working as a military policeman. He is assigned to security for Doctor Erskine, a scientist for the Captain America program. An assassination attempt on Erskine succeeds, killing Ben in the process. Later on, May still attempts to raise Peter on her own, but without the influence of Ben, Peter grows up to be angry, cynical and mean - spirited, going on to become the Hulk of this reality when he sneaks onto the test site that Rick Jones sneaked onto in the original version of events.
In the House of M reality, Ben Parker is alive and, like the rest of the world, is aware that Peter Parker is Spider - Man. After recovering Peter 's journal, with entries detailing that the world is not how it should be, Ben discovers that he is killed shortly after Peter gains his powers. He later helps Peter fake his death, photographing Spider - Man apparently hanging himself.
In the Marvel Noir reality, Ben Parker is a social activist who was murdered by Norman Osborne 's enforcers. He had previously been a decorated pilot and veteran of World War I, but he did not take pride in his service, believing that no just cause was fought for. His nephew Peter dons his old aviator uniform and wields his service revolver during his activities as Spider - Man.
Ben Parker in Ultimate Spider - Man differs slightly from the original Ben Parker. In the Ultimate Spider - Man comics, Ben Parker is younger than his original counterpart. He is also a former hippie who wears his hair in a ponytail and teaches Peter to be nonviolent. Ben also reminisces about the period he lived on a commune. After Peter Parker went out for a walk, he came home and learned from a police officer that Uncle Ben was murdered. Uncle Ben is seen one last time meeting Peter in the afterlife after his death.
Uncle Ben was featured in various issues of What If.
In an alternate reality shown in Friendly Neighborhood Spider - Man, an alternate reality was witnessed where May died in a random accident, prompting Peter to go into show business with Ben as his agent to make money. Peter 's focus on his career prompts him to eventually leave home, simply paying Ben a percentage out of respect for their old relationship rather than any actual concern. This Ben was eventually ' derailed ' into the 616 reality by the Hobgoblin of 2211 as part of her plan against the Spider - Men of various eras, leaving him shocked when he witnessed his destroyed house and the still - living May Parker. Confronting her, he ended up in a fight with Jarvis, with whom she at the time has a relationship with, but wandered away in confusion. Lacking direction, Ben wandered into an alleyway where he encountered a shadowy figure who offered him a gun, telling Ben that any action he takes would simply create another universe where he took the opposite action, so he might as well do what felt good. After this Hobgoblin was erased from history by a Retcon Bomb of her own invention, the Spider - Man of 2211 met with what he presumed to be the same Ben Parker to take him back to his own timeline. In a surprise twist, deciding he rather wanted to "stick around for a while '', this Ben Parker shoots this future Spider - Man. At the same time, another Ben Parker was shown dead in the alley, meaning one Ben Parker had killed the other and taken his place.
It was revealed that the Ben Parker who had died in the alleyway was the Uncle Ben of the alternate reality, while the Ben Parker who killed Spider - Man 2211 was, in fact, the Chameleon of 2211; the Chameleon had attempted to convince Ben to resort to murder, but Spider - Man correctly guessed that there were no circumstances under which Ben would do such a thing.
The thematic and often - quoted (including by the Supreme Court of the United States) Spider - Man phrase with great power comes great responsibility is widely attributed to Uncle Ben. However, in Amazing Fantasy # 15, where it first appears, it is not spoken by any character. In fact, Ben has only two lines in the entire comic. The original version of the phrase appears in a narrative caption of the comic 's last panel, rather than as spoken dialogue. It reads, "... with great power there must also come -- great responsibility! ''.
However, later stories and flashbacks that took place when Ben was still alive retroactively made the phrase one of Ben 's many homilies he would lecture Peter with. Latter - day reinterpretations of Spider - Man, such as the Spider - Man film and the Ultimate Spider - Man comic, depict Ben as saying this phrase to Peter while he is still alive, in their last conversation. Both the aforementioned adaptations also had Peter lash out at Ben just after he says it, and both also mention his father.
The origins of the phrase pre-date its use in Spider - Man. In 1906, Under - Secretary of the Colonial Office Winston Churchill said, "Where there is great power there is great responsibility '' In 1817, member of British parliament William Lamb is recorded saying, "the possession of great power necessarily implies great responsibility, '' even indicating that it was already a cultural maxim invoked toward government at the time. The sentiment is also attributed to Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospel of Luke, "Everyone to whom much was given, of him much will be required. ''
Franklin Richards of the Fantastic Four often refers to Benjamin Grimm, the Thing, as "Uncle Ben '' (Grimm is the best friend of Franklin 's father Reed Richards). Franklin Richards and Peter Parker also have the same middle name, Benjamin, as the Thing and Ben Parker are their namesakes. Spider - Man is aware of this, and told Franklin, "Uncle Bens are always right. ''
In The Amazing Spider - Man # 498 - 500, Spider - Man falls through time, encountering all of his enemies from the past, and sees himself in the future. The future Peter Parker tells him that he should tell Mary Jane Watson and their son that he loves them every day. "Our son is called Ben '', he says, "but it would pretty much have to be, would n't it? '' However, because of the way time - travel in the Marvel universe works, it should be noted that this is only a potential future, not necessarily a definite one (This future being even more unlikely after the events of One More Day).
Like her father, Spider - Girl also has an Uncle Ben. However, unlike her dad, May never knew her uncle: Ben Reilly, Spider - Man 's clone. If Spider - Girl has any children in the future, they too would have an Uncle Ben - May 's baby brother. Ironically in the aftermath of Spider - Verse, the Earth - 3145 's Ben Parker himself would stay on her world, and has a chance to be his grandfather, something that the other Ben Parkers were unable to achieve on account of their deaths.
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when did call of duty ww2 come out | Call of Duty: WWII - wikipedia
Call of Duty: WWII is a first - person shooter video game developed by Sledgehammer Games and published by Activision. It is the fourteenth main installment in the Call of Duty series and was released worldwide on November 3, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It is the first title in the series to be set primarily during World War II since Call of Duty: World at War in 2008. The game is set in the European theatre, and is centered around a squad in the 1st Infantry Division, following their battles on the Western Front, and set mainly in the historical events of Operation Overlord; the multiplayer expands to different fronts not seen in the campaign.
Upon release, the game received generally positive reviews from critics, with many appreciating the return to the franchise 's World War II roots. Praise was given towards its story, visuals, the combat support of squad members and return of the health bar in single - player, Zombies mode, and multiplayer. However, it was criticized for the single - player 's lack of innovation and similarity to past games set in the same era.
Similar to its predecessors, Call of Duty: WWII is a first - person shooter game but it removes the advanced system of movement present in the two previous Call of Duty titles, which included double jumping and wall running. Instead, it features a return of traditional movement to the series, taking it back to a "boots on the ground '' gameplay style. The game does not feature an unlimited sprint mechanic, seen in the previous two titles. Instead of a "slide '' movement mechanic, which allowed players to slide quickly on the ground, WWII features a "hit - the - deck '' mechanic that allows the player to leap forward and throw themselves on the ground in order to get to cover quickly, similarly to a previous mechanic known as "dolphin dive '' in Treyarch 's Call of Duty: Black Ops and Call of Duty: Black Ops II.
WWII is the first title since the original game and Call of Duty 2: Big Red One not to feature health regeneration in the campaign. Instead, players must find health packs scattered throughout levels, or rely on their medic squadmate to provide health packs. Other members of the player 's squad can provide ammunition, grenades, call in mortar strikes, or spot enemies and reveal their position in form of silhouettes. In certain sections of the game, enemy soldiers in the campaign can be captured, and wounded allies can be dragged to cover. In some parts of the campaign, players are able to control vehicles.
The multiplayer mode for Call of Duty: WWII was revealed on E3 2017, which took place from June 13 -- 15. Sledgehammer Games announced features such as the new headquarters social space, divisions, war mode and the return to "boots - on - the - ground '' gameplay. Players who pre-order the game were invited to a closed beta, which was released initially for the PlayStation 4, but later was released on other platforms.
In online multiplayer matches, players are randomly assigned either to Allies or Axis side. On Allies side, players can play as soldiers in American, British, Soviet, French Resistance armies. On the Axis side, players play as the Wehrmacht, rather than Waffen - SS in an effort to avoid ' glorifying ' Nazi extremists. When explaining this decision, Glen Schofield, co-founder and co-studio head at Sledgehammer, said "The big distinction that Germans still make today is that between the German military and the Nazis. We made sure we made that distinction in the game, that the Germans were doing their duty ''.
Instead of the usual create - a-class system, WWII features Divisions. Players can choose one out of five divisions, each with their own different basic combat training, division training and weapon skills. This also eliminates perks, as players need to progress through ranks in divisions in order to use additional skills. Five divisions featured in the game are:
WWII also features Headquarters mode, which acts as a social space in the game. The hub is set on the Omaha Beach in Normandy, three days after the invasion when Allies retake the beach and turn it into a base. 48 players can be in the Headquarters at a time, and take part in various activities. For example, players can watch other players open loot boxes while in the Headquarters. There is a firing range in the hub, where all players can practise their shooting skills with all weapons, as well as a field where they can test scorestreaks. There are also areas where players can engage in "1v1 '' fights, as other players watch the duels.
The end - game "killcam '' highlight shown at the end of multiplayer matches has been changed to "Bronze Star '', which show kills "deemed most impressive '' (counted by most points gained in a row), similar to Overwatch. The exception to this is the Search & Destroy game mode, which does not use Bronze Star killcam. Search & Destroy uses a final killcam, showing the last kill in the round.
A new game mode, War, is introduced as a "narrative - driven '' multiplayer game mode, developed in partnership with Raven Software. In War, two teams of 6 players perform objectives as either the Allied or Axis faction, inspired by some of the iconic World War II battles, such as storming Normandy on D - Day as the Allied, or defending the Normandy bunker as the Axis in the map Operation Neptune. In addition to War, popular game modes such as Team Deathmatch, Domination and Hardpoint return, as well as Gridiron, a "boots on the ground '' variation of Uplink, which was originally introduced by Sledgehammer Games in Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare.
WWII includes a zombies cooperative game mode, similar to previous entries by Treyarch and Infinity Ward, with its own original storyline set in alternate history and separate from the campaign. The game mode, dubbed Nazi Zombies in reference to its first iteration in Treyarch 's Call of Duty: World at War, is also set in the events of World War II, as the Third Reich makes a desperate attempt to turn the tide of the war by creating an undead army in the final stages of the war. While the mode is based on science - fiction and is a fictional take on the war, Sledgehammer Games co-founder Michael Condrey said that the story of the mode is based on some "real events ''. He also revealed that the experience is similar to Dead Space, a third person shooter horror video game directed by both Condrey and Schofield during their work time at EA Redwood Shores.
In regards to gameplay, Nazi Zombies retains the wave - based survival formula that have been used in all previous Zombies entries, with brand new additions. A class system is introduced, where players can opt for one of four combat roles: Offense, Control, Medic and Support, which provide different in - game abilities. Class loadouts are also included, with equippable Raven Mods, which are perks similar to the multiplayer mode. Sledgehammer Games also attempted to rationalize some of the popular mechanics, such as weapon wallbuys and currencies, with realistic explanation that fit within the lore of the game mode. Nazi Zombies includes a hint system, where portions of the main story quest are given directional hints for players to find and progress. In regards to the story quest, Sledgehammer 's creative director Cameron Dayton reveals that there is a "casual path '' for new and casual players where they can progress with the story, while a "hardcore '' path, which is considered the official canon, exists with hidden objectives, and expands more on the story beyond what the casual path contains.
On June 6, 1944, U.S. Army Private First Class Ronald "Red '' Daniels (Brett Zimmermann) of the 1st Infantry Division takes part in the Normandy landings with his platoon, consisting of Private First Class Robert Zussman (Jonathan Tucker), Private Drew Stiles (Kevin Coubal), Technician Fifth Grade Frank Aiello (Jeff Schine), Technical Sergeant William Pierson (Josh Duhamel) and First Lieutenant Joseph Turner (Jeffrey Pierce). Zussman is stabbed by a German soldier, resulting in his hospitalization for several weeks.
Zussman returns to duty in time for Operation Cobra, where American forces successfully push to reclaim the town of Marigny. The platoon is ordered by Colonel Davis (Matt Riedy) to conduct an operation with British Special Operations Executive officers Major Arthur Crowley (David Alpay) and Vivian (Helen Sadler) to intercept a German armored train carrying V2 - rockets. Daniels and Zussman successfully derail the train before being escorted back to their squad by French Resistance leader Rousseau (Bella Dayne).
A week later, Rousseau and Crowley infiltrate a German garrison in Paris to retrieve explosives in preparation for the platoon 's assault upon it. Midway through, Rousseau kills SS - und Polizeiführer Heinrich (J. Paul Boehmer) in retaliation for his murder of her family. The platoon then liberates Paris.
Two months later, the platoon enters Aachen, and is saved from a German attack by support from tank commander Staff Sergeant Augustine Pérez (Christian Lanz). They are then ordered to take over a German - occupied hotel. They discover civilians inside the hotel, and Turner orders their evacuation, to Pierson 's dismay. A young girl named Anna (Lilith Max) goes missing, and Daniels rescues her. German soldiers open fire on a truck carrying the civilians, killing Anna 's older sister. Pierson sends the truck away without protection, creating a rift with Turner.
At the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, the platoon is ordered to take Hill 493. Turner splits the platoon into two groups; Pierson and Zussman are tasked with advancing towards the hill, while Turner and Daniels cover them until they can meet at the bottom. Turner 's squad soon receives a transmission revealing that Pierson ordered an attack on the hill against Turner 's orders, forcing Turner to join in. The platoon destroys artillery positions, but the Germans counterattack with a Tiger II tank. Daniels is knocked out trying to disable the tank, which is destroyed by Pérez. Turner is fatally wounded rescuing Daniels, and orders Daniels to abandon him while he covers the platoon 's escape. Pierson becomes head of the platoon and makes Daniels his second - in - command, promoting him to Corporal.
At the height of the Battle of the Bulge, the platoon is surrounded by Germans. Daniels meets an African - American technician, Howard (Russell Richardson), who helps the platoon contact air support. The platoon captures several German soldiers, and discovers that the Germans plan to destroy a bridge at Remagen, the last bridge over the Rhine. After destroying the explosives in transit, Pierson orders the platoon to attack a nearby air base to destroy the remaining explosives. The attack fails, resulting in Daniels and Zussman being surrounded by enemy troops. Daniels is saved by Howard, while Zussman is captured and taken to a German prisoner of war camp, Stalag IX - B. Daniels disobeys Pierson and attempts to pursue the German truck carrying Zussman, but ends up injuring himself in the process and letting the truck escape. He is then hospitalized, with Pierson denying him from the platoon. In Stalag IX - B, Zussman is interrogated on his Jewish heritage by SS officer Metz (George Regout), then is beaten and sent to a concentration camp.
After recovering for eight weeks, Daniels learns from Davis about the events that changed Pierson in the Battle of Kasserine Pass: instead of recklessly leading his men to their deaths, like everyone thought, he risked his and his men 's lives in vain to save part of his platoon that was trapped. Daniels later confronts Pierson in his tent and tears up his honorable discharge papers in order to rejoin the platoon. They successfully capture the last bridge over the Rhine. The platoon heads into Germany, liberating concentration camps in search of Zussman, eventually reaching the Berga concentration camp, which they find abandoned; the camp 's survivors were sent on a death march. Daniels finds and saves Zussman by killing Metz before he can execute him.
At the end of the war, Daniels parts ways with his platoon and returns to Texas, reuniting with his wife and newborn son. He visits the grave of his older brother, Paul (Chris Browning), who died while fighting a wolf when Red failed to shoot it in time. He places his Bronze Star medal on the grave, saying that his brother deserves it for teaching him how to fight for himself and for his brothers.
Austrian engineer Marie Fischer (Katheryn Winnick) is sent on a mission to her hometown village of Mittelburg, Bavaria by her commanding officer, Major Rideau (Darin De Paul), to retrieve lost artifacts stolen by the Nazis for experimentation, as well as rescue her brother, Klaus, who provided the information. Klaus has been unwillingly working with their lead scientist Peter Straub (Udo Kier) and weapons expert Colonel Heinz Richter (Tomm Voss) on a project to exploit a new energy dubbed "Geistkraft '' (literally translates as: ' Spiritforce ') to assist the Nazi party 's war efforts. Marie is accompanied by Scottish ex-art thief Drostan Hynd (David Tennant), French Resistance fighter Olivia Durant (Élodie Yung) and American captain Jefferson Potts (Ving Rhames), all of whom have significant knowledge on the stolen arts and relics. However, on their train ride to Mittelburg, the group is attacked by an unidentified colossal being. Marie is stranded from the others, and finds herself taking temporary refuge at a small house nearby, where she holds out against hordes of dead German soldiers reanimated by Geistkraft, until she is able to make her way to the village.
After reuniting with the other three, Marie and the group proceed further down into the village 's hidden bunker, where Straub has set up his laboratory. There, they fend off against Straub 's undead horde, as well as Richter, whose obsession on weaponization of Geistkraft puts him at odds with Straub. Eventually, the group recovers the artifact, the hilt of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa 's sword. They then encounter the creature from earlier, a humanoid - shaped amalgam of numerous body parts sewn and stitched together, dubbed the Panzermörder, with Klaus fused into the creature 's chest. Using special magnetized batteries, the group manages to stun the Panzermörder and attach the batteries onto it, causing it to be attracted to Richter 's zeppelin flying above the village. The zeppelin explodes, killing the Panzermörder and freeing Klaus from its body. The hilt 's power somehow revives Klaus, causing him to be possessed by an unknown force. Klaus staggers into the village, telling Marie and the group to continue fighting, and that the Emperor must not return, before activating a fire trap, seemingly killing himself.
Call of Duty: World War II is the second game in the Call of Duty franchise developed by Sledgehammer Games, and the third to benefit under publisher Activision 's three - year development cycle (the first being Sledgehammer 's Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare) in order for a longer development time for each game. A modern Call of Duty title set in World War II was alluded to in a 2014 Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare launch interview with Michael Condrey, co-founder of Sledgehammer Games. In the interview by Metro, the interviewer asked him what the possibilities of where the next Call of Duty could go in terms of setting. Condrey responded, "Well, no. It 's curious. I can only answer from my own personal tastes, this is my own personal opinion. But some of my favorite pieces of entertainment are set in World War II. Band of Brothers, I 'm a massive fan of Band of Brothers. '' Condrey then dived further into the subject, "And that 's a great hero 's war, kind of the last that was recognised as a noble cause in a war. So yeah, I think a next generation game with the latest production values and robustness in a World War II setting like Band of Brothers would be amazing. Now, how would it play and how would the multiplayer work after the new movement set in Advanced Warfare? That 's a tougher question than I 've had to tackle yet... ''.
Sledgehammer Games was hesitant to reveal all the authentic settings from World War II that developers have put into the game 's storyline. Activision initially refused to deny claims that Nazi extermination camps would be featured in the game. Adam Rosenberg of Mashable wrote that video games set during World War II tended to be "Holocaust deniers '' in the sense that they avoided broaching the subject for business reasons, but that this could be the very first Call of Duty World War II based game where the Holocaust would be depicted. Senior creative director Bret Robbins said in an interview "Some very, very dark things happened during this conflict and it felt wrong for us to ignore that. '' He further stated "We absolutely show atrocities. It 's an unfortunate part of the history, but you ca n't tell an authentic, truthful story without going there. So we went there. '' Robbins argued that audiences can now handle games with more maturity and nuance, "People are ready for it. They want it, '' he said. When asked directly over Twitter as to whether or not the story campaign would allow gamers the opportunity to play as soldiers from the Axis powers such as Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, Sledgehammer Games confirmed that the campaign gameplay would be limited to allied forces. More specifically, Sledgehammer co-founder Michael Condrey confirmed that the game will focus exclusively on the Allied powers.
The Windows version of the game was developed in partnership with Raven Software. In regards to it, Raven 's CTO Dwight Luetscher stated that they were trying to focus on the Windows platform, as well as the community, by responding to their needs for it to excel. The Windows version features several notable changes, including removal of controller aim assist and addition of sensitivity slider for aim - down - sights mechanic.
All pre-orders excluding the PC version included access to the private beta, which was made available first on the PlayStation 4 from August 25 to 28, followed by a second week for both PlayStation 4 and Xbox One from September 1 to 4. The PC beta was announced as an open beta, and ran from September 29 to October 2 on Steam. Players who participated in the beta received the Beta Combat Pack for the full game, which contains a special in - game helmet, emblem and calling card. The game is available in three editions: Base Edition, Digital Deluxe Edition and the Pro Edition. The Pro Edition was sold exclusively at GameStop, with pre-orders of the game at GameStop also included a limited edition hat.
The game was released worldwide on November 3, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One.
Upon the game 's release, online servers were down for most of the day, inhibiting players from playing online multiplayer, as well as some not being able to access the campaign and Nazi Zombies. Activision acknowledged the problem and announced they were working to resolve it.
Call of Duty: WWII received "generally favorable '' reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Miguel Concepcion of GameSpot awarded the game a 9 / 10, writing that the campaign was "moving '' and "salutes the brotherhood that grows and strengthens on the battlefield '', while praising the game 's "excellent visuals and sound design ''. Daniel Tack from Game Informer gave the game a 8.75 / 10, stating that he felt the campaign was the only drawback overall; despite capturing a "signature explosive feel through various adrenaline - fueled moments '', he thought progression felt tedious as a result of "standard gunplay and endless killing fields. '' He praised the multiplayer as the "shining star of the three modes '', especially enjoying the game 's new War mode in terms of its variety, and highlighted the return to the traditional gameplay and range of customization options.
In his 8.5 / 10 review for Electronic Gaming Monthly, Nick Plasses wrote that the campaign 's protagonists were "well characterized and (...) the cause for the game 's most impactful conflicts ''. He praised the lack of regenerating health which gave the game "new levels of strategy and exploration, ultimately adding more entertainment than frustration '', and that the reliance on fellow soldiers "necessitates more strategic positioning and resource management ''. IGN 's Miranda Sanchez awarded the game 8 / 10, saying the campaign was a "more human perspective than we 've seen in recent years '', with interesting and diverse characters. However, she criticized its conflicting tone, as well as several repetitive and frustrating missions. She wrote that the Zombies was the standout mode in the game, which helped strike "a rewarding balance for the diehard zombies fans (...) and those that just want to jump in and have a good time '', although criticized that the experience suffered when playing with other people.
Destructoid 's Chris Moyse praised the game as a "satisfying experience '' and the campaign as "one of the series ' best in some time '', but felt that "it also makes little effort to overhaul the brand as a whole, playing it incredibly safe when the opportunity for reinvention was right there for the taking. '' Polygon 's Russ Frushtick generally praised the multiplayer, calling it "strong and enjoyable '', but criticized the campaign, writing that "just about every mission feels like déjà vu, as if I 'd played it before in another game '' and that "Changing the time period so dramatically only helps to highlight how little has changed since the franchise 's total re-imagining with Call of Duty 4. '' Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb was more critical of the game as a whole, stating that "despite all of Activision 's big talk about "boots on the ground '' action and how this was going to be some big deal, the setting change did n't bring any new and exciting inspiration with it. This feels like the most wheel - spinning, by - the - numbers Call of Duty they 've made thus far. ''
The game earned over $500 million within its first three days of release.
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which of the following words are part of the declaration of independence | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain, would now regard themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states no longer under British rule. With the Declaration these states formed a new nation -- the United States of America.
The Declaration was passed on July 2 with no opposing votes. A committee of five had drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. John Adams, a leader in pushing for independence, had persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress edited to produce the final version. The Declaration was a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Even though Adams wrote to his wife, Abigail, that "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America '', Independence Day is celebrated on July 4, the date that the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost, and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, and Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress, are preserved at the Library of Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III, and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric (as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863) and his policies. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Abraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The U.S. Declaration of Independence inspired many other similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands (modern - day Belgium). It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence across Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense introduced no new ideas and probably had little direct effect on Congress 's thinking about independence; its importance was in stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss. Public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after the publication of Paine 's enormously popular pamphlet.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by thirteen different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue. As public sentiment grew for separation from Great Britain, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for independence, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct (or grant permission for) its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1, and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
"I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. ''
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, the Declaration was read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the thirteen states. The first official public reading of the document was by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall on July 8; public readings also took place on that day in Trenton, New Jersey and Easton, Pennsylvania. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776, under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost, and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017, it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in an archive in Sussex, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was given little attention in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804, during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
A key step marking the evolution of the Declaration in the nation 's consciousness is the now well - known painting Declaration of Independence by Connecticut political painter John Trumbull. It was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817. 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size, it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It has been often reproduced, and is the visual image most associated by Americans with the Declaration.
The painting is sometimes incorrectly described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence. In fact, the painting actually shows the five - man drafting committee presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress, an event that took place on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
The painting, the figures painted from life when possible, does not contain all the signers. Some had died and images could not be located. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time.
It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in the building known today as Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Trumbull visited the room, which was where the Second Continental Congress met, when researching for his painting. At the time it was the Pennsylvania State House.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776, and the 1972 movie of the same name, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams.
The Declaration was chosen to become the first digitized text (1971).
Since 1976 (the United States Bicentennial), Trumbull 's Declaration of Independence has been used on the back of the United States two - dollar bill.
In 1984, the Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration was dedicated in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high, to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
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how many episodes in game of thronse season 7 | Game of Thrones - Wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin 's series of fantasy novels, the first of which is A Game of Thrones. It is filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and the United States. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and its seventh season ended on August 27, 2017. The series will conclude with its eighth season in 2018 or 2019.
Set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, Game of Thrones has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast but centers on three primary story arcs. The first story arc centers on the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms and follows a web of alliances and conflicts among the dynastic noble families either vying to claim the throne or fighting for independence from the throne. The second story arc focuses on the last descendant of the realm 's deposed ruling dynasty, exiled and plotting a return to the throne. The third story arc centers on the longstanding brotherhood charged with defending the realm against the ancient threats of the fierce peoples and legendary creatures that lie far north, and an impending winter that threatens the realm.
Game of Thrones has attracted record viewership on HBO and has a broad, active, international fan base. It has been acclaimed by critics, particularly for its acting, complex characters, story, scope, and production values, although its frequent use of nudity and violence (including sexual violence) has been criticized. The series has received 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series in 2015 and 2016, more than any other primetime scripted television series. Its other awards and nominations include three Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation (2012 -- 2014), a 2011 Peabody Award, and four nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama (2012 and 2015 -- 2017). Of the ensemble cast, Peter Dinklage has won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (2011 and 2015) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film (2012) for his performance as Tyrion Lannister. Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, Kit Harington, Maisie Williams, Diana Rigg, and Max von Sydow have also received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for their performances in the series.
Game of Thrones is roughly based on the storylines of A Song of Ice and Fire, set in the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros and the continent of Essos. The series chronicles the violent dynastic struggles among the realm 's noble families for the Iron Throne, while other families fight for independence from it. It opens with additional threats in the icy North and Essos in the east.
Showrunner David Benioff jokingly suggested "The Sopranos in Middle - earth '' as Game of Thrones ' tagline, referring to its intrigue - filled plot and dark tone in a fantasy setting of magic and dragons. In a 2012 study of deaths per episode, it ranked second out of 40 recent U.S. TV drama series (with an average of 14).
The series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. George R.R. Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters, believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre. Martin has stated that "the true horrors of human history derive not from orcs and Dark Lords, but from ourselves. ''
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin says does not mirror the real world. Just like people 's capacity for good and for evil in real life, Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change. The show allows the audience to view different characters from their perspective, unlike in many other fantasies, and thus the supposed villains can provide their side of the story. Benioff said, "George brought a measure of harsh realism to high fantasy. He introduced gray tones into a black - and - white universe. ''
In early seasons, under the influence of the A Song of Ice and Fire books, main characters were regularly killed off, and this was credited with developing tension among viewers. Later seasons, however, critics pointed out that certain characters had developed "plot armor '', attributing this to the show 's deviating from the books and becoming more of a traditional television series. The series also reflects the substantial death rates in war.
Although the first season closely follows the events of the first novel, later seasons have made significant changes. According to David Benioff, the show is "about adapting the series as a whole and following the map George laid out for us and hitting the major milestones, but not necessarily each of the stops along the way ''.
Tom Holland of The Guardian believes that the novels and their adaptations base aspects of their settings, characters, and plot on events in European history. Most of Westeros is reminiscent of high medieval Europe, from lands and cultures, to the palace intrigue, feudal system, castles, and knightly tournaments. A principal inspiration for the novels is the English Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 85) between the houses of Lancaster and York, reflected in Martin 's houses of Lannister and Stark. The scheming Cersei Lannister evokes Isabella, the "she - wolf of France '' (1295 -- 1358); Isabella and her family (particularly as portrayed in Maurice Druon 's historical - novel series, The Accursed Kings) were also a main inspiration for Martin.
Holland further proposes that other historical antecedents of series elements include Hadrian 's Wall (which becomes Martin 's Wall), the legend of Atlantis (ancient Valyria), Byzantine Greek fire ("wildfire ''), Icelandic sagas of the Viking Age (the Ironborn), the Mongol hordes (the Dothraki), the Hundred Years ' War (1337 -- 1453) and the Italian Renaissance (c. 1400 -- 1500). The series ' popularity has been attributed, in part, to Martin 's skill at fusing these elements into a seamless, credible version of alternate history. Martin acknowledges, "I take (history) and I file off the serial numbers and I turn it up to 11. ''
Game of Thrones has an ensemble cast estimated to be the largest on television; during its third season, 257 cast names were recorded. In 2014, several actor contracts were renegotiated to include a seventh - season option, with raises which reportedly made them among the highest - paid performers on cable TV. In 2016, it was reported that several actor contracts were again renegotiated, with five of the main cast members having increased their salary to £ 2 million per episode for the last two seasons, which would make them the highest paid actors on television. The main cast is listed below.
Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is the head of House Stark, whose members are involved in plot lines throughout most of the series. He and his wife, Catelyn Tully (Michelle Fairley), have five children: Robb (Richard Madden), the eldest, followed by Sansa (Sophie Turner), Arya (Maisie Williams), Bran (Isaac Hempstead - Wright) and Rickon (Art Parkinson), the youngest. Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow (Kit Harington) and his friend, Samwell Tarly (John Bradley), serve in the Night 's Watch under Lord Commander Jeor Mormont (James Cosmo). The Wildlings living north of the Wall include young Gilly (Hannah Murray), and warriors Tormund Giantsbane (Kristofer Hivju) and Ygritte (Rose Leslie).
Others associated with House Stark include Ned 's ward Theon Greyjoy (Alfie Allen), his vassal Roose Bolton (Michael McElhatton), and Bolton 's bastard son, Ramsay Snow (Iwan Rheon). Robb falls in love with the healer Talisa Maegyr (Oona Chaplin), and Arya befriends blacksmith 's apprentice Gendry (Joe Dempsie) and assassin Jaqen H'ghar (Tom Wlaschiha). The tall warrior Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie) serves Catelyn and, later, Sansa.
In King 's Landing, the capital, Ned 's friend King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) shares a loveless marriage with Cersei Lannister (Lena Headey) -- who has taken her twin brother, the Kingslayer Ser Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), as her lover. She loathes her younger brother, the dwarf Tyrion Lannister (Peter Dinklage), who is attended by his mistress Shae (Sibel Kekilli) and the mercenary, or ' sellsword ', Bronn (Jerome Flynn). Cersei 's father is Lord Tywin Lannister (Charles Dance). Cersei also has two young sons: Joffrey (Jack Gleeson) and Tommen (Dean - Charles Chapman). Joffrey is guarded by the scar - faced warrior, Sandor "the Hound '' Clegane (Rory McCann).
The king 's Small Council of advisors includes crafty Master of Coin Lord Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish (Aidan Gillen) and eunuch spymaster Lord Varys (Conleth Hill). Robert 's brother, Stannis Baratheon (Stephen Dillane), is advised by foreign priestess Melisandre (Carice van Houten) and former smuggler Ser Davos Seaworth (Liam Cunningham). The wealthy Tyrell family is primarily represented at court by Margaery Tyrell (Natalie Dormer). The High Sparrow (Jonathan Pryce) is the capital 's principal religious leader. In the southern principality of Dorne, Ellaria Sand (Indira Varma) seeks vengeance against the Lannisters.
Across the Narrow Sea, siblings Viserys (Harry Lloyd) and Daenerys Targaryen (Emilia Clarke) -- the exiled children of the last king of the original ruling dynasty, who was overthrown by Robert Baratheon -- are running for their lives and trying to win back the throne. Daenerys has been married to Khal Drogo (Jason Momoa), the leader of the nomadic Dothraki. Her retinue includes exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont (Iain Glen), her aide Missandei (Nathalie Emmanuel) and the sellsword Daario Naharis (Michiel Huisman).
In January 2006, David Benioff had a phone conversation with George R.R. Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented, and became interested in A Song of Ice and Fire as he had been a fan of fantasy fiction when young but had not read the books before. The literary agent then sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first novel, A Game of Thrones, shared his enthusiasm with D.B. Weiss and suggested that they adapt Martin 's novels into a television series; Weiss finished the first novel in "maybe 36 hours ''. They pitched the series to HBO after a five - hour meeting with Martin (a veteran screenwriter) in a restaurant on Santa Monica Boulevard. According to Benioff, they won Martin over with their answer to his question, "Who is Jon Snow 's mother? ''
Before being approached by Benioff and Weiss, Martin had had other meetings with other scriptwriters, most of them wanting to turn it into a feature film. Martin however deemed it "unfilmable '' and impossible to be done as a feature film, stating that the size of one of his novels is as long as The Lord of the Rings, which had been adapted as three feature films. Similarly, Benioff also said that it would be impossible to turn the novels into a feature film as the scale of the novels is too big for a feature film and dozens of characters would have to be discarded. Benioff added, "a fantasy movie of this scope, financed by a major studio, would almost certainly need a PG - 13 rating. That means no sex, no blood, no profanity. Fuck that. '' Martin himself was pleased with the suggestion that they adapt it as an HBO series, saying that he "never imagined it anywhere else ''. "I knew it could n't be done as a network television series. It 's too adult. The level of sex and violence would never have gone through. ''
The series began development in January 2007. HBO acquired the TV rights to the novels, with Benioff and Weiss as its executive producers, and Martin as a co-executive producer. The intention was for each novel to yield a season 's worth of episodes. Initially, Martin would write one episode per season while Benioff and Weiss would write the rest of the episodes. Jane Espenson and Bryan Cogman were later added to write one episode apiece the first season.
The first and second drafts of the pilot script by Benioff and Weiss were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008, respectively. Although HBO liked both drafts, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008; the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike may have delayed the process. The pilot episode, "Winter Is Coming '', was first shot in 2009; after a poor reception in a private viewing, HBO demanded an extensive re-shoot (about 90 percent of the episode, with cast and directorial changes).
The pilot reportedly cost HBO $5 -- 10 million to produce, while the first season 's budget was estimated at $50 -- 60 million. In the second season, the show received a 15 - percent budget increase for the climactic battle in "Blackwater '' (which had an $8 million budget). Between 2012 and 2015, the average budget per episode increased from $6 million to "at least '' $8 million. The sixth - season budget was over $10 million per episode, for a season total of over $100 million and a series record.
Nina Gold and Robert Sterne are the series ' primary casting directors. Through a process of auditions and readings, the main cast was assembled. The only exceptions were Peter Dinklage and Sean Bean, whom the writers wanted from the start; they were announced as joining the pilot in 2009. Other actors signed for the pilot were Kit Harington as Jon Snow, Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon, Harry Lloyd as Viserys Targaryen and Mark Addy as Robert Baratheon. Addy was, according to showrunners Benioff and Weiss, the easiest actor to cast for the show, being that his audition was on point. Catelyn Stark was scheduled to be played by Jennifer Ehle, but the role was recast with Michelle Fairley. Daenerys Targaryen was also recast, with Emilia Clarke replacing Tamzin Merchant. The rest of the first season 's cast was filled in the second half of 2009.
Although many of the first - season cast were set to return, the producers had a large number of new characters to cast for the second season. Due to this, Benioff and Weiss postponed the introduction of several key characters and merged several characters into one or assigned plot functions to different characters.
Game of Thrones used seven writers in six seasons. Series creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the showrunners, write most of the episodes each season.
A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin wrote one episode in each of the first four seasons. Martin did not write an episode for the later seasons, since he wanted to focus on completing the sixth novel (The Winds of Winter). Jane Espenson co-wrote one first - season episode as a freelance writer.
Bryan Cogman, initially a script coordinator for the series, was promoted to producer for the fifth season. Cogman, who wrote at least one episode for the first five seasons, is the only other writer in the writers ' room with Benioff and Weiss. Before his promotion, Vanessa Taylor (a writer during the second and third seasons) worked closely with Benioff and Weiss. Dave Hill joined the writing staff for the fifth season after working as an assistant to Benioff and Weiss. Although Martin is not in the writers ' room, he reads the script outlines and makes comments.
Benioff and Weiss sometimes assign characters to particular writers; for example, Cogman was assigned to Arya Stark for the fourth season. The writers spend several weeks writing a character outline, including what material from the novels to use and the overarching themes. After these individual outlines are complete, they spend another two to three weeks discussing each main character 's individual arc and arranging them episode by episode. A detailed outline is created, with each of the writers working on a portion to create a script for each episode. Cogman, who wrote two episodes for the fifth season, took a month and a half to complete both scripts. They are then read by Benioff and Weiss, who make notes, and parts of the script are rewritten. All ten episodes are written before filming begins, since they are filmed out of order with two units in different countries.
Benioff and Weiss write each of their episodes together, with one of them writing the first half of the script and the other the second half. After that they begin with passing the drafts back and forth to make notes and rewrite parts of it.
Benioff and Weiss originally intended to adapt the entire, still - incomplete A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels for television. After Game of Thrones began outpacing the published novels in the sixth season, the series was based on a plot outline of the future novels provided by Martin and original content. In April 2016, the showrunners ' plan was to shoot 13 more episodes after the sixth season: seven episodes in the seventh season and six episodes in the eighth. Later that month, the series was renewed for a seventh season with a seven - episode order. As of 2017, seven seasons have been ordered and filmed, adapting the novels at a rate of about 48 seconds per page for the first three seasons.
The first two seasons adapted one novel each. For the later seasons, its creators see Game of Thrones as an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire as a whole rather than the individual novels; this enables them to move events across novels, according to screen - adaptation requirements.
Principal photography for the first season was scheduled to begin on July 26, 2010, and the primary location was the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Exterior scenes in Northern Ireland were filmed at Sandy Brae in the Mourne Mountains (standing in for Vaes Dothrak), Castle Ward (Winterfell), Saintfield Estates (the Winterfell godswood), Tollymore Forest (outdoor scenes), Cairncastle (the execution site), the Magheramorne quarry (Castle Black) and Shane 's Castle (the tourney grounds). Doune Castle in Stirling, Scotland, was also used in the original pilot episode for scenes at Winterfell. The producers initially considered filming the whole series in Scotland, but decided on Northern Ireland because of the availability of studio space.
The first season 's southern scenes were filmed in Malta, a change in location from the pilot episode 's Moroccan sets. The city of Mdina was used for King 's Landing. Filming was also done at Fort Manoel (representing the Sept of Baelor), at the Azure Window on the island of Gozo (the Dothraki wedding site) and at San Anton Palace, Fort Ricasoli, Fort St. Angelo and St. Dominic monastery (all used for scenes in the Red Keep).
Filming of the second season 's southern scenes shifted from Malta to Croatia, where the city of Dubrovnik and nearby locations allowed exterior shots of a walled, coastal medieval city. The Walls of Dubrovnik and Fort Lovrijenac were used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. The island of Lokrum, the St. Dominic monastery in the coastal town of Trogir, the Rector 's Palace in Dubrovnik, and the Dubac quarry (a few kilometers east) were used for scenes set in Qarth. Scenes set north of the Wall, in the Frostfangs and at the Fist of the First Men, were filmed in November 2011 in Iceland: on the Vatnajökull glacier near Smyrlabjörg, the Svínafellsjökull glacier near Skaftafell and the Mýrdalsjökull glacier near Vik on Höfðabrekkuheiði.
Third - season production returned to Dubrovnik, with the Walls of Dubrovnik, Fort Lovrijenac and nearby locations again used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. Trsteno Arboretum, a new location, is the garden of the Tyrells in King 's Landing. The third season also returned to Morocco (including the city of Essaouira) to film Daenerys ' scenes in Essos. Dimmuborgir and the Grjótagjá cave in Iceland were used as well. One scene, with a live bear, was filmed in Los Angeles. The production used three units (Dragon, Wolf and Raven) filming in parallel, six directing teams, 257 cast members and 703 crew members.
The fourth season returned to Dubrovnik and included new locations, including Diocletian 's Palace in Split, Klis Fortress north of Split, Perun quarry east of Split, the Mosor mountain range, and Baška Voda further south. Thingvellir National Park in Iceland was used for the fight between Brienne and the Hound. Filming took 136 days and ended on November 21, 2013. The fifth season added Seville, Spain, used for scenes of Dorne, as well as Córdoba.
The sixth season, which began filming in July 2015, returned to Spain and filmed in Navarra, Guadalajara, Seville, Almeria Girona and Peniscola. Filming also returned to Dubrovnik, Croatia.
Filming of the seven episodes of season 7 began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, with other filming in Iceland, Northern Ireland and many locations in Spain. Spain filming locations included Seville, Cáceres, Almodovar del Rio, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. The series also filmed in Dubrovnik, which is used for location of King 's Landing. Filming continued until the end of February 2017 as necessary to ensure winter weather in some of the European locations.
Each ten - episode season of Game of Thrones has four to six directors, who usually direct back - to - back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series ' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: "Blackwater '' and "The Watchers on the Wall ''. Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.
Alik Sakharov was the pilot 's cinematographer. The series has had a number of cinematographers, and has received seven Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series nominations.
Oral Norrey Ottey, Frances Parker, Martin Nicholson, Crispin Green, Tim Porter and Katie Weiland have edited the series for a varying number of episodes. Weiland received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series in 2015.
Michele Clapton was costume designer for Game of Thrones ' first five seasons before she was replaced by April Ferry. Clapton will return to the show as costume designer for the seventh season.
The costumes used in the show drew inspiration from a number of sources, such as Japanese and Persian armour. Dothraki dress resembles that of the Bedouin (one was made out of fish skins to resemble dragon scales), and the Wildlings wear animal skins like the Inuit. Wildling bone armor is made from molds of actual bones, and is assembled with string and latex resembling catgut. Although the extras who play Wildlings and the Night 's Watch often wear hats (normal in a cold climate), members of the principal cast usually do not so viewers can distinguish the main characters. Björk 's Alexander McQueen high - neckline dresses inspired Margaery Tyrell 's funnel - neck outfit, and prostitutes ' dresses are designed for easy removal. All clothing used is aged for two weeks so it appears realistic on high - definition television.
About two dozen wigs are used for the actresses. Made of human hair and up to 2 feet (61 cm) in length, they cost up to $7,000 each and are washed and styled like real hair. Applying the wigs is time - consuming; Emilia Clarke, for example, requires about two hours to style her brunette hair with a platinum - blonde wig and braids. Other actors, such as Jack Gleeson and Sophie Turner, receive frequent hair coloring. For characters such as Daenerys (Clarke) and her Dothraki, their hair, wigs and costumes are processed to appear as if they have not been washed for weeks.
For the first three seasons, Paul Engelen was Game of Thrones ' main makeup designer and prosthetic makeup artist with Melissa Lackersteen, Conor O'Sullivan and Rob Trenton. At the beginning of the fourth season Engelen 's team was replaced by Jane Walker and her crew, composed of Ann McEwan and Barrie and Sarah Gower.
For the series ' large number of visual effects, HBO hired British - based BlueBolt and Irish - based Screen Scene for season one. Most of the environment builds were done as 2.5 D projections, giving viewers perspective while keeping the programming from being overwhelming. In 2011 the season - one finale, "Fire and Blood '', was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects.
Because the effects became more complex in subsequent seasons (including CGI creatures, fire, and water), German - based Pixomondo became the lead visual - effects producer; nine of its twelve facilities contributed to the project for season two, with Stuttgart the lead. Scenes were also produced by British - based Peanut FX, Canadian - based Spin VFX, and U.S. - based Gradient Effects. "Valar Morghulis '' and "Valar Dohaeris '' earned Pixomondo Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Visual Effects in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
For season four, HBO added German - based Mackevision to the project. The season - four finale, "The Children '', won the 2014 Emmy Award for Visual Effects. Additional producers for season four included Canadian - based Rodeo FX, German - based Scanline VFX and U.S. - based BAKED FX. The muscle and wing movements of the adolescent dragons in seasons four and five were based largely on those of a chicken. Pixomondo retained a team of 22 to 30 people which focused on visualizing Daenerys Targaryen 's dragons, with the average production time per season of 20 to 22 weeks. For the fifth season, HBO added Canadian - based Image Engine and U.S. - based Crazy Horse Effects to its list of main visual - effects producers.
Unusual for a television series, the sound team receives a rough cut of a full season and approaches it as a ten - hour feature film. Although seasons one and two had different sound teams, one team has been in charge of sound since then. For the show 's blood - and - gore sounds, the team often uses a chamois. For dragon screams, mating tortoises and dolphin, seal, lion and bird sounds have been used.
The series ' title sequence was created by production studio Elastic for HBO. Creative director Angus Wall and his collaborators received the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Main Title Design for the sequence, which depicts a three - dimensional map of the series ' fictional world. The map is projected on the inside of a sphere which is centrally lit by a small sun in an armillary sphere. As the camera moves across the map, focusing on the locations of the episode 's events, clockwork mechanisms intertwine and allow buildings and other structures to emerge from the map. Accompanied by the title music, the names of the principal cast and creative staff appear. The sequence concludes after about 90 seconds with the title card and brief opening credits indicating the episode 's writer (s) and director. Its composition changes as the story progresses, with new locations replacing those featuring less prominently or not at all.
The music for the series was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season 's soundtrack, written in about ten weeks before the show 's premiere, was published by Varèse Sarabande in June 2011. Soundtrack albums for subsequent seasons have been released, with tracks by the National, the Hold Steady and Sigur Rós. Djawadi has composed themes for each of the major houses and also for some of the main characters. The themes may evolve over time, as Daenerys Targaryen 's theme started small and then became more powerful after each season. Her theme started first with a single instrument, a cello, and Djawadi later incorporated more instruments for it.
The Westerosi characters of Game of Thrones speak British - accented English, often (but not consistently) with the accent of the English region corresponding to the character 's Westerosi region; Eddard Stark (Warden of the North) speaks in actor Sean Bean 's native northern accent, and the southern lord Tywin Lannister speaks with a southern accent, while characters from Dorne speak English with a Spanish accent. Characters foreign to Westeros often have a non-British accent.
Although English is the common language of Westeros, the producers charged linguist David J. Peterson with constructing Dothraki and Valyrian languages based on the few words in the novels; Dothraki and Valyrian dialogue is often subtitled in English. It has been reported that during the series these fictional languages have been heard by more people than the Welsh, Irish, and Scots Gaelic languages combined.
Game of Thrones is funded by Northern Ireland Screen, a UK government agency financed by Invest NI and the European Regional Development Fund. As of April 2013, Northern Ireland Screen gave the show £ 9.25 million ($14.37 million); according to government estimates, this has benefited the Northern Ireland economy by £ 65 million ($100.95 million).
Tourism Ireland has a Game of Thrones - themed marketing campaign similar to New Zealand 's Tolkien - related advertising. Invest NI and the Northern Ireland Tourist Board also expect the series to generate tourism revenue. According to Arlene Foster, the series has given Northern Ireland the most non-political publicity in its history. The production of Game of Thrones and other TV series also boosted Northern Ireland 's creative industries, contributing to an estimated 12.4 - percent growth in arts, entertainment and recreation jobs between 2008 and 2013 (compared with 4.3 percent in the rest of the UK during the same period).
Tourism organizations elsewhere reported increases in bookings after their locations appeared in Game of Thrones. In 2012, bookings through LateRooms.com increased by 28 percent in Dubrovnik and 13 percent in Iceland. The following year, bookings doubled in Ouarzazate, Morocco (the location of Daenerys ' season - three scenes). Game of Thrones has been attributed as a significant factor in the boom of tourism in Iceland that had a strong impact on its economy. Tourist numbers increased by 30 % in 2015, followed by another 40 % in 2016, with a final figure of 2.4 million visitors expected for 2016, which is around seven times the population of the country.
Game of Thrones is broadcast by HBO in the United States and by its local subsidiaries or other pay television services in other countries, at the same time as in the U.S. or weeks (or months) later. The series ' broadcast in China on CCTV, begun in 2014, was heavily edited to remove scenes of sex and violence in accordance with a Chinese practice of censoring Western TV series to prevent what the People 's Daily calls "negative effects and hidden security dangers ''. This resulted in viewer complaints about the incoherence of what remained. Broadcasters carrying Game of Thrones include Showcase in Australia; HBO Canada, Super Écran and Showcase in Canada; HBO Latin America in Latin America; SoHo and Prime in New Zealand, and Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
The ten episodes of the first season of Game of Thrones were released as a DVD and Blu - ray box set on March 6, 2012. The box set includes extra background and behind - the - scenes material but no deleted scenes, since nearly all the footage shot for the first season was used in the show. The box set sold over 350,000 copies in the first week after release, the largest first - week DVD sales ever for an HBO series, and the series set an HBO - series record for digital - download sales. A collector 's - edition box set was released in November 2012, combining the DVD and Blu - ray versions of the first season with the first episode of season two. A paperweight in the shape of a dragon egg is included in the set.
DVD - Blu - ray box sets and digital downloads of the second season became available on February 19, 2013. First - day sales broke HBO records, with 241,000 box sets sold and 355,000 episodes downloaded. The third season was made available for purchase as a digital download on the Australian iTunes Store, parallel to the U.S. premiere, and was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 18, 2014. The fourth season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on February 17, 2015, and the fifth season on March 15, 2016. The sixth season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. Beginning in 2016, HBO began issuing Steelbook Blu - ray sets which include both Dolby TrueHD 7.1 and Dolby Atmos audio options.
Game of Thrones has been widely pirated, primarily outside the U.S. According to the file - sharing news website TorrentFreak, Game of Thrones has been the most - pirated TV series each year since 2012. Illegal downloads increased to about seven million in the first quarter of 2015, up 45 percent from 2014. An unnamed episode was downloaded about 4,280,000 times through public BitTorrent trackers in 2012, roughly equal to its number of broadcast viewers. Piracy rates were particularly high in Australia, and U.S. Ambassador to Australia Jeff Bleich issued a statement condemning Australian piracy of the series in 2013.
Delays in availability apart from HBO and its affiliates before 2015 and the cost of subscriptions to these services have been cited as causes of the series ' illegal distribution. According to TorrentFreak, a subscription to a service for Game of Thrones would cost up to $25 per month in the United States, up to £ 26 per episode in the UK and up to $52 per episode in Australia.
For "combating piracy '', HBO said in 2013 that it intended to make its content more widely available within a week of the U.S. premiere (including HBO Go). In 2015, the fifth season was simulcast to 170 countries and to HBO Now users. On April 11, the day before the season premiere, screener copies of the first four episodes of the fifth season leaked to a number of file - sharing websites. Within a day of the leak, the files were downloaded over 800,000 times; in one week the illegal downloads reached 32 million, with the season - five premiere alone ("The Wars to Come '') pirated 13 million times. The season - five finale ("Mother 's Mercy '') was the most simultaneously shared file in the history of the BitTorrent filesharing protocol, with over 250,000 simultaneous sharers and over 1.5 million downloads in eight hours. For the sixth season, HBO did not send screeners to the press, so as to prevent the spread of unlicensed copies and possible spoilers.
Observers, including series director David Petrarca and Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes, said that illegal downloads did not hurt the series ' prospects; it benefited from "buzz '' and social commentary, and the high piracy rate did not significantly translate to lost subscriptions. According to Polygon, HBO 's relaxed attitude towards piracy and the sharing of login credentials amounted to a premium - television "free - to - play '' model. At a 2015 Oxford Union debate, series co-creator David Benioff said that he was just glad that people watched the show; illegally downloaded copies of the show sometimes interested viewers enough to buy a copy of the show, especially in countries where the show was not televised. Co-creator D.B. Weiss had mixed feelings, saying that the show was expensive to produce and "if it does n't make the money back, then it ceases to exist ''. However, he was pleased that so many people "enjoy the show so much they ca n't wait to get their hands on it. '' In 2015, Guinness World Records called Game of Thrones the most - pirated television program.
Beginning on January 23, 2015, the last two episodes of season four were shown in 205 IMAX theaters across the United States; Game of Thrones is the first TV series shown in this format. The show earned $686,000 at the box office on its opening day and $1.5 million during its opening weekend; the week - long release grossed $1,896,092.
Game of Thrones was highly anticipated by fans before its premiere, and has become a critical and commercial success. According to The Guardian, by 2014 it was "the biggest drama '' and "the most talked about show '' on television.
Although Game of Thrones was dismissed by some critics before it began, its success has been credited with an increase in the popularity of fantasy themes. On the eve of the second season 's premiere, a CNN.com blog post by Joel Williams read, "After this weekend, you may be hard pressed to find someone who is n't a fan of some form of epic fantasy '' and cited Ian Bogost as saying that the series continues a trend of successful screen adaptations beginning with Peter Jackson 's 2001 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the Harry Potter films establishing fantasy as a mass - market genre; they are "gateway drugs to fantasy fan culture ''. Its success in the face of its genre was attributed by writers to a longing for escapism in popular culture, frequent female nudity and a skill in balancing lighthearted and serious topics (dragons and politics, for example) which provided it with a prestige enjoyed by conventional, top - tier drama series.
The series ' popularity increased sales of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels (republished in tie - in editions), which remained at the top of bestseller lists for months. According to The Daily Beast, Game of Thrones was a favorite of sitcom writers and the series has been referred to in other TV series. With other fantasy series, it has been cited for an increase in the purchase (and abandonment) of huskies and other wolf - like dogs.
Game of Thrones has added to the popular vocabulary. The first season 's scene in which Petyr Baelish explains his motives (or background) while prostitutes had sex in the background gave rise to the word "sexposition '' for providing exposition with sex and nudity. "Dothraki '', the series ' nomadic horsemen, was ranked fourth in a September 2012 Global Language Monitor list of words from television most used on the Internet. In 2012, the media used "Game of Thrones '' as a figure of speech or comparison for situations of intense conflict and deceit, such as the 2012 United States Supreme Court decision regarding healthcare reform legislation, the Syrian Civil War and the ousting of Bo Xilai from the Chinese government.
"Khaleesi '' has increased in popularity as a name for baby girls in the United States. In the novels and the TV series, the word is a title meaning the wife of a Khal (warlord) in the Dothraki language held by Daenerys Targaryen, and not actually a name.
Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim, although the series ' frequent use of nudity and violence has been criticized. Its seasons have appeared on annual "best of '' lists published by The Washington Post (2011), TIME (2011 and 2012) and The Hollywood Reporter (2012).
The performances of the cast have also been praised. Peter Dinklage 's "charming, morally ambiguous, and self - aware '' Tyrion, who earned him Emmy and Golden Globe awards, was noted. "In many ways, Game of Thrones belongs to Dinklage '', wrote Mary McNamara of the L.A. Times before Tyrion became the series ' central figure in season two. Several critics highlighted performances by actresses and children. Fourteen - year - old Maisie Williams, noted in the first season for her debut as Arya Stark, was singled out for her season - two work with veteran actor Charles Dance (Tywin Lannister).
First - season reviewers said the series had high production values, a fully realized world and compelling characters. According to Variety, "There may be no show more profitable to its network than ' Game of Thrones ' is to HBO. Fully produced by the pay cabler and already a global phenomenon after only one season, the fantasy skein was a gamble that has paid off handsomely ''.
The second season was also well received by critics. Entertainment Weekly praised its "vivid, vital, and just plain fun '' storytelling and, according to the Hollywood Reporter, the show made a "strong case for being one of TV 's best series ''; its seriousness made it the only drama comparable to Mad Men or Breaking Bad. The New York Times gave the series a mixed review, criticizing its number of characters, their lack of complexity and a meandering plot.
The third season was very well received by critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 91 out of 100 (indicating "universal acclaim ''). The fourth season was also praised; Metacritic gave it a score of 94 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, again indicating "universal acclaim ''. The fifth season was also well received by critics and has a score of 91 out of 100 (based on 29 reviews) on Metacritic. The sixth season has been praised by critics. It has a score of 73 out of 100 (based on nine reviews) on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The seventh season has a score of 77 out of 100 (based on twelve reviews) on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The series has a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 44 reviews. All episodes had positive reviews of 91 percent or higher on Rotten Tomatoes, and a 97 - percent rating (based on 50 reviews) for the season as a whole. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 95 percent and an average score of 8.6 out of 10 (based on 52 reviews). The season has a rating of 96 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 29 reviews. After the first episode aired, the seventh season held a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 29 reviews.
Despite its otherwise enthusiastic reception by critics, Game of Thrones has been criticized for the amount of female nudity, violence, and sexual violence (especially against women) it depicts, and for the manner in which it depicts these themes. The Atlantic called the series ' "tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and -- especially -- sexual violence '' of the source material "the defining weakness '' of the adaptation. George R.R. Martin responded that he feels obliged to be truthful about history and human nature, and that rape and sexual violence are common in war; and that omitting them from the narrative would have rung false and undermined one of his novels ' themes, its historical realism. HBO said that they "fully support the vision and artistry of Dan and David 's exceptional work and we feel this work speaks for itself. ''
The amount of sex and nudity in the series, especially in scenes that are incidental to the plot, was the focus of much of the criticism aimed at the series in its first and second seasons. Stephen Dillane, who portrays Stannis Baratheon, likened the series ' frequent explicit scenes to "German porn from the 1970s ''. Charlie Anders wrote in io9 that while the first season was replete with light - hearted "sexposition '', the second season appeared to focus on distasteful, exploitative, and dehumanizing sex with little informational content. According to The Washington Post 's Anna Holmes, the nude scenes appeared to be aimed mainly at titillating heterosexual men, right down to the Brazilian waxes sported by the women in the series ' faux - medieval setting, which made these scenes alienating to other viewers. The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan likewise noted that Game of Thrones mostly presented women naked, rather than men, and that the excess of "random boobage '' undercut any aspirations the series might have to address the oppression of women in a feudal society. Saturday Night Live parodied this aspect of the adaptation in a sketch that portrayed the series as retaining a thirteen - year - old boy as a consultant whose main concern was showing as many breasts as possible.
In the third season, which saw Theon Greyjoy lengthily tortured and eventually emasculated, the series was also criticized for its use of torture. New York magazine called the scene "torture porn. '' Madeleine Davies of Jezebel agreed, saying, "it 's not uncommon that Game of Thrones gets accused of being torture porn -- senseless, objectifying violence combined with senseless, objectifying sexual imagery. '' According to Davies, although the series ' violence tended to serve a narrative purpose, Theon 's torture in "The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' was excessive.
A scene in the fourth season 's episode "Breaker of Chains '', in which Jaime Lannister rapes his sister and lover Cersei, triggered a broad public discussion about the series ' depiction of sexual violence against women. According to Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times, the scene caused outrage, in part because of comments by director Alex Graves that the scene became "consensual by the end ''. Itzkoff also wrote that critics fear that "rape has become so pervasive in the drama that it is almost background noise: a routine and unshocking occurrence ''. Sonia Saraiya of The A.V. Club wrote that the series ' choice to portray this sexual act, and a similar one between Daenerys Targaryen and Khal Drogo in the first season -- both described as consensual in the source novels -- as a rape appeared to be an act of "exploitation for shock value ''.
In the fifth season 's episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken '', Sansa Stark is raped by Ramsay Bolton. Most reviewers, including those from Vanity Fair, Salon, The Atlantic, and The Daily Beast, found the scene gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. For example, Joanna Robinson, writing for Vanity Fair, said that the scene "undercuts all the agency that 's been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. '' In contrast, Sara Stewart of The New York Post wondered why viewers were not similarly upset about the many background and minor characters who 'd undergone similar or worse treatment. In response to the scene, pop culture website The Mary Sue announced that it would cease coverage of the series because of the repeated use of rape as a plot device, and U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill said that she would no longer watch it.
As the sixth and seventh seasons saw Daenerys, Sansa and Cersei assume ruling positions, Alyssa Rosenberg of the Washington Post noted that the series could be seen as a "long - arc revenge fantasy about what happens when women who have been brutalized and raped gain power '' -- namely, that their past leaves them too broken to do anything but commit brutal acts in their own turn, and that their personal liberation does not effect the social change needed to protect others from suffering.
A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones have a broad, active international fan base. In 2012 Vulture.com ranked the series ' fans as the most devoted in popular culture, more so than Lady Gaga 's, Justin Bieber 's, Harry Potter 's or Star Wars '. Fans include political leaders such as former U.S. president Barack Obama, former British prime minister David Cameron, former Australian prime minister Julia Gillard and Dutch foreign minister Frans Timmermans, who framed European politics in quotes from Martin 's novels in a 2013 speech.
BBC News said in 2013 that "the passion and the extreme devotion of fans '' had created a phenomenon unlike anything related to other popular TV series, manifesting itself in fan fiction, Game of Thrones - themed burlesque routines and parents naming their children after series characters; writers quoted attributed this success to the rich detail, moral ambiguity, sexual explicitness and epic scale of the series and novels. The previous year, "Arya '' was the fastest - rising girl 's name in the U.S. after it jumped in popularity from 711th to 413th place.
In 2013 about 58 percent of series viewers were male and 42 percent female, and the average male viewer was 41 years old. According to SBS Broadcasting Group marketing director Helen Kellie, Game of Thrones has a high fan - engagement rate; 5.5 percent of the series ' 2.9 million Facebook fans talked online about the series in 2012, compared to 1.8 percent of the more than ten million fans of True Blood (HBO 's other fantasy series). Vulture.com cited Westeros.org and WinterIsComing.net (news and discussion forums), ToweroftheHand.com (which organizes communal readings of the novels) and Podcastoficeandfire.com as fan sites dedicated to the TV and novel series; and podcasts cover Game of Thrones.
Game of Thrones has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, 5 Screen Actors Guild Award, and a Peabody Award. It holds the Emmy - award record for a scripted television series, ahead of Frasier (which received 37). In 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed Game of Thrones as the 40th "best written '' series in television history. In 2015 The Hollywood Reporter placed it at number four on their "best TV shows ever '' list, while in 2016 the show was placed seventh on Empire 's "The 50 best TV shows ever ''. The same year Rolling Stone named it the twelfth "greatest TV Show of all time ''.
The 2011 first season received 13 nominations (including Outstanding Drama Series), and won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (given to Peter Dinklage for his portrayal of Tyrion Lannister) and Outstanding Main Title Design. Other nominations included Outstanding Directing ("Winter Is Coming '') and Outstanding Writing ("Baelor ''). Dinklage was also named Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globe, Satellite and Scream Awards.
In 2012, the second season received six Creative Arts Emmy Awards from 11 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage).
The 2013 third season received 16 Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Emilia Clarke), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Diana Rigg) and Outstanding Writing ("The Rains of Castamere ''), winning two Creative Arts Emmys.
In 2014 the fourth season received four Creative Arts Emmys from 19 nominations, which included Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Lena Headey), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Rigg), Outstanding Directing ("The Watchers on the Wall '') and Outstanding Writing ("The Children '').
The 2015 fifth season won the most Primetime Emmy Awards for a series in a year (12 awards from 24 nominations), including Outstanding Drama Series; other wins included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Directing ("Mother 's Mercy '') and Outstanding Writing ("Mother 's Mercy ''), and eight were Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
In 2016, the sixth season received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards (23). It won for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), Outstanding Writing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), and nine Creative Arts Emmys. Nominations included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage and Kit Harington), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Clarke, Headey and Maisie Williams), Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Max von Sydow) and Outstanding Directing ("The Door '').
The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday - night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on - demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode. For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most - viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos). For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record. By the sixth season the average per - episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is ''. In season seven, the viewers numbers averaged at over 30 millions per episode across all platforms.
The series set records on pay - television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms) and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).
The following graph indicates first - airing viewer numbers in the US:
The series has inspired four video games based on the TV series and novels. The strategy game Game of Thrones Ascent ties into the HBO series, making characters and settings available to players as they appear on television.
HBO has licensed a variety of merchandise based on Game of Thrones, including games, replica weapons and armor, jewelry, bobblehead dolls by Funko, beer by Ommegang and apparel. High - end merchandise includes a $10,500 Ulysse Nardin wristwatch and a $30,000 resin replica of the Iron Throne. In 2013 and 2014, a traveling exhibition of costumes, props, armor and weapons from the series visited major cities in Europe and the Americas.
Thronecast: The Official Guide to Game of Thrones, a series of podcasts presented by Geoff Lloyd and produced by Koink, has been released on the Sky Atlantic website and the UK iTunes store during the series ' run; a new podcast, with analysis and cast interviews, is released after each episode. In 2014 and 2015 HBO commissioned Catch the Throne, two rap albums about the series.
A companion book, Inside HBO 's Game of Thrones (ISBN 978 - 1 - 4521 - 1010 - 3) by series writer Bryan Cogman, was published on September 27, 2012. The 192 - page book, illustrated with concept art and behind - the - scenes photographs, covers the creation of the series ' first two seasons and its principal characters and families.
After the Thrones is a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series. It airs on HBO Now the Monday after each sixth - season episode. The Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience, a 28 - city orchestral tour which will perform the series ' soundtrack with composer Ramin Djawadi, is scheduled to begin February 15, 2017 in Kansas City, Missouri.
After years of speculation about possible successor shows, in May 2017 HBO commissioned five screenwriters -- Max Borenstein, Jane Goldman, Brian Helgeland, Carly Wray and a fifth writer yet to be announced -- to develop individual Game of Thrones successor series. All of the writers are to be working individually with George R.R. Martin. Martin said that all the concepts under discussion are prequels, and some may be set outside Westeros. He also ruled out Robert 's Rebellion (the overthrow of Daenerys 's father by Robert Baratheon) as a possible idea. D.B. Weiss and David Benioff said that they would not be involved with any of the projects, and want to enjoy the successor series as fans. Martin is co-writing two of the four announced scripts. In September 2017, it was announced that Game of Thrones writer Bryan Cogman would be developing a fifth prequel series.
Each season 's individual Blu - ray and DVD set contains several short animated sequences narrated by the show 's cast as their characters as they detail various different events in the history of Westeros. For the seventh season release, it will include the animated prequel series Game of Thrones: Conquest & Rebellion, which is illustrated in a different animation style than previous videos. The series focuses on Aegon Targaryen 's conquest of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros.
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what are the 7 deadly sins in bible | Seven deadly sins - wikipedia
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The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, is a grouping and classification of vices within Christian teachings. Behaviours or habits are classified under this category if they directly give birth to other immoralities. According to the standard list, they are pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath and sloth, which are also contrary to the seven virtues. These sins are often thought to be abuses or excessive versions of one 's natural faculties or passions (for example, gluttony abuses one 's desire to eat).
This classification originated with the desert fathers, especially Evagrius Ponticus, who identified seven or eight evil thoughts or spirits that one needed to overcome. Evagrius ' pupil John Cassian, with his book The Institutes, brought the classification to Europe, where it became fundamental to Catholic confessional practices as evident in penitential manuals, sermons like "The Parson 's Tale '' from Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales, and artworks like Dante 's Purgatory (where the penitents of Mount Purgatory are depicted as being grouped and penanced according to the worst capital sin they committed). The Catholic Church used the concept of the deadly sins in order to help people curb their inclination towards evil before dire consequences and misdeeds could occur; the leader - teachers especially focused on pride (which is thought to be the sin that severs the soul from Grace, and the one that is representative and the very essence of all evil) and greed, both of which are seen as inherently sinful and as underlying all other sins to be prevented. To inspire people to focus on the seven deadly sins, the vices are discussed in treatises and depicted in paintings and sculpture decorations on Catholic churches as well as older textbooks.
While the seven deadly sins as we know them did not originate with the Greeks or Romans, there were ancient precedents for them. Aristotle 's Nicomachean Ethics lists several positive, healthy human qualities, excellences, or virtues. Aristotle argues that for each positive quality there are two negative vices that are found on each extreme of the virtue. Courage, for example, is the human excellence or virtue in facing fear and risk. Excessive courage makes one rash, while a deficiency of courage makes one cowardly. This principle of virtue found in the middle or "mean '' between excess and deficiency is Aristotle 's notion of the golden mean. Aristotle lists virtues like courage, temperance or self - control, generosity, "greatness of soul, '' proper response to anger, friendliness, and wit or charm.
Roman writers like Horace extolled the value of virtue while listing and warning against vices. His first epistles says that "to flee vice is the beginning of virtue, and to have got rid of folly is the beginning of wisdom. ''
The modern concept of the seven deadly sins is linked to the works of the fourth - century monk Evagrius Ponticus, who listed eight evil thoughts in Greek as follows:
They were translated into the Latin of Western Christianity (largely due to the writings of John Cassian), thus becoming part of the Western tradition 's spiritual pietas (or Catholic devotions), as follows:
These "evil thoughts '' can be categorized into three types:
In AD 590 Pope Gregory I revised this list to form the more common list. Gregory combined tristitia with acedia, and vanagloria with superbia, and added envy, in Latin, invidia. Gregory 's list became the standard list of sins. Thomas Aquinas uses and defends Gregory 's list in his Summa Theologica although he calls them the "capital sins '' because they are the head and form of all the others. The Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church, and Methodist Church, among other Christian denominations, continue to retain this list. Moreover, modern day evangelists, such as Billy Graham have explicated the seven deadly sins.
Most of the capital sins, with the sole exception of sloth, are defined by Dante Alighieri as perverse or corrupt versions of love for something or another: lust, gluttony, and greed are all excessive or disordered love of good things; sloth is a deficiency of love; wrath, envy, and pride are perverted love directed toward other 's harm. In the seven capital sins are seven ways of eternal death. The capital sins from lust to envy are generally associated with pride, which has been labeled as the father of all sins, etc.
Lust, or lechery (Latin, "luxuria '' (carnal)), is intense longing. It is usually thought of as intense or unbridled sexual desire, which leads to fornication, adultery, rape, bestiality, un-natural sexual practices and other immoral sexual acts. However, lust could also mean simply desire in general; thus, lust for money, power, and other things are sinful. In accordance with the words of Henry Edward Manning, the impurity of lust transforms one into "a slave of the devil ''.
Lust, if not managed properly, can subvert propriety.
German philosopher Schopenhauer wrote as follows:
"Lust is the ultimate goal of almost all human endeavour, exerts an adverse influence on the most important affairs, interrupts the most serious business, sometimes for a while confuses even the greatest minds, does not hesitate with its trumpery to disrupt the negotiations of statesmen and the research of scholars, has the knack of slipping its love - letters and ringlets even into ministerial portfolios and philosophical manuscripts ''.
Dante defined lust as the disordered love for individuals, thus possessing at least the redeeming feature of mutuality, unlike the graver sins, which constitute an increasingly agonised focusing upon the solitary self (a process begun with the more serious sin of gluttony). It is generally thought to be the least serious capital sin as it is an abuse of a faculty that humans share with animals, and sins of the flesh are less grievous than spiritual sins (love excessive, not love turning ever further awry toward hatred of man and God).
In Dante 's Purgatorio, the penitents walk deliberately through the purifying flames of the uppermost of the terraces of Mount Purgatory so as to purge themselves of lustful thoughts and feelings and finally win the right to reach the Earthly Paradise at the summit. In Dante 's Inferno, unforgiven souls guilty of the sin of lust are whirled around for all eternity in a perpetual tempest, symbolic of the passions by which, through lack of self - control, they were buffeted helplessly about in their earthly lives.
Gluttony (Latin, gula) is the overindulgence and overconsumption of anything to the point of waste. The word derives from the Latin gluttire, meaning to gulp down or swallow.
In Christianity, it is considered a sin if the excessive desire for food causes it to be withheld from the needy.
Because of these scripts, gluttony can be interpreted as selfishness; essentially placing concern with one 's own impulses or interests above the well - being or interests of others.
During times of famine, war, and similar periods when food is scarce, it is possible for one to indirectly kill other people through starvation just by eating too much or even too soon.
Medieval church leaders (e.g., Thomas Aquinas) took a more expansive view of gluttony, arguing that it could also include an obsessive anticipation of meals, and the constant eating of delicacies and excessively costly foods. Aquinas went so far as to prepare a list of five ways to commit gluttony, comprising:
Of these, ardenter is often considered the most serious, since it is extreme attachment to the pleasure of mere eating, which can make the committer eat impulsively; absolutely and without qualification live merely to eat and drink; lose attachment to health - related, social, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures; and lose proper judgement: an example is Esau selling his birthright for ordinary food of bread and pottage of lentils. His punishment was that of the "profane person... who, for a morsel of meat sold his birthright. '' We learn that "he found no place for repentance, though he sought it carefully, with tears. ''
Greed (Latin, avaritia), also known as avarice, cupidity, or covetousness, is, like lust and gluttony, a sin of desire. However, greed (as seen by the Church) is applied to an artificial, rapacious desire and pursuit of material possessions. Thomas Aquinas wrote, "Greed is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things. '' In Dante 's Purgatory, the penitents were bound and laid face down on the ground for having concentrated excessively on earthly thoughts. Hoarding of materials or objects, theft and robbery, especially by means of violence, trickery, or manipulation of authority are all actions that may be inspired by Greed. Such misdeeds can include simony, where one attempts to purchase or sell sacraments, including Holy Orders and, therefore, positions of authority in the Church hierarchy.
In the words of Henry Edward, avarice "plunges a man deep into the mire of this world, so that he makes it to be his god. ''
As defined outside Christian writings, greed is an inordinate desire to acquire or possess more than one needs, especially with respect to material wealth. Like pride, it can lead to not just some, but all evil.
Sloth (Latin, tristitia or acedia ("without care '')) refers to a peculiar jumble of notions, dating from antiquity and including mental, spiritual, pathological, and physical states. It may be defined as absence of interest or habitual disinclination to exertion.
In his Summa Theologica, Saint Thomas Aquinas defined sloth as "sorrow about spiritual good ''.
The scope of sloth is wide. Spiritually, acedia first referred to an affliction attending religious persons, especially monks, wherein they became indifferent to their duties and obligations to God. Mentally, acedia has a number of distinctive components of which the most important is affectlessness, a lack of any feeling about self or other, a mind - state that gives rise to boredom, rancor, apathy, and a passive inert or sluggish mentation. Physically, acedia is fundamentally associated with a cessation of motion and an indifference to work; it finds expression in laziness, idleness, and indolence.
Sloth includes ceasing to utilize the seven gifts of grace given by the Holy Spirit (Wisdom, Understanding, Counsel, Knowledge, Piety, Fortitude, and Fear of the Lord); such disregard may lead to the slowing of one 's spiritual progress towards eternal life, to the neglect of manifold duties of charity towards the neighbor, and to animosity towards those who love God.
Sloth has also been defined as a failure to do things that one should do. By this definition, evil exists when "good '' people fail to act.
Edmund Burke (1729 -- 1797) wrote in Present Discontents (II. 78) "No man, who is not inflamed by vain - glory into enthusiasm, can flatter himself that his single, unsupported, desultory, unsystematic endeavours are of power to defeat the subtle designs and united Cabals of ambitious citizens. When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle. ''
Unlike the other capital sins, which are sins of committing immorality, sloth is a sin of omitting responsibilities. It may arise from any of the other capital vices; for example, a son may omit his duty to his father through anger. While the state and habit of sloth is a mortal sin, the habit of the soul tending towards the last mortal state of sloth is not mortal in and of itself except under certain circumstances.
Emotionally and cognitively, the evil of acedia finds expression in a lack of any feeling for the world, for the people in it, or for the self. Acedia takes form as an alienation of the sentient self first from the world and then from itself. Although the most profound versions of this condition are found in a withdrawal from all forms of participation in or care for others or oneself, a lesser but more noisome element was also noted by theologians. From tristitia, asserted Gregory the Great, "there arise malice, rancour, cowardice, (and) despair... '' Chaucer, too, dealt with this attribute of acedia, counting the characteristics of the sin to include despair, somnolence, idleness, tardiness, negligence, indolence, and wrawnesse, the last variously translated as "anger '' or better as "peevishness ''. For Chaucer, human 's sin consists of languishing and holding back, refusing to undertake works of goodness because, he / she tells him / her self, the circumstances surrounding the establishment of good are too grievous and too difficult to suffer. Acedia in Chaucer 's view is thus the enemy of every source and motive for work.
Sloth not only subverts the livelihood of the body, taking no care for its day - to - day provisions, but also slows down the mind, halting its attention to matters of great importance. Sloth hinders the man in his righteous undertakings and thus becomes a terrible source of human 's undoing.
In his Purgatorio Dante portrayed the penance for acedia as running continuously at top speed.
Dante describes acedia as the failure to love God with all one 's heart, all one 's mind and all one 's soul; to him it was the middle sin, the only one characterised by an absence or insufficiency of love. Some scholars have said that the ultimate form of acedia was despair which leads to suicide.
Wrath (Latin, ira) can be defined as uncontrolled feelings of anger, rage, and even hatred. Wrath often reveals itself in the wish to seek vengeance. In its purest form, wrath presents with injury, violence, and hate that may provoke feuds that can go on for centuries. Wrath may persist long after the person who did another a grievous wrong is dead. Feelings of wrath can manifest in different ways, including impatience, hateful misanthropy, revenge, and self - destructive behavior, such as drug abuse or suicide.
"People who fly into a rage always make a bad landing. ''
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, the neutral act of anger becomes the sin of wrath when it 's directed against an innocent person, when it 's unduly strong or long - lasting, or when it desires excessive punishment. "If anger reaches the point of a deliberate desire to kill or seriously wound a neighbor, it is gravely against charity; it is a mortal sin. '' (CCC 2302) Hatred is the sin of desiring that someone else may suffer misfortune or evil, and is a mortal sin when one desires grave harm. (CCC 2302 - 03)
People feel angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are certain someone else is responsible, and when they feel they can still influence the situation or cope with it.
In her introduction to Purgatory, Dorothy L. Sayers describes wrath as "love of justice perverted to revenge and spite ''.
In accordance with Henry Edward, angry people are "slaves to themselves ''.
Envy (Latin, invidia), like greed and lust, is characterized by an insatiable desire. It can be described as a sad or resentful covetousness towards the traits or possessions of someone else. It arises from vainglory, and severs a man from his neighbor.
Malicious envy is similar to jealousy in that they both feel discontent towards someone 's traits, status, abilities, or rewards. A difference is that the envious also desire the entity and covet it. Envy can be directly related to the Ten Commandments, specifically, "Neither shall you covet... anything that belongs to your neighbour '' - a statement that may also be related to greed. Dante defined envy as "a desire to deprive other men of theirs ''. In Dante 's Purgatory, the punishment for the envious is to have their eyes sewn shut with wire because they gained sinful pleasure from seeing others brought low. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the struggle aroused by envy has three stages: during the first stage, the envious person attempts to lower another 's reputation; in the middle stage, the envious person receives either "joy at another 's misfortune '' (if he succeeds in defaming the other person) or "grief at another 's prosperity '' (if he fails); the third stage is hatred because "sorrow causes hatred ''.
Envy is said to be the motivation behind Cain murdering his brother, Abel, as Cain envied Abel because God favored Abel 's sacrifice over Cain 's.
Bertrand Russell said that envy was one of the most potent causes of unhappiness, bringing sorrow to committers of envy whilst giving them the urge to inflict pain upon others.
In accordance with the most widely accepted views, only pride weighs down the soul more than envy among the capital sins. Just like pride, envy has been associated directly with the devil, for Wisdom 2: 24 states: '' the envy of the devil brought death to the world, ".
Pride (Latin, superbia) is considered, on almost every list, the original and most serious of the seven deadly sins: the perversion of the faculties that make humans more like God -- dignity and holiness. It is also thought to be the source of the other capital sins. Also known as hubris (from ancient Greek ὕβρις), or futility, it is identified as dangerously corrupt selfishness, the putting of one 's own desires, urges, wants, and whims before the welfare of people.
In even more destructive cases, it is irrationally believing that one is essentially and necessarily better, superior, or more important than others, failing to acknowledge the accomplishments of others, and excessive admiration of the personal image or self (especially forgetting one 's own lack of divinity, and refusing to acknowledge one 's own limits, faults, or wrongs as a human being).
What the weak head with strongest bias rules, Is pride, the never - failing vice of fools.
As pride has been labelled the father of all sins, it has been deemed the devil 's most prominent trait. C.S. Lewis writes, in Mere Christianity, that pride is the "anti-God '' state, the position in which the ego and the self are directly opposed to God: "Unchastity, anger, greed, drunkenness, and all that, are mere fleabites in comparison: it was through Pride that the devil became the devil: Pride leads to every other vice: it is the complete anti-God state of mind. '' Pride is understood to sever the spirit from God, as well as His life - and - grace - giving Presence.
One can be prideful for different reasons. Author Ichabod Spencer states that "(s) piritual pride is the worst kind of pride, if not worst snare of the devil. The heart is particularly deceitful on this one thing. '' Jonathan Edwards said "(r) emember that pride is the worst viper that is in the heart, the greatest disturber of the soul 's peace and sweet communion with Christ; it was the first sin that ever was, and lies lowest in the foundation of Satan 's whole building, and is the most difficultly rooted out, and is the most hidden, secret and deceitful of all lusts, and often creeps in, insensibly, into the midst of religion and sometimes under the disguise of humility. ''
In Ancient Athens, hubris was considered one of the greatest crimes and was used to refer to insolent contempt that can cause one to use violence to shame the victim. This sense of hubris could also characterize rape. Aristotle defined hubris as shaming the victim, not because of anything that happened to the committer or might happen to the committer, but merely for the committer 's own gratification. The word 's connotation changed somewhat over time, with some additional emphasis towards a gross over-estimation of one 's abilities.
The term has been used to analyse and make sense of the actions of contemporary heads of government by Ian Kershaw (1998), Peter Beinart (2010) and in a much more physiological manner by David Owen (2012). In this context the term has been used to describe how certain leaders, when put to positions of immense power, seem to become irrationally self - confident in their own abilities, increasingly reluctant to listen to the advice of others and progressively more impulsive in their actions.
Dante 's definition of pride was "love of self perverted to hatred and contempt for one 's neighbour ''.
Pride is associated with more intra-individual negative outcomes and is commonly related to expressions of aggression and hostility (Tangney, 1999). As one might expect, pride is not always associated with high self - esteem but with highly fluctuating or variable self - esteem. Excessive feelings of pride have a tendency to create conflict and sometimes terminating close relationships, which has led it to be understood as one of the few emotions with no clear positive or adaptive functions (Rhodwalt, et al.).
Pride is generally associated with an absence of humility. It may also be associated with a lack of knowledge. John Gay states that "By ignorance is pride increased; They most assume who know the least. ''
In accordance with the Sirach 's author 's wording, the heart of a proud man is "like a partridge in its cage acting as a decoy; like a spy he watches for your weaknesses. He changes good things into evil, he lays his traps. Just as a spark sets coals on fire, the wicked man prepares his snares in order to draw blood. Beware of the wicked man for he is planning evil. He might dishonor you forever. '' In another chapter, he says that "the acquisitive man is not content with what he has, wicked injustice shrivels the heart. ''
Benjamin Franklin said "In reality there is, perhaps no one of our natural passions so hard to subdue as pride. Disguise it, struggle with it, stifle it, mortify it as much as one pleases, it is still alive and will every now and then peep out and show itself; you will see it, perhaps, often in this history. For even if I could conceive that I had completely overcome it, I should probably be proud of my humility. '' Joseph Addison states that "There is no passion that steals into the heart more imperceptibly and covers itself under more disguises than pride. ''
The proverb "pride goeth (goes) before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall '' (from the biblical Book of Proverbs, 16: 18) (or pride goeth before the fall) is thought to sum up the modern use of pride. Pride is also referred to as "pride that blinds, '' as it often causes a committer of pride to act in foolish ways that belie common sense. In other words, the modern definition may be thought of as, "that pride that goes just before the fall. '' In his two - volume biography of Adolf Hitler, historian Ian Kershaw uses both ' hubris ' and ' nemesis ' as titles. The first volume, Hubris, describes Hitler 's early life and rise to political power. The second, Nemesis, gives details of Hitler 's role in the Second World War, and concludes with his fall and suicide in 1945.
Much of the 10th and part of 11th chapter of the Book of Sirach discusses and advises about pride, hubris, and who is rationally worthy of honor. It goes:
"Do not store up resentment against your neighbor, no matter what his offence; do nothing in a fit of anger. Pride is odious to both God and man; injustice is abhorrent to both of them. Sovereignty is forced from one nation to another because of injustice, violence, and wealth. How can there be such pride in someone who is nothing but dust and ashes? Even while he is living, man 's bowels are full of rottenness. Look: the illness lasts while the doctor makes light of it; and one who is king today will die tomorrow. Once a man is dead, grubs, insects, and worms are his lot. The beginning of man 's pride is to separate himself from the Lord and to rebel against his Creator. The beginning of pride is sin. Whoever perseveres in sinning opens the floodgates to everything that is evil. For this the Lord has inflicted dire punishment on sinners; he has reduced them to nothing. The Lord has overturned the thrones of princes and set up the meek in their place. The Lord has torn up the proud by their roots and has planted the humble in their place. The Lord has overturned the land of pagans and totally destroyed them. He has devastated several of them, destroyed them and removed all remembrance of them from the face of the earth. Pride was not created for man, nor violent anger for those born of woman. Which race is worthy of honor? The human race. Which race is worthy of honor? Those who are good. Which race is despicable? The human race. Which race is despicable? Those who break the commandments. The leader is worthy of respect in the midst of his brethren, but he has respect for those who are good. Whether, they be rich, honored or poor, their pride should be in being good. It is not right to despise the poor man who keeps the law; it is not fitting to honor the sinful man. The leader, the judge, and the powerful man are worthy of honor, but no one is greater than the man who is good. A prudent slave will have free men as servants, and the sensible man will not complain. Do not feel proud when you accomplished your work; do not put on airs when times are difficult for you. Of greater worth is the man who works and lives in abundance than the one who shows off and yet has nothing to live on. My son, have a modest appreciation of yourself, estimate yourself at your true value. Who will defend the man who takes his own life? Who will respect the man who despises himself? The poor man will be honored for his wisdom and the rich man, for his riches. Honored when poor - how much more honored when rich! Dishonored when rich - how much more dishonored when poor! The poor man who is intelligent carries his head high and sits among the great. Do not praise a man because he is handsome and do not hold a man in contempt because of his appearance. The bee is one of the smallest winged insects but she excels in the exquisite sweetness of her honey. Do not be irrationally proud just because of the clothes you wear; do not be proud when people honor you. Do you know what the Lord is planning in a mysterious way? Many tyrants have been overthrown and someone unknown has received the crown. Many powerful men have been disgraced and famous men handed over to the power of others. Do not reprehend anyone unless you have been first fully informed, consider the case first and thereafter make your reproach. Do not reply before you have listened; do not meddle in the disputes of sinners. My child, do not undertake too many activities. If you keep adding to them, you will not be without reproach; if you run after them, you will not succeed nor will you ever be free, although you try to escape. ''
Jacob Bidermann 's medieval miracle play, Cenodoxus, pride is the deadliest of all the sins and leads directly to the damnation of the titulary famed Parisian doctor. In Dante 's Divine Comedy, the penitents are burdened with stone slabs on their necks to keep their heads bowed.
Acedia (Latin, acedia "without care '') (from Greek ἀκηδία) is the neglect to take care of something that one should do. It is translated to apathetic listlessness; depression without joy. It is related to melancholy: acedia describes the behaviour and melancholy suggests the emotion producing it. In early Christian thought, the lack of joy was regarded as a willful refusal to enjoy the goodness of God; by contrast, apathy was considered a refusal to help others in time of need.
Acēdia is negative form of the Greek term κηδεία, which has a more restricted usage. ' Kēdeia ' refers specifically to spousal love and respect for the dead. The positive term ' kēdeia ' thus indicates love for one 's family, even through death. It also indicates love for those outside one 's immediate family, specifically forming a new family with one 's "beloved. '' Seen in this way, ' acēdia ' indicates a rejection of familial love. Nonetheless, the meaning of ' acēdia ' is far more broad, signifying indifference to everything one experiences.
Pope Gregory combined this with tristitia into sloth for his list. When Thomas Aquinas described acedia in his interpretation of the list, he described it as an uneasiness of the mind, being a progenitor for lesser sins such as restlessness and instability. Dante refined this definition further, describing acedia as the failure to love God with all one 's heart, all one 's mind and all one 's soul; to him it was the middle sin, the only one characterised by an absence or insufficiency of love. Some scholars have said that the ultimate form of acedia was despair which leads to suicide.
Acedia is currently defined in the Catechism of the Catholic Church as spiritual sloth, which would be believing spiritual tasks to be too difficult. In the fourth century, Christian monks believed acedia was not primarily caused by laziness, but by a state of depression that caused spiritual detachment.
Vainglory (Latin, vanagloria) is unjustified boasting. Pope Gregory viewed it as a form of pride, so he folded vainglory into pride for his listing of sins. According to Thomas Aquinas, it is the progenitor of envy.
The Latin term gloria roughly means boasting, although its English cognate -- glory -- has come to have an exclusively positive meaning; historically, the term vain roughly meant futile (a meaning retained in the modern expression "in vain ''), but by the 14th century had come to have the strong narcissistic undertones, that it still retains today. As a result of these semantic changes, vainglory has become a rarely used word in itself, and is now commonly interpreted as referring to vanity (in its modern narcissistic sense).
With Christianity, historic Christian denominations such as the Catholic Church and Protestant Churches, including the Lutheran Church, recognize seven virtues, which correspond inversely to each of the seven deadly sins.
Confession is the act of admitting the commission of a sin to a priest, who in turn will forgive the person in the name (in the person) of Christ, give a penance to (partially) make up for the offense, and advise the person on what he or she should do afterwards.
According to a 2009 study by Fr Roberto Busa, a Jesuit scholar, the most common deadly sin confessed by men is supposedly lust, and by women, pride. It was unclear whether these differences were due to the actual number of transgressions committed by each sex, or whether differing views on what "counts '' or should be confessed caused the observed pattern.
The second book of Dante 's epic poem The Divine Comedy is structured around the seven deadly sins. The most serious sins, found at the lowest level, are the abuses of the most divine faculty. For Dante and other thinkers, a human 's rational faculty makes humans more like God. Abusing that faculty with pride or envy weighs down the soul the most. Abusing one 's passions with wrath or a lack of passion as with sloth also weighs down the soul but not as much as the abuse of one 's rational faculty. Finally, abusing one 's desires to have one 's physical needs met via greed, gluttony, or lust abuses a faculty that humans share with animals. This is still an abuse that weighs down the soul, but it does not weigh it down like other abuses. Thus, the top levels of the Mountain of Purgatory have the top listed sins, while the lowest levels have the more serious sins of wrath, envy, and pride.
The last tale of the Canterbury Tales, the "Parson 's Tale '' is not a tale but a sermon that the parson gives against the seven deadly sins. This sermon brings together many common ideas and images about the seven deadly sins. This tale and Dante 's work both show how the seven deadly sins were used for confessional purposes or as a way to identify, repent of, and find forgiveness for one 's sins.
The Dutch artist created a series of prints showing each of the seven deadly sins. Each print features a central, labeled image that represents the sin. Around the figure are images that show the distortions, degenerations, and destructions caused by the sin. Many of these images come from contemporary Dutch aphorisms.
Spenser 's work, which was meant to educate young people to embrace virtue and avoid vice, includes a colourful depiction of the House of Pride. Lucifera, the lady of the house, is accompanied by advisers who represent the other seven deadly sins.
The seven sins are personified and they give a confession to the personification of Repentance. Only pride is represented by a woman, the others all represented by male characters.
This work satirized capitalism and its painful abuses as its central character, the victim of a split personality, travels to seven different cities in search of money for her family. In each city she encounters one of the seven deadly sins, but those sins ironically reverse one 's expectations. When the character goes to Los Angeles, for example, she is outraged by injustice, but is told that wrath against capitalism is a sin that she must avoid.
Between 1945 and 1949, the American painter Paul Cadmus created a series of vivid, powerful, and gruesome paintings of each of the seven deadly sins.
Ferdinand Mount maintains that liquid currentness, especially through tabloids, has surprisingly given valor to vices, causing society to regress into that of primitive pagans: "covetousness has been rebranded as retail therapy, sloth is downtime, lust is exploring your sexuality, anger is opening up your feelings, vanity is looking good because you 're worth it and gluttony is the religion of foodies ''.
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where have the winter olympics been in usa | Winter Olympic Games - wikipedia
The Winter Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques d'hiver) is a major international sporting event held once every four years for sports practised on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, were held in Chamonix, France. The modern Olympic games were inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Summer Games in Athens, Greece in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.
The original five Winter Olympics sports (broken into nine disciplines) were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing (consisting of the disciplines military patrol, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, and ski jumping), and skating (consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating). The Games were held every four years from 1924 to 1936, interrupted in 1940 and 1944 by World War II, and resumed in 1948. Until 1992 the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years, but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the IOC to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four - year cycles in alternating even - numbered years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994.
The Winter Games have evolved since their inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such as Alpine skiing, luge, short track speed skating, freestyle skiing, skeleton, and snowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme. Some others, including curling and bobsleigh, have been discontinued and later reintroduced; others have been permanently discontinued, such as military patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it. Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It generated income via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address numerous criticisms over the decades like internal scandals, the use of performance - enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians, as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have used the Winter (as well as Summer) Games to proclaim the superiority of their political systems.
The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by twelve different countries. The Games have been held four times in the United States (in 1932, 1960, 1980 and 2002); three times in France (in 1924, 1968 and 1992); and twice each in Austria (1964, 1976), Canada (1988, 2010), Japan (1972, 1998), Italy (1956, 2006), Norway (1952, 1994), and Switzerland (1928, 1948). Also, the Games have been held just once each in Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), Russia (2014) and South Korea (2018). The IOC has selected Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics and the host of the 2026 Winter Olympics will be selected in September 2019. As of 2018, no city in the southern hemisphere has applied to host the cold - weather - dependent Winter Olympics, which are held in February at the height of the southern hemisphere summer.
To date, twelve countries have participated in every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. Six of those countries have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States. The only country to have earned a gold medal at every Winter Olympics is the United States. Norway leads the all - time medal table for the Winter Olympics both on number of gold and overall medals, followed by the United States and Germany.
A predecessor, the Nordic Games, were organised by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in Stockholm, Sweden in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926. Balck was a charter member of the IOC and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic programme but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Four figure skating events were contested, at which Ulrich Salchow (10 - time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles.
Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports.
The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.
The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Summer Olympics, were held in Antwerp, Belgium, and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games. At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate "International Winter Sports Week '' under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this "week '' (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events. Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined. Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the Winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate winter event and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.
St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Winter Games in 1928. Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed - skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled. The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games: Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she held for 70 years.
The next Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid, New York, was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated. This was less than in 1928, as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was long and expensive for most competitors, who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and there was not enough snow to hold all the events until mid-January. Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title, and Eddie Eagan of the United States, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold medal in the men 's bobsleigh event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.
The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on 6 -- 16 February. This was the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals. Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games.
World War II interrupted the holding of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. The Games were then to be held at Garmisch - Partenkirchen, Germany, but the 1940 Games were cancelled following the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Due to the ongoing war, the 1944 Games, originally scheduled for Cortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled.
St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Switzerland 's neutrality had protected the town during World War II, and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice. Twenty - eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited. Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals -- more than any Games to that point.
The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo, was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim, and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis. Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden, and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations. They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition.
After not being able to host the Games in 1944, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron. These were the first Winter Games to be televised, and the first Olympics ever broadcast to an international audience, though no television rights were sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation. Soviet immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete ''. The USSR entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train full - time. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia when he placed second in the slalom.
The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. It was an undeveloped resort in 1955, so from 1956 to 1960 the infrastructure and all of the venues were built at a cost of US $80,000,000. The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney. The Squaw Valley Olympics was the first winter Olympics to have a dedicated athletes ' village, the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time due to the cost of building a bobsleigh run.
The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was enlisted to transport snow and ice to the sports venues. Soviet speed - skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by winning all four speed skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes. Luge was first contested in 1964, but the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run.
Held in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 1,158 athletes from 37 nations competing in 35 events. French alpine ski racer Jean - Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men 's alpine skiing events. The organising committee sold television rights for US $2 million, which was more than twice the cost of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games. Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes ' villages. The organisers claimed that this was necessary to accommodate technological advances, however critics disputed this, alleging that the layout would incorporate the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the athletes ' expense.
The 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted on a continent other than North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism was disputed during these Games when a number of alpine skiers were found to have participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States; three days before the opening ceremony, IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar the skiers from competing in the Games as he insisted that they were no longer amateurs having benefited financially from their status as athletes. Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than the other skiers, was excluded from the competition. Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest at not being able to use players from professional leagues. Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first (and, as of 2018, only) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal when he triumphed in the slalom.
The 1976 Winter Olympics had initially been awarded in 1970 to Denver, Colorado in the United States. These Games would have coincided with the year of Colorado 's centennial and the United States Bicentennial. However, in November 1972 the people of Colorado voted against public funding of the Games by a 3: 2 margin. The IOC responded by offering the Games to Vancouver - Garibaldi, British Columbia, which had previously been an official candidate for the 1976 Games. However, a change in the provincial government resulted in an administration that did not support the Olympic bid, so the IOC 's offer was rejected. Salt Lake City, previously a candidate for the 1972 Winter Olympics, then put itself forward, but the IOC opted instead to invite Innsbruck to host the 1976 Games, as most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games had been maintained. Despite only having half the usual time to prepare for the Games, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973. Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time that the Austrian town had hosted the Winter Games. The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track, in neighbouring Igls. The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal.
In 1980 the Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. The first boycott of a Winter Olympics took place at these Games, when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem. This was an attempt by the IOC to accommodate China, who wished to compete using the same name and anthem as those used by Taiwan. As a result, China participated for the first time since 1952. American speed - skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or World record in every one of the five events in which he competed, winning a total of five individual gold medals and breaking the record for most individual golds in a single Olympics (both Summer and Winter). Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist. In the "Miracle on Ice '', the American hockey team composed of college players beat the favoured seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, and progressed to eventually win the gold medal.
Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front - runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host. The Games were well - organised and not affected by the run - up to the war that engulfed the country eight years later. A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean; their Boléro routine received unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression, earning them the gold medal.
In 1988, the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span three weekends, lasting for a total of 16 days. New events were added in ski - jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their debut appearance as demonstration sports. The speed skating events were held indoors for the first time, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race. Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport. Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East German Christa Rothenburger won the women 's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.
The 1992 Winter Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games. They were hosted in the French Savoie region, with 18 events held in the city of Albertville and the remaining events spread out over the Savoie. Political changes of the time were reflected in the composition of the Olympic teams competing in France: this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II. At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion. New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women 's slalom.
The 1994 Winter Olympics, held in Lillehammer, Norway, were the first Winter Games to be held separately from the Summer Games. This change resulted from the decision reached in the 91st IOC Session (1986) to separate the summer and winter Games and place them in alternating even - numbered years. Lillehammer is the northernmost city to ever host the Winter Games and it was the second time the Games were held in Norway, after the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts. The women 's figure skating competition drew media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding. Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was controversially won by Oksana Baiul who became Ukraine 's first Olympic champion, while Kerrigan won the silver medal. Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. 13 - year - old Kim Yoon - Mi became the youngest - ever Olympic gold medallist when South Korea won the women 's 3,000 meter speed skating relay. Russia won the most events, with eleven gold medals, while Norway achieved 26 podium finishes, collecting the most medals overall on home ground. Juan Antonio Samaranch described Lillehammer as "the best Olympic Winter Games ever '' in his closing ceremony speech.
The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes. The men 's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States were favoured to win the tournament as they both fielded numerous NHL players, but surprisingly neither team won any medals and it was the Czech Republic who prevailed. Women 's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal. Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete, with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall. Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-G and the giant slalom. Tara Lipinski of the United States, aged just 15, became the youngest ever female gold medallist in an individual event when she won the Ladies ' Singles, a record that had stood since Sonja Henie of Norway won the same event, also aged 15, in St. Moritz in 1928. New world records were set in speed skating largely due to the introduction of the clap skate.
The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City, United States, hosting 77 nations and 2,399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports. These Games were the first to take place since the September 11 attacks of 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremony saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing "God Bless America '', and honour guards of NYPD and FDNY members.
German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics. Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men 's and women 's ice hockey gold medals. Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians. The only exception was the French judge, Marie - Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games. Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short - track speed skating event.
The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short - track speed skating events. Sun - Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun - Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze. In the women 's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. On winning the Super-G, Kjetil - Andre Aamodt of Norway became the most decorated ski racer of all time with 4 gold and 8 overall medals. He is also the only ski racer to have won the same event at three different Olympics, winning the Super-G in 1992, 2002 and 2006. Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009, Pechstein tested positive for "blood manipulation '' and received a two - year suspension, which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team. This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court 's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver.
In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games. Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events. The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women 's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze. The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 Games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal - winning nations, but in 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games. Russia 's disappointing performance at Vancouver is cited as the reason behind the implementation of a doping scheme alleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under - performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty - one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea, Japan and China.
Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city for the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time that Russia had hosted a Winter Olympics. The Games took place from 7 to 23 February 2014. A record 2,800 athletes from 88 countries competed in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres (31 miles) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana. The Games were the most expensive so far, with a cost of £ 30 billion (USD 51 billion).
On the snow, Norwegian biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen took two golds to bring his total tally of Olympic medals to 13, overtaking his compatriot Bjørn Dæhlie to become the most decorated Winter Olympian of all time. Another Norwegian, cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen took three golds; her total of ten Olympic medals tied her as the female Winter Olympian with most medals, alongside Raisa Smetanina and Stefania Belmondo. Snowboarder Ayumu Hirano became the youngest medallist on snow at the Winter Games when he took a silver in the halfpipe competition at the age of fifteen. On the ice, the Dutch dominated the speed skating events, taking 23 medals, four clean sweeps of the podium places and at least one medal in each of the twelve medal events. Ireen Wüst was their most successful competitor, taking two golds and three silvers. In figure skating, Yuzuru Hanyu became the first skater to break the 100 - point barrier in the short programme on the way to winning the gold medal. Among the sledding disciplines, luger Armin Zöggeler took a bronze, becoming the first Winter Olympian to secure a medal in six consecutive Games.
Following their disappointing performance at the 2010 Games, and an investment of £ 600 million in elite sport, Russia initially topped the medal table, taking 33 medals including thirteen golds. However Grigory Rodchenkov, the former head of the Russian national anti-doping laboratory, subsequently claimed that he had been involved in doping dozens of Russian competitors for the Games, and that he had been assisted by the Russian Federal Security Service in opening and re-sealing bottles containing urine samples so that samples with banned substances could be replaced with "clean '' urine. A subsequent investigation commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency led by Richard McLaren concluded that a state - sponsored doping programme had operated in Russia from "at least late 2011 to 2015 '' across the "vast majority '' of Summer and Winter Olympic sports. On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that Russia would be banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics with immediate effect and by the end of 2017 the IOC Disciplinary Commission had disqualified 43 Russian athletes, stripping thirteen medals and knocking Russia from the top of the medal table, thus putting Norway in the lead.
On 6 July 2011, Pyeongchang, South Korea, was selected to host the 2018 Winter Olympics over Munich, Germany, and Annecy, France. This was the first time that South Korea had been selected to host a Winter Olympics and it was the second time the Olympics were held in the country overall, after the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The Games took place from 9 to 25 February 2018. More than 2,900 athletes from 92 countries participated in 102 events. The Olympic Stadium and many of the sports venues were situated in the Alpensia Resort in Daegwallyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang, while a number of other sports venues were located in the Gangneung Olympic Park in Pyeongchang 's neighboring city of Gangneung.
The lead - up to the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected by the tensions between North and South Korea and the ongoing Russian doping scandal. Despite tense relations, North Korea agreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as a unified Korea, and field a unified team in women 's ice hockey. Individual Russian athletes, who qualified and could demonstrate they had complied with the IOC 's doping regulations, were given the option to compete neutrally in Pyeongchang as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) but they were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag.
The Games saw the addition of big air snowboarding, mass start speed skating, mixed doubles curling, and mixed team alpine skiing to the programme. On the ice, the Netherlands again dominated the speed skating, winning gold medals in seven of the ten individual events. Dutch speed skater Sven Kramer won gold in the men 's 5000m event, becoming the only male speed skater to win the same Olympic event three times. On the snow, Norway led the medal tally in cross-country skiing, with Marit Bjørgen winning bronze in the women 's team sprint and gold in the 30 kilometre classical event, bringing her total Olympic medal haul to fifteen, the most won by any athlete (male or female) in Winter Olympics history. Johannes Høsflot Klæbo became the youngest ever male to win an Olympic gold in cross-country skiing when he won the men 's sprint at age 21. Noriaki Kasai of Japan became the first athlete in history to participate in eight Winter Olympics when he took part in the ski jumping qualification the day before the opening of the Games. Ester Ledecká of the Czech Republic won gold in the skiing super-G event and another gold in the snowboarding parallel giant slalom, making her the first female athlete to win Olympic gold medals in two different sports at a single Winter Games.
Norway led the total medal standings with 39, the highest number of medals by a nation in any Winter Olympics, followed by Germany 's 31 and Canada 's 29. Host nation South Korea won seventeen medals, their highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics.
The host city for the 2022 Winter Olympics, is Beijing in northern China, elected on 31 July 2015, at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur. Beijing will be the first city ever to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. The 2022 Winter Olympics will take place between 4 and 20 February 2022.
The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games. Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City 's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member 's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988. For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano 's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical ''. Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities.
According to the IOC, the host city for the Winter Olympics is responsible for "... establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services, etc., as well as operations during the Games. '' Due to the cost of hosting the Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment. For example, the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, cost $3.6 billion to host. By comparison, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion. The organisers of the Nagano Games claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee had hoped that the exposure gained from hosting the Winter Olympics, and the improved access to Nagano from Tokyo, would benefit the local economy for years afterwards. In actual fact, Nagano 's economy did experience a post-Olympic boom for a year or two, but the long - term effects have not materialised as anticipated. The likelihood of heavy debt is a deterrent to prospective host cities, as well as the prospect of unused sports venues and infrastructure saddling the local community with upkeep costs into the future with no appreciable post-Olympic value.
The Winter games has the added problem of the alpine events requiring a mountain location; the men 's downhill needs an 800 meter altitude difference along a suitable course. As this is a focal event that is central to the Games, the IOC will not agree to it taking place a great distance from the main host city. The requirement for a mountain location also means that venues such as hockey arenas often have to be built in sparsely populated areas with little future need for a large arena. Due to cost issues, the only candidate cities for the 2022 Winter Olympics were in dictatorship countries, and a number of European countries declined due to political doubt over costs. Both the 2006 and 2010 Games, which were hosted in countries where large cities are located close to suitable mountain regions, had lower costs since more venues and transport infrastructure already existed.
The IOC has enacted several initiatives to mitigate these concerns. Firstly, the commission has agreed to fund part of the host city 's budget for staging the Games. Secondly, the qualifying host countries are limited to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation; this consequently rules out a large portion of the developing world. Finally, any prospective host city planning to bid for the Games is required to add a "legacy plan '' to their proposal, with a view to the long - term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region.
In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics. The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player, but his team was still allowed to compete. During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance - enhancing drugs. The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug - testing protocols. The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999.
The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue. The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross-country ski team 's residence during the Games where they seized blood - doping specimens and equipment. This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of haemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.
The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi 's Russian Doping Scandal has resulted in the International Olympic Committee to begin disciplinary proceedings against 28 (later increased to 46) Russian athletes who competed at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia, acting on evidence that their urine samples were tampered with.
The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until the ' 90s.
The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics. In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games. East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany 's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team. The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes. The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host - city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes.
The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the "People 's Republic of China '' (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China '' (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem. The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China ''. The IOC renamed the island "Chinese Taipei '' and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC 's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies. Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day.
The Olympic Charter limits winter sports to "those... which are practised on snow or ice. '' Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme; which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports. The results are: more parity in the national medal tables; more interest in the Winter Olympics; and higher global television ratings.
^ Note 1. Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 2. A men 's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 3. The IOC 's website now treats Men 's Military Patrol at the 1924 Games as an event within the sport of Biathlon.
Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960. The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Bandy (Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it 's considered a national sport. It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria. The ski ballet event, later known as ski - acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992. Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928. A sled - dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932. Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Winter pentathlon, a variant of the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It included cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding.
The table below uses official data provided by the IOC.
Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads, the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves.
Bibliography
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can you have a driver's license in two states in australia | Driving licence in Australia - Wikipedia
A driver 's licence (or driver licence) is required in Australia before a person is permitted to drive a motor vehicle of any description on a road in Australia for commerce. The responsibility for the regulation and enforcement of road use, including light vehicle driver licensing is the responsibility of the state and territory governments. A driver 's licence issued in one Australian state or territory is recognised and valid in the other states and territories.
All states and territories in Australia have a uniform driver licence system.
The medical standards for drivers of commercial vehicles are set by the National Transport Commission and Austroads.
The driver of a vehicle carrying paying passengers (such as a school bus or tourist coach) is required to hold a driver licence depending on the size of the vehicle as well as a "Public Passenger Vehicle Driver Authority '' which is issued by the state or territory Ministry of Transport.
The official nomenclature for car licences varies in the states and territories, for example "Driver 's Licence '' or "Driver Licence ''. However, "Driver 's Licence '' is most commonly used.
The official names for learners also vary, for example "Learner Driver Licences '' or "Learner 's Permit ''.
The minimum driving age for drivers varies between States and Territories. Learner drivers may drive, under the supervision of a fully licensed driver, from 15 years and 9 months in the ACT, and 16 years in the other states and the Northern Territory. The minimum unsupervised driving age is 18 years in Victoria, 16 years and 6 months in the Northern Territory, and 17 years in all other states and the ACT. After obtaining a licence, drivers continue to be subject to restrictions during a probationary period. It is three years in the ACT, New South Wales and South Australia, and two years in the Northern Territory.
The driving age in the Australian Capital Territory is 17 years. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a three - year probationary period.
The road ready course is a minimum of ten hours, if undertaken at a road ready centre and not through school. During the course, applicants for a Learner Licence learn the road rules, undergo alcohol education and hazard perception training. Once this course has been completed, and a computerised Road rules test is passed, a Learner 's Licence is obtained. This licence is valid for two years. Learners must display black on yellow "L Plates '' and drive under the supervision of a full Australian licence holder, who has held their licence for at least four years.
The second method in which a Provisional Licence may be obtained, is through recording driving experience in the same logbook, with a supervisor who has held an open licence for twelve months for the class of vehicle used. The difference in using this method to obtain a provisional licence is that the log book only records time spent driving, and not the Learner 's ability to drive. While no minimum number of hours are required, Learners are advised when obtaining their Learner 's licence, that 50 or more practical hours are recommended before attempting the practical test. Using this method, provided the driver has held their Learner 's licence for a period greater than 6 months, they may book into an ACT Roads and Transit Authority Centre, and attempt the practical driving test.
If either method is used, and the driver has obtained their licence in an Automatic transmission vehicle, an "A '' condition is placed on the licence, for a period of 12 months. This condition restricts the license holder, for the duration of this period, to driving vehicles with automatic transmission only. To remove the condition prior to 12 months, the provisional driver must re-attempt the practical driving exam in a manual transmission vehicle. The Provisional Licence is valid for three years. Provisional drivers must display red on white "P Plates '' for three years unless: (a) they take an additional road safety program Road Ready Plus after six months of obtaining their Provisional Licence; or (b) they are over 26 years of age and held their licence for six months. Provisional holders who have taken the Road Ready Plus (RRP) course, (commonly called a "P - off '' course), or are over 26 years of age also get an additional four demerit point allowance. A "PC '' condition is displayed on the licence, which indicates that the provisional driver can drive with "P plates not displayed ''. Provisional drivers must have a zero blood - alcohol limit. No speed restrictions are imposed on ACT learner or Provisional drivers, and they are permitted to drive the posted speed limit.
The Roads and Maritime Services is responsible for driver licensing in New South Wales.
The minimum driving age in New South Wales is 16 years. The government introduced the Graduated Licensing Scheme in 2000 and therefore learners progress from a learner licence, to a provisional P1 licence, to a provisional P2 licence and finally to a full licence over an extended period of time. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a three - year probationary period.
In New South Wales the minimum age to be eligible for a provisional P1 licence is 17. As of 1 July 2007, new laws for P1 drivers have been introduced, including a limit of one passenger under the age of 21 between 11 pm and 5 am, and instant suspension for three months for any speeding offence. Furthermore, it is also now a requirement that red "P - plates '' be displayed on the outside of the vehicle.
P1 and P2 drivers are also prohibited from driving a vehicle with a power - to - weight ratio of or greater than 130 kilowatts per tonne as of 1 August 2014, replacing the previous law of being prohibited from driving vehicles with 8 or more cylinders and being turbocharged or supercharged (diesel vehicles exempt) If a P1 or P2 licence holder is disqualified by a court for a serious driving offence, they will have a one - passenger condition imposed on them at all times while on their P1 or P2 licence. It is also worth noting that any time a P1 or P2 licence is suspended or disqualified will NOT count towards the 12 months / 24 months needed for the holder to progress to a P2 / full licence.
The learner licence may be obtained at age 16. Learner drivers may not use a mobile phone and must be supervised by a full licence holder and may not drive faster than 80 km / h. After holding the learner licence for six months a provisional licence may be obtained. Once the provisional licence is obtained, it must be held for a minimum of 2 years before obtaining the full northern territory licence.
The provisional licence period is a minimum of two years.
Provisional drivers need to comply with all road rules and traffic laws and other restrictions: eg., the speed limit is 100 km / h, The Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) must be a zero, provisional drivers are not permitted to use a mobile phone in any form whilst driving, including hands - free devices and texting. Accumulating five or more demerit points within a 12 - month period will trigger action against a provisional driver.
Provisional drivers must display approved P - plates that are clearly visible to the front and rear of the vehicle and which do not obstruct the driver 's vision. P - plates must have the letter ' P ' in red on a white background. The plate must be a minimum of 150mm wide and 150mm tall. P - plates must not be displayed when the person driving the vehicle is not a provisional driver.
Source: Northern Territory Department of Transport
The Department of Transport and Main Roads is responsible for driver licensing in Queensland.
Persons may apply for their Learner Licence at 16 years of age, passing a written Road Rules Test. Learners under 25 must hold a licence for at least one year and log a total of 100hrs on - road driving experience (including 10hrs night driving) in the issued logbook. However, a logbook exemption can be applied for, meaning the learner will not need to submit a logbook with 100 hours of driving, but will need to hold a Learner Licence for a minimum of 12 months before going for the provisional licence. Learners over 25 years of age are not required to complete a log book of 100 logged driving hours; however, they may voluntarily do so. Learners must display yellow L - plates and are not speed restricted by the licence. Learners must be accompanied by an open licence holder who has held the relevant class open licence for at least 1 year. The drinking level must be 0.00 for a learner and instructor must be under 0.049.
From 2005, Queensland licences have been called a "Driver Licence '' (as opposed to the traditional "Driver 's Licence '' or the variant "Driving Licence ''), and no longer carry information about the holder 's organ donor status. The Australian Organ Donor Register is now used for national registration of tissue donation status.
Elderly drivers are required to have their licences renewed more often and are required to have compulsory eye tests, which does not include colour vision.
For more information on driver 's licences in Queensland, see Department of Transport and Main Roads and click on Licensing.
The Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure is responsible for driver licensing in South Australia.
To get a Provisional Licence (also called a probationary licence and commonly referred to as Ps), you must have held a learner 's permit for at least 12 months, be at least 17 years of age or have an equivalent interstate or overseas driver 's licence and be at least 17. If you had a learner 's permit, you must also have a log book showing you have had at least 75 hours driving experience (including at least 15 hours of night - time driving) which must have all been signed by the Qualified Supervising Driver. All applicants must pass a practical driving test or be signed off on several points by a driving instructor in a competency - based training course. Drivers are then issued with a P1 licence. The main restrictions on P - platers are a maximum speed limit of 100 km / h (even where the posted speed limit is higher), a requirement that no alcohol or party drugs be in the system, and not being allowed to accrue more than 4 demerit points. They must also display red P plates (shown on left).
Drivers who obtain a P1 provisional licence on or after 4 September 2010 must not drive a high - powered vehicle if they are under the age of 25. High powered includes vehicles with engines of eight or more cylinders, vehicles with turbocharged or supercharged engines (excluding diesel powered vehicles), vehicles that have been modified to increase engine performance, and nominated high - performance vehicles. High - powered vehicle restrictions do not apply to drivers over 25 years of age. P plates of any kind are not displayed when on the P2 licence.
A driver must have held a provisional licence (combined P1s and P2s) for at least 3 years (one year on P1 and 2 years on P2) before becoming a fully licensed driver. Fully licensed drivers have their restrictions on alcohol relaxed to 0.05 per cent blood alcohol concentration and may drive at the full speed limit (which is 110 km / h on many country roads).
After 3 months a Learner can go for a practical driving test, this test proves in the driver can drive safely. This test can be undertaken in an automatic or manual vehicle, if the L2 's test was undertaken in an automatic vehicle the learner can still go for their manual licence when the undertake the P 's test. (there is no plate change it still remains the yellow L plate) Once a Learner is on their L2 's they begin logging their driving hours, a learner must complete 50hours of driving and must be of the age of 17 before they can take the practical driving test. This test contains several sections including the "I left something behind '' task. If the learner fails the test he / she must wait 28 days before retaking the test.
Note: there are no vehicle restrictions in Tasmania.
VicRoads is the authority in Victoria responsible for the administration of driver licensing in the state.
The minimum driving age in Victoria is 18 years. A learner can drive at the age of 16 under the supervision of a fully licensed driver since 1966. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a 4 - year probationary period.
' L ' plates must be displayed while driving, and must not tow a trailer. There are no special speed or vehicle restrictions.
Learner permits, P1 and P2 probationary licences may incur a maximum of 5 demerit points in any 12 month period, and 12 points in any 3 year period.
An applicant for a Driver Licence must have held a Learner 's Permit for at least 12 months if the applicant is under 21 years at the time of applying; 6 months if the applicant is between 21 and 24 years; and 3 months for applicants aged over 25 years. If a driver obtained their Learner 's Permit after 1 July 2007, and are under 21 years of age, they must have logged 120 hours of practice, including 20 hours at night.
Probationary drivers must drive with a zero BAC, and are not permitted to drive ' high powered vehicles ' (formerly those powered at more than 125 kW / tonne or 3.5 litres / tonne; now all petrol turbocharged and supercharged cars and any car of more than 6 cylinders, refer below). If the driver was tested in an automatic vehicle, the driver will have an "A '' condition applied to their licence and are not permitted to drive a manual transmission vehicle. The "A '' condition can be lifted anytime during the probationary period (s) by taking the practical drive test in a manual transmission vehicle.
There are no speed restrictions, however trailers may not be towed except for work purposes. P1 drivers have a peer passenger restriction which sees P1 drivers only able to carry no more than one passenger aged between 16 -- 21 years old (excluding family members; exemptions may also be allowed by VicRoads for other reasons) at any time. They must not use any form of mobile phone including hands - free.
On 1 July 2008, what is considered a high power vehicle was redefined. P plate drivers were no longer allowed to drive cars with engines larger than a V6, cars that have a turbo or supercharger (unless it is a diesel). A shortlist was produced of cars that comply with these restrictions but are still considered powerful and therefore banned. The list includes BMW M3 and Porsche 911. There have been many complaints about this system as several slower cars have been banned, such as the Peugeot 308, but faster cars such as VW Golf R32 and BMW 130i were still permitted.
On 1 July 2014, the rules were again modified, to distinguish between vehicles manufactured before 1 January 2010, and those manufactured after. Probationary drivers are now permitted to drive any vehicle manufactured after 1 January 2010 that does not have a power - to - mass ratio of greater than 130 kilowatts per tonne, and does not have a modified engine for increased performance. Vehicles manufactured before 1 January 2010 remain subject to previous restrictions, which include a restriction on engines larger than a V6, and cars that have a turbocharger or supercharger.
After 1 July 2008, those aged over 21 years when applying for a licence qualify as P2 drivers after passing the computerised Hazard Perception Test and a practical driving test, as well as an eyesight test.
The same P1 restrictions apply, except P2 drivers may tow trailers. As of 25 November 2013, P2 drivers must not use a mobile phone while driving, including hands - free phones. The peer passenger restriction does not apply to P2 drivers. They must display the white - on - green ' P - plates ', rather than the red. If a person is over 21 when licensed they go straight onto the P2 licence for three years.
P2 licences last for 3 years, making the minimum age of receiving a full licence 22 years, up from 21 years for drivers who obtained their Probationary Licence before 1 July 2008. The minimum age for obtaining a P2 Licence is 19 years. All drivers who obtained their Probationary Licence before 1 July 2008 qualify as P2 drivers and must display the green ' P ' plates.
There are few restrictions on fully licensed drivers, other than not being able to drive while holding a mobile phone, and the requirement to have a BAC under 0.05 %. Full licences are valid for ten years, but can be made available for three years if requested.
Full driver licences may incur a maximum of 12 demerit points in any 3 year period.
More information on driver 's licences in Victoria, is found at the Arrive Alive website.
Driver 's licences in Western Australia are administered by the Department of Transport. The driving age in Western Australia is 17 years. A learner can drive at the age of 16 under the supervision of a fully licensed driver. After obtaining a licence, a driver continues to be subject to restrictions during a 2 - year probationary period.
As of 1 December 2010, the Western Australian Government introduced a new Graduated Demerit Point system for Novice Drivers (which includes L - and P - plate drivers). Under this system, a driver may accrue less than 4 demerit points within the first year of their provisional licence, and less than 8 points within the second year, before losing their licence. These limits include demerit points accrued before these 1 - and 2 - year periods.
The provisional licence automatically converts into a full driver 's licence after the 2 - year probationary period. Drivers with full driver 's licences must drive with a blood alcohol content less than 0.05 %, may accrue less than 12 demerit points before being disqualified, and may drive at up to 110 km / h (the maximum speed limit in the state). ' P ' plate drivers may also drive up to 110 km / h, where permitted by the state.
WA has two classes of drivers licence: C which enables one to drive any vehicle weighing less than 4.5 tonnes C-A which enables one to drive any vehicle fitted with an automatic transmission and weighing less than 4.5 tonnes. Refer
Drivers who have accrued 12 or more demerit points can choose to continue driving on a 12 - month Good Behaviour Period. If more than two demerit points are accrued during the 12 - month period (even on different fines), the licence is lost for twice the original disqualification period; usually 6 months (3 months x 2).
In Australia, where there is no national identity card in operation, driver 's licences serve as a common means of photo identification. Photo cards are also available, especially for non-drivers. These may be used for entry to venues which have age restrictions, such as alcohol selling premises.
Licences and photo cards are hologrammed, and contain a photograph, signature, the holder 's address, and date of birth.
Electronic online identification can be (partly) established using a drivers licence for online applications for some services such as SIM card activation, and opening bank accounts.
The Australian Attorney - General 's Department provides a document verification service that allows for validation of some licences.
Many issuing authorities such as NSW allow for an online check of the validity of a drivers licence.
Visitors with temporary visas (other than a permanent visa) from other countries are conditionally permitted to drive with their overseas drivers licence for the lenghth of their stay. Conditions vary for every state and territory. Generally, drivers must carry their overseas licence with them. A certified translation or International Driving Permit is only required if the licence is not in English, and the original licence must be carried regardless. In NSW, once a driver becomes a permanent resident a local licence should be obtained generally within three months. In Victoria, a permanent resident is able to drive with his / her overseas licence for up to six months (six month period is calculated by the visa grant date or Australia entry date, whichever comes later).
Interstate visitors are permitted to travel on their current Australian or New Zealand licence. They must obey the local road rules of that state. The differences in state laws have generated much confusion to visiting drivers, with many pushing for uniform federal road rules.
Drivers who move interstate must apply for a new driver 's licence within three months of moving. Unless a driving test is required, there is no charge for a conversion from a current interstate licence. Usually, licences are converted in the same day, to the same or equivalent class, or, in the case of the conversion of a non-GLS licence to a GLS system, a P1 or P2 licence is issued, depending on the length of time that the holder of the licence has been driving. The licence may need to be confirmed by obtaining a letter from the interstate licence issuing authority (on their letterhead) confirming the licence details (including first issue date) and status.
Drivers moving states may be eligible to upgrade their licence class, due to the varying age rules that apply in each state. For example, a Victorian learner driver who moves to NSW may be eligible to sit the driving test to obtain a P1 licence. However, drivers who are under 18 will not be able to obtain the same licence class in Victoria, where one must be at least 18 to do so. Another example is a Victorian over 25 moving to Tasmania, SA, QLD or WA will be able to obtain a full licence after having held their Ps for 12 months in Victoria despite the fact that the probationary period for over-21 - year - olds in Victoria is 3 years. If a driver is about to lose their licence in their home state, they may obtain a new licence in another state of Australia, provided that the demerit points have not already been added and the fine has not yet been paid, or in the case of immediate licence disqualification, the actual disqualification period has not yet commenced (prior 28 days after offence).
Most states do not allow a person to have an interstate commercial driving job if the person does not "reside '' in that state. For example, a person with a Queensland Driver 's Licence and Driver 's Authority (a variation of the wording Driver 's Accreditation) can not obtain a commercial driving job in South Australia unless that person registers a "residential '' address in South Australia, even though they may not live there, and swap over the Driver 's Licence and obtain a new Driver 's Accreditation.
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where is the army corps of engineers located | United States Army Corps of Engineers - wikipedia
The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), also sometimes shortened to CoE, is a U.S. federal agency under the Department of Defense and a major Army command made up of some 37,000 civilian and military personnel, making it one of the world 's largest public engineering, design, and construction management agencies. Although generally associated with dams, canals and flood protection in the United States, USACE is involved in a wide range of public works throughout the world. The Corps of Engineers provides outdoor recreation opportunities to the public, and provides 24 % of U.S. hydropower capacity.
The corps ' mission is to "Deliver vital public and military engineering services; partnering in peace and war to strengthen our Nation 's security, energize the economy and reduce risks from disasters. ''
Their most visible missions include:
The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to 16 June 1775, when the Continental Congress organized an army with a chief engineer and two assistants. Colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washington 's first chief engineer; however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill. The first Corps of Engineers was mostly composed of French subjects who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI.
The Corps of Engineers, as it is known today, came into existence on 16 March 1802, when President Thomas Jefferson signed the Military Peace Establishment Act whose aim was to "organize and establish a Corps of Engineers... that the said Corps... shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York and shall constitute a military academy. '' Until 1866, the superintendent of the United States Military Academy was always an officer of engineer.
The General Survey Act of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes. That same year, Congress passed an "Act to Improve the Navigation of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers '' and to remove sand bars on the Ohio and "planters, sawyers, or snags '' (trees fixed in the riverbed) on the Mississippi, for which the Corps of Engineers was the responsible agency.
Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers consisted only of officers and was used for mapping and the design and construction of federal civil works and other coastal fortifications and navigational routes. It was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the Great Lakes.
In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey. The survey, based in Detroit, Mich., was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852.
In the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers ' officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U.S. Naval officers.
The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the American Civil War. Many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this institution were West Point graduates who rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some of these men were Union Generals George McClellan, Henry Halleck, George Meade, and Confederate generals Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, and P.G.T. Beauregard. The versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, the destruction of enemy supply lines, and the construction of roads. The Union forces were not the only ones to employ the use of engineers throughout the war, and on 6 March 1861, once the South had seceded from the Union, among the different acts passed at the time, a provision was included that called for the creation of a Confederate Corps of Engineers.
The progression of the war demonstrated the South 's disadvantage in engineering expertise; of the initial 65 cadets who resigned from West Point to accept positions with the Confederate Army, only seven were placed in the Corps of Engineers. To overcome this obstacle, the Confederate Congress passed legislation that gave a company of engineers to every division in the field; by 1865, they actually had more engineer officers serving in the field of action than the Union Army. The Army Corps of Engineers served as a main function in making the war effort logistically feasible. One of the main projects for the Army Corps of Engineers was constructing railroads and bridges, which Union forces took advantage of because railroads and bridges provided access to resources and industry. One area where the Confederate engineers were able to outperform the Union Army was in the ability to build fortifications that were used both offensively and defensively along with trenches that made them harder to penetrate. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern.
From the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. Assigned the military construction mission on 1 December 1941 after the Quartermaster Department struggled with the expanding mission, the Corps built facilities at home and abroad to support the U.S. Army and Air Force. During World War II the mission grew to more than 27,000 military and industrial projects in a $15.3 billion mobilization program. Included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants, camps for 5.3 million soldiers, depots, ports, and hospitals, as well as the Manhattan Project, and the Pentagon.
In civilian projects, the Corps of Engineers became the lead federal flood control agency and significantly expanded its civil works activities, becoming among other things, a major provider of hydroelectric energy and the country 's leading provider of recreation; its role in responding to natural disasters also grew dramatically. In the late 1960s, the agency became a leading environmental preservation and restoration agency.
In 1944, specially trained army combat engineers were assigned to blow up underwater obstacles and clear defended ports during the invasion of Normandy. During World War II, the Army Corps of Engineers in the European Theater of Operations was responsible for building numerous bridges, including the first and longest floating tactical bridge across the Rhine at Remagen, and building or maintaining roads vital to the Allied advance across Europe into the heart of Germany. In the Pacific theater, the Pioneer troops were formed, a hand - selected unit of volunteer Army combat engineers trained in jungle warfare, knife fighting, and unarmed jujitsu (hand - to - hand combat) techniques. Working in camouflage, the Pioneers cleared jungle and prepared routes of advance and established bridgeheads for the infantry as well as demolishing enemy installations.
Five commanding generals (chiefs of staff after the 1903 reorganization) of the United States Army held engineer commissions early in their careers. All transferred to other branches before rising to the top. They were Alexander Macomb, George B. McClellan, Henry W. Halleck, Douglas MacArthur, and Maxwell D. Taylor.
Occasional civil disasters, including the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, resulted in greater responsibilities for the Corps of Engineers. The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans provides another example of this.
The Chief of Engineers and Commanding General of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers works under the civilian oversight of the Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works). Three deputy commanding generals report to the chief of engineers, who have the following titles: Deputy Commanding General, Deputy Commanding General for Civil and Emergency Operation, and Deputy Commanding General for Military and International Operations. The Corps of Engineers headquarters is located in Washington, D.C. The headquarters staff is responsible for Corps of Engineers policy and plans the future direction of all other USACE organizations. It comprises the executive office and 17 staff principals. USACE has two directors who head up Military Programs and Civil Works, Director of Military Programs and Director of Civil Works.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is organized geographically into eight permanent divisions, one provisional division, one provisional district, and one research command reporting directly to the HQ. Within each division, there are several districts. Districts are defined by watershed boundaries for civil works projects and by political boundaries for military projects.
U.S. Army Engineer units outside of USACE Districts and not listed below fall under the Engineer Regiment of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Army engineers include both combat engineers and support engineers more focused on construction and sustainment. The vast majority of military personnel in the United States Army Corps of Engineers serve in this Engineer Regiment. The Engineer Regiment is headquartered at Fort Leonard Wood, MO and commanded by the Engineer Commandant, currently a position filled by an Army Brigadier General from the Engineer Branch.
The Engineer Regiment includes the U.S. Army Engineer School (USAES) which publishes its mission as: Generate the military engineer capabilities the Army needs: training and certifying Soldiers with the right knowledge, skills, and critical thinking; growing and educating professional leaders; organizing and equipping units; establishing a doctrinal framework for employing capabilities; and remaining an adaptive institution in order to provide Commanders with the freedom of action they need to successfully execute Unified Land Operations.
There are several other organizations within the Corps of Engineers:
USACE provides support directly and indirectly to the warfighting effort. They build and help maintain much of the infrastructure that the Army and the Air Force use to train, house, and deploy troops. USACE built and maintained navigation systems and ports provide the means to deploy vital equipment and other material. Corps of Engineers Research and Development (R&D) facilities help develop new methods and measures for deployment, force protection, terrain analysis, mapping, and other support.
USACE directly supports the military in the battle zone, making expertise available to commanders to help solve or avoid engineering (and other) problems. Forward Engineer Support Teams, FEST - A 's or FEST - M 's, may accompany combat engineers to provide immediate support, or to reach electronically into the rest of USACE for the necessary expertise. A FEST - A team is an eight - person detachment; a FEST - M is approximately 36. These teams are designed to provide immediate technical - engineering support to the warfighter or in a disaster area. Corps of Engineers ' professionals use the knowledge and skills honed on both military and civil projects to support the U.S. and local communities in the areas of real estate, contracting, mapping, construction, logistics, engineering, and management experience. This work currently includes support for rebuilding Iraq, establishing Afghanistan infrastructure, and supporting international and interagency services.
In addition, the work of almost 26,000 civilians on civil - works programs throughout USACE provide a training ground for similar capabilities worldwide. USACE civilians volunteer for assignments worldwide. For example, hydropower experts have helped repair, renovate, and run hydropower dams in Iraq in an effort to help get Iraqis to become self - sustaining.
USACE supports the United States ' Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) through its security planning, force protection, research and development, disaster preparedness efforts, and quick response to emergencies and disasters.
The CoE conducts its emergency response activities under two basic authorities -- the Flood Control and Coastal Emergency Act (Pub. L. 84 -- 99), and the Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Pub. L. 93 -- 288). In a typical year, the Corps of Engineers responds to more than 30 Presidential disaster declarations, plus numerous state and local emergencies. Emergency responses usually involve cooperation with other military elements and Federal agencies in support of State and local efforts.
Work comprises engineering and management support to military installations, global real estate support, civil works support (including risk and priorities), operations and maintenance of Federal navigation and flood control projects, and monitoring of dams and levees.
More than 67 percent of the goods consumed by Americans and more than half of the nation 's oil imports are processed through deepwater ports maintained by the Corps of Engineers, which maintains more than 12,000 miles (19,000 km) of commercially navigable channels across the U.S.
In both its Civil Works mission and Military Construction program, the Corps of Engineers is responsible for billions of dollars of the nation 's infrastructure. For example, USACE maintains direct control of 609 dams, maintains or operates 257 navigation locks, and operates 75 hydroelectric facilities generating 24 % of the nation 's hydropower and three percent of its total electricity. USACE inspects over 2,000 Federal and non-Federal levees every two years.
Four billion gallons of water per day are drawn from the Corps of Engineers ' 136 multi-use flood control projects comprising 9,800,000 acre feet (12.1 km) of water storage, making it one of the United States ' largest water supply agencies.
The 249th Engineer Battalion (Prime Power), the only active duty unit in USACE, generates and distributes prime electrical power in support of warfighting, disaster relief, stability and support operations as well as provides advice and technical assistance in all aspects of electrical power and distribution systems. The battalion deployed in support of recovery operations after 9 / 11 and was instrumental in getting Wall Street back up and running within a week. The battalion also deployed in support of post-Katrina operations.
All of this work represents a significant investment in the nation 's resources.
Through its Civil Works program, USACE carries out a wide array of projects that provide coastal protection, flood protection, hydropower, navigable waters and ports, recreational opportunities, and water supply. Work includes coastal protection and restoration, including a new emphasis on a more holistic approach to risk management. As part of this work, USACE is the number one provider of outdoor recreation in the U.S., so there is a significant emphasis on water safety.
Army involvement in works "of a civil nature, '' including water resources, goes back almost to the origins of the U.S. Over the years, as the nation 's needs have changed, so have the Army 's Civil Works missions.
Major areas of emphasis include the following:
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers environmental mission has two major focus areas: restoration and stewardship. The Corps supports and manages numerous environmental programs, that run the gamut from cleaning up areas on former military installations contaminated by hazardous waste or munitions to helping establish / reestablish wetlands that helps endangered species survive. Some of these programs include Ecosystem Restoration, Formerly Used Defense Sites, Environmental Stewardship, EPA Superfund, Abandoned Mine Lands, Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program, Base Realignment and Closure, 2005, and Regulatory.
This mission includes education as well as regulation and cleanup.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has an active environmental program under both its Military and Civil Programs. The Civil Works environmental mission that ensures all USACE projects, facilities and associated lands meet environmental standards. The program has four functions: compliance, restoration, prevention, and conservation. The Corps also regulates all work in wetlands and waters of the United States.
The Military Programs Environmental Program manages design and execution of a full range of cleanup and protection activities:
The following are major areas of environmental emphasis:
See also Environmental Enforcement below.
Summary of facts and figures as of 2007, provided by the Corps of Engineers:
The regulatory program is authorized to protect the nation 's aquatic resources. USACE personnel evaluate permit applications for essentially all construction activities that occur in the nation 's waters, including wetlands. Two primary authorities granted to the Army Corps of Engineers by Congress fall under Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act and Section 404 of the Clean Water Act.
Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (codified in Chapter 33, Section 403 of the United States Code) gave the Corps authority over navigable waters of the United States, defined as "those waters that are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide and / or are presently being used, or have been used in the past, or may be susceptible for use to transport interstate or foreign commerce. '' Section 10 covers construction, excavation, or deposition of materials in, over, or under such waters, or any work that would affect the course, location, condition or capacity of those waters. Actions requiring section 10 permits include structures (e.g., piers, wharfs, breakwaters, bulkheads, jetties, weirs, transmission lines) and work such as dredging or disposal of dredged material, or excavation, filling or other modifications to the navigable waters of the United States. The Coast Guard also has responsibility for permitting the erection or modification of bridges over navigable waters of the U.S.
Another of the major responsibilities of the Army Corps of Engineers is administering the permitting program under Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, also known as the Clean Water Act. The Secretary of the Army is authorized under this act to issue permits for the discharge of dredged and fill material in waters of the United States, including adjacent wetlands. The geographic extent of waters of the United States subject to section 404 permits fall under a broader definition and include tributaries to navigable waters and adjacent wetlands. The engineers must first determine if the waters at the project site are jurisdictional and subject to the requirements of the section 404 permitting program. Once jurisdiction has been established, permit review and authorization follows a sequence process that encourages avoidance of impacts, followed by minimizing impacts and, finally, requiring mitigation for unavoidable impacts to the aquatic environment. This sequence is described in the section 404 (b) (1) guidelines.
There are three types of permits issued by the Corps of Engineers: Nationwide, Regional General, and Individual. 80 % of the permits issued are nationwide permits, which include 50 general type of activities for minimal impacts to waters of the United States, as published in the Federal Register. Nationwide permits are subject to a reauthorization process every 5 years, with the most recent reauthorization occurring in March, 2012. To gain authorization under a nationwide permit, an applicant must comply with the terms and conditions of the nationwide permit. Select nationwide permits require preconstruction notification to the applicable corps district office notifying them of his or her intent, type and amount of impact and fill in waters, and a site map. Although the nationwide process is fairly simple, corps approval must be obtained before commencing with any work in waters of the United States. Regional general permits are specific to each corps district office. Individual permits are generally required for projects that impact greater than 0.5 acres (2,000 m) of waters of the United States. Individual permits are required for activities that result in more than minimal impacts to the aquatic environment.
The Corps of Engineers has two research organizations, the Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) and the Army Geospatial Center (AGC).
ERDC provides science, technology, and expertise in engineering and environmental sciences to support both military and civil / civilian customers. ERDC research support includes:
AGC coordinates, integrates, and synchronizes geospatial information requirements and standards across the Army and provides direct geospatial support and products to warfighters. See also Geospatial Information Officer.
The Corps of Engineers branch insignia, the Corps Castle, is believed to have originated on an informal basis. In 1841, cadets at West Point wore insignia of this type. In 1902, the Castle was formally adopted by the Corps of Engineers as branch insignia. The "castle '' is actually the Pershing Barracks at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York
A current tradition was established with the "Gold Castles '' branch insignia of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, West Point Class of 1903, who served in the Corps of Engineers early in his career and had received the two pins as a graduation gift of his family. In 1945, near the conclusion of World War II, General MacArthur gave his personal pins to his Chief Engineer, General Leif J. Sverdrup. On 2 May 1975, upon the 200th anniversary of the Corps of Engineers, retired General Sverdrup, who had civil engineering projects including the landmark 17 - mile (27 km) - long Chesapeake Bay Bridge - Tunnel to his credit, presented the Gold Castles to then - Chief of Engineers Lieutenant General William C. Gribble, Jr., who had also served under General MacArthur in the Pacific. General Gribble then announced a tradition of passing the insignia along to future Chiefs of Engineers, and it has been done so since.
Some of the Corps of Engineers ' civil works projects have been characterized in the press as being pork barrel or boondoggles such as the New Madrid Floodway Project and the New Orleans flood protection. Projects have allegedly been justified based on flawed or manipulated analyses during the planning phase. Some projects are said to have created profound detrimental environmental effects or provided questionable economic benefit such as the Mississippi River -- Gulf Outlet in southeast Louisiana. Faulty design and substandard construction have been cited in the failure of levees in the wake of Hurricane Katrina that caused flooding of 80 % of the city of New Orleans.
Review of Corps of Engineers ' projects has also been criticized for its lack of impartiality. The investigation of levee failure in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina was sponsored by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) but funded by the Corps of Engineers and involved its employees.
Corps of Engineers projects can be found in all fifty states, and are specifically authorized and funded directly by Congress. Local citizen, special interest, and political groups lobby Congress for authorization and appropriations for specific projects in their area.
Senator Russ Feingold and Senator John McCain sponsored an amendment requiring peer review of Corps projects to the Water Resources Development Act of 2006, proclaiming "efforts to reform and add transparency to the way the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers receives funding for and undertakes water projects. '' A similar bill, the Water Resources Development Act of 2007, which included the text of the original Corps ' peer review measure, was eventually passed by Congress in 2007, overriding Presidential veto.
A number of Army camps and facilities designed by the Corps of Engineers, including the former Camp O'Ryan in New York State, have reportedly had a negative impact on the surrounding communities. Camp O'Ryan, with its rifle range, has possibly contaminated well and storm runoff water with lead. This runoff water eventually runs into the Niagara River and Lake Ontario, sources of drinking water to millions of people. This situation is exacerbated by a failure to locate the engineering and architectural plans for the camp, which were produced by the New York District in 1949.
Bunnatine "Bunny '' Greenhouse, a formerly high - ranking official in the Corps of Engineers, won a lawsuit against the United States government in July 2011. Greenhouse had objected to the Corps accepting cost projections from KBR in a no - bid, noncompetitive contract. After she complained, Greenhouse was demoted from her Senior Executive Service position, stripped of her top secret security clearance, and even, according to Greenhouse, had her office booby - trapped with a trip - wire from which she sustained a knee injury. A U.S. District court awarded Greenhouse $970,000 in full restitution of lost wages, compensatory damages, and attorney fees.
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who sings just to be close to you | Just to Be Close to You - Wikipedia
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"Just to Be Close to You '' is a song by American R&B / funk band, Commodores, in 1976. Released from their album, Hot on the Tracks, it would become one of their biggest hits, spending two weeks at the top of the Hot Soul Singles chart and becoming their second Billboard Hot 100 top ten, peaking at number seven. The song was written and sung by Lionel Richie.
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when is dragon quest 11 coming to switch | Dragon Quest XI - wikipedia
Dragon Quest XI: Echoes of an Elusive Age is a role - playing video game developed and published by Square Enix. An entry in the longrunning Dragon Quest video game series, it was released in Japan for the Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation 4 in July 2017, and will be released worldwide for the PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows in September 2018, as well as for the Nintendo Switch sometime beyond 2018. By the end of 2017, the game had sold three million copies across the PlayStation 4 and 3DS.
Dragon Quest XI continues the gameplay of previous games in the series, in which players explore worlds and fight against various monsters, including the ability to explore high areas. The Nintendo 3DS version features a different style to the other versions, showcasing 3D graphics on the top screen and 16 - bit styled sprites on the bottom screen. Before entering battle, players can also toggle between the 3D and 2D graphical styles at any time. Like with Dragon Quest IX, the game 's battle system features no random encounters and shows all enemies on the overworld. The battle system also adds a free - form camera option that allows players to move around the battlefield, although it remains turn - based and is purely visual.
The game is set in the fantasy world of Lotozetasia where it 's said that The Great Tree of Life was the source for all life in it, a gigantic tree in a floating island in the middle of the world. The player takes the role of a young man with a strange birthmark on his left hand turning age 16 from Ishi Village where he grew with his childhood friend of the same age, Emma. In a coming - of - age tradition of the village he must climb a great mountain called God 's Rock where it 's said the spirits of the earth dwell. Upon his success the protagonist finds out that he 's actually the reincarnation of a hero who saved the world before and must again be on a mission against forces of darkness, described by other characters as the "Lord of Shadows '' and the risk of resurrection of the "Dark One ''. To better understand his role as a hero he leaves his hometown and starts travelling around the world.
In the first hours of the game, upon arriving at the city of Heliodor, the Hero is recognized by soldiers as a "Luminary '', a name common to classes in previous Dragon Quest games, and is sent to jail by King Carnelian, who suggests in a malicious way that luminaries are in collusion with darkness, just as light casts shadow. At first it does n't seem as the hero is trying to escape, but a blue - haired thief in another cell named Camus manages to get out of his incarceration and gets the protagonist out too. Together they run from the guards of Heliodor and continue their adventure.
Dragon Quest XI started development in 2013. Initially, the team considered making the game fully open world, but decided against that as it would have led to issues telling its story. The PlayStation 4, Microsoft Windows, and Nintendo Switch versions use the Unreal Engine 4 game engine and had developmental assistance from ORCA Inc, while the 3DS version had assistance from Toylogic Inc. In January 2016, series creator Yuji Horii stated that the story was nearly finished and that the game 's intro section was playable. In April 2017, Square Enix held a special presentation for the game, where the release date for the PlayStation 4 and 3DS versions of the game were revealed to be July 29, 2017. The same month, Sony Interactive Entertainment and Nintendo unveiled special editions of their PlayStation 4 Slim and New Nintendo 2DS XL hardware for Japan to tie into the game.
Coinciding with the release of the Japanese version, lead designer and scenario writer Yuji Horii announced that an international version, localized in five separate languages, would be released in 2018. The exact date was later revealed to be September 4, 2018, along with a version for Microsoft Windows via Steam, a first for the main series. It will include voiced English dialogue, a first - person camera option, support for 4K resolution, and an additional "Draconian Quest '' hard mode difficulty setting, among other minor changes. Square Enix stated they wanted to expand the Dragon Quest brand outside of Japan, which they believed that these features, in addition to having a Windows version, would assist it.
The international PlayStation 4 release also saw a special collector 's edition, titled Edition of Lost Time, which includes the base game, a set of bonus in - game items, a 128 - page hardback art book featuring original character design concepts from Akira Toriyama, a two - disc soundtrack featuring orchestrated versions of the game 's music by Koichi Sugiyama, a cloth map of the game 's world, and a steelbook case. The 3DS version will not be localized outside of Japan, while the Switch version was delayed while the team updates it to a newer version of the Unreal engine that the system supports.
Dragon Quest XI sold two million copies on its first two days of sale in Japan; the Nintendo 3DS version sold 1.13 million, while the PlayStation 4 version sold 0.95 million. By November 2017, the game had sold over three million copies.
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i'm a celebrity get me out of here australia host | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (Australian TV series) - Wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (occasionally shortened to I 'm a Celebrity) is an Australian reality television series on Network Ten which is based on the British television show of the same name. The series sees celebrities living in the jungle with few creature comforts and compete in various challenges to earn meals and other luxuries. The celebrities compete for $100,000 to be donated to their chosen charity. The series is set in Kruger National Park, South Africa, and is hosted by Julia Morris and Chris Brown.
On 16 July 2015 the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on 31 January 2016. The second season was accompanied by the companion series I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! Now!. It aired on Eleven following each episode of the main series, hosted by comedian and former season one contestant Joel Creasey and The Bachelor Australia 3 contestant Heather Maltman. On 1 August 2016 the series was renewed for a third season with Morris and Brown returning as hosts, which premiered on 29 January 2017. A fourth season commenced on 28 January 2018 and concluded 12 March 2018.
The premise of the show is that there is a group of well known personalities living together in a specially constructed camp site in a jungle. During their time in the jungle they are isolated from the outside world and are not commonly aware of outside events. The contestants compete for $100,000 to be donated to a charity of their choosing, in addition to being personally reimbursed for their participation. While in the jungle, some of the contestants (generally voted by the viewing public) compete in challenges for food and luxuries for the camp. These challenges often involve local wildlife and are meant to take the contestants out of their comfort zone. Each week one or more of the contestants are evicted from the jungle, based on viewer votes. In addition, if the contestants become overwhelmed by their situation they can leave the series by speaking the phrase "I 'm a celebrity get me out of here! ''. However, it is reported that if contestants do quit they will have their income for participating in the series markedly reduced. Throughout the show, additional contestants (called "intruders '') enter the competition; and beginning with season two, some contestants are only included temporarily (i.e. having a guest appearance). In the end, a final viewer vote occurs to determine the winner of the series, who is given the title of "King and / or Queen of the Jungle ''.
The contestants take part in daily trials to earn food. These trials aim to test both physical and mental abilities. The winner is usually determined by the number of stars collected during the trial, with each star representing a meal earned by the winning contestant for their camp mates.
Two or more celebrities are chosen to take part in the celebrity chest challenge to win luxuries for camp. Each challenge involves completing a task to win a chest to take back to camp. However, to win the luxury item in the chest, the campmates must correctly answer a question. If they fail to answer correctly, the luxury item is forfeited and a joke prize is won. The luxury item is "donated '' by a celebrity from the outside.
This is a challenge where some celebrities have to take part without alerting the other celebrities - if they are successful in their ' missions ', they are rewarded.
A mystery box sees a box delivered to the campsite, each time containing a different gift for the contestants.
The show is broadcast Sunday to Thursday at 7.30 pm, with a weekly eviction show on Sunday (except for the first week, where the celebrities arrive in the ' jungle '). All shows are presented by Julia Morris & Chris Brown from a nearby studio. The program is live to AEDT States (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory), in other states the program is delayed to accommodate local time zones.
In addition to the television broadcast, for the first season a live feed from the camp site aired for an hour after the AEDT airing of the show on Ten 's website and mobile app, titled The Fallout Zone but more commonly referred to as FOZ. The content of feed was available on the website after the fact so viewers in other states could watch the show after their airing of the main show. The feed was hosted by comedian Sam Mac and producer Ciaran "The Butcher '' Flannery, also known as "The C - Word ''. On 8 and 12 March 2015, producer Dominic "The Domin8or '' Sullivan filled in during Flannery 's absence. The duo interact with viewers through Twitter, using the hashtag # FOZ. Mac and Flannery have no control over the shots used in the stream which has resulted in one episode featuring a 20 - minute shot of a waterfall and, on 16 February 2015, a 15 - minute conversation featuring a sound technician looking for Bob being picked up. On 5 March 2015 the show famously featured audio problems during which Mac and Flannery 's voices fluctuated between chipmunk and Darth Vader filters for the first thirty minutes. The show 's theme song is Highway to the Fallout Zone sung by Sam Mac. The show did not return for the second season.
Throughout the show the public votes on who competes in the following tucker trial and who to evict from the campsite. Viewers can either vote via SMS (by texting the name of the celebrity to 1995 1010) or vote via Social Media (namely Facebook or Twitter) by using the celebrity 's hashtag (# celeb (name)). Voting via social media is limited to 20 votes per account. For tucker trial voting, viewers vote for celebrity they wish to compete. For eviction voting, viewers vote for a celebrity to stay. Voting closes at approximately 7: 30pm AEDT for Sunday 's eviction vote and at approximately 8pm AEDT for voting on other days.
Prior to the premiere of the second season, it was announced that the voting process would change slightly compared to the inaugural season. SMS voting wil be used for both trial and eviction voting while Twitter voting will be used exclusively for trial voting. This change was implemented to even the playing field between celebrities with a larger international fan base (who are more likely to receive Twitter votes from said fan base) and celebrities with a smaller fan base who are only known in Australia. However, this decision was later reversed, allowing Twitter and Facebook votes for the finals.
Winners crowned King or Queen of their respective year.
Key:
In June 2017, Tom Arnold filed a lawsuit against Network Ten and A List Entertainment for defrauding him for being on I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!. Arnold claims that he was promised a payment of $425,000 and a comedy tour in Australia, however he was missing $140,000 in payment and that Network Ten backed out of the comedy tour.
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who played brian in father of the bride | George Newbern - wikipedia
George Young Newbern (born December 30, 1964) is an American actor and voice actor, best known for his roles as Bryan MacKenzie in Father of the Bride (1991) and its sequel Father of the Bride Part II as well as Danny (The Yeti) in Friends. He is also well known for his recurring role as Julia 's son Payne in Designing Women and for providing the voices of Superman from the Justice League and Justice League Unlimited animated series, as well as Nooj and Sephiroth from the Final Fantasy series and the Kingdom Hearts series. He is known for his voice role as Bark in Pup Star. He is also known for having appeared in Saw VI as well as his role as "Charlie '' on the hit TV show Scandal.
Born in Little Rock, Arkansas, the son of Betty, a Spanish teacher, and David Newbern, a radiologist, he began his acting career at the Arkansas Arts Center in Little Rock, in the role of the younger brother in Life With Father, based on Clarence S. Day Jr. 's autobiographical novels. This first acting role spurred him on to other acting roles and eventually on to movie roles. Newbern 's first lead role was in 1987 's Double Switch, a retelling of The Prince and the Pauper that aired as a part of the Wonderful World of Disney television series.
From 1986 - 1992, Newbern had a recurring role as Payne McElroy, the son of designer Julia Sugarbaker (played by Dixie Carter), on the series Designing Women. He has since guest - starred on television in such series as Providence, Chicago Hope, Friends, Bull, CSI, Medium, Ghost Whisperer, Touched by an Angel, Criminal Minds, and Private Practice. He has a recurring role as a former CIA operative in Scandal.
He starred as Neal Morris, father of Melissa Morris (Emily Osment), in the 2009 Disney Channel movie Dadnapped, and portrayed Apollo 14 astronaut Stu Roosa in the HBO mini-series From The Earth To The Moon. Film credits include Adventures in Babysitting (1987) with Elisabeth Shue; Double Switch (1987); Switching Channels (1988) with Kathleen Turner, Burt Reynolds and Christopher Reeve; and Father of the Bride (1991) and its sequel Father of the Bride Part II. In 2009 he appeared in Locker 13.
As a voice actor, Newbern is notable for his role as Clark Kent / Superman on the Cartoon Network series Justice League, Static Shock and Justice League Unlimited (as a replacement for Tim Daly due to his contractual obligations elsewhere). He also reprised his role as Superman in The Batman fifth season two - part opener "The Batman / Superman Story '' and the series finale episode "Lost Heroes '' even though that series was described as existing in a different continuity. He recently reprised his role as Superman in the DC Showcase short Superman / Shazam!: The Return of Black Adam and as well as Superman vs The Elite. On February 26, 2016, the DC Universe Online Facebook page reported that Newbern would be taking over the role of Superman from Adam Baldwin. He also provides the voice of Superman in the game Injustice: Gods Among Us and its sequel.
Newbern 's voice acting career began in 1991 with the cartoon series The Pirates of Dark Water, and he has also done voiceovers on a number of video games and game - related productions. He has also voiced in the infamous Theodore Rex as the character of the same name. In 2003, Newbern provided the voice of Mevyn Nooj in Final Fantasy X-2.
His performance as Nooj reportedly impressed the developers at Square Enix enough for them to cast him as Sephiroth in the English version of Kingdom Hearts II (replacing Lance Bass) and he would also go on to reprise the role in the English - language releases of Final Fantasy VII Advent Children, Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII, Dissidia: Final Fantasy and Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy. He later appeared in the second season of Jericho as the President of the Allied States of America. In 2009, he sent a DNA sample into space to preserve the Newbern genome. Newbern also narrated Toyota 's commercials for the 2010 model year of the Prius, one of the car company 's younger automotive models, and portrayed Harold in Saw VI.
He married actress Marietta DePrima in 1990; the couple have three children.
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how to pronounce a with a circle above it | A - wikipedia
Å (lower case: å) -- referred to as a Swedish a or volle -- represents various (although often very similar) sounds in several languages. It is considered a separate letter in the Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Finnish, North Frisian, Walloon, Chamorro, Lule Sami, Skolt Sami, Southern Sami, and Greenlandic alphabets. Additionally, it is part of the alphabets used for the Alemannic and the Bavarian - Austrian dialects of German.
Though Å is derived from an A with an overring, it is considered a separate letter. It developed as a form of semi-ligature of an A with a smaller o above it to denote a long and darker A, similar to how the umlaut mark that distinguishes Ä from A, and Ö / Ø from O, developed from a small e written above the letter in question.
The Swedish a in Scandinavian alphabets represents two sounds, one short and one long.
In historical linguistics, the Å - sound originally had the same origin as the long / aː / sound in German Aal and Haar (Scandinavian ål, hår, English eel, hair).
Historically, the Swedish a derives from the Old Norse vowel á. This was a long / aː / sound, but over time, the vowel developed to an (ɔ) sound. Medieval writing often used doubled letters for long vowels, and the vowel continued to be written Aa. In Old Swedish the use of the ligatures Æ and Œ that represented the sounds (æ) and (ø) respectively were gradually replaced by new letters. Instead of using ligatures, a minuscule E was placed above the letters A and O to create new graphemes. They later evolved into the modern letters Ä and Ö, where the E was simplified into the two dots now referred to as umlaut. This construction was also applied to construct a new grapheme where an "aa '' previously had been used. A minuscule O was placed on top of an A to create a new letter. It was first used in print in the Gustav Vasa Bible that was published in 1541 and replaced Aa in the 16th century.
In an attempt to modernize the orthography, linguists tried to introduce the Å to Danish and Norwegian writing in the 19th century. Most people felt no need for the new letter, although the letter group Aa had already been pronounced like Å for centuries all over Scandinavia. Aa was usually treated as a single letter, spoken like the present Å when spelling out names or words. Orthography reforms making Å official were carried out in Norway in 1917 and in Denmark in 1948. It has been argued that the Å only made its way to official Danish spelling due to anti-German and pro-Scandinavian sentiment after World War II. Danish had been the only language apart from German and Luxembourgish to use capitalized nouns in the last decades, but abolished them at the same occasion.
In a few names of Danish cities or towns, the old spelling has been retained as an option due to local resistance, e.g. Aalborg and Aabenraa; however, Ålborg and Åbenrå are the spellings recommended by the Danish Language Board. Between 1948 and 2010, the city of Aarhus was officially spelled Århus. However, the city has changed to the Aa spelling starting 2011, in a controversial decision citing internationalization and web compatibility advantages.
Icelandic and Faroese are the only Scandinavian languages not to use the Swedish a. The Old Norse letter á is retained, but has become a diphthong, pronounced (au) in Icelandic and (ɔa) in Faroese. The short variation of Faroese á is pronounced (ɔ), though.
In some names of geographical places, the old Aa spelling dominates, more often in Denmark than in Norway (where it has been abolished in official use since 1917). Locals of Aalborg and Aabenraa resist the Å, whereas Ålesund is rarely seen with Aa spelling. Official rules allow both forms in the most common cases, but Å is always correct.
Before 1917, when spelling with the double A was common, some Norwegian place names contained three or four consecutive A letters: for instance Haaa (now Håa, a river) and Blaaaasen (Blååsen, ' the blue ("blå '') ridge ("ås '') ').
In family names, the bearer of the name uses Aa or Å according to their choice, but since family names are inherited they are resistant to change and the traditional Aa style is often kept. For instance, the last name Aagaard is much more common than Ågård. The surname Aa is always spelled with double A, never with the single å. However, given names - which are less commonly inherited - have largely changed to the use of the Å. For instance, in Norway more than 12 000 male citizens spell their name Håkon, while only around 2500 are named Haakon.
Company names are sometimes spelled with the double A by choice, usually in order to convey an impression of old - fashionedness or traditionality. The double A, representing a single sound, is usually kept in initials e.g. for people whose first, middle, and / or last name begins with the double A. Accordingly, a man named "Hans Aagard Hauge '' would spell his initials "H. Aa. H. '' (not "H.A.H. '' or "H. Å. H. ''), while a woman named Aase Vestergaard would spell her initials "Aa. V. '' (not "A.V. '' or "Å. V. '').
Correct alphabetization in Danish and Norwegian places Å as the last letter in the alphabet, the sequence being Æ, Ø, Å. This is also true for the alternative spelling "Aa ''. Unless manually corrected, sorting algorithms of programs localised for Danish or Norwegian will place e.g., Aaron after Zorro. In Danish and Norwegian books, a distinction is made between foreign and local words; thus, for example, the German city Aachen is listed under A, but the Danish city Aabenraa is listed after Z, Æ and Ø.
In the Swedish alphabet, Å is sorted after Z, as the third letter from the end, the sequence being Å, Ä, Ö.
Alternative spellings of the Scandinavian Å have become a concern because of globalization, and particularly because of the popularization of the World Wide Web. This is to a large extent due to the fact that prior to the creation of IDNA system around 2005, internet domains containing Scandinavian letters were not recognized by the DNS system, and anyway do not feature on keyboards adapted for other languages. While it is recommended to keep the Å intact wherever possible, the next best thing is to use the older, double A spelling (e.g. "www.raade.com '' instead of "www.råde.com ''). This is because, as previously discussed, the Å / Aa indicates a separate sound. If the Å is represented as a common A without the overring (e.g. "www.rade.com '') there is no indication that the A is supposed to represent another sound entirely. Even so, (mis -) representing the Å as just an A is particularly common in Sweden, as compared to Norway and Denmark.
Because the Finnish alphabet is derived from the Swedish alphabet, Å is carried over, but it has no native Finnish use and is treated as in Swedish. Its usage is limited to names of Swedish, Danish or Norwegian origin. In Finland there are many Swedish - speaking as well as many Finnish - speaking people with Swedish surnames, and many Swedish surnames include Å. In addition, there are many geographical places in the Finnish coastal areas that have å in their names, such as Åbo, Kråkö and Långnäs. The Finnish name for Å is ruotsalainen O ("Swedish O ''), and is pronounced identically to O, which has the value (o̞).
It is not advised to substitute aa for å in Finnish, as aa is already a common letter combination with the value (ɑː).
In Emilian - Romagnol, å is used in words such as frått (fruit), brått (ugly), tåt (everything), såppa (soup), ståpid (stupid), dåppi (double). It is also used to represent the open - mid back unrounded vowel (ʌ), e.g. Modenese dialect åmm, dånna (ˈʌmː, ˈdʌnːa) "man, woman ''.
Å was introduced to some eastern local variants of Walloon at the beginning of the 20th century and initially noted the same sound as in Danish. Its use quickly spread to all eastern dialects, but the cultural influence Liège and covered three sounds, a long open o, a long close o or a long a, depending on the local varieties. The use of a single å letter to cover such pronunciations has been embraced by the new pan-Walloon orthography, with one orthography for words regardless of the local phonetic variations.
In non-standardized writings outside the Liège area, words containing å are written with au, â or ô, depending on the local pronunciation. For example, the word måjhon (house), in the standardized orthography is written môjo, mâhon, mohone, maujon in dialectal writings.
The Istro - Romanian alphabet is based on the standard Romanian alphabet with three additional letters used to mark sounds specific only to this language: å, ľ and ń.
Å and å are also used in the practical orthography of Chamorro, a language indigenous to the people of Northern Mariana Islands and Guam. The capital of Guam is also called "Hagåtña ''.
The letter "Å '' (U + 00C5) is also used throughout the world as the international symbol for the non-SI unit ångström, a physical unit of length named after the Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Ångström. It is always upper case in this context (symbols for units named after persons are generally upper - case). The ångström is a unit of length equal to 6990100000000000000 ♠ 10 m (one ten - billionth of a meter) or 6990100000000000000 ♠ 0.1 nm.
Unicode also has encoded U + 212B Å angstrom sign. However, that is canonically equivalent to the ordinary letter Å. The duplicate encoding at U + 212B is due to round - trip mapping compatibility with an East - Asian character encoding, but is otherwise not to be used.
The logo of the Major League Baseball team now known as the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim is a capital "A '' with a halo. Due to the resemblance, Angels fans are known to stylise the name as "Ångels ''. The logo of the Stargate series similarly features a stylized A with a circle above it, making it resemble an Å as in Stargåte; in Norwegian, "gåte '' means "riddle ''. Similarly, Cirque du Soleil 's Koozå production also uses this character in its logo, although it is pronounced by the main singer as a regular "a ''.
British producer and singer Låpsley uses å in her stage name.
A related phenomenon is the metal umlaut, which unlike the previous examples is intentional use of diacritics.
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who funds the budget and provides oversight for the us federal bureaucracy | Congressional oversight - wikipedia
Congressional oversight is oversight by the United States Congress over the Executive Branch, including the numerous U.S. federal agencies. Congressional oversight includes the review, monitoring, and supervision of federal agencies, programs, activities, and policy implementation. Congress exercises this power largely through its congressional committee system. Oversight also occurs in a wide variety of congressional activities and contexts. These include authorization, appropriations, investigative, and legislative hearings by standing committees; specialized investigations by select committees; and reviews and studies by congressional support agencies and staff.
Congress 's oversight authority derives from its "implied '' powers in the Constitution, public laws, and House and Senate rules. It is an integral part of the American system of checks and balances.
Oversight is an implied rather than an enumerated power under the U.S. Constitution. The government 's charter does not explicitly grant Congress the authority to conduct inquiries or investigations of the executive, to have access to records or materials held by the executive, or to issue subpoenas for documents or testimony from the executive.
There was little discussion of the power to oversee, review, or investigate executive activity at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 or later in The Federalist Papers, which argued in favor of ratification of the Constitution. The lack of debate was because oversight and its attendant authority were seen as an inherent power of representative assemblies which enacted public law.
Oversight also derives from the many and varied express powers of the Congress in the Constitution. It is implied in the legislature 's authority, among other powers and duties, to appropriate funds, enact laws, raise and support armies, provide for a Navy, declare war, and impeach and remove from office the President, Vice President, and other civil officers. Congress could not reasonably or responsibly exercise these powers without knowing what the executive was doing; how programs were being administered, by whom, and at what cost; and whether officials were obeying the law and complying with legislative intent.
The Supreme Court of the United States has confirmed the oversight powers of Congress, subject to constitutional safeguards for civil liberties, on several occasions. In 1927, for instance, the Court found that in investigating the administration of the Justice Department, Congress was considering a subject "on which legislation could be had or would be materially aided by the information which the investigation was calculated to elicit ''.
If Congress believes that an agency has drifted from its original mandate, Congress can respond in a number of ways. Congress can pass a law to overrule agency decisions, or to narrow the agency 's jurisdiction. Congress can use its appropriations power to restrict the agency 's funding. Congress can also narrow the agency 's regulatory authority. For example, in the 1980s Congress narrowed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's regulatory discretion using detailed substantive criteria to limit EPA rulemaking.
Underlying the legislature 's ability to oversee the executive are democratic principles as well as practical purposes. John Stuart Mill, the British Utilitarian philosopher, insisted that oversight was the key feature of a meaningful representative body: "The proper office of a representative assembly is to watch and control the government ''. As a young scholar, Woodrow Wilson equated oversight with lawmaking, which was usually seen as the supreme function of a legislature. He wrote, "Quite as important as legislation is vigilant oversight of administration ''.
The philosophical underpinning for oversight is the Constitution 's system of checks and balances among the legislature, executive, and judiciary. James Madison, known as the "Father of the Constitution '', described the system in Federalist No. 51 as establishing "subordinate distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner that each may be a check on the other ''.
Oversight, as an outgrowth of this principle, ideally serves a number of overlapping objectives and purposes:
In sum, oversight is a way for Congress to check on, and check, the executived directors
Although the U.S. Constitution grants no formal, express authority to oversee or investigate the executive or program administration, oversight is implied in Congress 's array of enumerated powers. The legislature is authorized to appropriate funds; raise and support armies; provide for and maintain a navy; declare war; provide for organizing and calling forth the national guard; regulate interstate and foreign commerce; establish post offices and post roads; advise and consent on treaties and presidential nominations (Senate); and impeach (House) and try (Senate) the President, Vice President, and civil officers for treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Reinforcing these powers is Congress 's broad authority "to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof ''.
The authority to oversee derives from these constitutional powers. Congress could not carry them out reasonably or responsibly without knowing what the executive is doing; how programs are being administered, by whom, and at what cost; and whether officials are obeying the law and complying with legislative intent. The Supreme Court has legitimated Congress 's investigative power, subject to constitutional safeguards for civil liberties. In 1927, the Court found that, in investigating the administration of the Department of Justice, Congress was considering a subject "on which legislation could be had or would be materially aided by the information which the investigation was calculated to elicit ''.
The "necessary and proper '' clause of the Constitution also allows Congress to enact laws that mandate oversight by its committees, grant relevant authority to itself and its support agencies, and impose specific obligations on the executive to report to or consult with Congress, and even seek its approval for specific actions.
Broad oversight mandates exist for the legislature in several significant statutes.
Besides these general powers, numerous statutes direct the executive to furnish information to or consult with Congress. For example, the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (P.L. 103 - 62) requires agencies to consult with Congress on their strategic plans and report annually on performance plans, goals, and results. In fact, more than 2,000 reports are submitted each year to Congress by federal departments, agencies, commissions, bureaus, and offices. Inspectors General (IGs), for instance, report their findings about waste, fraud, and abuse, and their recommendations for corrective action, periodically to the agency head and Congress. The IGs are also instructed to issue special reports concerning particularly serious problems immediately to the agency head, who transmits them unaltered to Congress within seven days. The Reports Consolidation Act of 2000 (P.L. 106 - 531), moreover, instructs the IGs to identify and describe their agencies ' most serious management and performance challenges and briefly assess progress in addressing them. This new requirement is to be part of a larger effort by individual agencies to consolidate their numerous reports on financial and performance management matters into a single annual report. The aim is to enhance coordination and efficiency within the agencies; improve the quality of relevant information; and provide it in a more meaningful and useful format for Congress, the President, and the public.
In addition, Congress creates commissions and establishes task forces to study and make recommendations for select policy areas that can also involve examination of executive operations and organizations.
There is a long history behind executive reports to Congress. Indeed, one of the first laws of the First Congress -- the 1789 Act to establish the Treasury Department (1 Stat. 66) -- called upon the Secretary and the Treasurer to report directly to Congress on public expenditures and all accounts. The Secretary was also required "to make report, and give information to either branch of the legislature... respecting all matters referred to him by the Senate or House of Representatives, or which shall appertain to his office. '' Separate from such reporting obligations, public employees may provide information to Congress on their own. In the early part of the 20th century, Congress enacted legislation to overturn a "gag '' rule, issued by the President, that prohibited employees from communicating directly with Congress (5 U.S.C. 7211 (1994)). Other "whistleblower '' statutes, which have been extended specifically to cover personnel in the intelligence community (P.L. 105 - 272), guarantee the right of government employees to petition or furnish information to Congress or a Member.
House and Senate Rules Chamber rules also reinforce the oversight function. House and Senate rules, for instance, provide for "special oversight '' or "comprehensive policy oversight '', respectively, for specified committees over matters that relate to their authorizing jurisdiction. In addition, House rules direct each standing committee to require its subcommittees to conduct oversight or to establish an oversight subcommittee for this purpose. House rules also call for each committee to submit an oversight agenda, listing its prospective oversight topics for the ensuing Congress, to the House Committee on Government Reform, which compiles and prints the agendas.
The House Government Reform Committee and the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, which have oversight jurisdiction over virtually the entire federal government, furthermore, are authorized to review and study the operation of government activities to determine their economy and efficiency and to submit recommendations based on GAO reports. In addition, House rules require that the findings and recommendations from the Government Reform Committee be considered by authorizing panels, if presented to them in a timely fashion.
Oversight occurs through a wide variety of congressional activities and avenues. Some of the most publicized are the comparatively rare investigations by select committees into major scandals or into executive branch operations gone awry.
Cases in point are temporary select committee inquiries into: China 's acquisition of U.S. nuclear weapons information, in 1999; the Iran - Contra affair, in 1987; intelligence agency abuses, in 1975 -- 1976, and the Watergate scandal in 1973 -- 1974. The precedent for this kind of oversight goes back two centuries: in 1792, a special House committee investigated the defeat of an Army force by confederated Indian tribes.
By comparison to these select panel investigations, other congressional inquiries in recent Congresses -- into the Whitewater controversy, access to Federal Bureau of Investigation files, White House Travel Office firings, and campaign financing -- have relied upon standing committees.
The impeachment proceedings against President Bill Clinton in 1998 in the House and in 1999 in the Senate also generated considerable oversight. The oversight not only encompassed the President and the White House staff, but also extended to the office of independent counsel, specifically its authority, jurisdiction, and expenditures. Although such highly visible endeavors are significant, they usually reflect only a small portion of Congress 's total oversight effort. More routine and regular review, monitoring, and supervision occur in other congressional activities and contexts. Especially important are appropriations hearings on agency budgets as well as authorization hearings for existing programs. Separately, examinations of executive operations and the implementation of programs -- by congressional staff, support agencies, and specially created commissions and task forces -- provide additional oversight.
Another avenue of oversight is a resolution of inquiry, which is a simple resolution making a direct request or demand of the President or the head of an executive department to furnish the House of Representatives with specific factual information in the Administration 's possession.
The CRS and the Project On Government Oversight, an independent nonprofit watchdog, train Congressional staff how to conduct effective oversight.
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when does the next avenger movie come out | List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films - wikipedia
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films are an American series of superhero films, based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. The films have been in production since 2007, and in that time Marvel Studios has produced 18 films, with 14 more in various stages of production. The series collectively has grossed over $14.8 billion at the global box office, making it the highest - grossing film franchise of all time.
Kevin Feige has produced every film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Avi Arad served as a producer on the two 2008 releases, Gale Anne Hurd also produced The Incredible Hulk and Amy Pascal produced the Spider - Man films. The films are written and directed by a variety of individuals and feature large, often ensemble, casts. Many of the actors, including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Samuel L. Jackson, and Scarlett Johansson signed contracts to star in numerous films.
The first film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe was Iron Man (2008), which was distributed by Paramount Pictures. Paramount also distributed Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011) and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), while Universal Pictures distributed The Incredible Hulk (2008). Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures began distributing the films with the 2012 crossover film The Avengers, which concluded Phase One of the franchise. Phase Two includes Iron Man 3 (2013), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and Ant - Man (2015).
Captain America: Civil War (2016) is the first film in the franchise 's Phase Three, and is followed by Doctor Strange (2016), Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017), Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), and Black Panther (2018), with Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Ant - Man and the Wasp (2018), Captain Marvel (2019), and an untitled Avengers film (2019) still scheduled for the phase. Sony Pictures distributes the Spider - Man films, which they continue to own, finance, and have final creative control over.
A sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming has been scheduled for 2019, alongside Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 in 2020, with an additional two untitled films also scheduled for 2020, three untitled films scheduled for 2021, and three untitled films scheduled for 2022. Feige has indicated that Marvel may abandon the phase grouping after the conclusion of Phase Three.
Billionaire industrialist Tony Stark builds himself a suit of armor after he is taken captive by a terrorist organization. Free from his captors, he decides to upgrade and don his armor as Iron Man in order to hunt down weapons that were sold under the table.
In April 2006, Marvel hired Jon Favreau to direct Iron Man, with the writing teams of Art Marcum and Matt Holloway and Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby writing competing scripts. Favreau consolidated both into one script, which was then polished by John August. Robert Downey, Jr. was cast in the title role in September 2006, after growing out a goatee and working out to convince the filmmakers he was right for the part. Principal photography began on March 12, 2007, with the first few weeks spent on Stark 's captivity in Afghanistan, which was filmed in Inyo County, California. Production also occurred on the former Hughes Company soundstages in Playa Vista, Los Angeles, California, with additional filming at Edwards Air Force Base and Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Iron Man premiered at the Greater Union theater in George Street, Sydney, on April 14, 2008, and was released internationally on April 30, and in North America on May 2.
The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury, who approaches Stark regarding the "Avenger Initiative ''. Favreau said that he included the scene as "a little tip of the hat for the fans... a way to sort of tee up The Avengers. '' Jackson was only on set for a day, with a skeletal crew to avoid the news of his cameo leaking. Captain America 's shield is also visible in the background of a scene; it was added by an ILM artist as a joke, and Favreau decided to leave it in the film.
After being exposed to gamma radiation that causes him to transform into the monstrous Hulk, scientist Bruce Banner goes on the run and isolates himself from his love, Betty Ross. Hunted by the military, Banner seeks to cure himself and prevent his condition from being weaponized.
In January 2006, Marvel reclaimed the film rights for the Hulk character from Universal Pictures after Universal failed to meet a deadline to develop a sequel to director Ang Lee 's 2003 film Hulk. Universal retained distribution rights for future Hulk films. Instead of moving forward with a sequel, Marvel hired Louis Leterrier to direct The Incredible Hulk, a reboot. Leterrier initially turned down the job out of respect for Lee, but later reconsidered and signed on. The script was written by Zak Penn, who drafted a treatment for the 2003 film. In April 2006, Edward Norton entered negotiations to portray Bruce Banner and rewrite Penn 's script, although Penn received sole credit for the screenplay. Production began on July 9, 2007 and filming primarily took place in Toronto, with additional filming in New York City and Rio de Janeiro. The film premiered at the Gibson Amphitheatre on June 8, 2008, and was released on June 13.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of Iron Man 2 and Thor, the former of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Downey briefly reprised his role from Iron Man as Tony Stark in a cameo appearance at the end of the film. Downey said that the filmmakers "were just cross-pollinating our superheroes. It happens to be a scene where I basically approach (actor William Hurt 's character General Ross), and we may be considering going into some sort of limited partnership together. The great thing is he -- and I do n't want to give too much away -- but he 's in disrepair at the time I find him. It was really fun seeing him play this really powerful character who 's half in the bag. '' In addition, Captain America is briefly seen frozen in ice in an alternate opening of the film, included in the DVD release.
After Tony Stark reveals himself to be Iron Man, the U.S. government demands he hand over his technology. Meanwhile, a rival industrialist and a Russian scientist conspire to use his own technology against him.
Immediately following the successful release of Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel Studios announced it was developing a sequel, Iron Man 2. Favreau returned as director and Justin Theroux was hired to write the screenplay, which would be based on an original story by Favreau and Downey. In October 2008, Downey signed a new four - picture deal, that retroactively included the first film, to reprise his role and Don Cheadle was hired to replace Terrence Howard as James Rhodes. Jackson signed on to reprise his role as Nick Fury from the Iron Man post-credits sequence in up to nine films, and Scarlett Johansson was cast as the Black Widow, as part of a multi-film commitment. Principal photography began April 6, 2009, at the Pasadena Masonic Temple in Pasadena, California. The majority of filming took place at Raleigh Studios in Manhattan Beach, California. Other locations included Edwards Air Force Base, Monaco, and the Sepulveda Dam. Iron Man 2 premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 26, 2010, and was released internationally between April 28 and May 7 before releasing in North America on May 7.
The film is set six months after the events of Iron Man, and takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Thor. The filmmakers continued to refer to other Marvel films by again including Captain America 's shield. Favreau explained, "We introduced Captain America 's shield briefly in one shot in the last film. So now it really was in his room, so we had to figure out how to deal with the reality that the shield was in his workshop. '' A scene toward the end of Iron Man 2 in a S.H.I.E.L.D. safe house contains several Easter eggs, ranging from footage from The Incredible Hulk displayed on a monitor to pointers on a map indicating several locales related to other Marvel films, including one pointing toward a region of Africa in reference to the Black Panther. A young Peter Parker appears as the child wearing an Iron Man mask who Stark saves from a drone; the appearance was confirmed in June 2017 by Spider - Man actor Tom Holland, Kevin Feige and Spider - Man: Homecoming director Jon Watts. The film 's post-credits scene showed the discovery of Thor 's hammer in a crater.
Thor, crown prince of Asgard, is banished to Earth and stripped of his powers after he reignites a dormant war. As his brother, Loki, plots to take the throne for himself, Thor must prove himself worthy and reclaim his hammer Mjölnir.
Mark Protosevich was hired to develop a script for Thor in April 2006, after the rights were acquired from Sony Pictures. In August 2007 Marvel hired Matthew Vaughn to direct the film, however he exited the project in May 2008. In September 2008, Kenneth Branagh entered into negotiations to replace Vaughn. In May 2009, Chris Hemsworth was in negotiations to portray the titular character, and Tom Hiddleston was set to play his brother, Loki. Both actors were contracted to star in several films. Marvel hired the writing team of Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz to write a new script for the film, which was then rewritten by Don Payne. Production began on January 11, 2010 in Los Angeles, California, before moving to Galisteo, New Mexico in March. Thor had its world premiere on April 17, 2011 at the Event Cinemas theatre in George Street, Sydney and a U.S. premiere on May 2 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California. The film was released internationally from April 21 to 30, and on May 6 in North America.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Iron Man 2, the latter of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Clark Gregg, who appeared in Iron Man and Iron Man 2 as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson, reprised the role in Thor. About his role in Thor he stated, "Agent Coulson was one of the guys who was n't really in the comic books, and he (had) a very kind of small role in Iron Man. And I was just very lucky that they chose to expand that character and (chose) to put him more into the universe of it. '' After signing on to appear as Clint Barton / Hawkeye in The Avengers, Jeremy Renner made a cameo appearance as the character during a scene in Thor. Branagh said that they "were always going to have a guy in a basket above the action where Thor breaks in the S.H.I.E.L.D. camp '', and that he was thrilled when the producers told him they wanted to use Renner 's Hawkeye for that role. The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Loki, watching as Erik Selvig and Nick Fury discuss the Tesseract. The scene was directed by Joss Whedon, who directed The Avengers. Stellan Skarsgård, who played Selvig, said the scene was not included when he first read the screenplay for Thor, and that he was sent pages for the scene after agreeing to appear in The Avengers.
In 1942, Steve Rogers is deemed physically unfit to enlist in the U.S. Army and fight the Nazis in World War II. Recruited for a secret military operation, he is physically transformed into a super-soldier dubbed Captain America and must battle the Red Skull, head of a Nazi science division known as Hydra.
In April 2006, Marvel hired David Self to write the script for a Captain America film. Joe Johnston signed on to direct in November 2008, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely were hired to rewrite the script. In March 2010, Chris Evans was cast as Captain America and Hugo Weaving was cast as the Red Skull. Production began on June 28, 2010 in the United Kingdom, with locations in London, Caerwent, Manchester and Liverpool. The film premiered on July 19, 2011, at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and was released in North America on July 22, and in international markets starting July 27.
The Tesseract from the Thor post-credits scene appears as a MacGuffin in Captain America: The First Avenger. In the film, Dominic Cooper portrays a young Howard Stark, the father of Tony Stark, who hosts an early version of the Stark Expo, the fair Tony hosts in Iron Man 2. The final scene of the film includes a brief appearance by Jackson 's Nick Fury followed by a teaser trailer for Marvel 's The Avengers after the credits.
Nick Fury, the director of S.H.I.E.L.D., gathers the superheroes Iron Man, Thor, Captain America, the Hulk, Black Widow and Hawkeye to fight Thor 's brother Loki, who plots to subjugate the Earth.
Zak Penn, who wrote The Incredible Hulk, was hired to write a script for The Avengers in June 2007. In April 2010, Joss Whedon closed a deal to direct the film, and to rework Penn 's script. Marvel announced that Edward Norton would not be reprising the role of Bruce Banner / Hulk, and in July 2010, Mark Ruffalo was cast in his place. Downey, Evans, Hemsworth, Johansson, Renner, Hiddleston and Jackson reprised their respective roles from previous films. Principal photography began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio in August, and New York City in September. The premiere was held on April 11, 2012 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and the film was released in North America on May 4.
Gwyneth Paltrow, who portrayed Pepper Potts in Iron Man and Iron Man 2, was included in the film at Downey 's insistence. Prior to this, Whedon had not intended the film to include supporting characters from the heroes ' individual films, commenting, "You need to separate the characters from their support systems in order to create the isolation you need for a team. '' Avi Arad said that Sony Pictures and Disney discussed incorporating the OsCorp Tower from The Amazing Spider - Man into the climax of The Avengers, but Feige said that "the deal was never close to happening. '' The supervillain Thanos appears in a mid-credits scene, portrayed by Damion Poitier.
Tony Stark faces a powerful enemy, the Mandarin, who attacks and destroys his mansion. Left to his own devices and battling posttraumatic stress disorder, Stark struggles to get to the bottom of a series of mysterious explosions.
In late 2010, Marvel and Disney announced that they were developing a third Iron Man film. In February 2011, Marvel hired Shane Black to direct Iron Man 3. Black co-wrote the film 's script with Drew Pearce. Downey, Paltrow, and Cheadle reprised their roles from Iron Man 2, while Guy Pearce and Ben Kingsley joined the cast as Aldrich Killian and Trevor Slattery, respectively. Filming began in May 2012, in North Carolina. Additional filming took place in southern Florida, China, and Los Angeles. Iron Man 3 premiered at Le Grand Rex in Paris, France on April 14, 2013 and at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 24. The film was released internationally on April 25, and in the United States on May 3.
The film is set in December 2013, after the events of The Avengers. In the film Tony Stark experiences PTSD - like symptoms following the Battle of New York in The Avengers. Black explained, "that 's an anxiety response to feeling inferior to The Avengers, but also to being humbled by sights he can not possibly begin to understand or reconcile with the realities he 's used to... There 's a line in the movie about ' ever since that big guy with the hammer fell out of the sky, the rules have changed '. That 's what we 're dealing with here. '' Bruce Banner appears in a post-credits scene, with Ruffalo reprising the role. About the scene, Ruffalo said "They were about to wrap the movie and I saw Robert (Downey, Jr.) at the Academy Awards... and he said, ' What do you think about coming and doing a day? ' I said, ' Are you kidding me? Bang, let 's do it! ' We sort of spitballed that scene, then I came in and we shot for a couple of hours and laughed. ''
Thor reunites with astrophysicist Jane Foster as a series of portals, linking worlds at random, begin to appear. He discovers that Malekith and his army of Dark Elves have returned after thousands of years, and they seek a powerful weapon known as the Aether. Thor must join forces with his now - imprisoned brother Loki to stop them.
A sequel to Thor was first announced in June 2011, with Hemsworth reprising his role as Thor. Hiddleston confirmed he would return as Loki in September, and Alan Taylor signed on to direct the film in December. The film 's title was announced as Thor: The Dark World in July 2012 at the San Diego Comic - Con International, and Christopher Eccleston was cast as Malekith a month later. Production started in September 2012 in Bourne Wood, Surrey, with additional filming taking place in Iceland and London. The film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22, 2013. It was internationally released on October 30, 2013 and on November 8, 2013 in North America.
The film is set one year after the events of The Avengers. Evans briefly makes a cameo appearance in the film as Captain America when Loki shapeshifts into him while mocking Thor. Hiddleston wore the Captain America costume while standing in for Evans, before Evans came to shoot the scene. Hiddleston said, "I did an impression of Loki in the Captain America costume, and then they showed Chris (Evans) my performance on tape. It 's him doing an impression of me doing an impression of him. And it 's brilliant. '' James Gunn, the director of Guardians of the Galaxy, directed the mid-credits scene which featured the Collector, played by Benicio del Toro. Asked about shooting the scene, Gunn said, "I got the script that morning, and I did it in two hours at the end of a day of second unit shooting (for Guardians of the Galaxy). ''
Steve Rogers, now working with S.H.I.E.L.D., teams up with Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow and Sam Wilson / Falcon to expose a deep conspiracy which involves a mysterious assassin known only as the Winter Soldier.
A sequel to 2011 's Captain America: The First Avenger was announced in April 2012. Anthony and Joe Russo were hired to direct in June, and in July it was officially titled Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Evans and Jackson were set to reprise their respective roles as Captain America and Nick Fury, and Johansson would again play the Black Widow. Sebastian Stan, who portrayed Bucky Barnes in Captain America: The First Avenger, returned as the Winter Soldier. Production started in April 2013 in Manhattan Beach, California, and filming also took place in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland, Ohio. The film premiered in Los Angeles on March 13, 2014. Captain America: The Winter Soldier was released internationally on March 26 and in North America on April 4.
The film is set two years after the events of The Avengers. Stephen Strange, the alter - ego of the Marvel superhero Doctor Strange, is mentioned by name in the film by the character Jasper Sitwell. A remodeled Stark Tower from The Avengers, now known as Avengers Tower, also makes an appearance in the film. Whedon directed a post-credits scene featuring Baron Wolfgang von Strucker (Thomas Kretschmann), List (Henry Goodman), Quicksilver (Aaron Taylor - Johnson), and the Scarlet Witch (Elizabeth Olsen), who appear in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The revelation in the film that S.H.I.E.L.D. had been infiltrated by Hydra informed the final six episodes of the first season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., a television series set in the MCU.
Peter Quill / Star - Lord and a group of misfits, including Gamora, Rocket, Drax the Destroyer and Groot, fight to keep a powerful orb from the clutches of the villainous Ronan.
Nicole Perlman began writing a screenplay in 2009. Marvel Studios announced it was developing a Guardians of the Galaxy film in July 2012. The film is directed by James Gunn, based on his and Perlman 's screenplay. In February 2013, Chris Pratt was cast in the lead role, as Peter Quill / Star - Lord. The film was shot at Shepperton Studios and in London from July to October 2013, and post-production work was completed on July 7, 2014. The film premiered on July 21, 2014 in Hollywood. Guardians of the Galaxy was released in the United Kingdom on July 31, 2014, and in North America on August 1.
The film is set in 2014. Josh Brolin provides the voice and performance capture for Thanos, the supervillain who appeared in The Avengers mid-credits scene. Gunn noted that the film would be connected to Avengers: Infinity War. Several other objects of significance appear in the Collector 's museum, including a Chitauri from The Avengers and a Dark Elf from Thor: The Dark World, among other characters. About their appearances Gunn said, "There 's a lot of stuff in the Collector 's Museum. And for me, it was mostly just really fun. As a Marvel fan, giving the actual fans something that they can freeze frame on their Blu - Ray at home and just kind of pick out everything that 's in there. So there are, I mean, seriously all those boxes have something interesting in them, so it 's pretty fun. '' Ronan 's race, the Kree, were first introduced in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "T.A.H.I.T.I. ''.
Iron Man, Captain America, Thor, the Hulk, Black Widow, and Hawkeye must work together as the Avengers to defeat Ultron, a technological enemy bent on human extinction, while encountering the powerful twins Pietro and Wanda Maximoff, as well as the new entity Vision.
A sequel to The Avengers was announced by Disney in May 2012, shortly after the first film 's release. In August 2012, Joss Whedon was signed to return as writer and director. In June 2013, Downey signed a deal to reprise the role of Iron Man for the second and third Avengers films. On July 20, 2013, at San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon announced that the subtitle of the film would be Age of Ultron. In August 2013, James Spader was announced to portray Ultron. Second unit filming began on February 11, 2014 in Johannesburg, South Africa. Principal photography began in March 2014 at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, with additional footage filmed at Fort Bard and various other locations in the Aosta Valley region of Italy, and Seoul, South Korea. Filming was completed on August 6, 2014. Avengers: Age of Ultron had its world premiere in Los Angeles on April 13, 2015, and was released internationally beginning April 22, and on May 1 in North America.
The film confirms that the gem in Loki 's scepter is an Infinity Stone, specifically the Mind Stone, and Brolin reappears as Thanos in the mid-credit scene wielding an Infinity Gauntlet. It also features references to Vibranium and Wakanda, both connections to Black Panther, introducing both to the universe ahead of Black Panther 's solo film. Additionally, Andy Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue in the film, traditionally a Black Panther antagonist.
Thief Scott Lang must aid his mentor Dr. Hank Pym in safeguarding the mystery of the Ant - Man technology, which allows its user to decrease in size but increase in strength, from various menaces and plot a heist to defend the Earth.
Ant - Man is directed by Peyton Reed with a screenplay written by Edgar Wright & Joe Cornish and Adam McKay & Paul Rudd, from a story by Wright & Cornish, that includes both Scott Lang and Hank Pym. Edgar Wright was initially slated to direct and write the film, but left the project in May 2014 due to creative differences. In January 2013, Feige stated that Ant - Man would be the first film in Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. However, in October 2014, it was revealed that the film would be the last film of Phase Two. Pre-production started in October 2013, and principal photography took place from August to December 2014, in San Francisco, Fayette County, Georgia at Pinewood Atlanta, and Downtown Atlanta. In December 2013, Rudd was cast as Ant - Man, followed in January 2014 with the casting of Michael Douglas as Pym and the confirmation of Rudd as Lang. Ant - Man had its world premiere in Los Angeles on June 29, 2015, and was released in France on July 14, and in North America on July 17.
The film is set several months after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Scott Lang attempts to infiltrate the new Avengers headquarters in Upstate New York featured in Age of Ultron, and confronts Sam Wilson / Falcon, played by Anthony Mackie. McKay and Rudd decided to add Falcon to Ant - Man after watching Captain America: The Winter Soldier. The Russo brothers filmed the post-credit scene, which was footage from Captain America: Civil War, and features Mackie as Falcon, Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America, and Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier.
The Avengers become fractured into two opposing teams, one led by Captain America and another by Iron Man, after extensive collateral damage prompts politicians to pass an act regulating superhuman activity with government oversight and accountability for the Avengers while also facing against a new enemy, Helmut Zemo, who seeks revenge upon the Avengers.
By January 2014, Anthony and Joe Russo had signed on to return to direct a third Captain America installment, which they confirmed in March 2014, with Chris Evans returning as Captain America, Feige returning to produce, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely writing the screenplay. In October 2014, the title was officially announced as Captain America: Civil War along with the reveal that Downey would appear in the film as Tony Stark / Iron Man. The film is an adaptation from the "Civil War '' storyline in the comics. It is also the first film of Phase Three. Filming began in April 2015 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in August 2015. Captain America: Civil War had its premiere in Hollywood on April 12, 2016, was released internationally beginning April 27, and was released on May 6 in North America.
The film is set one year after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Captain America: Civil War introduces Tom Holland as Peter Parker / Spider - Man and Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther to the MCU, who appear in solo films in 2017 and 2018, respectively. William Hurt reprises his role as Thunderbolt Ross from The Incredible Hulk, and is now the US Secretary of State. For the mid-credits scene, in which Black Panther offers Captain America and Bucky Barnes asylum in Wakanda, Joe and Anthony Russo received input from Black Panther director Ryan Coogler on the look and design of Wakanda.
After Stephen Strange, the world 's top neurosurgeon, is involved in a car accident that ruins his career, he sets out on a journey of healing, where he encounters the Ancient One, who teaches Strange the use of Mystic Arts and to defend the Earth from mystical threats.
In June 2010, Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were hired to write the screenplay for a film starring the character Doctor Strange. In January 2013, Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would be a part of their Phase Three slate of films. In June 2014, Scott Derrickson was hired to direct. In December 2014, Benedict Cumberbatch was cast in the eponymous role, and Jon Spaihts was confirmed to rewrite the script. In December 2015, C. Robert Cargill revealed he was a co-writer on the film, and the following April, revealed that Derrickson also wrote the script. Pre-production began in June 2014, with filming beginning in November 2015 in Nepal, before moving to Longcross Studios in the UK later in the month. Filming concluded in New York City in April 2016. Doctor Strange had its premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and was released in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2016, and on November 4 in the United States.
Derrickson stated that the events of the film take "roughly '' a year, ending "up to date with the rest of the MCU ''. Doctor Strange introduces the Eye of Agamotto, a mystical relic that can manipulate time and is revealed to be an Infinity Stone at the end of the film, specifically the Time Stone. The film 's mid-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Hemsworth as Thor, meeting with Strange, which was footage from Thor: Ragnarok. The scene was directed by Ragnarok director Taika Waititi.
The Guardians of the Galaxy travel throughout the cosmos and struggle to keep their newfound family together while helping Peter Quill learn more about his true parentage and facing against new enemies.
In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-writer Nicole Perlman confirmed that Gunn would return to write and direct the sequel. Chris Pratt returns for the sequel as Peter Quill / Star - Lord, along with the other Guardians from the first film as well as additional cast members. They are joined by Pom Klementieff as Mantis, and Kurt Russell as Ego. In June 2015, the film 's title was revealed as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Filming began in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in June 2016. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and was released on May 5, 2017.
The film is set two - to - three months after the events of Guardians of the Galaxy, in 2014. One of the film 's post-credit sequences hints at the introduction of Adam Warlock, after Gunn originally intended for Warlock to make a full appearance in Vol. 2. He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part '' of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The Grandmaster, played by Jeff Goldblum, is seen dancing in the end credits, before his appearance in Thor: Ragnarok.
Peter Parker tries to balance being the hero Spider - Man with his high school life under guidance of Tony Stark as he deals with the threat of the Vulture.
On February 9, 2015, Sony Pictures and Marvel announced that Sony would be releasing a Spider - Man film co-produced by Marvel Studios president Feige and Amy Pascal, with Sony Pictures continuing to own, finance, distribute, and have final creative control of the Spider - Man films. In April 2015, Feige confirmed the character would be Peter Parker and added that Marvel had been working to add Spider - Man to the MCU since at least October 2014, when they announced their full slate of Phase Three films, saying, "Marvel does n't announce anything officially until it 's set in stone. So we went forward with that Plan A in October, with the Plan B being, if (the deal) were to happen with Sony, how it would all shift. We 've been thinking about (the Spider - Man film) as long as we 've been thinking about Phase Three. '' In June 2015, Tom Holland was cast in the role of Spider - Man and Jon Watts was hired to direct the film, and the next month, John Francis Daley & Jonathan Goldstein were hired to write the screenplay. Additional screenwriters include Watts & Christopher Ford and Chris McKenna & Erik Sommers. In April 2016, the title was revealed to be Spider - Man: Homecoming. Production began in June 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in October 2016. Spider - Man: Homecoming premiered on June 28, 2017 in Hollywood, and was released in the United Kingdom on July 5, and the United States on July 7, 2017.
The film is set several months after the events of Captain America: Civil War, which is eight years after the events of The Avengers. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that characters from previous MCU films would appear in the film, with Robert Downey Jr. confirmed to reprise his role as Tony Stark / Iron Man shortly thereafter. Favreau, Paltrow, and Evans also reprise their roles as Happy Hogan, Pepper Potts, and Steve Rogers / Captain America, respectively. The clean - up crew Damage Control appear in the film (after previously being referenced in Iron Man and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.) ahead of an intended television series about them. Various weaponry and artifacts from previous films are referenced throughout the film that Toomes and his crew repurpose for their weapons. In Parker 's high school, one of his classes has a lesson about the Sokovia Accords, and portraits of Bruce Banner, Howard Stark and Abraham Erskine are seen within the school.
Thor, trapped on another world without Mjölnir, must survive a gladiatorial duel against the Hulk and return to Asgard in time to stop the villainous Hela and the impending Ragnarök.
In January 2014, Marvel announced that a third Thor film was in development, with Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost writing the screenplay, and was officially announced as Thor: Ragnarok in October 2014. By October 2015, Taika Waititi entered in negotiations to direct Thor: Ragnarok. In December 2015, Stephany Folsom was hired to rewrite the script. A year later, in January 2017, it was revealed that Eric Pearson wrote the screenplay, with Kyle, Yost and Folsom receiving story credit. Pearson, Kyle and Yost would ultimately receive screenwriting credit for the film. Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Idris Elba and Anthony Hopkins reprise their roles as Thor, Loki, Heimdall and Odin, respectively, and are joined by Cate Blanchett as Hela. Production began in July 2016 in Australia at Village Roadshow Studios, and wrapped in late October 2016. Thor: Ragnarok premiered in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, began its international release on October 24, 2017 in the United Kingdom, and was released on November 3, 2017 in the United States.
The film is set four years after the events of Thor: The Dark World, two years after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron, and around the same time period as Captain America: Civil War and Spider - Man: Homecoming. Producer Brad Winderbaum noted that "Things happen on top of each other now in Phase Three. They 're not as interlocked as they were in Phase One. '' Mark Ruffalo and Benedict Cumberbatch appear in the film as Bruce Banner / Hulk and Doctor Stephen Strange, respectively. The film reveals that the Infinity Gauntlet first seen in Odin 's vault in Thor was a fake, while also introducing Thanos ' ship Sanctuary II in a post-credits scene.
T'Challa returns home as sovereign of the nation of Wakanda only to find his dual role of king and protector challenged by a long - time adversary in a conflict that has global consequences.
Documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey was hired to write a script for Black Panther in January 2011. In October 2014, the film was announced and Chadwick Boseman was revealed to be portraying T'Challa / Black Panther. In January 2016, Ryan Coogler was announced as director, and the following month, Joe Robert Cole was confirmed as the film 's screenwriter. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that Coogler was a co-screenwriter. Filming began in January 2017 at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in Atlanta, and concluded in April 2017. Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and began its international release on February 13, 2018, and was released on February 16, 2018 in the United States. The film also had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film.
The film is set one week after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Florence Kasumba, Serkis, Martin Freeman, and John Kani reprise their roles as Ayo, Ulysses Klaue, Everett K. Ross and T'Chaka respectively from previous MCU films. The film 's post-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Sebastian Stan, reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
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In June 2012, Marvel announced a 10 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One -- Avengers Assembled '', for release on September 25, 2012. The box set includes all six of the Phase One films -- Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger, and Marvel 's The Avengers -- on Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D, in a replica of Nick Fury 's briefcase from The Avengers. In August 2012, luggage company Rimowa GmbH, who developed the briefcase for The Avengers, filed suit against Marvel Studios and Buena Vista Home Entertainment in U.S. federal court, complaining that "Marvel did not obtain any license or authorization from Rimowa to make replica copies of the cases for any purpose. '' The set was delayed to early 2013 for the packaging to be redesigned. The box set, with a redesigned case, was released on April 2, 2013. In addition, the box set included a featurette on the then - upcoming Phase Two films, showing footage and concept art, as well as previously unreleased deleted scenes from all of the Phase One films.
In July 2015, Marvel announced a 13 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection '', for release on December 8, 2015, exclusive to Amazon.com. The box set includes all six of the Phase Two films -- Iron Man 3, Thor: The Dark World, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Guardians of the Galaxy, Avengers: Age of Ultron, and Ant - Man -- on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and a digital copy, in a replica of the Orb from Guardians of the Galaxy, plus a bonus disc and exclusive memorabilia. Material on the bonus disc includes all of the Marvel One - Shots with commentary, deleted scenes and pre-production creative features for each of the films, featurettes on the making of the post-credit scenes for the films, and first looks at Captain America: Civil War, Doctor Strange, and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
The Avengers join forces with the Guardians of the Galaxy to battle Thanos, who is trying to amass the Infinity Stones.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 1. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be shortened to simply Avengers: Infinity War. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming for Infinity War began in January 2017 in Atlanta, and lasted until July 2017. Additional filming also took place in Scotland. Avengers: Infinity War will premiere in Los Angeles on April 23, 2018. It will be released worldwide on April 27, 2018, with a few debuts beginning as early as April 25 in a handful of countries.
The film is set four years after the events of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Marvel has been planting the seeds for Infinity War since their early films, by introducing the Infinity Stones as MacGuffins: the Tesseract / Space Stone in Captain America: The First Avenger, Loki 's Scepter / Mind Stone in The Avengers, the Aether / Reality Stone in Thor: The Dark World, the Orb / Power Stone in Guardians of the Galaxy, and the Eye of Agamotto / Time Stone in Doctor Strange. Additionally, Thanos is shown holding an empty Infinity Gauntlet in Avengers: Age of Ultron.
Scott Lang tries to balance his home life with his responsibilities as Ant - Man, when Hope van Dyne and Hank Pym present him with a new mission, requiring him to team up with van Dyne as the Wasp.
Ant - Man and the Wasp was announced in October 2015. Peyton Reed confirmed that he would return to direct in November 2015, and that Paul Rudd and Evangeline Lilly would reprise their roles as Scott Lang / Ant - Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp, respectively. In December 2015, Andrew Barrer, Gabriel Ferrari, and Rudd were confirmed to write the screenplay, with Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers revealed to have also contributed to the script in August 2017. In February 2017, Michael Douglas confirmed he would reprise his role as Hank Pym in the film. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta with additional filming in San Francisco, and ended in November 2017. Ant - Man and the Wasp is scheduled to be released on July 6, 2018.
The film is set after the events of Captain America: Civil War.
Carol Danvers becomes Captain Marvel, one of the galaxy 's strongest heroes, after the Earth is caught in the center of an intergalactic conflict between two alien worlds.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Ms. Marvel. In October 2014, Marvel announced the film would be titled Captain Marvel and feature Carol Danvers. In April 2015, Nicole Perlman and Meg LeFauve were announced as screenwriters. At the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con, Brie Larson was confirmed to play the role of Carol Danvers. In April 2017, Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck were hired to direct. That August, Geneva Robertson - Dworet was revealed to be taking over as the film 's screenwriter, replacing Perlman and LeFauve. Liz Flahive, Carly Mensch, Boden and Ryan Fleck are also credited as screenwriters on the film. Location filming occurred in January 2018, while principal photography began in March 2018 in Los Angeles, and is scheduled to last until May 2018. The film is scheduled to be released on March 8, 2019.
The film is set in the 1990s. Jackson, Djimon Hounsou, Lee Pace, and Clark Gregg reprise their roles as Nick Fury, Korath, Ronan the Accuser, and Phil Coulson, respectively, while the Skrull species are introduced to the MCU.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 2. In April 2015, it was revealed that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be changed, being known simply at that time as the Untitled Avengers film. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta, and ended in January 2018. The film is scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019.
In December 2016, Sony Pictures scheduled a sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming for release on July 5, 2019. A year later, Watts was confirmed to be returning to direct the film. Filming is scheduled to begin in April or May 2018.
The film is set after the untitled Avengers film.
In April 2016, Kevin Feige stated that "Guardians 3 is (one film that 's) up there '' being considered for release beyond 2019. In March 2017, Gunn stated that a third Guardians film would happen "for sure '', and the following month confirmed he would return to write and direct Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. The film is scheduled to be released in 2020.
The film is set after Avengers: Infinity War and its untitled sequel.
Disney has scheduled multiple release dates for untitled Marvel Studios films. These include: May 1, July 31, and November 6, 2020; May 7, July 30, and November 5, 2021; and February 18, May 6, and July 29, 2022. In October 2016, Feige said it was a combination of knowing what films would occupy the 2020 dates and allowing some flexibility, saying, "We know what (films) we 'd like them to be for 2020. Over the years, where we 're aiming we 've been lucky enough that it 's usually been the same thing but we always leave ourselves the opportunity to bob and weave and adapt if we have to. But we know where we 're headed for 2020 and we have ideas and we 're beginning to solidify the years beyond that. '' Feige and Marvel have additional storylines planned through 2028, resulting in 20 films "on the docket that are completely different from anything that 's come before -- intentionally. ''
In October 2014, in terms of Phase Four films, Feige said, for the time being, "We 're not going to talk specifically about the story of any of those films, the plot of any of those films, what happens to any of the characters in any of those films. In fact, even to talk about any of those characters -- who will be involved in those movies -- will be a bit of a spoiler as to what may or may not happen to them in earlier movies. '' In April 2016, Feige added, "We 're only working on what 's been announced through the end of 2019. And it is still a big chess board for 2020 and beyond. '' A year later, Feige noted, "We have an idea (of what the MCU looks like post-Infinity War), and it 's gon na be very, very different '', but cautioned that Marvel would not be "actively discussing anything past untitled Avengers '' besides dating the sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming and that James Gunn would be working on Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. He also was not sure if Marvel would continue to group the films in phases once Phase Three concluded, that "it might be a new thing ''. A second sequel to Homecoming is also planned.
In February 2014, Feige stated that after exploring Black Widow 's past in Age of Ultron, he would like to see it explored further in a solo film. Marvel has done some development work for the potential film, including a "pretty in depth '' treatment by Nicole Perlman, and by May 2016, Feige stated that Marvel was "creatively and emotionally '' committed to creating the solo film. By January 2018, Jac Schaeffer was hired to write the script for the potential film.
In April 2006, Marvel hired Andrew W. Marlowe to write a script for Nick Fury. In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Blade. In July 2015, Wesley Snipes, who played Blade in three films before the character 's rights reverted to Marvel, stated that he had discussions with Marvel to reprise the role.
A film based on the Runaways went through a number of iterations. Brian K. Vaughan was originally hired to write a screenplay based on the property in May 2008. In April 2010, Marvel hired Peter Sollett to direct the film, and Drew Pearce was hired to write a script in May. The following October, development on the film was put on hold, with Pearce revealing in September 2013 that the Runaways film had been shelved in favor of The Avengers, with the earliest it could release being Phase Three. In October 2014, after announcing all of Marvel 's Phase Three films without Runaways, Feige stated the project was "still an awesome script that exists in our script vault '', adding, "We 'd love to do something with Runaways some day. In our television and future film discussions, it 's always one that we talk about, because we have a solid draft there. But again, we ca n't make them all. '' In August 2016, Marvel Television announced Marvel 's Runaways from the streaming service Hulu, with the series receiving a full season order in May 2017. It premiered in November 2017.
In April 2013, Feige mentioned the Inhumans as a property out of which he was "confident '' a film would be made. Inhumans as a concept would first be introduced to the MCU in 2014 through the second season of the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. By August 2014, the studio was ready to move forward in development with the film, with a screenplay written by Joe Robert Cole. In October 2014, the film was announced for Phase Three and scheduled for release July 2019. By October 2015, Cole was no longer involved with the film and any potential drafts that he may have written would not be used. In April 2016, Inhumans was removed from the release schedule, and would no longer be a part of Phase Three. In July 2016, Feige said Inhumans would "certainly '' be a part of the discussion regarding the film ideas for 2020 and 2021, adding the following November that he was still optimistic the film could be released in Phase Four. In November 2016, Marvel Television announced the series Marvel 's Inhumans, which premiered on ABC in September 2017, after the first two episodes were screened in IMAX. The series was not intended to be a reworking of the film.
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what italian port city is built on islands | Rovinj - wikipedia
Rovinj / Rovigno (Croatian pronounced (rǒʋiːɲ); Italian: Rovigno, Ancient Greek: Ρυγίνιον (Ryginion), Latin: Ruginium) is a city in Croatia situated on the north Adriatic Sea with a population of 14,294 (2011). Located on the western coast of the Istrian peninsula, it is a popular tourist resort and an active fishing port. Istriot, a Romance language once widely spoken in this part of Istria, is still spoken by some of the residents. The town is officially bilingual, Italian and Croatian, hence both town names are official and equal.
Rovinj / Rovigno was already a settlement of Venetian or Illyrian tribes before being captured by the Romans, who called it Arupinium or Mons Rubineus, and later Ruginium and Ruvinium. Built on an island close to the coast, it became connected to the mainland much later, in 1763, by filling in the channel.
Rovigno was eventually incorporated into the Byzantine Empire, later becoming part of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the 6th century, before being taken over by the Frankish Empire in 788. For the following several centuries it was ruled by a succession of feudal lords, and in 1209 it was acquired by the Patriarchate of Aquileia under Wolfger von Erla.
From 1283 to 1797 Rovigno was one of the most important towns in Istria governed by the Republic of Venice. During this period three town gates were constructed and Rovinj was fortified by two rows of defensive walls, remains of which can still be seen today. Nearby the Rovinj / Rovigno pier one can find one of the old town gates, the Balbi 's Arch, dating from 1680, and a late - Renaissance clock tower. The first city statute was proclaimed in 1531.
Following the fall of Venice in 1797 and the ensuing Napoleonic interlude, Rovigno became part of the Austrian Empire, which lasted until World War I. According to the last Austrian census in 1911, 97.8 % of the population was Italian - speaking. It then belonged to Kingdom of Italy from 1918 to 1947, when it was ceded to SFR Yugoslavia, as part of SR Croatia. The original town name Rovigno was then changed into Rovinj. During the post-war period many Italian inhabitants left Rovinj / Rovigno, which led to significant changes to Rovinj / Rovigno 's demographic structure.
Following Croatia 's independence in 1991, the town became one of the most important centers of Istria County, an administrative unit encompassing most of Istria. Rovinj / Rovigno is today the third most populous town in the county, behind Pula / Pola and Poreč / Parenzo.
Rovinj / Rovigno is one of nine settlements officially designated as towns in Istria County in western Croatia. It has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa), with an average temperature of 4.8 ° C (40.6 ° F) in January and 22.3 ° C (72.1 ° F) in July. The average annual temperature is 13.4 ° C (56.1 ° F). The sea temperature is more than 20 ° C (68 ° F) from the mid-June to September. The average annual sea temperature is 16.6 ° C (61.9 ° F).
From May to September the Rovinj / Rovigno receives more than 10 sunshine hours a day. The rainfall averages 941 mm (37.05 in) a year and average air humidity is 72 percent.
Originally the peninsula on which the city lies was an island, separated from the mainland by a channel. The latter was filled in 1763. Rovinj Archipelago includes 22 islets.
In 2007 there were 13,562 people living in Rovinj / Rovigno. 76.31 % are Croats, while ethnic minorities include Italians (16 %), Serbs (3.51 %), Albanians (2.37 %) and Bosniaks (1.81 %).
The City Assembly is composed of 19 representatives, coming from the following political parties:
The main economic activity in Rovinj / Rovigno is tourism and during peak season (May -- September), its bars, restaurants and art galleries work long hours, while operating limited hours off - season.
The busiest area is the very centre of Rovinj / Rovigno, extending from the main bus station towards the old part of town, where most bars and clubs are located.
The town 's main central thoroughfare is the fully pedestrian Carrera Street, with many independent shops and art galleries. A farmer 's market is located at the edge of the historic part of town, near Valdibora Square.
According to data compiled by Istria Tourist Board, Rovinj / Rovigno is the second biggest tourist destination in the county, in terms of overnight stays. The two closest airports are Pula / Pola (Croatia) and Trieste (Italy) and during the summer season, low - cost airlines such as Ryanair operate direct flights from western Europe to both airports.
Also during the summer season, there is a direct high speed ferry link between Venice and Rovinj / Rovigno. High speed weekly lines to the Port of Ravenna and Cesenatico are also available in the summer.
There are numerous hotels in the town itself, and beds are abundant though usually overbooked in the summer months. Accommodation ranges from private rooms or apartments to bungalows, camping sites and 2 to 4 star hotels. The city also has two luxury, 5 - star boutique hotels, Hotel Monte Mulini and Hotel Lone. Apart from hotels on the mainland, there are also a handful of hotels on small islands surrounding Rovinj / Rovigno which are linked to the mainland by boats which go from the city centre to the hotel on the islands.
The preferred means of transport for getting around Rovinj / Rovigno is by car. Rovinj / Rovigno is well - connected with the rest of Istria and with larger cities in the region such as Trieste, Rijeka, Ljubljana and Zagreb.
The centre of Rovinj / Rovigno, which includes the old town, is very walkable and transportation by bike or scooter is a preferred means of getting around for many locals.
The closest commercial international airports are Pula / Pola (20 miles), Trieste - Ronchi (70 miles) and Rijeka - Krk (80 miles). Car rental is available at each of the airports.
Rovinj / Rovigno is served by the Kanfanar railway station (10 miles), which connects the region to Rijeka / Fiume. However, travelling by bus is preferred to travelling by train due to the limited connections and schedules. The main bus station is located at the south - east end of Carrera Street.
Rovinj is twinned with:
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who has the most goals scored in soccer | List of men 's footballers with 500 or more goals - wikipedia
In top - level association football, 27 players have scored 500 or more goals over the course of their career, according to research by the Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation. Only players who were active in top division football for all or most of their careers are considered. The ranking below takes into account goals scored in official matches played with national teams at all age levels and clubs in all divisions.
Unverified data is excluded from players ' data; goal and match totals may be higher. Players in bold are currently active; data is accurate as of 7 January 2018.
Source: Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation
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when did lathe and plaster stop being used | Lath and plaster - wikipedia
Lath and plaster is a building process used to finish mainly interior walls and ceilings in Canada and the United States until the late 1950s. After the 1950s, drywall began to replace the lath and plaster process in the United States.
In the United Kingdom and its colonies, lath and plaster was often used for interior partition walls and the construction of ceilings, before the introduction of plasterboard in the 1930s. In the U.K., riven or split hardwood laths, of random lengths and sizes, were often used. Splitting the timber, as opposed to sawing in straight lines, followed the grain of the timber which greatly improved strength and durability. Also, reed mat was used as a lath. The technique derives historically from the earlier, more primitive, wattle and daub.
The wall or ceiling finishing process begins with wood laths. These are narrow strips of wood, or split boards, nailed horizontally across the wall studs or ceiling joists. Each wall frame is covered in lath, tacked at the studs. The lath is typically about one inch (2.5 cm) wide by four feet (1.22 meters) long by ⁄ inch (6.4 mm) thick. Each horizontal course of lath is spaced about ⁄ inch (9.5 mm) away from its neighboring courses.
Temporary lath guides are then placed vertically to the wall, usually at the studs. Plaster is then applied, typically using a wooden board as the application tool. The applier drags the board upward over the wall, forcing the plaster into the gaps between the lath and leaving a layer on the front the depth of the temporary guides, typically about ⁄ inch (6.4 mm). A helper feeds new plaster onto the board, as the plaster is applied in quantity. When the wall is fully covered, the vertical lath "guides '' are removed, and their "slots '' are filled in, leaving a fairly uniform undercoat.
In three coat plastering it is standard to apply a second layer in the same fashion, leaving about a half inch of rough, sandy plaster (called a brown coat or browning (UK)). A smooth, white finish coat goes on last. After the plaster is completely dry, the walls are ready to be painted. In this article 's photo ("lath seen from the back... '') the curls of plaster are called keys and are necessary to keep the plaster on the lath. Traditional lime based mortar / plaster often incorporates horsehair which reinforces the plasterwork, thereby helping to prevent the keys from breaking away.
Eventually the wood laths became less common, and were replaced with rock lath (also known as "button board ''), which is a type of gypsum wall board with holes spaced regularly across it, usually in sheets sized 2 feet (24 in) by 4 feet (48 in) (60 cm by 120 cm). The purpose of the four - foot length is so that the sheet of lath reaches exactly across three wall studs, which are spaced 16 inches (410 mm) apart on center (United States building code standard measurements). The holes serve the same purpose as the spaces between the wood lath strips, allowing plaster to ooze through the board when the plaster is applied, making the keys to hold the plaster to the wall board.
In addition to rock lath, there were various types of metal lath which is categorized according to weight, type of ribbing, and whether the lath is galvanized or not. Metal lathing was spaced across a 13.5 inch center, attached by tie wires using lathers ' nippers. Sometimes, the mesh was dimpled to be self - furring.
Lath and plaster has been mostly replaced with solid drywall or plasterboard (also a type of gypsum wall board, although a bit thicker), since it is faster and less expensive to install.
An advantage of using lath is for ornamental or unusual shapes. For instance, building a rounded wall would be difficult if drywall were used exclusively, as drywall is not flexible enough to allow tight radii. Wire mesh often used for exterior Stucco is also found in combination or replacement of lath and plaster which serves similar purpose.
Traditional lath and plaster has superior sound - proofing qualities when used with lime plaster (which is denser than modern gypsum board).
In many historic buildings lath and plaster ceilings have a major role for the prevention of fire spread. "They are critical to the protection of horizontal elements such as timber joisted floors, including the flooring on top, which in terms of fire performance is often in a poor condition due to the presence of gaps. ''
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who played george c marshall in saving private ryan | George Marshall - wikipedia
George Catlett Marshall Jr. (December 31, 1880 -- October 16, 1959) was an American statesman and soldier. He rose through the U.S. Army to become Chief of Staff under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, then served as Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense under Truman. Winston Churchill lauded Marshall as the "organizer of victory '' for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, although Marshall declined a final field leadership position that went to his protege, later U.S. President, Dwight D. Eisenhower. After the war, as Secretary of State, Marshall advocated a significant U.S. economic and political commitment to post-war European recovery, including the Marshall Plan that bore his name. In recognition of this work, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.
Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Marshall graduated from the Virginia Military Institute in 1901. After serving briefly as commandant of students at the Danville Military Academy in Danville, Virginia, Marshall received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry in February, 1902. In the years after the Spanish -- American War, he served in the United States and overseas in positions of increasing rank and responsibility, including platoon leader and company commander in the Philippines during the Philippine -- American War. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry - Cavalry School Course in 1907, and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class. In 1916 Marshall was assigned as aide - de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department. After the United States entered World War I, Marshall served with Bell while Bell commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division, and assisted with the organization 's mobilization and training in the United States, as well as planning of its combat operations in France. Subsequently, assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, he was a key planner of American operations including the Meuse - Argonne Offensive.
After the war, Marshall became an aide - de-camp to John J. Pershing, who was then the Army 's Chief of Staff. Marshall later served on the Army staff, commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment in China, and was an instructor at the Army War College. In 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Army 's Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. In 1932 and 1933 he commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Georgia. Marshall commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938, and received promotion to brigadier general. During this command, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff, and later became the Army 's Deputy Chief of Staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall became acting Chief of Staff, and then Chief of Staff, a position he held until the war 's end in 1945.
As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history, and received promotion to five - star rank as General of the Army. Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific until the end of the war. In addition to accolades from Churchill and other Allied leaders, Time magazine named Marshall its Man of the Year for 1943. Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, as required for holders of five - star rank. From December 15, 1945 to January 1947 Marshall served as a special envoy to China in an unsuccessful effort to negotiate a coalition government between the Nationalists of Chiang Kai - shek and Communists under Mao Zedong.
As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall advocated rebuilding Europe, a program that became known as for the Marshall Plan, and which led to his being awarded the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize. After resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross. As Secretary of Defense at the start of the Korean War, Marshall worked to restore the military 's confidence and morale at the end of its post-World War II demobilization and then its initial buildup for combat in Korea and operations during the Cold War. After resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home in Virginia. He died in 1959 and was buried with honors at Arlington National Cemetery.
George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born into a middle - class family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, the son of George Catlett Marshall Sr. and Laura Emily (née Bradford) Marshall. Marshall was a scion of an old Virginia family, as well as a distant relative of former Chief Justice John Marshall. Later, when asked about his political allegiances, Marshall often joked that his father had been a Democrat and his mother a Republican, whereas he was an Episcopalian.
Marshall attended the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), as had his elder brother. He was an All - Southern tackle for the VMI Keydets varsity football team in 1900. He was initiated into the Kappa Alpha Order in 1901, the year of his graduation.
Following his graduation from VMI, Marshall sat for a competitive examination for a commission in the U.S. Army. While awaiting the results, Marshall had accepted the position of Commandant of Students at the Danville Military Institute in Danville, Virginia. Marshall passed the exam and was commissioned a second lieutenant in February, 1902.
Prior to World War I, Marshall received various postings in the United States and the Philippines, including serving as an infantry platoon leader and company commander during the Philippine -- American War and other guerrilla uprisings. He was schooled in modern warfare, including a tour at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas from 1906 to 1910 as both a student and an instructor. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry - Cavalry School Course in 1907, and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class.
After another tour of duty in the Philippines, Marshall returned to the United States in 1916 to serve as aide - de-camp to the commander of the Western Department, former Army chief of staff Major General J. Franklin Bell, at the Presidio in San Francisco. After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917, Marshall relocated with Bell to Governors Island, New York when Bell was reassigned as commander of the Department of the East. Shortly afterwards, Marshall was assigned to help oversee the mobilization of the 1st Division for service in France.
During the Great War, he had roles as a planner of both training and operations. In the summer of 1917, he was assigned as assistant chief of staff for operations on the staff of the 1st Division. After overseeing the division 's mobilization and organization in Texas, he departed for France with the division staff in mid-1917. On the long ocean voyage, his roommate was the division 's assistant chief of staff for training, Lesley J. McNair; the two formed a personal and professional bond that they maintained for the rest of their careers.
After arriving in France, Marshall served with the 1st Division on the St. Mihiel, Picardy, and Cantigny fronts. He won recognition and acclaim for his planning of the attack for the Battle of Cantigny, which took place from May 28 to 31, 1918; its success resulted in the first notable American victory of the war. On May 26, Marshall was injured while travelling to several subordinate units to conduct pre-attack coordination. As he departed the division headquarters area, his horse stumbled, fell, and rolled over; Marshall 's left foot was caught in the stirrup, and he sustained a severe sprain and bruise. A physician bound Marshall 's injured ankle and foot with adhesive tape so that he could avoid medical evacuation and remain with the division to oversee the Cantigny attack.
In mid-1918, he was posted to the headquarters of the American Expeditionary Force, where he worked closely with his mentor, General John Joseph Pershing, and was a key planner of American operations. He was instrumental in the planning and coordination of the Meuse - Argonne Offensive, which contributed to the defeat of the German Army on the Western Front in 1918. Marshall held the permanent rank of captain and the temporary rank of colonel; he was recommended for promotion to temporary brigadier general in October 1918, but the Armistice occurred before the recommendation was acted on. After the war, Marshall reverted to his permanent rank.
In 1919, he became an aide - de-camp to General John J. Pershing. Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing was Army Chief of Staff, Marshall worked in a number of positions in the army, focusing on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. Between World Wars I and II, he was a key planner and writer in the War Department, commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment for three years in China, and taught at the Army War College. In 1927, as a lieutenant colonel, he was appointed assistant commandant of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, where he initiated major changes to modernize command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. Marshall placed Edwin F. Harding in charge of the Infantry School 's publications, and Harding became editor of Infantry in Battle, a book that codified the lessons of World War I. Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer 's training manual in the Infantry Officer 's Course and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II.
From June 1932 to June 1933 he was the commanding officer of the 8th Infantry Regiment at Fort Screven, Georgia. From July 1933 to October 1933 he was commander of Fort Moultrie, South Carolina and District I of the Civilian Conservation Corps, and he was promoted to colonel in September 1933. He was senior instructor and chief of staff for the Illinois National Guard 's 33rd Division from November 1933 to August 1936.
Marshall commanded the 5th Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver, Washington from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general in October 1936. In addition to obtaining a long - sought and significant troop command, traditionally viewed as an indispensable step to the pinnacle of the US Army, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. As post commander Marshall made a concerted effort to cultivate relations with the city of Portland and to enhance the image of the US Army in the region. With the CCC, he initiated a series of measures to improve the morale of the participants and to make the experience beneficial in their later life. He started a newspaper for the CCC region that proved a vehicle to promote CCC successes, and he initiated a variety of programs that developed their skills and improved their health. Marshall 's inspections of the CCC camps gave him and his wife Katherine the chance to enjoy the beauty of the American northwest and made that assignment what he called "the most instructive service I ever had, and the most interesting. ''
In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington D.C. and subsequently reassigned as Deputy Chief of Staff. In that capacity, then - Brigadier General Marshall attended a conference at the White House at which President Roosevelt proposed a plan to provide aircraft to England in support of the war effort, lacking forethought with regard to logistical support or training. With all other attendees voicing support of the plan, Marshall was the only person to voice his disagreement. Despite the common belief that he had ended his career, this action resulted in his being nominated by President Franklin Roosevelt to be the Army Chief of Staff. Upon the retirement of General Malin Craig on July 1, 1939, Marshall became acting chief of staff. Marshall was promoted to general and sworn in as chief of staff on September 1, 1939, the same day the German Army launched its invasion of Poland. He would hold this post until the end of the war in 1945.
As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped army of 189,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at the Army War College, coordinated the large - scale expansion and modernization of the U.S. Army. Though he had never actually led troops in combat, Marshall was a skilled organizer with a talent for inspiring other officers. Many of the American generals who were given top commands during the war were either picked or recommended by Marshall, including Dwight D. Eisenhower, Jacob L. Devers, George S. Patton, Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr., Lloyd Fredendall, Lesley McNair, Mark Wayne Clark and Omar Bradley.
Faced with the necessity of turning an army of former civilians into a force of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years), Marshall directed General Lesley J. McNair to focus efforts on rapidly producing large numbers of soldiers. With the exception of airborne forces, Marshall approved McNair 's concept of an abbreviated training schedule for men entering Army land forces training, particularly in regard to basic infantry skills, weapons proficiency, and combat tactics. At the time, most U.S. commanders at lower levels had little or no combat experience of any kind. Without the input of experienced British or Allied combat officers on the nature of modern warfare and enemy tactics, many resorted to formulaic training methods emphasizing static defense and orderly large - scale advances by motorized convoys over improved roads. In consequence, Army forces deploying to Africa in Operation Torch suffered serious initial reverses when encountering German armored combat units in Africa at Kasserine Pass and other major battles. Even as late as 1944, U.S. soldiers undergoing stateside training in preparation for deployment against German forces in Europe were not being trained in combat procedures and tactics in use there.
Originally, Marshall had planned a 265 - division Army with a system of unit rotation such as practiced by the British and other Allies. By mid-1943, however, after pressure from government and business leaders to preserve manpower for industry and agriculture, he had abandoned this plan in favor of a 90 - division Army using individual replacements sent via a circuitous process from training to divisions in combat. The individual replacement system devised by Marshall and implemented by McNair greatly exacerbated problems with unit cohesion and effective transfer of combat experience to newly trained soldiers and officers. In Europe, where there were few pauses in combat with German forces, the individual replacement system had broken down completely by late 1944. Hastily trained replacements or service personnel reassigned as infantry were given six weeks ' refresher training and thrown into battle with Army divisions locked in front - line combat.
The new men were often not even proficient in the use of their own rifles or weapons systems, and once in combat, could not receive enough practical instruction from veterans before being killed or wounded, usually within the first three or four days. Under such conditions, many replacements suffered a crippling loss of morale, while veteran soldiers were kept in line units until they were killed, wounded, or incapacitated by battle fatigue or physical illness. Incidents of soldiers AWOL from combat duty as well as battle fatigue and self - inflicted injury rose rapidly during the last eight months of the war with Germany. As one historian concluded, "Had the Germans been given a free hand to devise a replacement system..., one that would do the Americans the most harm and the least good, they could not have done a better job. ''
Marshall 's abilities to pick competent field commanders during the early part of the war was decidedly mixed. While he had been instrumental in advancing the career of the able Dwight D. Eisenhower, he had also recommended the swaggering Lloyd Fredendall to Eisenhower for a major command in the American invasion of North Africa during Operation Torch. Marshall was especially fond of Fredendall, describing him as "one of the best '' and remarking in a staff meeting when his name was mentioned, "I like that man; you can see determination all over his face. '' Eisenhower duly picked him to command the 39,000 - man Central Task Force (the largest of three) in Operation Torch. Both men would come to regret that decision, as Fredendall was the leader of U.S. Army forces at the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass.
During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in preparing the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces for the invasion of the European continent. Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe. He initially scheduled Operation Overlord for April 1, 1943, but met with strong opposition from Winston Churchill, who convinced Roosevelt to commit troops to Operation Husky for the invasion of Italy. Some authors think that World War II could have ended earlier if Marshall had had his way; others think that such an invasion would have meant utter failure.
It was assumed that Marshall would become the Supreme Commander of Operation Overlord, but Roosevelt selected Dwight Eisenhower as Supreme Commander. While Marshall enjoyed considerable success in working with Congress and President Franklin D. Roosevelt, he refused to lobby for the position. President Roosevelt did n't want to lose his presence in the states. He told Marshall, "I did n't feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington. '' When rumors circulated that the top job would go to Marshall, many critics viewed the transfer as a demotion for Marshall, since he would leave his position as Chief of Staff of the Army and lose his seat on the Combined Chiefs of Staff.
On December 16, 1944, Marshall became the first American Army general to be promoted to five - star rank, the newly created General of the Army -- the American equivalent rank to field marshal. He was the second American to be promoted to a five - star rank, as William Leahy was promoted to fleet admiral the previous day.
Throughout the remainder of World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Winston Churchill. Time magazine named Marshall Man of the Year for 1943. Marshall resigned his post of chief of staff in 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that Generals of the Army remain on active duty for life.
After World War II ended, the Congressional Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack received testimony on the intelligence failure. It amassed 25,000 pages of documents, 40 volumes, and included nine reports and investigations, eight of which had been previously completed. These reports included criticism of Marshall for delay in sending General Walter Short, the Army commander in Hawaii, important information obtained from intercepted Japanese diplomatic messages. The report also criticized Marshall 's lack of knowledge of the readiness of the Hawaiian Command during November and December 1941. Ten days after the attack, Lt. General Short and Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, commander of the Navy at Pearl Harbor, were both relieved of their duties. The final report of the Joint Committee did not single out or fault Marshall. While the report was critical of the overall situation, the committee noted that subordinates had failed to pass on important information to their superiors, including Marshall.
A secret report into the Army 's role, the Clausen Report was authorised by Secretary Stimson; it was critical of Short and also of Colonel Bratton who, he concluded, arrived later on Sunday morning than he initially claimed during testimony and invented a story about not being able to get in touch with Marshall which "nearly destroyed '' Marshall.
In December 1945, President Harry Truman sent Marshall to China, to broker a coalition government between the Nationalist allies under Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek and Communists under Mao Zedong. Marshall had no leverage over the Communists, but he threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and the Chinese Civil War escalated, with the Communists winning in 1949. His mission a failure, he returned to the United States in January 1947. Chiang Kai - shek and some historians later claimed that cease - fire, under pressure of Marshall, saved the Communists from defeat. As Secretary of State in 1947 -- 48, Marshall seems to have disagreed with strong opinions in The Pentagon and State Department that Chiang 's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved.
After Marshall 's return to the U.S. in early 1947, Truman appointed Marshall Secretary of State. He became the spokesman for the State Department 's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. On June 5, 1947 in a speech at Harvard University, he outlined the American proposal. The European Recovery Program, as it was formally known, became known as the Marshall Plan. Clark Clifford had suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman immediately dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan would help Europe quickly rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines. The Soviet Union forbade its satellites to participate.
Marshall was again named Time 's Man of the Year for 1947. He received the Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work in 1953, the only career officer in the United States Army to ever receive this honor.
As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing the state of Israel. Marshall felt that if the state of Israel was declared that a war would break out in the Middle East (which it did in 1948 one day after Israel declared independence). Marshall saw recognizing the Jewish state as a political move to gain Jewish support in the upcoming election, in which Truman was expected to lose to Dewey. He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you (recognize the state of Israel) and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you. '' However, Marshall refused to vote in any election as a matter of principle.
Marshall resigned from the State Department because of ill health on January 7, 1949, and the same month became chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission. In September 1949, Marshall was named president of the American National Red Cross.
When the early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was, President Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and named Marshall as Secretary of Defense in September 1950. The appointment required a congressional waiver because the National Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. This prohibition included Marshall since individuals promoted to General of the Army are not technically retired, but remain officially on active duty even after their active service has concluded. General Marshall was the first person to be granted such a waiver, with Defense Secretary James Mattis being the second to receive it. Marshall 's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale while rebuilding the armed forces following their post-World War II demobilization.
Marshall worked to provide more manpower to meet the demands of both the Korean War and the Cold War in Europe. To implement his priorities Marshall brought in a new leadership team, including Robert A. Lovett as his deputy and Anna M. Rosenberg, former head of the War Manpower Commission, as assistant secretary of defense for manpower. He also worked to rebuild the relationship between the Defense and State Departments, as well as the relationship between the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Marshall participated in the post-Inchon landing discussion that led to authorizing Douglas MacArthur to conduct operations in North Korea. A secret "eyes only '' signal from Marshall to MacArthur on September 29, 1950 declared the Truman administration 's commitment: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel ''. At the same time, Marshall advised against public pronouncements which might lead to United Nations votes undermining or countermanding the initial mandate to restore the border between North and South Korea. Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment in accomplishing the intent of their superiors.
Following Chinese military intervention in Korea during late November, Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff sought ways to aid MacArthur while avoiding all - out war with China. In the debate over what to do about China 's increased involvement, Marshall opposed a cease -- fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak in China 's eyes, leading to demands for future concessions. In addition, Marshall argued that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. When British Prime Minister Clement Attlee suggested diplomatic overtures to China, Marshall opposed, arguing that it was impossible to negotiate with the Communist government. In addition, Marshall expressed concern that concessions to China would undermine confidence in the U.S. among its Asian allies, including Japan and the Philippines. When some in Congress favored expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, Marshall argued against a wider war in Korea, continuing instead to stress the importance of containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.
Increasingly concerned about public statements from General Douglas MacArthur, commander of United Nations forces fighting in the Korean War, which contradicted President Harry S. Truman 's on prosecution of the war, on the morning of 6 April 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Acheson and advisor W. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command.
Harriman was emphatically in favor of MacArthur 's relief, but Bradley opposed it. Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter. Acheson was in favor but did not disclose this, instead warning Truman that if he did it, MacArthur 's relief would cause "the biggest fight of your administration. '' At another meeting the following day, Marshall and Bradley continued to oppose MacArthur 's relief. On 8 April, the Joint Chiefs of Staff met with Marshall, and each expressed the view that MacArthur 's relief was desirable from a "military point of view, '' suggesting that "if MacArthur were not relieved, a large segment of our people would charge that civil authorities no longer controlled the military. ''
Marshall, Bradley, Acheson and Harriman met with Truman again on 9 April. Bradley informed the President of the views of the Joint Chiefs, and Marshall added that he agreed with them. Truman wrote in his diary that "it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved. All four so advise. '' (The Joint Chiefs would later insist that they had only "concurred '' with the relief, not "recommended '' it.)
On April 11, 1951, President Truman directed transmittal of an order to MacArthur, issued over Bradley 's signature, relieving MacArthur of his assignment in Korea and directing him to turn over command to Matthew Ridgway. In line with Marshall 's view, and those of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, MacArthur 's relief was looked upon by proponents as being necessary to reassert the tenet of civilian control of the military.
Marshall retired in September 1951 to his home, Dodona Manor, in Leesburg, Virginia to tend to his gardens and continue his passion for horseback riding. He was head of the American delegation at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. He also served as Chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission from 1949 to 1959.
Marshall died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C. on October 16, 1959 at the age of 78. Although he was entitled to an Official Funeral, Marshall preferred simplicity, so received a Special Military Funeral after lying in state at the Washington National Cathedral for 21 hours, guarded by representatives from all the U.S. armed services, as well as a VMI cadet. President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered flags flown at half - mast, and was among the invited guests at the funeral service at the Fort Myer Old Post Chapel; other dignitaries included former President Truman, Secretary of State Christian A. Herter, former Secretary of State Dean G. Acheson, W. Averell Harriman and Generals Omar N. Bradley, Alfred M. Gruenther and General Matthew B. Ridgway. His parish priest, Rev. Franklin Moss Jr. from St. James Episcopal Church in Leesburg, Virginia conducted the chapel and graveside services, assisted by former chief chaplain and National Cathedral Canon Rev. Luther Miller. Following a 19 - gun salute, Marshall was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, in a place he had picked, in Section 7, Grave 8198, beside his first wife, Elizabeth Carter Coles (1875 -- 1927) and her mother, Elizabeth Pendleton Coles (1849 -- 1929); his second wife, Katherine Tupper Brown Marshall (1882 -- 1978) would later join them.
Marshall 's reputation for excellence as a military organizer and planner was recognized early in his career, and became known throughout the Army. In a performance appraisal prepared while Marshall was a lieutenant in the Philippines, his superior, Captain E.J. Williams responded to the routine question of whether he would want the evaluated officer to serve under his command again by writing of Marshall "Should the exigencies of active service place him in exalted command I would be glad to serve under him. '' (Emphasis added.)
In 1913 General Johnson Hagood, then a lieutenant colonel, completed a written evaluation of Marshall 's performance in which he called Marshall a military genius. Responding to the question of whether he would want his subordinate Marshall to serve under him again, Hagood wrote "Yes, but I would prefer to serve under his command. '' (Emphasis added.) Hagood went on to recommend Marshall 's immediate promotion to brigadier general, despite the fact that there were more than 1,800 officers, including Hagood, who were senior to him.
After the surrender of the Nazi government in May 1945, Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War, paid tribute to Marshall in front of a gathering of members of the Army staff, concluding with "I have seen a great many soldiers in my lifetime and you, Sir, are the finest soldier I have ever known. ''
In addition to his military success, Marshall is primarily remembered as the driving force behind the Marshall Plan, which provided billions of dollars in aid to post war Europe to restart the economies of the destroyed countries. In recent years, the cooperation required between former European adversaries as part of the Marshall Plan has been recognized as one of the earliest factors that led to formation of the European Coal and Steel Community, and eventually the European Union.
In a television interview after leaving office, Harry S. Truman was asked which American he thought had made the greatest contribution of the preceding thirty years. Without hesitation, Truman picked Marshall, adding "I do n't think in this age in which I have lived, that there has been a man who has been a greater administrator; a man with a knowledge of military affairs equal to General Marshall. ''
Orson Welles said in an interview with Dick Cavett that "Marshall is the greatest man I ever met... I think he was the greatest human being who was also a great man... He was a tremendous gentleman, an old fashioned institution which is n't with us anymore. ''
George Marshall was the youngest of three siblings. His older brother Stuart Bradford Marshall (1875 -- 1956) was a graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, and became a manager and executive in several metal production corporations, including the American Manganese Manufacturing Company. He later worked as a metallurgist and consulting engineer specializing in the production and operation of blast furnaces, coke ovens, and foundries. George and Stuart Marshall were long estranged; according to relatives, George Marshall 's first wife, Lily, had dated other VMI cadets before him, and rejected their proposals, to include Stuart Marshall. When Stuart found out George was engaged to Lily, Stuart made unkind remarks about her, and George "cut him off my list ''. His sister, Marie Louise (1876 -- 1962) was the wife of Dr. John Johnson Singer, an Army physician who died in 1934.
Marshall married Elizabeth Carter Coles, or "Lily '', at her mother 's home on Letcher Avenue in Lexington, Virginia, on 11 February 1902. She died on 15 September 1927 after thyroid surgery that put significant strain on her weak heart. They did not have children.
On 15 October 1930, Marshall married Katherine Boyce Tupper (8 October 1882 -- 18 December 1978); Katherine Tupper was the mother of three children with Baltimore lawyer Clifton Stevenson Brown, who had been murdered by a disgruntled client in 1928. The second Mrs. Marshall was a graduate of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts; she later studied at the Comédie - Française, and toured with Frank Benson 's English Shakespearean Company. She authored a memoir, 1946 's Together: Annals of an Army Wife. One of Marshall 's stepsons, Allen Tupper Brown, was an Army lieutenant who was killed by a German sniper in Italy on May 29, 1944. Another stepson was Major Clifton Stevenson Brown Jr. (1914 -- 1952). Step - daughter Molly Brown Winn, who was the mother of actress Kitty Winn, was married to US Army Major James Julius Winn, who had been an aide to General Marshall.
Marshall was a Freemason, having been made a Mason "at sight '' in 1941 by the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia.
George Marshall maintained a home, known as Dodona Manor and later as The Marshall House, in Leesburg, Virginia. This was his first and only permanent residence owned by Marshall who later said "this is Home... a real home after 41 years of wandering. '' The restored home and its surrounding gardens are open to the public as a museum.
Marshall has been played in film and television by
Marshall is a character in three different alternate history timelines in novels by Harry Turtledove: Worldwar, Joe Steele, and The Hot War.
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who went home tonight on america's next top model | America 's Next Top Model (cycle 24) - wikipedia
January 9 (2018 - 01 - 09) -- April 10, 2018 (2018 - 04 - 10)
The twenty - fourth cycle of America 's Next Top Model premiered on January 9, 2018 and was the second season to air on VH1. Continuing from cycle 23, this cycle featured an all - female cast. However, in a first for the series, the maximum age limit was removed, allowing contestants of all ages to enter the contest.
Top Model franchise creator Tyra Banks returned as the show 's host after being replaced for one cycle by singer Rita Ora. The judging panel, consisting of model Ashley Graham, Paper magazine chief creative officer Drew Elliott, and celebrity stylist Law Roach, remained otherwise unchanged.
The prizes for this cycle included a contract with Next Model Management, fashion spread in Paper magazine, a cash prize of US $100,000 from Pantene, and a featured avatar in the new America 's Next Top Model Mobile Game.
The winner of the competition was 20 year - old Kyla Coleman from Lacey, Washington.
(Ages stated are at start of contest.)
Original air date: January 9, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 09)
The semi-finalists were introduced to the judges for the first time, and were made aware of the new casting process in which any of them could be eliminated at any point during casting week (as opposed to the mass - eliminations in previous cycles), to gradually reduce the pool of contestants. The models then had one - on - one auditions with the judges, which saw several semi-finalists leave the competition.
The surviving models later met with judge Drew Elliot and fashion director Nicola Formichetti for an Avant - garde photo shoot and runway challenge. The remaining 18 contestants moved into the model house, and at the end of the week, host Tyra Banks selected the finalized cast of 14 contestants. Immediately afterwards, Banks announced that one of the semifinalists who 'd missed the final cut, Erin Green, would also be allowed to move on to the main competition, bringing the final number of contestants to 15.
Original air date: January 16, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 16)
The finalists moved into the model home. They later met runway coach Stacey McKenzie for a catwalk lesson in preparation for an upcoming runway challenge at Venice Beach skate park, where the contestants had to model designs from Baja East and avoid skateboarders as they navigated across a skating ramp. As the winner of the challenge, Khrystyana was chosen to walk in a show for the label during New York fashion week. On set, the models had a bohemian pregnancy photo shoot with photographer Charlotte Rutherford, inspired by Hollywood 's latest baby boom fashion trends. At elimination, Coura received best picture. Brendi K and Maggie landed in the bottom two, and Maggie was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: January 23, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 23)
The models arrived back at the house and immediately received a Tyra Mail alluding to the fact that makeovers would be taking place soon. After the makeovers were administered, the models met Director X for a video shoot meant to showcase their new trademark looks in a room full of mirrors. At elimination, Liberty was deemed to be the best performer for the shoot. Shanice and Ivana landed in the bottom two, and Ivana was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: January 30, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 30)
The remaining models received scripts for a screen test challenge with actor Kevin Phillips, which was judged by director Anthony Hemingway and Stacey McKenzie. Khrystyana was ultimately chosen as the challenge winner. Later on, the models were taken to a mansion for a photo shoot inspired by American Horror Story. After a heart to heart conversation with Tyra, Liz decided to quit the competition. At elimination, Khrystyana received best photo. Coura and Rhiyan landed in the bottom two, and Rhiyan was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 6, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 06)
The remaining 11 models had to work with renowned YouTuber Patrick Starr to shoot a beauty vlog which required them to use unconventional items as beauty tools. Sandra was chosen as the challenge winner, and was rewarded with a guest appearance on Starr 's channel. On set, the models were stacked on top of one another to have their beauty shots taken. At elimination, Rio received best picture. Christina and Coura landed in the bottom two, and Coura was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 13, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 13)
The remaining 10 contestants celebrated pride week at Micky 's Bar, and took part in a self styled popup runway challenge for designer Christian Cowan which was won by Khrystyana. The models later had a photo shoot posing alongside former Drag Race contestants Manila Luzon, Valentina and Katya Zamolodchikova. Khrystyana won best picture at elimination. Kyla and Liberty landed in the bottom two, and Liberty was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 20, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 20)
The remaining nine contestants were challenged with the task of creating an anti-bullying PSA for the National Crime Prevention Council under the direction of Director X. As the winners of the challenge, Khrystyana, Kyla, and Sandra were chosen to have their video used as part of a national digital campaign for NCPC. On set, the models were stripped to their barest essentials and had their photographs taken by Tyra. At elimination Brendi K, Jeana, Khrystyana, Kyla, Rio, Sandra, and Shanice received a joint first call - out as a group. Christina and Erin landed in the bottom two, and Christina was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 27, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 27)
The remaining models received a visit from Tyra, and learned about effective techniques for taking a selfie. They were later introduced to model Jourdan Dunn in time for a selfie challenge in which they had to advertise Jourdan 's clothing brand, LonDunn. Jeana was chosen as the winner of the challenge. On set the contestants were photographed by Tyra in a photo shoot where they had to pose with plus - sized male models covered in gold body paint. At elimination, Kyla received best photo. Khrystyana and Sandra landed in bottom two, and Sandra was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: March 6, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 06)
The seven remaining models met with Ashley Graham and movement coach Jermaine Browne for a motion shoot challenge, which was won by Jeana. They later had a couture photo shoot in the desert while posing with a parachute. Brendi K decided to quit the competition at panel. Shanice received best photo during elimination, while Jeana and Kyla landed in the bottom two. As a result of Brendi K 's departure earlier in the episode, both of them were allowed to stay.
Original air date: March 13, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 13)
The six remaining contestants attended castings in Los Angeles for Chris Mena and Maggie Barry. Kyla and Rio were chosen as the winners of the challenge, and were given the opportunity to walk in a runway show for the designers as part of their reward. On set, the models had a cover try photo shoot for Paper magazine. At elimination, Rio received best photo. Erin and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Erin was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: March 13, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 13)
This episode featured behind the scenes and never before seen footage of the cycle, and highlighted each contestants journey to the top five.
Original air date: March 20, 2018
The remaining finalists had a challenge in which they had to create personalized avatars for the new America 's Next Top Model mobile game. Khrystyana was chosen as the winner, and received an assortment of clothes styled by Law Roach. The models were later taken to a mansion in order to shoot a music video with Maejor and Tyra Banks under the direction of Director X. At elimination, Khrystyana received best performance. Jeana and Rio landed in the bottom two, and Jeana was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: March 27, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 27)
The final four took part in a throwback America 's Next Top Model challenge inspired by the bubble runway from cycle 16. It was revealed that the models would be walking alongside the formerly eliminated contestants, one of whom would be replacing that week 's eliminee at panel. Erin was chosen as the challenge winner, and along with Liberty, Christina, and Jeana, moved back into the model house for the opportunity to possibly return. On set, the contestants had a photo shoot in pairs with cycle 3 winner Eva Marcille covered in tarantulas, shot by former judge Nigel Barker. At elimination, Kyla received best picture. Rio and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Rio was eliminated from the competition. Out of the four comeback contestants, Jeana was chosen to return.
Original air date: April 3, 2018 (2018 - 04 - 03)
The remaining four models took part in a challenge for Pantene in which they had to style their own hair and makeup. Khrystyana was chosen as the winner. On set, the contestants had to shoot an advertising campaign for Pantene, which required them to embody several different products from the brand. At elimination, Kyla won best photo. Jeana and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Jeana was eliminated from the competition. In a shocking turn of events, she was saved from elimination by guest judge Philipp Plein, joining the other three models in the finale.
Original air date: April 10, 2018 (2018 - 04 - 10)
The finalists attended a fitting for Philipp Plein after which Shanice was eliminated from the competition. The remaining three contestants took part in a photo shoot for the winner 's spread to be published in Paper magazine. They later reunited with the formerly eliminated contestants for the final runway show. Immediately following the runway show, Khrystyana was eliminated based on the results from the photo shoot that had taken place earlier that week. The judges deliberated over the body of work of the remaining two finalists, and at the end of the night, Kyla was crowned as the winner.
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who plays max one day at a time | One Day at a Time (2017 tv series) - wikipedia
One Day at a Time is an American comedy - drama web television series based on the 1975 -- 1984 sitcom of the same name. It was developed by Gloria Calderon Kellett and Mike Royce, with Norman Lear serving as an executive producer. The series features an ensemble cast starring Justina Machado, Todd Grinnell, Isabella Gomez, Marcel Ruiz, Stephen Tobolowsky, and Rita Moreno. The show revolves around a Cuban - American family living in Los Angeles, focusing on a single mom who is an Army veteran dealing with PTSD, her kids and her Cuban mother. The re-imagination of the original CBS sitcom tackles important issues like mental illness, immigration, sexism, homophobia, and racism that face Latinos living in the United States.
Filming took place in Los Angeles, California at Sony Pictures Studios in Stage 25. It was shot with a multiple - camera setup in front of a studio audience. The first season consisted of thirteen episodes and it was released on January 6, 2017. On March 4, 2017, Netflix renewed the series for a second season. Filming of the second season began on May 2017 and ended on September 2017. On January 26, 2018, the second season premiered on the streaming service with thirteen episodes.. On March 26, 2018, a third season was ordered.
Upon its release, the show received critical acclaim, with critics and journalists praising the writing and the performances of Justina Machado and Rita Moreno. One Day at a Time was listed as one of the best television shows of 2017, with over eighteen critics ranking it as one of the top ten shows of the year. The series received multiple awards and nominations, including a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Multi-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series (Pat Barnett). At the Imagen Foundation Awards won Best Primetime Television Program -- Comedy, Best Actress -- Television (Justina Machado), Best Supporting Actress -- Television (Isabella Gomez) and Best Young Actor -- Television (Marcel Ruiz). Rita Moreno was nominated for a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. The series was also nominated for a GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Comedy Series.
The show depicts the everyday life of a Cuban - American family with each character finding their own journey. Following the story of Penelope Alvarez (Justina Machado) a United States Army Nurse Corps veteran, facing her return to civilian life with a lot of unresolved issues from her time in the Army. She works as a nurse in the office of Dr. Leslie Berkowitz (Stephen Tobolowsky). After her husband 's alcoholism due to post-traumatic stress disorder from his time in the Army make it, in Penelope 's words, ' unsafe to be in the house ', she separates from Victor (James Martínez), taking the children with her. With the help of her Mother, Lydia (Rita Moreno), a refugee who left Cuba as a teen following Fidel Castro 's rise to power, she is raising her two children: Elena (Isabella Gómez) and Alex (Marcel Ruiz). Apart from planning her daughter 's quinceañera, Penelope starts dating and finds a love interest. Elena, resistant to have a quinces, starts dating a teenager from her class; to later realize that she is a lesbian. After struggling in ways to tell her family about her sexuality she finds the right time to come out. Alex starts working in a school project about Cuba with the help of Schneider (Todd Grinnell) and Lydia. Lydia talks about leaving Cuba escaping from Castro 's dictatorship and how she fell in love with her late husband Berto (Tony Plana).
Each episode of the series focuses on important issues that face the Hispanic community and families in general. It has dealt with topics such as veterans ' struggles with PTSD, depression, and anxiety, as well as sexuality, gender identity, sexism, and religion, amongst others.
In the first season Penelope and Lydia are trying to convince Elena to have a quinceañera to honor her Cuban heritage. Elena feels like she is n't being taken seriously at school. Meanwhile, Penelope is struggling to voice her ideas to her co-workers. Lydia gives Elena a makeover so she will get attention from her classmates, while Penelope decides to not let her coworker silence her and implements her plan at Dr. Berkowitz 's office.
After some time, Penelope decides to start dating again, and goes to Schneider for advice. Lydia tells Penelope that she is suspicious of Carmen and Elena 's friendship, calling it queer. Later, Penelope and Lydia learn that Carmen 's parents have been deported, and she has been living in Elena 's room the whole time.
Dr. Berkowitz is going out with Lydia, secretly, as "friends. '' He is very taken with her, but Lydia is convinced she can never love again after the death many years before of her beloved husband, Berto.
Near the end of the season, Elena comes out to her family as a lesbian. Penelope feels weird about it even though everyone, including the Catholic Lydia, are very accepting. Penelope asks for advice, and realizes that she loves and accepts Elena no matter what. However, Elena 's father, Victor, does n't take the news so well. In the season finale, Elena has her quinceañera; and her father publicly abandons her before the father - daughter dance, which results in her mother dancing with her instead, and the rest of her family joining in a group hug on the dance floor.
Season two begins with Penelope worrying about the changes she is seeing in Alex. After discussing the matter, she learns that Alex is being bullied and facing racism at school.
Penelope decides to go back to college to become a nurse practitioner, but is failing most of her courses. With the help of her mother and children, after an episode of self - doubt she makes up her mind to keep following her dream.
Elena develops a crush on a non-binary friend, while dealing with the fact that her father does n't accept her.
Penelope and Alex are spending time together, going to the movies and working during the summer at Dr. Leslie Berkowitz 's office. Alex learns a great deal about his mother 's life outside the apartment, and why she does what he does. At the same time, Elena is taken on by Schneider as the deputy building superintendent, and learns there 's a lot more to his job than just fixing leaky faucets and broken toilets.
Penelope begins dating an old friend from her Army days without telling her family. Eventually she brings Max, a paramedic, to meet her family, who approve of him. Later, she worries that the relationship is not exclusive and that Max is seeing other people.
Elena sees Alex texting someone called "P. '' She assumes that Alex has a girlfriend, but when she follows him one night when he is to meet up with "P, '' she discovers that "P '' is Victor, their father. ("P '' actually stood for Papi.) Victor has been meeting and been in contact with Alex since he walked out on Elena 's quinceanera. After confronting her father, Elena and Victor 's relationship slowly improves.
Lydia learns that Dr. Berkowitz is going to the opera with another woman. She and Schneider go to the opera to spy on him to find out if he is dating other woman, and if so, why.
Worried about the direction they see the U.S. government taking, Schneider and Lydia decide, after decades of living in the United States as resident aliens, to take their citizenship tests. Hilarity ensues.
During the season finale, Lydia and Penelope have a heated argument, and Lydia has a cerebral incident that is the precursor to a stroke. She is hospitalized and placed in a medically - induced coma, with each of the characters visiting her in the hospital, telling what they love and why they care about Lydia. The episode climaxes with Lydia having an out - of - body experience featuring her beloved husband Berto.
The theme song for the original One Day at a Time series, "This is It '', was re-recorded for the newer version of the series, with a new arrangement by Emilio Estefan featuring Cuban instrumentation and lead vocals by Gloria Estefan. The song was composed by husband - and - wife songwriters Jeff Barry and Nancy Barry. Recording artist Polly Cutter sang the original version of the theme song.
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 97 % based on 30 reviews with an average rating of 7.62 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "One Day at a Time breathes fresh life into the classic Norman Lear original with a lively, sharp, and proudly old - school sitcom bolstered by a surfeit of heart and terrific performances from Rita Moreno and Justina Machado. ''
Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times found the first season to be "lively without being rushed '' thanks to the full 30 minute run time. "The show is nicely written... and the performances (especially Moreno 's) are almost universally engaging, '' according to David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle. The Newsday review by Verne Gay particularly praises Machado as "flat - out terrific '' and calls the first season "congenial, good - hearted, easy going, sentimental, old - fashioned and surprisingly new - fashioned. There 's also a deep emotional core here which refuses to be devalued by the typical (or tired) beat of a multicamera sitcom. ''
A USA Today review by Kelly Lawler noted that Elena 's coming - out arc in the first season has drawn special praise from LGBT critics for its "unique, realistic and refreshing take on the subject... the depiction of a young, happy Latinx lesbian comes as a hopeful sign for many. '' Autostraddle senior editor Yvonne Marquez called the arc "mind - blowing '' and the show revolutionary because "it centers the family 's brownness and provides ample social commentary to deliver a fantastic modern - day sitcom. ''
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where is wisconsin located on the us map | Wisconsin - Wikipedia
Wisconsin (/ wɪˈskɒnsɪn / (listen)) is a U.S. state located in the north - central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, which is located on the western shore of Lake Michigan. The state is divided into 72 counties.
Wisconsin 's geography is diverse, with the Northern Highland and Western Upland along with a part of the Central Plain occupying the western part of the state and lowlands stretching to the shore of Lake Michigan. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline.
Wisconsin is known as "America 's Dairyland '' because it is one of the nation 's leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology (IT), and tourism are also major contributors to the state 's economy.
The word Wisconsin originates from the name given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian - speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673 and calling the river Meskousing in his journal. Subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in large numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845.
The Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks. One leading theory holds that the name originated from the Miami word Meskonsing, meaning "it lies red '', a reference to the setting of the Wisconsin River as it flows through the reddish sandstone of the Wisconsin Dells. Other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning "red stone place '', "where the waters gather '', or "great rock ''.
Wisconsin has been home to a wide variety of cultures over the past 14,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation. These early inhabitants, called Paleo - Indians, hunted now - extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering food from wild plants. Agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of this period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the "Effigy Mound culture '', which built thousands of animal - shaped mounds across the landscape. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the fortified village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho - Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact. Other Native American groups living in Wisconsin when Europeans first settled included the Ojibwa, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, and Pottawatomie, who migrated to Wisconsin from the east between 1500 and 1700.
The first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, and it is traditionally assumed that he came ashore near Green Bay at Red Banks. Pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654 -- 1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659 -- 1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox - Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien. Frenchmen like Nicholas Perrot continued to ply the fur trade across Wisconsin through the 17th and 18th centuries, but the French made no permanent settlements in Wisconsin before Great Britain won control of the region following the French and Indian War in 1763. Even so, French traders continued to work in the region after the war, and some, beginning with Charles de Langlade in 1764, now settled in Wisconsin permanently rather than returning to British - controlled Canada.
The British gradually took over Wisconsin during the French and Indian War, taking control of Green Bay in 1761 and gaining control of all of Wisconsin in 1763. Like the French, the British were interested in little but the fur trade. One notable event in the fur trading industry in Wisconsin occurred in 1791, when two free African Americans set up a fur trading post among the Menominee at present day Marinette. The first permanent settlers, mostly French Canadians, some Anglo - New Englanders and a few African American freedmen, arrived in Wisconsin while it was under British control. Charles Michel de Langlade is generally recognized as the first settler, establishing a trading post at Green Bay in 1745, and moving there permanently in 1764. Settlement began at Prairie du Chien around 1781. The French residents at the trading post in what is now Green Bay, referred to the town as "La Baye '', however British fur traders referred to it as "Green Bay '', because the water and the shore assumed green tints in early spring. The old French title was gradually dropped, and the British name of "Green Bay '' eventually stuck. The region coming under British rule had virtually no adverse effect on the French residents as the British needed the cooperation of the French fur traders and the French fur traders needed the goodwill of the British. During the French occupation of the region licenses for fur trading had been issued scarcely and only to select groups of traders, whereas the British, in an effort to make as much money as possible from the region, issued licenses for fur trading freely, both to British and French residents. The fur trade in what is now Wisconsin reached its height under British rule, and the first self - sustaining farms in the state were established as well. From 1763 to 1780, Green Bay was a prosperous community which produced its own foodstuff, built graceful cottages and held dances and festivities.
Wisconsin became a territorial possession of the United States in 1783 after the American Revolutionary War. However, the British remained in control until after the War of 1812, the outcome of which finally established an American presence in the area. Under American control, the economy of the territory shifted from fur trading to lead mining. The prospect of easy mineral wealth drew immigrants from throughout the U.S. and Europe to the lead deposits located at Mineral Point, Dodgeville, and nearby areas. Some miners found shelter in the holes they had dug and earned the nickname "badgers '', leading to Wisconsin 's identity as the "Badger State. '' The sudden influx of white miners prompted tension with the local Native American population. The Winnebago War of 1827 and the Black Hawk War of 1832 culminated in the forced removal of Native Americans from most parts of the state.
Following these conflicts, Wisconsin Territory was created by an act of the United States Congress on April 20, 1836. By fall of that year, the best prairie groves of the counties surrounding what is now Milwaukee were occupied by farmers from the New England states.
The Erie Canal facilitated the travel of both Yankee settlers and European immigrants to Wisconsin Territory. Yankees from New England and upstate New York seized a dominant position in law and politics, enacting policies that marginalized the region 's earlier Native American and French - Canadian residents. Yankees also speculated in real estate, platted towns such as Racine, Beloit, Burlington, and Janesville, and established schools, civic institutions, and Congregationalist churches. At the same time, many Germans, Irish, Norwegians and other immigrants also settled in towns and farms across the territory, establishing Catholic and Lutheran institutions.
The growing population allowed Wisconsin to gain statehood on May 29, 1848, as the 30th state. Between 1840 and 1850, Wisconsin 's non-Indian population had swollen from 31,000 to 305,000. Over a third of residents (110,500) were foreign born, including 38,000 Germans, 28,000 British immigrants from England, Scotland and Wales, and 21,000 Irish. Another third (103,000) were Yankees from New England and western New York state. Only about 63,000 residents in 1850 had been born in Wisconsin.
Nelson Dewey, the first governor of Wisconsin, was a Democrat. Dewey oversaw the transition from the territorial to the new state government. He encouraged the development of the state 's infrastructure, particularly the construction of new roads, railroads, canals, and harbors, as well as the improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. During his administration, the State Board of Public Works was organized. Dewey, an abolitionist, was the first of many Wisconsin governors to advocate against the spread of slavery into new states and territories.
Politics in early Wisconsin were defined by the greater national debate over slavery. A free state from its foundation, Wisconsin became a center of northern abolitionism. The debate became especially intense in 1854 after Joshua Glover, a runaway slave from Missouri, was captured in Racine. Glover was taken into custody under the Federal Fugitive Slave Law, but a mob of abolitionists stormed the prison where Glover was held and helped him escape to Canada. In a trial stemming from the incident, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ultimately declared the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional. The Republican Party, founded on March 20, 1854, by anti-slavery expansion activists in Ripon, Wisconsin, grew to dominate state politics in the aftermath of these events. During the Civil War, around 91,000 troops from Wisconsin fought for the Union.
Wisconsin 's economy also diversified during the early years of statehood. While lead mining diminished, agriculture became a principal occupation in the southern half of the state. Railroads were built across the state to help transport grains to market, and industries like J.I. Case & Company in Racine were founded to build agricultural equipment. Wisconsin briefly became one of the nation 's leading producers of wheat during the 1860s. Meanwhile, the lumber industry dominated in the heavily forested northern sections of Wisconsin, and sawmills sprang up in cities like La Crosse, Eau Claire, and Wausau. These economic activities had dire environmental consequences. By the close of the 19th century, intensive agriculture had devastated soil fertility, and lumbering had deforested most of the state. These conditions forced both wheat agriculture and the lumber industry into a precipitous decline.
Beginning in the 1890s, farmers in Wisconsin shifted from wheat to dairy production in order to make more sustainable and profitable use of their land. Many immigrants carried cheese - making traditions that, combined with the state 's suitable geography and dairy research led by Stephen Babcock at the University of Wisconsin, helped the state build a reputation as "America 's Dairyland. '' Meanwhile, conservationists including Aldo Leopold helped reestablish the state 's forests during the early 20th century, paving the way for a more renewable lumber and paper milling industry as well as promoting recreational tourism in the northern woodlands. Manufacturing also boomed in Wisconsin during the early 20th century, driven by an immense immigrant workforce arriving from Europe. Industries in cities like Milwaukee ranged from brewing and food processing to heavy machine production and toolmaking, leading Wisconsin to rank 8th among U.S. states in total product value by 1910.
The early 20th century was also notable for the emergence of progressive politics championed by Robert M. La Follette. Between 1901 and 1914, Progressive Republicans in Wisconsin created the nation 's first comprehensive statewide primary election system, the first effective workplace injury compensation law, and the first state income tax, making taxation proportional to actual earnings. The progressive Wisconsin Idea also promoted the statewide expansion of the University of Wisconsin through the UW - Extension system at this time. Later, UW economics professors John R. Commons and Harold Groves helped Wisconsin create the first unemployment compensation program in the United States in 1932.
In the immediate aftermath of World War II, citizens of Wisconsin were divided over things such as the creation of the United Nations, support for the European recovery, and the growth of the Soviet Union 's power. However, when Europe divided into Communist and capitalist camps and the Communist revolution in China succeeded in 1949, public opinion began to move towards support for the protection of democracy and capitalism against Communist expansion.
Wisconsin took part in several political extremes in the mid to late 20th century, ranging from the anti-communist crusades of Senator Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s to the radical antiwar protests at UW - Madison that culminated in the Sterling Hall bombing in August 1970. The state became a leader in welfare reform under Republican Governor Tommy Thompson during the 1990s. The state 's economy also underwent further transformations towards the close of the 20th century, as heavy industry and manufacturing declined in favor of a service economy based on medicine, education, agribusiness, and tourism.
Two U.S. Navy battleships, BB - 9 and BB - 64, were named for the state.
In 2011, Wisconsin became the focus of some controversy when newly elected governor Scott Walker proposed, successfully passed, and enacted the 2011 Wisconsin Act 10, which made large changes in the areas of collective bargaining, compensation, retirement, health insurance, and sick leave of public sector employees, among other changes. A series of major protests by union supporters took place that year in response to the changes, and Walker survived a recall election held the next year, becoming the first governor in United States history to do so. Walker enacted other bills promoting conservative governance, such as a right - to - work law, abortion restrictions, and legislation removing certain gun controls.
Wisconsin is bordered by the Montreal River; Lake Superior and Michigan to the north; by Lake Michigan to the east; by Illinois to the south; and by Iowa to the southwest and Minnesota to the northwest. A border dispute with Michigan was settled by two cases, both Wisconsin v. Michigan, in 1934 and 1935. The state 's boundaries include the Mississippi River and St. Croix River in the west, and the Menominee River in the northeast.
With its location between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River, Wisconsin is home to a wide variety of geographical features. The state is divided into five distinct regions. In the north, the Lake Superior Lowland occupies a belt of land along Lake Superior. Just to the south, the Northern Highland has massive mixed hardwood and coniferous forests including the 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km) Chequamegon - Nicolet National Forest, as well as thousands of glacial lakes, and the state 's highest point, Timms Hill. In the middle of the state, the Central Plain has some unique sandstone formations like the Dells of the Wisconsin River in addition to rich farmland. The Eastern Ridges and Lowlands region in the southeast is home to many of Wisconsin 's largest cities. The ridges include the Niagara Escarpment that stretches from New York, the Black River Escarpment and the Magnesian Escarpment.
The bedrock of the Niagara Escarpment is dolomite, while the two shorter ridges have limestone bedrock. In the southwest, the Western Upland is a rugged landscape with a mix of forest and farmland, including many bluffs on the Mississippi River. This region is part of the Driftless Area, which also includes portions of Iowa, Illinois, and Minnesota. This area was not covered by glaciers during the most recent ice age, the Wisconsin Glaciation. Overall, 46 % of Wisconsin 's land area is covered by forest. Langlade County has a soil rarely found outside of the county called Antigo silt loam.
Areas under the management of the National Park Service include the following:
There is one national forest managed by the U.S. Forest Service in Wisconsin, Chequamegon - Nicolet National Forest.
Wisconsin has sister - state relationships with Germany 's Hesse, Japan 's Chiba Prefecture, Mexico 's Jalisco, China 's Heilongjiang, and Nicaragua.
The pole of inaccessibility for Wisconsin, located approximately 15 miles (24 km) southwest of Wausau at 44 ° 52 ′ 57 '' N 89 ° 54 ′ 43 '' W / 44.8824 ° N 89.912 ° W / 44.8824; - 89.912 (Wisconsin Pole of Inaccessibility), marks the location furthest from any point not within Wisconsin (94.24 mi or 151.66 km).
Most of Wisconsin is classified as warm - summer humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), while southern and southwestern portions are classified as hot - summer humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa). The highest temperature ever recorded in the state was in the Wisconsin Dells, on July 13, 1936, where it reached 114 ° F (46 ° C). The lowest temperature ever recorded in Wisconsin was in the village of Couderay, where it reached − 55 ° F (− 48 ° C) on both February 2 and 4, 1996. Wisconsin also receives a large amount of regular snowfall averaging around 40 inches (100 cm) in the southern portions with up to 160 inches (410 cm) annually in the Lake Superior snowbelt each year.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Wisconsin was 5,771,337 on July 1, 2015, a 1.48 % increase since the 2010 United States Census.
Note: Births in table add to over 100 %, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
Since its founding, Wisconsin has been ethnically heterogeneous. Following the period of French fur traders, the next wave of settlers were miners, many of whom were Cornish, who settled the southwestern area of the state. The next wave was dominated by "Yankees '', migrants of English descent from New England and upstate New York; in the early years of statehood, they dominated the state 's heavy industry, finance, politics and education. Between 1850 and 1900, large numbers of European immigrants followed them, including Germans, Scandinavians (the largest group being Norwegian), and smaller groups of Belgians, Dutch, Swiss, Finns, Irish, Poles, Italians, Luxembourgers, and others. In the 20th century, large numbers of Mexicans and African Americans came, settling mainly in Milwaukee; and after the end of the Vietnam War came an influx of Hmongs.
According to the 2010 Census, the racial composition of the population was:
In the same year, 5.9 % of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race.
The six largest ancestry groups in Wisconsin are: German (42.6 %), Irish (10.9 %), Polish (9.3 %), Norwegian (8.5 %), English (6.5 %), and Italian (6.1 %). German is the most common ancestry in every county in the state, except Menominee, Trempealeau and Vernon. Wisconsin has the highest percentage of residents of Polish ancestry of any state.
The various ethnic groups settled in different areas of the state. Although Germans settled throughout the state, the largest concentration was in Milwaukee. Norwegians settled in lumbering and farming areas in the north and west. Small colonies of Belgians, Swiss, Finns and other groups settled in their particular areas, with Irish, Italian, and Polish immigrants settling primarily in urban areas. Menominee County is the only county in the eastern United States with a Native American majority.
African Americans came to Milwaukee, especially from 1940 on. 86 % of Wisconsin 's African - American population live in four cities: Milwaukee, Racine, Beloit, Kenosha, with Milwaukee home to nearly three - fourths of the state 's black Americans. In the Great Lakes region, only Detroit and Cleveland have a higher percentage of African - American residents.
33 % of Wisconsin 's Asian population is Hmong, with significant communities in Milwaukee, Wausau, Green Bay, Sheboygan, Appleton, Madison, La Crosse, Eau Claire, Oshkosh, and Manitowoc.
Of the residents of Wisconsin, 71.7 % were born in Wisconsin, 23.0 % were born in a different US state, 0.7 % were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent (s), and 4.6 % were foreign born.
The percentage of Wisconsin residents who belong to various affiliations are Christian 81 % (Protestant 50 %, Roman Catholic 29 %, Mormon 0.5 %), Jewish 0.5 %, Muslim 0.5 %, Buddhist 0.5 %, Hindu 0.5 % and the unaffiliated at 15 %.
Christianity is the predominant religion of Wisconsin. As of 2008, the three largest denominational groups in Wisconsin were Catholic, Evangelical Protestant, and Mainline Protestant. As of 2010, the Catholic Church had the highest number of adherents in Wisconsin (at 1,425,523), followed by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 414,326 members, and the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod with 223,279 adherents. The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, which has the fourth highest numbers of adherents in Wisconsin, and the international conference it belongs to, the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, both have their headquarters in Waukesha, Wisconsin.
Statewide FBI Crime statistics for 2009 include 144 murders / nonnegligent manslaughter; 1,108 rapes; 4,850 robberies; 8,431 aggravated assaults; and 147,486 property crimes. Wisconsin also publishes its own statistics through the Office of Justice Assistance. The OJA reported 14,603 violent crimes in 2009, with a clearance rate (% solved) of 50 %. The OJA reported 4,633 sexual assaults in 2009, with an overall clearance rate for sexual assaults of 57 %.
The Wisconsin Blue Book is the primary published reference about the government and politics of the state, documenting the organization of the state 's three branches of government. Published every two years with updated information, copies are available by contacting state legislators.
Wisconsin 's Constitution outlines the structure and function of state government. Wisconsin 's government is organized into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.
The executive branch is headed by the governor. The current governor, Scott Walker, assumed office on January 3, 2011. In addition to the governor, the executive branch includes five other elected constitutional officers: Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Attorney General, Treasurer, and State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Four members of the Wisconsin executive branch are Republicans. The Secretary of State is a Democrat, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction of Wisconsin is a non-partisan position.
The Wisconsin State Legislature is Wisconsin 's legislative branch. The Legislature is a bicameral body consisting of the Assembly and the Senate.
Wisconsin 's court system has four levels: municipal courts, circuit courts, the Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court. Municipal courts typically handle cases involving local ordinance matters. The circuit courts are Wisconsin 's trial courts, they have original jurisdiction in all civil and criminal cases within the state. Challenges to circuit court rulings are heard by the Wisconsin Court of Appeals, consisting of sixteen judges who typically sit in three - judge panels. As the state 's highest appellate court, the Wisconsin Supreme Court may hear both appeals from lower courts and original actions. In addition to deciding cases, the Supreme Court is responsible for administering the state 's court system and regulating the practice of law in Wisconsin.
In the United States Senate Wisconsin is represented by Ron Johnson and Tammy Baldwin. Wisconsin is divided into eight congressional districts.
Wisconsin collects personal income taxes (based on five income brackets) which range from 4 % to 7.65 %. The state sales and use tax rate is 5.0 %. Fifty - nine counties have an additional sales / use tax of 0.5 %. Milwaukee County and four surrounding counties have an additional temporary 0.1 % tax that helps fund the Miller Park baseball stadium, which was completed in 2001.
The most common property tax assessed on Wisconsin residents is the real property tax, or their residential property tax. Wisconsin does not impose a property tax on vehicles, but does levy an annual registration fee. Property taxes are the most important tax revenue source for Wisconsin 's local governments, as well as major methods of funding school districts, vocational technical colleges, special purpose districts and tax incremental finance districts. Equalized values are based on the full market value of all taxable property in the state, except for agricultural land. In order to provide property tax relief for farmers, the value of agricultural land is determined by its value for agricultural uses, rather than for its possible development value. Equalized values are used to distribute state aid payments to counties, municipalities, and technical colleges. Assessments prepared by local assessors are used to distribute the property tax burden within individual municipalities.
Wisconsin does not assess a tax on intangible property. Wisconsin does not collect inheritance taxes. Until January 1, 2008, Wisconsin 's estate tax was decoupled from the federal estate tax laws; therefore the state imposed its own estate tax on certain large estates.
There are no toll roads in Wisconsin; highway construction and maintenance are funded in part by motor fuel tax revenues, and the remaining balance is drawn from the State General Fund. Non-highway road construction and maintenance are funded by local governments (municipalities or counties).
Wisconsin has had a diplomatic relationship with the Japanese prefecture of Chiba since 1990.
Donald Trump won Wisconsin by fewer than 25,000 votes (a margin of less than. 8 %) in the 2016 election. This marked the first time Wisconsin voted for a Republican presidential candidate since 1984, when every state except Minnesota and Washington D.C. went Republican. Both the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections were quite close, with Wisconsin receiving heavy doses of national advertising, in accord with its status as a "swing '', or pivot, state. Al Gore carried the presidential vote in 2000 by 5,700 votes, and John Kerry won Wisconsin in 2004 by 11,000 votes. Again, Barack Obama carried the state in 2008 by 381,000 votes (56 %).
On November 26, 2016, Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein filed for a recount in Wisconsin due to concerns regarding hacking or other tampering with votes. It is the first presidential recount ever conducted in the state.
During the period of the Civil War, Wisconsin was a Republican state; in fact it is the state that gave birth to the Republican Party, although ethno - religious issues in the late 19th century caused a brief split in the Republican coalition. Through the first half of the 20th century, Wisconsin 's politics were dominated by Robert La Follette and his sons, originally of the Republican Party, but later of the revived Progressive Party. Since 1945, the state has maintained a close balance between Republicans and Democrats. Republican Senator Joe McCarthy was a controversial national figure in the early 1950s. Recent leading Republicans include former Governor Tommy Thompson and Congressman Jim Sensenbrenner; prominent Democrats include Senators Herb Kohl and Russ Feingold, and Congressman David Obey.
The most famous controversy in the state 's political history dealt with foreign language teaching in schools. This was fought out in the Bennett Law campaign of 1890, when the Germans switched to the Democratic Party because of the Republican Party 's support of the Bennett Law, which led to a major victory for the Democrats.
The cities of Wisconsin have been active in increasing the availability of legislative information on the internet, thereby providing for greater government transparency. Currently three of the five most populous cities in Wisconsin provide their constituents with internet - based access of all public records directly from the cities ' databases. Wisconsin cities started to make this a priority after Milwaukee began doing so, on their page, in 2001. One such city, Madison, has been named the Number 1 digital city by the Center for Digital Government in consecutive years.
Wisconsin has voted for Democratic candidates in six of the last seven presidential elections. Republican Donald Trump carried the state by 23,000 votes in 2016. Before that, the last Republican to carry the state was Ronald Reagan in 1984. In 2012, Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney chose Wisconsin Congressman Paul Ryan, a native of Janesville, as his running mate against incumbent Democratic President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden. Obama nevertheless carried Wisconsin by a margin of 53 % to 46 %.
At the statewide level, Wisconsin is competitive, with control regularly alternating between the two parties. The 2010 elections saw a huge Republican resurgence in Wisconsin. Republicans took control of the governor 's office and both houses of the state legislature. Republican Ron Johnson defeated Democratic incumbent U.S. Senator Russ Feingold, and Republicans took two previously Democratic - held House seats, creating a 5 -- 3 Republican majority House delegation.
On February 14, 2011, the Wisconsin State Capitol erupted with protests when the Legislature took up a bill that would end most collective bargaining rights for state employees, except for wages, to address the $3.6 bil. deficit. The protests attracted tens of thousands of people each day, and garnered international attention.
The Assembly passed the bill 53 -- 42 on March 10 after the State Senate passed it the night before, and sent it to the Governor for his signature. In response to the bill, enough signatures were gathered to force a recall election against Governor Walker. Tom Barrett, the mayor of Milwaukee and Walker 's 2010 opponent, won the Democratic primary and faced Walker again. Walker won the election by 53 % to 46 % and became the first governor in United States history to retain his seat after a recall election.
Republicans had a stronghold in the Fox Valley, but elected a Democrat, Steve Kagen, of Appleton, for the 8th Congressional District in 2006. However, Kagen survived only two terms and was replaced by Republican Reid Ribble in the Republican Party 's sweep of Wisconsin in November 2010, the first time the Republican Party has taken back both chambers of the state legislature and the governorship in the same election. Republicans have held Waukesha County. The City of Milwaukee heads the list of Wisconsin 's Democratic strongholds, which also includes Madison and the state 's Native American reservations. Wisconsin 's largest Congressional district, the 7th, had voted Democratic since 1969. Its representative, David Obey, chaired the powerful House Appropriations Committee. However, Obey retired and the once Democratic seat was overtaken by Republican Sean Duffy in November 2010.
Wisconsin 's political history encompasses, on the one hand, "Fighting Bob '' La Follette and the Progressive movement; and on the other, the Republican and anti-Communist Joe McCarthy. From the early 20th century, the Socialist Party of America had a base in Milwaukee. The phenomenon was referred to as "sewer socialism '' because the elected officials were more concerned with public works and reform than with revolution (although revolutionary socialism existed in the city as well). Its influence faded in the late 1950s, largely because of the red scare and racial tensions. The first Socialist mayor of a large city in the United States was Emil Seidel, elected mayor of Milwaukee in 1910; another Socialist, Daniel Hoan, was mayor of Milwaukee from 1916 to 1940; and a third, Frank P. Zeidler, from 1948 to 1960. Succeeding Frank Zeidler, the last of Milwaukee 's Socialist mayors, (Henry Maier), a former Wisconsin State Senator and member of the Democratic Party was elected mayor of Milwaukee in 1960. Maier remained in office for 28 years, the longest serving mayor in Milwaukee history. Socialist newspaper editor Victor Berger was repeatedly elected as a U.S. Representative, although he was prevented from serving for some time because of his opposition to the First World War.
William Proxmire, a Democratic Senator (1957 -- 89), dominated the Democratic party for years; he was best known for attacking waste and fraud in federal spending. Democrat Russ Feingold was the only Senator to vote against the Patriot Act in 2001. Republican Paul Ryan was, at age 28, the youngest member of the Congressional freshman class when he took office in January 1999. In 2012, he was selected as the Republican party 's candidate for Vice President, running with Mitt Romney. In 2004, Gwen Moore, a Democrat from Milwaukee, became Wisconsin 's first African - American U.S. Representative.
In 2006, Democrats gained in a national sweep of opposition to the Bush administration, and the Iraq War. The retiring GOP 8th District Congressman, Mark Green, of Green Bay, ran against the incumbent Governor Jim Doyle. Green lost by 8 % statewide, making Doyle the first Democratic governor to be re-elected in 32 years. The Republicans lost control of the state Senate. Although Democrats gained eight seats in the state Assembly, Republicans retained a five - vote majority in that house. In 2008, Democrats regained control of the State Assembly by a 52 -- 46 margin, marking the first time since 1987 that the governor and state legislature were both Democratic.
With the election of Scott Walker, Republicans won both chambers of the legislature and the governorship, the first time all three changed partisan control in the same election. They have maintained that status since 2010. Following the 2014 general election on November 4, 2014, the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, State Attorney General and State Treasurer are all Republicans; the Secretary of State is a Democrat. The state also chose the Republican candidate for President in 2016, Donald Trump, for the first time since 1984.
In 2010 Wisconsin 's gross state product was $248.3 billion, making it 21st among U.S. states. The economy of Wisconsin is driven by manufacturing, agriculture, and health care. The state 's economic output from manufacturing was $48.9 billion in 2008, making it the tenth largest among states in manufacturing gross domestic product. Manufacturing accounts for about 20 % of the state 's gross domestic product, a proportion that is third among all states. The per capita personal income was $35,239 in 2008. In March 2017, the state 's unemployment rate was 3.4 % (seasonally adjusted).
In quarter four of 2011, the largest employers in Wisconsin were:
Wisconsin produces about a quarter of America 's cheese, leading the nation in cheese production. It is second in milk production, after California, and third in per - capita milk production, behind California and Vermont. Wisconsin is second in butter production, producing about one - quarter of the nation 's butter. The state ranks first nationally in the production of corn for silage, cranberries ginseng, and snap beans for processing. It grows over half the national crop of cranberries. and 97 % of the nation 's ginseng. Wisconsin is also a leading producer of oats, potatoes, carrots, tart cherries, maple syrup, and sweet corn for processing. The significance of the state 's agricultural production is exemplified by the depiction of a Holstein cow, an ear of corn, and a wheel of cheese on Wisconsin 's state quarter design. The state annually selects an "Alice in Dairyland '' to promote the state 's agricultural products around the world.
A large part of the state 's manufacturing sector includes commercial food processing, including well - known brands such as Oscar Mayer, Tombstone frozen pizza, Johnsonville brats, and Usinger 's sausage. Kraft Foods alone employs over 5,000 people in the state. Milwaukee is a major producer of beer and was formerly headquarters for Miller Brewing Company -- the nation 's second - largest brewer -- until it merged with Coors Brewing Company. Formerly, Schlitz, Blatz, and Pabst were cornerstone breweries in Milwaukee.
Wisconsin is home to a very large and diversified manufacturing economy, with special focus on transportation and capital equipment. Major Wisconsin companies in these categories include the Kohler Company; Mercury Marine; Rockwell Automation; Johnson Controls; John Deere; Briggs & Stratton; Milwaukee Electric Tool Company; Caterpillar Inc.; Joy Global; Oshkosh Corporation; Harley - Davidson; Case IH; S.C. Johnson & Son; Ashley Furniture; Ariens; and Evinrude Outboard Motors.
Wisconsin is a major producer of paper, packaging, and other consumer goods. Major consumer products companies based in the state include SC Johnson & Co., and Diversey Inc., Wisconsin also ranks first nationwide in the production of paper products; the lower Fox River from Lake Winnebago to Green Bay has 24 paper mills along its 39 miles (63 km) stretch.
The development and manufacture of health care devices and software is a growing sector of the state 's economy, with key players such as GE Healthcare, Epic Systems, and TomoTherapy.
Tourism is a major industry in Wisconsin -- the state 's third largest, according to the Department of Tourism. Tourist destinations such as the House on the Rock near Spring Green, Circus World Museum in Baraboo, and The Dells of the Wisconsin River draw thousands of visitors annually, and festivals such as Summerfest and the EAA Oshkosh Airshow draw international attention, along with hundreds of thousands of visitors.
Given the large number of lakes and rivers in the state, water recreation is very popular. In the North Country, what had been an industrial area focused on timber has largely been transformed into a vacation destination. Popular interest in the environment and environmentalism, added to traditional interests in hunting and fishing, has attracted a large urban audience within driving range.
The distinctive Door Peninsula, which extends off the eastern coast of the state, contains one of the state 's tourist destinations, Door County. Door County is a popular destination for boaters because of the large number of natural harbors, bays, and ports on the Green Bay and Lake Michigan side of the peninsula that forms the county. The area draws hundreds of thousands of visitors yearly to its quaint villages, seasonal cherry picking, and fish boils.
On January 1, 2008, a new tax incentive for the film industry came into effect. The first major production to take advantage of the tax incentive was Michael Mann 's Public Enemies. While the producers spent $18 million on the film, it was reported that most of that went to out - of - state workers and for out - of - state services; Wisconsin taxpayers had provided $4.6 million in subsidies, and derived only $5 million in revenues from the film 's making.
Wisconsin has no production of oil, gas, or coal. Its in - state electrical generation is mostly from coal. Other important electricity sources are natural gas and nuclear.
The state has a mandate that ten percent of its electrical energy come from renewable sources by the end of 2015. This goal has been met, but not with in state sources. One third of that ten percent comes from out of state sources, mostly wind generated electricity from Minnesota and Iowa. The state has agnostic policies for developing wind power in state.
Wisconsin is served by eight commercial service airports, in addition to a number of general aviation airports.
The Wisconsin Department of Transportation is responsible for planning, building and maintaining the state 's highways. Seven Interstate Highways transverse the state.
Amtrak provides daily passenger rail service between Chicago and Milwaukee. It also provides cross-country service via the Empire Builder with station stops in several cities in Wisconsin.
Over 68 % of Wisconsin residents live in urban areas, with the Greater Milwaukee area home to roughly one - third of the state 's population. With over 594,000 residents, Milwaukee is the 30th - largest city in the country. The string of cities along the western edge of Lake Michigan is generally considered to be an example of a megalopolis.
With a population of around 233,000 and metropolitan area of over 600,000, Madison has a dual identity as state capital and college town. Madison 's suburb, Middleton, was ranked the "Best Place to Live in America '' in 2007 by Money Magazine. Medium - size cities dot the state and anchor a network of working farms surrounding them. As of 2011, there were 12 cities in Wisconsin with a population of 50,000 or more, accounting for 73 % of the state 's employment.
Wisconsin has three types of municipality: cities, villages, and towns. Cities and villages are incorporated urban areas. Towns are unincorporated minor civil divisions of counties with limited self - government.
Wisconsin, along with Minnesota and Michigan, was among the Midwestern leaders in the emergent American state university movement following the Civil War in the United States. By the start of the 20th century, education in the state advocated the "Wisconsin Idea '', which emphasized service to the people of the state. The "Wisconsin Idea '' exemplified the Progressive movement within colleges and universities at the time.
Today, public post-secondary education in Wisconsin includes both the 26 - campus University of Wisconsin System, with the flagship university University of Wisconsin -- Madison, and the 16 - campus Wisconsin Technical College System. Private colleges and universities include Alverno College, Beloit College, Cardinal Stritch University, Carroll University, Carthage College, Concordia University Wisconsin, Edgewood College, Lakeland College, Lawrence University, Marquette University, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee School of Engineering, Ripon College, St. Norbert College, Wisconsin Lutheran College, and others.
Residents of Wisconsin are referred to as Wisconsinites. The traditional prominence of references to dairy farming and cheesemaking in Wisconsin 's rural economy (the state 's license plates have read "America 's Dairyland '' since 1940) have led to the nickname (sometimes used pejoratively among non-residents) of "cheeseheads '' and to the creation of "cheesehead hats '' made of yellow foam in the shape of a wedge of cheese.
Numerous ethnic festivals are held throughout Wisconsin to celebrate the heritage of its citizens. Such festivals include Summerfest, Oktoberfest, Polish Fest, Festa Italiana, Irish Fest, Bastille Days, Syttende Mai (Norwegian Constitution Day), Brat (wurst) Days in Sheboygan, Polka Days, Cheese Days in Monroe and Mequon, African World Festival, Indian Summer, Arab Fest, Wisconsin Highland Games and many others.
The Milwaukee Art Museum, with its brise soleil designed by Santiago Calatrava, is known for its interesting architecture. Monona Terrace in Madison, a convention center designed by Taliesin architect Anthony Puttnam, is based on a 1930s design by Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright 's home and studio in the 20th century was at Taliesin, south of Spring Green. Decades after Wright 's death, Taliesin remains an architectural office and school for his followers.
Wisconsin 's music festivals include Eaux Claires, Country Fest, Country Jam USA, the Hodag Country Festival, Porterfield Country Music Festival, Country Thunder USA in Twin Lakes, and Country USA. Milwaukee hosts Summerfest, dubbed "The World 's Largest Music Festival '', every year. This festival is held at the lakefront Henry Maier Festival Park just south of downtown, as are a summer - long array of ethnic musical festivals. The Wisconsin Area Music Industry provides an annual WAMI event where it presents an awards show for top Wisconsin artists.
Drinking has long been considered a significant part of Wisconsin culture, and the state ranks at or near the top of national measures of per - capita alcohol consumption, consumption of alcohol per state, and proportion of drinkers. Consumption per - capita per - event, however, ranks low among the nation; number of events (number of times alcohol is involved) is significantly higher or highest, but consumption at each event smaller, marking Wisconsin 's consumption as frequent and moderate. Factors such as cultural identification with the state 's heritage of German immigration, the longstanding presence of major breweries in Milwaukee, and a cold climate are often associated with the prevalence of drinking in Wisconsin.
In Wisconsin, the legal drinking age is 21, except when accompanied by a parent, guardian, or spouse who is at least 21 years old. Age requirements are waived for possessing alcohol when employed by a brewer, brewpub, beer and / or liquor wholesaler, or producer of alcohol fuel. The minimum legal age to purchase alcohol is 21, with no exceptions. The Absolute Sobriety law states that any person not of legal drinking age (currently 21 years of age) may not drive after consuming alcohol.
On September 30, 2003, the state legislature, reluctant to lower a DUI offense from BAC 0.10 to 0.08, did so only as a result of federal government pressure. The Wisconsin Tavern League opposes raising the alcoholic beverage tax. The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel series "Wasted in Wisconsin '' examined this situation.
The varied landscape of Wisconsin makes the state a popular vacation destination for outdoor recreation. Winter events include skiing, ice fishing and snowmobile derbies. Wisconsin is situated on two Great Lakes and has many inland lakes of varied size; the state contains 11,188 square miles (28,980 km) of water, more than all but three other states -- Alaska, Michigan, and Florida.
Outdoor activities are popular in Wisconsin, especially hunting and fishing. One of the most prevalent game animals is the whitetail deer. Each year, in Wisconsin, well over 600,000 deer - hunting licenses are sold. In 2008, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources projected the pre-hunt deer population to be between 1.5 and 1.7 million.
Wisconsin is represented by major league teams in three sports: football, baseball, and basketball. Lambeau Field, located in Green Bay, Wisconsin, is home to the National Football League 's Green Bay Packers. The Packers have been part of the NFL since the league 's second season in 1921 and hold the record for the most NFL titles, earning the city of Green Bay the nickname "Titletown USA ''. The Packers are the smallest city franchise in the NFL and the only one owned by shareholders statewide. The franchise was founded by "Curly '' Lambeau who played and coached for them. The Green Bay Packers are one of the most successful small - market professional sports franchises in the world and have won 13 NFL championships, including the first two AFL - NFL Championship games (Super Bowls I and II), Super Bowl XXXI and Super Bowl XLV. The state 's support of the team is evidenced by the 81,000 - person waiting list for season tickets to Lambeau Field.
The Milwaukee Brewers, the state 's only major league baseball team, play in Miller Park in Milwaukee, the successor to Milwaukee County Stadium since 2001. In 1982, the Brewers won the American League Championship, marking their most successful season. The team switched from the American League to the National League starting with the 1998 season. Before the Brewers, Milwaukee had two prior Major League teams. The first team, also called the Brewers, played only one season in the newly founded American League in 1901 before moving to St. Louis and becoming the Browns, who are now the Baltimore Orioles. Milwaukee was also the home of the Braves franchise when they moved from Boston from 1953 to 1965, winning the World Series in 1957 and the National League pennant in 1958, before they moved to Atlanta.
The Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association play home games at the Bradley Center. The Bucks won the NBA Championship in 1971.
The state also has minor league teams in hockey (Milwaukee Admirals) and baseball (the Wisconsin Timber Rattlers, based in Appleton and the Beloit Snappers of the Class A minor leagues). Wisconsin is also home to the Madison Mallards, the La Crosse Loggers, the Lakeshore Chinooks, the Eau Claire Express, the Green Bay Bullfrogs, the Kenosha Kingfish, the Wisconsin Woodchucks, and the Wisconsin Rapids Rafters of the Northwoods League, a collegiate all - star summer league. In addition to the Packers, Green Bay is also the home to an indoor football team, the Green Bay Blizzard of the IFL. The state is home to the six - time MSL Champion Milwaukee Wave.
Wisconsin also has many college sports programs, including the Wisconsin Badgers, of the University of Wisconsin -- Madison and the Panthers of University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee. The Wisconsin Badgers football former head coach Barry Alvarez led the Badgers to three Rose Bowl championships, including back - to - back victories in 1999 and 2000. The Badger men 's basketball team won the national title in 1941 and made trips to college basketball 's Final Four in 2000, 2014, and 2015. The Badgers claimed a historic dual championship in 2006 when both the women 's and men 's hockey teams won national titles.
The Marquette Golden Eagles of the Big East Conference, the state 's other major collegiate program, is known for its men 's basketball team, which, under the direction of Al McGuire, won the NCAA National Championship in 1977. The team returned to the Final Four in 2003.
Many other schools in the University of Wisconsin system compete in the Wisconsin Intercollegiate Athletic Conference at the Division III level. The conference is one of the most successful in the nation, claiming 107 NCAA national championships in 15 different sports as of March 30, 2015.
The Semi-Professional Northern Elite Football League consists of many teams from Wisconsin. The league is made up of former professional, collegiate, and high school players. Teams from Wisconsin include: The Green Bay Gladiators from Green Bay, The Fox Valley Force in Appleton, The Kimberly Storm in Kimberly, The Central Wisconsin Spartans in Wausau, The Eau Claire Crush and the Chippewa Valley Predators from Eau Claire, and the Lake Superior Rage from Superior. The league also has teams in Michigan and Minnesota. Teams play from May until August.
Wisconsin is home to the world 's oldest operational racetrack. The Milwaukee Mile, located in Wisconsin State Fair Park in West Allis, Wisconsin, held races there that considerably predate the Indy 500.
Wisconsin is home to the nation 's oldest operating velodrome in Kenosha where races have been held every year since 1927.
Sheboygan is home to Whistling Straits golf club which has hosted PGA Championships in 2004, 2010 and 2015 and will be home to the Ryder Cup golf competition between USA and Europe in 2020. The Greater Milwaukee Open, later named the U.S. Bank Championship in Milwaukee, was a PGA Tour tournament from 1968 to 2009 held annually in Brown Deer.
Coordinates: 44 ° 30 ′ N 89 ° 30 ′ W / 44.5 ° N 89.5 ° W / 44.5; - 89.5
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what is meant by the phrase the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church | Apologeticus - wikipedia
Apologeticus (Latin: Apologeticum or Apologeticus) is Tertullian 's most famous work, consisting of apologetic and polemic. In this work Tertullian defends Christianity, demanding legal toleration and that Christians be treated as all other sects of the Roman Empire. It is in this treatise that one finds the phrase: "the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church '' (Apologeticus, Chapter 50).
There is a similarity of content, if not of purpose, between this work and Tertullian 's Ad nationes -- published earlier in the same year -- and it has been claimed that the latter is a finished draft of Apologeticus. There arises also the question of similarity to Minucius Felix 's dialogue Octavius. Some paragraphs are shared by both texts: it is not known which predated the other.
Tertullian 's brief De testimonio animae ("Concerning the Evidences of the Soul '') is an appendix to the Apologeticus, intended to illustrate the meaning of the phrase testimonium animae naturaliter christianae in chapter 17).
Not much is known about the life of Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullian. Some scholars believe him to have been a presbyter (priest) of the Catholic Church, the son of a Roman centurion, and have him training to be a lawyer in Rome. Others, like David Wright, find that to be highly improbable. "No firm evidence places him in Rome at all, or for that matter anywhere outside of Carthage... It is in the well - educated circles in Carthage, '' Wright argues, "that Tertullian most securely belongs ''. Sometime after his conversion to the Christian faith, Tertullian left the Catholic Church in favor of the Montanist movement, which he remained a part of for at least 10 -- 15 years of his active life and whose influence can be seen in many of his later works.
Apologeticus, his most famous apologetic work, was written in Carthage in the summer or autumn of 197 AD, during the reign of Septimius Severus. Using this date, most scholars agree that Tertullian 's conversion to Christianity occurred sometime before 197, possibly around 195. It was written before the edict of Septimius Severus (202 AD), and consequently, the laws to which Tertullian took exception were those under which the Christians of the 1st and 2nd centuries had been convicted.
This work is ostensibly addressed to the provincial governors of the Roman Empire, more specifically the magistrates of Carthage - "that the truth, being forbidden to defend itself publicly, may reach the ears of the rulers by the hidden path of letters '' -- and thus bears resemblance to the Greek apologues. It is structured as an appeal on behalf of the Christians and pleads "for toleration of Christianity, attacking pagan superstition, rebutting charges against Christian morality, and claiming that Christians are no danger to the State but useful citizens ''. Its readership is likely to have been composed of Christians, whose faith was reinforced through Tertullian 's defense against rationalizations and rumours and who "would have been hugely enheartened by Tertullian 's matchless confidence in the superiority of the Christian religion ''.
Apologeticus has the typical concerns of other apologetic works of his time, though it is presented in a much more complex manner. According to Wright, the text is constantly shifting "from the philosophical mode to the rhetorical and even juridical ''. Drawing from his training in literature and law, Tertullian demonstrates his talents as a Latinist and a rhetorician in an attempt to defend his newfound Christian faith. Tertullian 's modern editor Otto Bardenhewer further contends that Apologeticus is calm in tone, "a model of judicial discussion ''. Unlike previous apologists of Christianity, whose appeals for tolerance were made in the name of reason and humanity, Tertullian, influenced by his legal training, spoke as a jurist convinced of the injustice of the laws under which the Christians were persecuted.
The following outline and summary is based on Robert D. Sider 's translation of Apologeticus.
The first section of Apology is concerned with the unjust treatment of the Christians, which Tertullian believes stems from the ignorance of the pagan populace. Simply put, he argues that people praise what they know and hate what they do not. To Tertullian this becomes evident in the cases of people who once hated because they were ignorant towards that they hated, and once their ignorance was gone, so was their hate. Their hatred prevents them from investigating more closely and acknowledging the goodness that is inherent in Christianity, and so they remain ignorant. And there is good in Christianity, Tertullian claims, despite the fact that people remain ignorant to it. Even when brought forth and accused, true Christians do not tremble with fear or deny their faith. It is the authorities that display bad behavior when they deny proper criminal treatment to the Christians. He argues that if Christians are to be treated as criminals, they should not be treated differently from ordinary criminals, who are free to answer to charges, to cross-question and defend themselves. In reality, the Christians are not free to say anything that will clear their name or ensure that the judge conducts a fair trial. If an individual says he is not a Christian, he is tortured until he says he is; if he admits to being a Christian, the authorities want to hear that he is not and torture him until he denies it. They resort to any means necessary to force them to either deny or confess, anything to acquit him. If all this done to someone simply for admitting to be a Christian, then they are surely making a mockery of Roman laws by basing all the charges on the name "Christian ''. Before hating the name, one must look at and study the founder and the school.
In addressing the charges, Tertullian plans to show the hypocrisy that surrounds these charges, demonstrating that those crimes exist among the pagan prosecutors as well. Then he analyzes the laws, claiming it suspicious that a law should refuse to be examined for error and worthless if it demands obedience without examination. If a law is found having an error and being unjust, should it not be reformed or even condemned? Faulty laws have no place in a just judicial system and should thus not be applied and observed. Here Tertullian mentions Nero, and to a certain extent Domitian, as examples of emperors who raged against the Christians through the use of unjust laws, simply for condemning "some magnificent good ''. He then brings up the good laws, and asks what has become of them; those that "restrained extravagance and bribery '', "protected their (women 's) modesty and sobriety '', of the "conjugal happiness so fostered by high moral living that for nearly six hundred years after Rome was founded no sued for divorce ''. These traditions and laws are being ignored, neglected and destroyed and yet Rome chooses to concern itself with the "crimes '' committed by the Christians.
Tertullian begins by addressing the charges based on rumors, charges that vary from murdering and eating babies to committing incestuous and adulterous acts. Ultimately, he argues, they are simply rumors, for no evidence has ever been brought forth. No one has ever seen believers gather and supposedly commit impure acts or heard the cry of a crying baby because meetings and rituals are rarely performed in front of non-believers. It 's all just lies and rumors meant to slander the Christian faith. Tertullian then makes the claim that Romans themselves are guilty of the very crimes it claims the Christians do. People from every age are sacrificed to Saturn and Jupiter all throughout the empire. The arenas are filled with the blood of those that fight, and the Romans even consume the animals that eat the bloodied bodies of the dead. For the Christians, murder is strictly forbidden; there is to be no killing or spilling of human blood, and that includes the killing the baby in the womb, for it would be destroying its soul. Neither are Christians allowed to eat meat that still has blood.
Of the charges of incest and adultery, Tertullian says that Christians are not guilty of them, for they refrain from adultery and from fornicating before marriage, thus ensuring that they are safe from incest. Such behavior is different from that of the Romans, who through their immoral acts commit incest. This comes about simply through the case of mistaken identity: men go off and commit adultery, begetting children all throughout the empire who later unknowingly have intercourse with their own kin by mistake. In his attempt to make the Romans acknowledge their engagement in these acts, Tertullian hopes to demonstrate that Christians behave much differently from what they are accused of and that the charges should not hold.
Of the more "manifest crimes '', as Tertullian refers to them, he first addresses the charges of sacrilege and says that Christians do not worship the pagan gods because the gods are not real, do not exist and thus hold no power or control over anything. Saturn, he claims, was once a mere man, as Roman lore and history will demonstrate. He then refutes further claims that the gods received their divinity through death, and wonders what business would the gods have with wanting ministers and assistants that are already dead. Such powerless beings can not even be responsible for the rise and success of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the character and nature of the gods themselves leave much to be desired; they are filled with rage, incestuous thoughts, envy, and jealousy. Why then should such imperfect and wicked beings be worthy of praise? He makes an even greater argument in referring to the pagan gods as demons, whose sole purpose is the subversion and destruction of mankind. They corrupt the souls of men by passions and lusts and rather successfully procuring "for themselves a proper diet of fumes and blood offered to their statues images ''. In this way they draw attention to themselves and prevent people from turning to the true God. But even the demons acknowledge the power of God, and acknowledging this should be enough to clear the Christians of charges of sacrilege. For Tertullian, the Romans are at fault here for worshipping the wrong religion, not that of the one true God. But if the gods are real, and if the Christians are guilty of sacrilege, what does that say about Rome? The people all worship different gods and often treat their images with less respect than they deserve, using any opportunity to pawn their statues off and use them as sources of income. Tertullian further criticizes their literature, practices and ceremonies, calling them absurd and criticizing their philosophers ' disgraceful actions. Socrates would swear by dogs and Diogenes and Varro made less than respectful comments concerning the deities. The plays constantly make jokes about and mockery of the gods. Surely, he argue, the plays and the masks must be disrespectful to the gods. It is the Romans then that are guilty of sacrilege and impiety.
Christians do not venerate these false and dead gods, nor do they treat them in such a casual and careless manner. They worship the One God, the Creator of the universe. Unlike the pagan gods, He is real and His very existence is proven by the testimony of the soul, which cries out "God '' despite its weakened and fallen state. His works and the works of his prophets are preserved from Moses, who was 1000 years before the Trojan War and predates both Saturn and much of ancient Roman literature tradition, to many others key biblical figures. Tertullian goes on to briefly discuss the revelation of God through Christ. In order to do that, he speaks of the relationship between the Jewish people and God; they once enjoyed much favor from God but became "so filled with presumptuous confidence in their ancestors that they strayed from their teaching into manners of the world ''. Christ comes to re-establish the true doctrine; He is embodiment of Word and Reason, having been brought forth by God and thus having the title of Son of God. He adds, "his ray of God, then, was ever foretold in the past descended into a certain virgin and, formed as flesh in her womb, and was born man mingled (later changed to ' united ') with God ''. Having given an explanation of the nature and divinity of Christ, Tertullian shifts to the charges of treason.
To the charges that Christians do not offer sacrifice to Caesar, Tertullian says that it is practically useless to do that, for it is not in their power to give Caesar health, wealth and power. What they can offer to him they do through the use of prayer, because only God has absolute power and from him comes the emperor. He alone brings up empires and takes them down and only he is responsible for granting Caesar power, health and wealth; "We ask for them (emperors) a long life, undisturbed power, security at home, brave armies, a faithful Senate, an upright people, a peaceful world, and everything for which a man or a Caesar prays ''. Tertullian affirms that by praying for him, Christians are effectively putting Roman interests in God 's hands as well as commending Caesar to God. In no way do their meetings endanger the state, nor do they involve plotting against the emperor, the senate, or the empire. Their treatment of the Roman Empire exhibits the same respect and well wishes that they display upon to their neighbor. Any other behavior would not be the sign of a good Christian.
Tertullian has addressed the charges and demonstrated that the charges faced by Christians are based on lies and rumors and that no such things have been committed. After all he has demonstrated, Tertullian marvels at how the pagan prosecutors still claim that being a Christian is a crime against the empire. Christianity in general presents no threat to public order and thus its members should be allowed to meet and live in peace.
Tertullian then proceeds to give an explanation of Christian life and practices. He describes the manner in which they come together to worship and please God; to pray for each other as well as for the emperor and the empire, to study and consider the Holy Scriptures, and to share food -- but not before offering prayers and thanks to God. Afterwards everyone is free to share a song or something they learned from scripture, praising God all throughout the night. He continues by explaining the practice of tithing, the concept of loving one another and of being brothers and sisters, being united by their way of life under the teachings of Christ. And being part of this world, Christians have to interact with it and with others. They shop at meat markets and local shops, go to the baths and stay at inns just like everyone else, though in everything they do, they "bear in mind that we owe thanks to the Lord our God who created us ''. Despite this, the persecutors and accusers fail to recognize innocence when they see it, persecuting and treating the Christians unjustly. Christians know true innocence because they have learned and inherited it from God; they recognize and understand the eternal punishment that exists apart from God and acknowledge and fear the one who passes that real and true Judgment. Tertullian declares, "in a word, we fear God, not the proconsul ''. He also addresses the claim that Christianity is more than a philosophy, bringing up the philosophers that say, "it (Christianity) teaches the virtues and profess morality, justice, patience, moderation, and chastity ''. He makes the case that if Christianity is just another kind of philosophy, it should be treated the same way, granted with the freedom to teach and spread their beliefs and practice, customs and rituals.
Tertullian concludes his apology by likening the struggle of the Christians to a man fighting a battle. The Christians take no pleasure in being persecuted and enduring trials, but as soldiers of Christ they too must fight for the truth, all, of course, for the glory of God. Addressing the magistrates, he says "Crucify us - torture us - condemn us - destroy us! Your injustice is the proof of our innocence... When we are condemned by you, we are acquitted by God ''.
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where did agriculture develop in the americas about 7000 bp | History of agriculture - wikipedia
The history of agriculture records the domestication of plants and animals and the development and dissemination of techniques for raising them productively. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin.
Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 20,000 BC. From around 9,500 BC, the eight Neolithic founder crops -- emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas, and flax -- were cultivated in the Levant. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 BC, followed by sheep between 11,000 and 9,000 BC. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8,500 BC. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 7,000 BC. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 5,000 BC. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 8,000 and 5,000 BC, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Bananas were cultivated and hybridized in the same period in Papua New Guinea. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was domesticated to maize by 4,000 BC. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC. Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3,000 BC.
In the Middle Ages, both in the Islamic world and in Europe, agriculture was transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the orange to Europe by way of Al - Andalus. After 1492, the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and turnips, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats to the Americas.
Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers were introduced soon after the Neolithic Revolution and developed much further in the past 200 years, starting with the British Agricultural Revolution.
Since 1900, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as human labour has been replaced by mechanization, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber - Bosch process allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields. Modern agriculture has raised social, political, and environmental issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies. In response, organic farming developed in the twentieth century as a consciously pesticide - free alternative.
Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter - gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in southwest Asia, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted, but were not immediately domesticated.
Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant. When major climate change took place after the last ice age (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons. These conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter - gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.
Early people began altering communities of flora and fauna for their own benefit through means such as fire - stick farming and forest gardening very early. Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9,500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally.
Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin. Some of the earliest known domestications were of animals. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 BC. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 11,000 and 9,000 BC. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8,500 BC. Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3,000 BC.
It was not until after 9,500 BC that the eight so - called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) sites in the Levant, although wheat was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant scale. At around the same time (9400 BC), parthenocarpic fig trees were domesticated.
By 7,000 BC, sowing and harvesting reached the fertile soil of Mesopotamia, where Sumerians systematized it and scaled it up. By 8,000 BC, farming was entrenched on the banks of the River Nile. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was domesticated from the wild grass teosinte in West Mexico by 6,700 BC. The potato (8,000 BC), tomato, pepper (4,000 BC), squash (8,000 BC) and several varieties of bean (8,000 BC onwards) were domesticated in the New World. Agriculture was independently developed on the island of New Guinea. In Greece from c. 11,000 BC lentils, vetch, pistachios, and almonds were cultivated, while wild oats and wild barley appear in quantity from c. 7,000 BC alongside einkorn wheat, barley, sheep, goats and pigs, while emmer was used on Cyprus between 9,100 and 8,600 BC. Banana cultivation of Musa acuminata, including hybridization, dates back to 5,000 BC, and possibly to 8,000 BC, in Papua New Guinea. Bees were kept for honey in the Middle East around 7,000 BC. Archaeological evidence from various sites on the Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6,000 and 4,500 BC. Céide Fields in Ireland, consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, date to 3,500 BC and are the oldest known field systems in the world. The horse was domesticated in the Pontic steppe around 4,000 BC. In Siberia, Cannabis was in use in China in Neolithic times and may have been domesticated there; it was in use both as a fibre for ropemaking and as a medicine in Ancient Egypt by about 2,350 BC.
In China, rice and millet were domesticated by 8,000 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. In the Sahel region of Africa, local rice and sorghum were domesticated by 5,000 BC. Kola nut and coffee were domesticated in Africa. In New Guinea, ancient Papuan peoples began practicing agriculture around 7,000 BC, domesticating sugarcane and taro. In the Indus Valley from the eighth millennium BC onwards at Mehrgarh, 2 - row and 6 - row barley were cultivated, along with einkorn, emmer, and durum wheats, and dates. In the earliest levels of Merhgarh, wild game such as gazelle, swamp deer, blackbuck, chital, wild ass, wild goat, wild sheep, boar, and nilgai were all hunted for food. These are successively replaced by domesticated sheep, goats, and humped zebu cattle by the fifth millennium BC, indicating the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture. Maize and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica; potato in South America, and sunflower in the Eastern Woodlands of North America.
Sumerian farmers grew the cereals barley and wheat, starting to live in villages from about 8,000 BC. Given the low rainfall of the region, agriculture relied on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Irrigation canals leading from the rivers permitted the growth of cereals in large enough quantities to support cities. The first ploughs appear in pictographs from Uruk around 3,000 BC; seed - ploughs that funneled seed into the ploughed furrow appear on seals around 2300 BC. Vegetable crops included chickpeas, lentils, peas, beans, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and mustard. They grew fruits including dates, grapes, apples, melons, and figs. Alongside their farming, Sumerians also caught fish and hunted fowl and gazelle. The meat of sheep, goats, cows and poultry was eaten, mainly by the elite. Fish was preserved by drying, salting and smoking.
The civilization of Ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river 's predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice agriculture on a large scale, starting in the pre-dynastic period from the end of the Paleolithic into the Neolithic, between around 10,000 and 4,000 BC. This was made possible with the development of basin irrigation. Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus.
Cotton was cultivated by the 5th - 4th millennium BC.
Wheat, barley, and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats. Barley and wheat cultivation -- along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goats -- followed in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000 -- 6,000 BC. This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant. Pastoral farming in India included threshing, planting crops in rows -- either of two or of six -- and storing grain in granaries. By the 5th millennium BC, agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4,500 BC. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, leading to more thoroughly planned settlements which used drainage and sewers. Archeological evidence of an animal - drawn plough dates back to 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Records from the Warring States, Qin Dynasty, and Han Dynasty provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture from the 5th century BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide granary system and widespread use of sericulture. An important early Chinese book on agriculture is the Chimin Yaoshu of AD 535, written by Jia Sixia. Jia 's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the time. Jia 's book was also very long, with over one hundred thousand written Chinese characters, and it quoted many other Chinese books that were written previously, but no longer survive. The contents of Jia 's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops. The work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese agronomists, such as Wang Zhen and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313.
For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the hydraulic - powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC. Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also began using the square - pallet chain pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or oxen pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels. Although the chain pump found use in public works of providing water for urban and palatial pipe systems, it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland. By the end of the Han dynasty in the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards. These would slowly spread west, revolutionizing farming in Northern Europe by the 10th century. (Glick, however, argues for a development of the Chinese plough as late as the 9th century, implying its spread east from similar designs known in Italy by the 7th century.)
Asian rice was domesticated 8,200 -- 13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon, in the Pearl River valley region of China. Rice cultivation then spread to South and Southeast Asia.
The major cereal crops of the ancient Mediterranean region were wheat, emmer, and barley, while common vegetables included peas, beans, fava, and olives, dairy products came mostly from sheep and goats, and meat, which was consumed on rare occasion for most people, usually consisted of pork, beef, and lamb. Agriculture in ancient Greece was hindered by the topography of mainland Greece that only allowed for roughly 10 % of the land to be cultivated properly, necessitating the specialized exportation of oil and wine and importation of grains from Thrace (centered in what is now Bulgaria) and the Greek colonies of southern Russia. During the Hellenistic period, the Ptolemaic Empire controlled Egypt, Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cyrenaica, major grain - producing regions that mainland Greeks depended on for subsistence, while the Ptolemaic grain market also played a critical role in the rise of the Roman Republic. In the Seleucid Empire, Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of wheat, while nomadic animal husbandry was also practiced in other parts.
In the Greco - Roman world of Classical antiquity, Roman agriculture was built on techniques originally pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. The Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in Rome can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18 - 88 iugera (one iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium - sized farms were from 80 - 500 iugera (singular iugerum). Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera. The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work by owner and his family; slaves doing work under supervision of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm 's produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.
In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, more than 6,000 years ago. It gradually spread across North America and was the major crop of Native Americans at the time of European exploration. Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of locally domesticated squash and beans, while cocoa, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop. The turkey, one of the most important meat birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.
In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands, also known as "floating gardens ''. The Mayas between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland on the Yucatán Peninsula.
In the Andes region of South America, with civilizations including the Inca, the major crop was the potato, domesticated approximately 7,000 -- 10,000 years ago. Coca, still a major crop to this day, was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC. Animals were also domesticated, including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs.
The indigenous people of the Eastern U.S.A. domesticated numerous crops. Sunflowers, tobacco, varieties of squash and Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including marsh elder and little barley, were domesticated. Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested. The most common varieties of strawberry were domesticated from Eastern North America. Two major crops, pecans and Concord grapes, were utilized extensively in prehistoric times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th century.
The indigenous people in what is now California and the Pacific Northwest practiced various forms of forest gardening and fire - stick farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low - intensity fire ecology which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low - density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild '' permaculture.
A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. Three crops that complemented each other were planted together: winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (typically tepary beans or common beans). The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight, helping prevent the establishment of weeds. The squash leaves also act as a "living mulch ''.
From the time of British colonization of Australia in 1788, Indigenous Australians were characterised as nomadic hunter - gatherers who did not engage in agriculture, despite evidence to the contrary. In 1969, the archaeologist Rhys Jones proposed that Indigenous Australians engaged in systematic burning as a way of enhancing natural productivity, what has been termed fire - stick farming. In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established that the Gunditjmara and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years. The archaeologist Harry Lourandos suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of ' intensification ' in progress across Australia, a process that appeared to have continued through the preceding 5,000 years. These concepts led the historian Bill Gammage to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape.
In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central Australia, forms of early agriculture may have been practiced. People living in permanent settlements of over 200 residents sowed or planted on a large scale and stored the harvested food. The Nhanda and Amangu of the central west coast grew yams (Dioscorea hastifolia), while various groups in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and harvested bush onions (yaua - Cyperus bulbosus), native millet (cooly, tindil -- Panicum decompositum) and a sporocarp, ngardu (Marsillea drumondii).
From 100 BC to 1600 AD, world population continued to grow along with land use, as evidenced by the rapid increase in methane emissions from cattle and the cultivation of rice.
From the 8th century, the medieval Islamic world underwent a transformation in agricultural practice, described by the historian Andrew Watson as the Arab Agricultural Revolution. This transformation was driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural - economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The shift in agricultural practice changed the economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking, diet, and clothing across the Islamic world. Muslim traders covered much of the Old World, and trade enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques across the region, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of Al - Andalus, along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine. Sugar cane, rice, and cotton were among the major crops transferred, along with citrus and other fruit trees, nut trees, vegetables such as aubergine, spinach and chard, and the use of spices such as cumin, coriander, nutmeg and cinnamon. Intensive irrigation, crop rotation, and agricultural manuals were widely adopted. Irrigation, partly based on Roman technology, made use of noria water wheels, water mills, dams and reservoirs.
The Middle Ages saw further improvements in agriculture. Monasteries spread throughout Europe and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The manorial system allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers, in the form of peasants or serfs. During the medieval period, the Arab world was critical in the exchange of crops and technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting numerous crops, they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the plantation system of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation.
By AD 900, developments in iron smelting allowed for increased production in Europe, leading to developments in the production of agricultural implements such as ploughs, hand tools and horse shoes. The carruca heavy plough improved on the earlier scratch plough, with the adoption of the Chinese mouldboard plough to turn over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of northern European forests and an increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population. At the same time, some farmers in Europe moved from a two field crop rotation to a three field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations permitted nitrogen - fixing legumes such as peas, lentils and beans. Improved horse harnesses and the whippletree further improved cultivation.
Watermills were introduced by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with windmills, and used to grind grains into flour, to cut wood and to process flax and wool.
Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen - fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315 -- 17, that the needs of the population could not be met.
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old, while varieties of wheat, barley, rice and turnips traveled from the Old World to the New. There had been few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures. Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, becoming staple foods, replacing native African crops.
After its introduction from South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato became a staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety to the European diet. The increased supply of food reduced disease, increased births and reduced mortality, causing a population boom throughout the British Empire, the US and Europe. The introduction of the potato also brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form of guano imported to Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of an arsenic compound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain had caused repetitive regional and national famines when the crops failed, including 17 major famines in England between 1523 and 1623. The resulting dependence on the potato however caused the European Potato Failure, a disastrous crop failure from disease that resulted in widespread famine and the death of over one million people in Ireland alone.
Between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, Britain saw a large increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four - field crop rotation to maintain soil nutrients, and selective breeding enabled an unprecedented population growth to 5.7 million in 1750, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the Industrial Revolution. The productivity of wheat went up from about 19 bushels per acre in 1720 to around 30 bushels by 1840, marking a major turning point in history.
Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in England in the mid-17th century, from writers such as Samuel Hartlib, Walter Blith and others. The main problem in sustaining agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients, most importantly nitrogen levels, in the soil. To allow the soil to regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and in some places crop rotation was used. The Dutch four - field rotation system was popularised by the British agriculturist Charles Townshend in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and clover), opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year - round. The use of clover was especially important as the legume roots replenished soil nitrates.
The mechanisation and rationalisation of agriculture was another important factor. Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced selective breeding, and initiated a process of inbreeding to maximise desirable traits from the mid 18th century, such as the New Leicester sheep. Machines were invented to improve the efficiency of various agricultural operation, such as Jethro Tull 's seed drill of 1701 that mechanised seeding at the correct depth and spacing and Andrew Meikle 's threshing machine of 1784. Ploughs were steadily improved, from Joseph Foljambe 's Rotherham iron plough in 1730 to James Small 's improved "Scots Plough '' metal in 1763. In 1789 Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies was producing 86 plough models for different soils. Powered farm machinery began with Richard Trevithick 's stationary steam engine, used to drive a threshing machine, in 1812. Mechanisation spread to other farm uses through the 19th century. The first petrol - driven tractor was built in America by John Froelich in 1892.
The scientific investigation of fertilization began at the Rothamsted Experimental Station in 1843 by John Bennet Lawes. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yield and founded one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842. Fertilizer, in the shape of sodium nitrate deposits in Chile, was imported to Britain by John Thomas North as well as guano (birds droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer production was the obtaining of phosphate from the dissolution of coprolites in sulphuric acid.
Dan Albone constructed the first commercially successful gasoline - powered general purpose tractor in 1901, and the 1923 International Harvester Farmall tractor marked a major point in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) with machines. Since that time, self - propelled mechanical harvesters (combines), planters, transplanters and other equipment have been developed, further revolutionizing agriculture. These inventions allowed farming tasks to be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible, leading modern farms to output much greater volumes of high - quality produce per land unit.
The Haber - Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist Fritz Haber. In 1910 Carl Bosch, while working for German chemical company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. In the years after World War II, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population.
In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, water pollution, and farm subsidies. Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation, hydroponics, and the development of economically viable biofuels such as ethanol.
In recent years there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic movement. Famines continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of climactic events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least ten famines between the 1920s and the 1990s.
The historical processes that have allowed agricultural crops to be cultivated and eaten well beyond their centers of origin continues in the present through globalization. On average, 68.7 % of a nation 's food supplies and 69.3 % of its agricultural production are of crops with foreign origins.
The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, between the 1940s and the late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug and credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high - yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.
Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high - yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food.
Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield increases have not occurred in the past 15 -- 20 years. The genetic "yield potential '' has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years ''. It takes only a decade or two for herbicide - resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation.
For most of its history, agriculture has been organic, without synthetic fertilisers or pesticides, and without GMOs. With the advent of chemical agriculture, Rudolf Steiner called for farming without synthetic pesticides, and his Agriculture Course of 1924 laid the foundation for biodynamic agriculture. Lord Northbourne developed these ideas and presented his manifesto of organic farming in 1940. This became a worldwide movement, and organic farming is now practiced in most countries.
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briefly describe the cellular need for a type of enzyme that can relax supercoils | DNA supercoil - wikipedia
DNA supercoiling refers to the over - or under - winding of a DNA strand, and is an expression of the strain on that strand. Supercoiling is important in a number of biological processes, such as compacting DNA, and by regulating access to the genetic code, DNA supercoiling strongly affects DNA metabolism and possibly gene expression. Additionally, certain enzymes such as topoisomerases are able to change DNA topology to facilitate functions such as DNA replication or transcription. Mathematical expressions are used to describe supercoiling by comparing different coiled states to relaxed B - form DNA.
In a "relaxed '' double - helical segment of B - DNA, the two strands twist around the helical axis once every 10.4 -- 10.5 base pairs of sequence. Adding or subtracting twists, as some enzymes can do, imposes strain. If a DNA segment under twist strain were closed into a circle by joining its two ends and then allowed to move freely, the circular DNA would contort into a new shape, such as a simple figure - eight. Such a contortion is a supercoil. The noun form "supercoil '' is often used in the context of DNA topology.
Positively supercoiled (overwound) DNA is transiently generated during DNA replication and transcription, and, if not promptly relaxed, inhibits (regulates) these processes. The simple figure eight is the simplest supercoil, and is the shape a circular DNA assumes to accommodate one too many or one too few helical twists. The two lobes of the figure eight will appear rotated either clockwise or counterclockwise with respect to one another, depending on whether the helix is over - or underwound. For each additional helical twist being accommodated, the lobes will show one more rotation about their axis. As a general rule, the DNA of most organisms is negatively supercoiled.
Lobal contortions of a circular DNA, such as the rotation of the figure - eight lobes above, are referred to as writhe. The above example illustrates that twist and writhe are interconvertible. Supercoiling can be represented mathematically by the sum of twist and writhe. The twist is the number of helical turns in the DNA and the writhe is the number of times the double helix crosses over on itself (these are the supercoils). Extra helical twists are positive and lead to positive supercoiling, while subtractive twisting causes negative supercoiling. Many topoisomerase enzymes sense supercoiling and either generate or dissipate it as they change DNA topology.
In part because chromosomes may be very large, segments in the middle may act as if their ends are anchored. As a result, they may be unable to distribute excess twist to the rest of the chromosome or to absorb twist to recover from underwinding -- the segments may become supercoiled, in other words. In response to supercoiling, they will assume an amount of writhe, just as if their ends were joined.
Supercoiled DNA forms two structures; a plectoneme or a toroid, or a combination of both. A negatively supercoiled DNA molecule will produce either a one - start left - handed helix, the toroid, or a two - start right - handed helix with terminal loops, the plectoneme. Plectonemes are typically more common in nature, and this is the shape most bacterial plasmids will take. For larger molecules it is common for hybrid structures to form -- a loop on a toroid can extend into a plectoneme. If all the loops on a toroid extend then it becomes a branch point in the plectonemic structure. DNA supercoiling is important for DNA packaging within all cells, and seems to also play a role in gene expression.
Based on the properties of intercalating molecules i.e., fluorescing upon binding to DNA and unwinding of DNA base - pairs, recently a single - molecule technique has been introduced to directly visualize individual plectonemes along supercoiled DNA which would further allow to study the interactions of DNA processing proteins with supercoiled DNA. In that study, Sytox Orange (an intercalating dye), has been used to induce supercoiling on surface tethered DNA molecules.
DNA supercoiling is important for DNA packaging within all cells. Because the length of DNA can be thousands of times that of a cell, packaging this genetic material into the cell or nucleus (in eukaryotes) is a difficult feat. Supercoiling of DNA reduces the space and allows for DNA to be packaged. In prokaryotes, plectonemic supercoils are predominant, because of the circular chromosome and relatively small amount of genetic material. In eukaryotes, DNA supercoiling exists on many levels of both plectonemic and solenoidal supercoils, with the solenoidal supercoiling proving most effective in compacting the DNA. Solenoidal supercoiling is achieved with histones to form a 10 nm fiber. This fiber is further coiled into a 30 nm fiber, and further coiled upon itself numerous times more.
DNA packaging is greatly increased during nuclear division events such as mitosis or meiosis, where DNA must be compacted and segregated to daughter cells. Condensins and cohesins are structural maintenance of chromosome (SMC) proteins that aid in the condensation of sister chromatids and the linkage of the centromere in sister chromatids. These SMC proteins induce positive supercoils.
Supercoiling is also required for DNA / RNA synthesis. Because DNA must be unwound for DNA / RNA polymerase action, supercoils will result. The region ahead of the polymerase complex will be unwound; this stress is compensated with positive supercoils ahead of the complex. Behind the complex, DNA is rewound and there will be compensatory negative supercoils. Topoisomerases such as DNA gyrase (Type II Topoisomerase) play a role in relieving some of the stress during DNA / RNA synthesis.
Specialized proteins can unzip small segments of the DNA molecule when it is replicated or transcribed into RNA. But work published in 2015 illustrates how DNA opens on its own.
Simply twisting DNA can expose internal bases to the outside, without the aid of any proteins. Also, transcription itself contorts DNA in living human cells, tightening some parts of the coil and loosening it in others. That stress triggers changes in shape, most notably opening up the helix to be read. Unfortunately, these interactions are very difficult to study because biological molecules morph shapes so easily. In 2008 it was noted that transcription twists DNA, leaving a trail of undercoiled (or negatively supercoiled) DNA in its wake. Moreover, they discovered that the DNA sequence itself effects how the molecule responds to supercoiling. For example, the researchers identified a specific sequence of DNA that regulates transcription speed; as the amount of supercoil rises and falls, it slows or speeds the pace at which molecular machinery reads DNA. It is hypothesized that these structural changes might trigger stress elsewhere along its length, which in turn might provide trigger points for replication or gene expression. This implies that it is a very dynamic process in which both DNA and proteins each influences how the other acts and reacts.
In nature, circular DNA is always isolated as a higher - order helix - upon - a-helix, known as a superhelix. In discussions of this subject, the Watson - Crick twist is referred to as a "secondary '' winding, and the superhelices as a "tertiary '' winding. The sketch at right indicates a "relaxed '', or "open circular '' Watson - Crick double - helix, and, next to it, a right - handed superhelix. The "relaxed '' structure on the left is not found unless the chromosome is nicked; the superhelix is the form usually found in nature.
For purposes of mathematical computations, a right - handed superhelix is defined as having a "negative '' number of superhelical turns, and a left - handed superhelix is defined as having a "positive '' number of superhelical turns. In the drawing (shown at the right), both the secondary (i.e., "Watson - Crick '') winding and the tertiary (i.e., "superhelical '') winding are right - handed, hence the supertwists are negative (- 3 in this example).
The superhelicity is presumed to be a result of underwinding, meaning that there is a deficiency in the number of secondary Watson - Crick twists. Such a chromosome will be strained, just as a macroscopic metal spring is strained when it is either overwound or unwound. In DNA which is thusly strained, supertwists will appear.
DNA supercoiling can be described numerically by changes in the linking number Lk. The linking number is the most descriptive property of supercoiled DNA. Lk, the number of turns in the relaxed (B type) DNA plasmid / molecule, is determined by dividing the total base pairs of the molecule by the relaxed bp / turn which, depending on reference is 10.4; 10.5; 10.6.
Lk is merely the number of crosses a single strand makes across the other. L, known as the "linking number '', is the number of Watson - Crick twists found in a circular chromosome in a (usually imaginary) planar projection. This number is physically "locked in '' at the moment of covalent closure of the chromosome, and can not be altered without strand breakage.
The topology of the DNA is described by the equation below in which the linking number is equivalent to the sum of TW, which is the number of twists or turns of the double helix, and Wr which is the number of coils or ' writhes '. If there is a closed DNA molecule, the sum of Tw and Wr, or the linking number, does not change. However, there may be complementary changes in TW and Wr without changing their sum.
Tw, called "twist '', refers to the number of Watson - Crick twists in the chromosome when it is not constrained to lie in a plane. We have already seen that native DNA is usually found to be superhelical. If one goes around the superhelically twisted chromosome, counting secondary Watson - Crick twists, that number will be different from the number counted when the chromosome is constrained to lie flat. In general, the number of secondary twists in the native, supertwisted chromosome is expected to be the "normal '' Watson - Crick winding number, meaning a single 10 - base - pair helical twist for every 34 Å of DNA length.
Wr, called "writhe '', is the number of superhelical twists. Since biological circular DNA is usually underwound, L will generally be less than Tw, which means that Wr will typically be negative.
If DNA is underwound, it will be under strain, exactly as a metal spring is strained when forcefully unwound, and that the appearance of supertwists will allow the chromosome to relieve its strain by taking on negative supertwists, which correct the secondary underwinding in accordance with the topology equation above.
The topology equation shows that there is a one - to - one relationship between changes in Tw and Wr. For example, if a secondary "Watson - Crick '' twist is removed, then a right - handed supertwist must have been removed simultaneously (or, if the chromosome is relaxed, with no supertwists, then a left - handed supertwist must be added).
The change in the linking number, ΔLk, is the actual number of turns in the plasmid / molecule, Lk, minus the number of turns in the relaxed plasmid / molecule Lk.
If the DNA is negatively supercoiled ΔLk < 0. The negative supercoiling implies that the DNA is underwound.
A standard expression independent of the molecule size is the "specific linking difference '' or "superhelical density '' denoted σ, that represents the number of turns added or removed relative to the total number of turns in the relaxed molecule / plasmid, indicating the level of supercoiling.
The Gibbs free energy associated with the coiling is given by the equation below
The difference in Gibbs free energy between the supercoiled circular DNA and uncoiled circular DNA with N > 2000 bp is approximated by:
or, 16 cal / bp.
Since the linking number L of supercoiled DNA is the number of times the two strands are intertwined (and both strands remain covalently intact), L can not change. The reference state (or parameter) L of a circular DNA duplex is its relaxed state. In this state, its writhe W = 0. Since L = T + W, in a relaxed state T = L. Thus, if we have a 400 bp relaxed circular DNA duplex, L ~ 40 (assuming ~ 10 bp per turn in B - DNA). Then T ~ 40.
Negative supercoils favor local unwinding of the DNA, allowing processes such as transcription, DNA replication, and recombination. Negative supercoiling is also thought to favour the transition between B - DNA and Z - DNA, and moderate the interactions of DNA binding proteins involved in gene regulation.
The topological properties of circular DNA are complex. In standard texts, these properties are invariably explained in terms of a helical model for DNA, but in 2008 it was noted that each topoisomer, negative or positive, adopts a unique and surprisingly wide distribution of three - dimensional conformations.
When the sedimentation coefficient, s, of circular DNA is ascertained over a large range of pH, the following curves are seen. Three curves are shown here, representing three species of DNA. From top - to - bottom they are: "Form IV '' (green), "Form I '' (blue) and "Form II '' (red).
"Form I '' (blue curve) is the traditional nomenclature used for the native form of duplex circular DNA, as recovered from viruses and intracellular plasmids. Form I is covalently closed, and any plectonemic winding which may be present is therefore locked in. If one or more nicks are introduced to Form I, free rotation of one strand with respect to the other becomes possible, and Form II (red curve) is seen.
Form IV (green curve) is the product of alkali denaturation of Form I. Its structure is unknown, except that it is persistently duplex, and extremely dense.
Between pH 7 and pH 11.5, the sedimentation coefficient s, for Form I, is constant. Then it dips, and at a pH just below 12, reaches a minimum. With further increases in pH, s then returns to its former value. It does n't stop there, however, but continues to increase relentlessly. By pH 13, the value of s has risen to nearly 50, two to three times its value at pH 7, indicating an extremely compact structure.
If the pH is then lowered, the s value is not restored. Instead, one sees the upper, green curve. The DNA, now in the state known as Form IV, remains extremely dense, even if the pH is restored to the original physiologic range. As stated previously, the structure of Form IV is almost entirely unknown, and there is no currently accepted explanation for its extraordinary density. About all that is known about the tertiary structure is that it is duplex, but has no hydrogen bonding between bases.
These behaviors of Forms I and IV are considered to be due to the peculiar properties of duplex DNA which has been covalently closed into a double - stranded circle. If the covalent integrity is disrupted by even a single nick in one of the strands, all such topological behavior ceases, and one sees the lower Form II curve (Δ). For Form II, alterations in pH have very little effect on s. Its physical properties are, in general, identical to those of linear DNA. At pH 13, the strands of Form II simply separate, just as the strands of linear DNA do. The separated single strands have slightly different s values, but display no significant changes in s with further increases in pH.
A complete explanation for these data is beyond the scope of this article. In brief, the alterations in s come about because of changes in the superhelicity of circular DNA. These changes in superhelicity are schematically illustrated by four little drawings which have been strategically superimposed upon the figure above.
Briefly, the alterations of s seen in the pH titration curve above are widely thought to be due to changes in the superhelical winding of DNA under conditions of increasing pH. Up to pH 11.5, the purported "underwinding '' produces a right - handed ("negative '') supertwist. But as the pH increases, and the secondary helical structure begins to denature and unwind, the chromosome (if we may speak anthropomorphically) no longer "wants '' to have the full Watson - Crick winding, but rather "wants '', increasingly, to be "underwound ''. Since there is less and less strain to be relieved by superhelical winding, the superhelices therefore progressively disappear as the pH increases. At a pH just below 12, all incentive for superhelicity has expired, and the chromosome will appear as a relaxed, open circle.
At higher pH still, the chromosome, which is now denaturing in earnest, tends to unwind entirely, which it can not do so (because L is covalently locked in). Under these conditions, what was once treated as "underwinding '' has actually now become "overwinding ''. Once again there is strain, and once again it is (in part at least) relieved by superhelicity, but this time in the opposite direction (i.e., left - handed or "positive ''). Each left - handed tertiary supertwist removes a single, now undesirable right - handed Watson - Crick secondary twist.
The titration ends at pH 13, where Form IV appears.
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who plays anthony in sex and the city | Mario Cantone - wikipedia
Mario Cantone (born December 9, 1959) is an American comedian, writer and actor, with numerous appearances on Comedy Central including Chappelle 's Show. He also played Anthony Marentino on Sex and the City. His style is fast - paced and energetic, with much of his humor coming from his impersonations of various characters ranging from his family members, to celebrities, to stereotypes.
Cantone was born in Massachusetts, and raised in Stoneham, where his family moved when he was two. He was the fourth of five children of Mario, Sr., a Boston restaurant owner, and his wife, Elizabeth (née Pescione). His father moved the family to Stoneham, according to Cantone in a 2004 New York Times interview to get her away from her bookie relatives. Cantone stated that the problem "was that she was not only a bookie but she was also a compulsive gambler. '' His mother, who had been a big band singer in her youth, died when he was 21.
Cantone 's first impression was of Julia Child, which he presented in a junior high school talent show. He graduated from Stoneham High School in 1978 and Emerson College in 1982.
He began his professional career hosting a children 's show called Steampipe Alley, which aired on New York - New Jersey superstation WWOR - TV from 1987 to 1993.
In his stand - up concerts, he is known for his occasionally campy impressions of entertainment personalities such as Liza Minnelli, Judy Garland, Bruce Springsteen, Jim Morrison, and Bette Davis as well as for his original songs.
Much of his comedy derives from his boisterous Italian - American family. Cantone, who is gay, has said that he considers himself an actor and comedian who happens to be gay rather than a gay comic relying on gay jokes. "Talking about being gay is a very small part of my show and when I first started I was n't out on stage but I was out off stage, I certainly did n't lie about it on stage but if you did n't know you were an idiot and you lived in a cave after seeing me... really?? ''
Cantone is known for his role in the HBO series Sex and the City as Anthony Marentino, Charlotte York 's gay wedding planner who dispensed advice with a rapid fire delivery.
Cantone made his Broadway debut in 1995, replacing Nathan Lane in the role of Buzz in Terrance McNally 's Tony Award -- winning play, Love! Valour! Compassion! Later that year, he appeared in the revival of The Tempest with Patrick Stewart. Several years later, Cantone did a workshop for The Lion King as Timon but was not comfortable with the makeup or manipulating a puppet and eventually left the project. In 2002, he created and wrote his own one - man show for Broadway, An Evening With Mario Cantone. A year later, Cantone starred as Gidger in Richard Greenberg 's The Violet Hour in a part written specifically for him. The Violet Hour received mixed reviews and closed after 54 performances.
In 2004, Cantone appeared as Samuel Byck in Stephen Sondheim 's musical Assassins. Originally slated for the 2001 Broadway season, Assassins was postponed because of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In 2001, Cantone had turned down the role of Carmen Ghia in Mel Brooks 's The Producers. His other Broadway credits include his second one - man show, Laugh Whore, which ran from October 24, 2004, to January 2, 2005, at the Cort Theatre. Laugh Whore received a Tony Award nomination for Best Special Theatrical Event and an Outer Critics Circle award nomination for Outstanding Solo Performance. Showtime taped the December 11, 2004 performance, which premiered on May 28, 2005. It was the network 's first Broadway production to air as a comedy special.
In September 2010, Cantone appeared in a staged reading of the Charles Messina play A Room of My Own at The Theatre at 45 Bleecker Street in Greenwich Village. As of November 2012, the play was still in development with Cantone in the cast. The Off - Broadway production is expected to begin previews in February 2016.
He has appeared in the Comedy Central roasts of Joan Rivers and fellow Boston - area native and Emerson College alumni, Denis Leary. The network 's Chappelle 's Show featured him in a segment called "Ask A Gay Dude. '' His voice over work includes Sunsilk "hairapy '' advertisements. and the voice of talent scout Mikey Abromowitz in the 2007 computer animated movie Surf 's Up. He has appeared frequently on the Opie and Anthony radio show.
A regular guest on the ABC daytime talk show The View since at least 2003 and a guest co-host since 2005, more regularly since 2014, in August 2013, he was in the news as a rumored replacement for retiring co-host Joy Behar.
Cantone was among the judges of the Miss America 2014 pageant. He appeared on the July 3, 2016, episode of The $100,000 Pyramid as a celebrity guest star.
In October 2011, Cantone married his partner of 20 years, musical theater director Jerry Dixon. The ceremony was officiated by pastor Jay Bakker.
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list of the fast and the furious movies | The Fast and the Furious - Wikipedia
The Fast and the Furious (colloquial: Fast & Furious) is an American media franchise based on a series of action films that is largely concerned with illegal street racing, heists and espionage, and includes material in various other media that depicts characters and situations from the films. Distributed by Universal Pictures, the series was established with the 2001 film titled The Fast and the Furious; this was followed by seven sequels, two short films that tie into the series, and as of May 2017, it has become Universal 's biggest franchise of all time, currently the sixth - highest - grossing film series of all time with a combined gross of over $5 billion.
Paul Walker had wrapped up filming on The Skulls when he was approached by the movie 's director, Rob Cohen, and producer, Neal Moritz and asked Walker what he wanted to do next. He said his dream project would be a mash - up of Days of Thunder and Donnie Brasco. So the filmmakers brought him a Vibe article they 'd found about undercover street racing in New York City. The story was pitched as a remake of Point Break set in the world of underground street racing in Los Angeles and Walker 's character playing a cop who infiltrates the illegal racing world. Walker signed on immediately but the producers decided to give him a strong supporting costar and were impressed with Vin Diesel after watching Pitch Black. The Fast and the Furious exceeded box office expectations and Universal proceeded in developing a sequel again with Paul Walker as the lead. However, they had trouble re-signing Vin Diesel for the sequel as his star power had grown and he and director Rob Cohen left the series to develop the XXX franchise. John Singleton was brought in as the new director, and Tyrese Gibson as Paul Walker 's new costar and shifted the production to Miami. 2 Fast 2 Furious cost more to produce but was less financially successful than the original. For the third movie, The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift, Paul Walker left the franchise citing politics, studio interference and regime decision. Universal then approached Vin Diesel but he was busy with the XXX movies. Since neither of the stars agreed to appear in the movie, Universal rebooted the franchise with new characters, a new director, Justin Lin, moving the series to Tokyo and shifting away from the racing element to the drifting subculture. While the movie was in post-production, Vin Diesel agreed to do a cameo in order for his production company to acquire rights to the Riddick character from Pitch Black. The movie was the least financially successful of the franchise but the Vin Diesel cameo received a very positive reaction from the audience. The studio told Diesel that it planned to use his cameo as a way to relaunch the Dominic storyline. Vin Diesel had made a string of boxoffice flops such as The Chronicles of Riddick, Find Me Guilty and the successful but critically loathed The Pacifier and wanted to reinvigorate his career through the new Fast and Furious movie. Vin Diesel, Universal and Justin Lin tracked down all the original co-stars of the first Fast and Furious movie including Paul Walker, Michelle Rodriguez, and Jordana Brewster to convince them to return to the franchise.
Paul Walker was initially reluctant to rejoin the franchise after 6 years but Vin Diesel assured him that this will be the first true sequel. The popular character of Han was also brought back and given his death in the third movie, the entire timeline of the franchise was altered so that he can be included in further sequels. The 4th movie was a financial success and Universal wanted to continue with further sequels, and Fast Five was developed which shifted the genre away from car racing and into a heist movie, added Dwayne Johnson to the cast and changed the location to Brazil. Fast Five was supposed to wrap up the franchise but given its strong box office performance and high critical praise with some calling it the best movie in the franchise, Universal proceeded to develop the 6th movie. Fast & Furious 6 continued the heist genre and shifted the location to Europe and became the most financially successful film of the franchise up to that time.
Universal lacked a major event movie for the following summer and quickly rushed Furious 7 into production for a release in Summer 2014. Justin Lin decided not to return to direct the seventh film as he was still performing post-production on Fast & Furious 6 and James Wan took over directorial duties. Like Fast 5, Furious 7 is seen as a transitional movie which shifts the franchise from a heist to a spy action movie genre. The untimely death of Paul Walker in a car accident in November 2013 while half way filming Furious 7 forced Universal to major re-shoots, script changes, hiring Weta Digital to use CGI to create Paul 's likeness and ultimately delayed releasing the movie from July 2014 to April 2015. Furious 7 was the most successful film in the franchise and producers decided to retire the Paul Walker character instead of killing him off. However, the toll of directing the movie with additional re-shoots forced Director James Wan not to return to the franchise. F. Gary Gray stepped in to helm the 8th movie, The Fate of the Furious, which was released in April 2017, starting a new trilogy of movies which will end the entire franchise. Originally the 9th movie was supposed to be released April 2019 and followed by the 10th movie in April 2021. However, Universal proceeded to start a spin - off movie with Dwayne Johnson and Jason Statham called Hobbs and Shaw, which now occupies the 2019 release date. This caused tensions between Dwayne Johnson, Vin Diesel and Tyrese as it delayed the release of Fast and Furious 9. Universal later announced that Fast and Furious 9 and 10 will be released back to back on April 2020 and April 2021 to end the franchise with Justin Lin returning to direct both movies.
The film is based on an article, titled "Racer X '', about New York street clubs that race Japanese cars late at night, although the film is set primarily in Los Angeles. While elite street racer and ex-convict Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) and his crew: Jesse (Chad Lindberg), Leon (Johnny Strong), Vince (Matt Schulze) and Letty Ortiz (Michelle Rodriguez), are under suspicion of stealing expensive electronic equipment by hijacking moving trucks, Brian O'Conner (Paul Walker) is an undercover police officer who attempts to find out who exactly is stealing the equipment. He works for FBI agent Bilkins (Thom Barry) and LAPD Sgt. Tanner (Ted Levine).
Falling for Dominic 's younger sister, Mia Toretto (Jordana Brewster), Brian confesses to her his status as an undercover police officer and convinces her to come with him to save her brother and his friends from the truck drivers, who have now armed themselves to combat the robberies. He tracks Dominic 's location by triangulating his cell phone signal and they arrive at the hijacking in progress to find Letty, badly injured in a car accident, and Vince critically wounded, having lacerated his arm and been shot by a truck driver. Brian and Mia work together with Dominic, Leon and Letty to rescue Vince. Brian then makes the difficult decision to blow his cover to the crew by phoning in for a medivac. The revelation enrages Dominic, who flees with Leon, Letty, and Mia as the medivac arrives for Vince.
Brian soon follows Dominic to his house and holds him at gunpoint to prevent him from fleeing further. Jesse arrives shortly afterwards, apologizing for his actions at Race Wars and pleading for Dominic 's help with Johnny Tran (Rick Yune). Moments later, Tran and his cousin Lance Nguyen (Reggie Lee) perform a drive - by shooting, killing Jesse. Brian and Dominic chase them, with Dominic driving his late father 's modified 1970 Dodge Charger. Dominic forces Lance 's motorcycle off the road, severely injuring him, while Brian shoots and kills Tran. Afterwards, Brian and Dominic engage in an impromptu street race, narrowly avoiding a passing train. However, Dominic collides with a semitruck and rolls his car twice, injuring himself, and rendering the Charger undrivable. Instead of arresting him, Brian hands over the keys to his Supra and lets Dominic escape, using the line "I owe you a ten - second car. ''
Watched by undercover Customs Agent Monica Fuentes (Eva Mendes), Brian is caught by US Customs agents and given a deal by FBI Agent Bilkins and Customs Agent Markham (James Remar) to go undercover and try to bring down drug lord Carter Verone (Cole Hauser) in exchange for the erasure of his criminal record. Brian agrees but only if he is given permission to choose his partner, refusing to partner with the agent assigned to watch him. Brian heads home to Barstow, California, where he recruits Roman Pearce (Tyrese Gibson), a childhood friend of Brian who had served jail time and is under house arrest, to help him. Pearce agrees, but only for the same deal Brian was offered, and with the help of Monica, Brian and Roman work together to take down Verone. After acquiring confiscated vehicles and being hired by Verone as his drivers, the duo return to a Customs / FBI hideout, where Roman confronts Markham over the latter 's interference with the mission. After the situation is cooled down, Brian tells Bilkins and Markham that Verone plans to smuggle the money into his private jet and fly off, but also suspects something wrong with Monica 's role in the mission.
Later, Brian and Roman race two of Verone 's drivers for their cars and begin to devise a personal back up plan if the operation goes awry. Roman confronts Brian about his attraction to Monica and the constant threat of Verone 's men. On the day of the mission, Brian and Roman begin transporting duffel bags of Verone 's money, with two of Verone 's men Enrique (Mo Gallini) and Roberto (Roberto Sanchez) riding along to watch Brian and Roman. Before the 15 - minute window is set, the detective in charge, Whitworth (Mark Boone Junior), decides to call in the police to move in for the arrest, resulting in a high - speed chase across the city. The duo lead the police to a warehouse, where a scramble by dozens of street racers disorient the police. Following the scramble, police manage to pull over the Evo and the Eclipse, only to find out that they were driven by two members of Brian 's new crew, friends, Tej Parker (Ludacris) and Suki (Devon Aoki).
As Brian approaches the destination point in a Yenko Camaro, Enrique tells him to make a detour away from the airfield. Meanwhile, Roman gets rid of Roberto by using an improvised ejector seat in his (orange) Dodge Challenger powered by nitrous oxide. At the airfield, Customs Agents have Verone 's plane and convoy surrounded, only to discover they are duped into a decoy maneuver while Verone is at a boatyard several miles away. As he knew Monica was an undercover agent, he gave her the wrong information on the destination point and plans to use her as leverage. When Brian arrives at the intended drop - off point, Enrique prepares to kill him when Roman suddenly appears and the both of them dispatch Enrique. Verone makes his escape aboard his private yacht, but Brian and Roman use the Yenko Camaro and drive off a ramp, crashing on top of the yacht. The duo manage to apprehend Verone and save Monica.
With their crimes pardoned, Brian and Roman ponder on what to do next other than to settle in Miami when the former mentions starting a garage. Roman asks how they would afford that and Brian reveals that he took some of the money, as Roman also reveals that his pockets are n't empty, having taken money for himself.
This film 's story occurs sometime after Fast & Furious 6 with a scene that was later made concurrent with events in Furious 7.
After totaling his car in an illegal street race, Sean Boswell (Lucas Black) is sent to live in Tokyo, Japan, with his father, a U.S. Navy officer, in order to avoid juvenile detention or even jail.
While in school, he befriends Twinkie (Bow Wow), a "military brat '' who introduces him to the world of drift racing in Japan. Though forbidden to drive, he decides to race against Takashi (Brian Tee) aka D.K. (Drift King). He borrows a Nissan Silvia from Han Lue (Sung Kang), now a business partner to Takashi, and loses, totaling the car because of his lack of knowledge of drifting. To repay his debt for the car he destroyed, Sean works for Han. Later on, Han becomes friends with Sean and teaches him how to drift.
Takashi 's uncle Kamata (Sonny Chiba) (the head of the Yakuza) reprimands Takashi for allowing Han to steal from him. Takashi confronts Han, Sean and Neela (Nathalie Kelley), and in doing so, they flee. During the chase, Han is killed in a car accident when his car catches fire. Takashi, Sean, and his father become involved in an armed standoff which is resolved by Neela agreeing to leave with Takashi. Twinkie gives his money to Sean to replace the money Han stole, which Sean then returns to Kamata.
Sean proposes a race against Takashi to determine who must leave Tokyo. Sean and Han 's friends then build a 1967 Ford Mustang, with an inline - 6 engine and other parts salvaged from Han 's Silvia that Sean had destroyed. Sean wins the race and is later challenged by Dominic Toretto.
Fast & Furious, as well as its succeeding films, takes place before the events of The Fast and The Furious: Tokyo Drift.
About five years after the events of the first film, Dominic and his new crew (Letty, Han, Leo, Santos and Cara) have been hijacking fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic. When their trail gets too hot, Dominic disbands the crew. However, he is later informed that Letty has been murdered. Dominic returns to Los Angeles where he finds traces of nitro - methane at the crash site, and tracks the buyer of the gas to David Park. Meanwhile, Brian O'Conner, who has been working as an FBI agent, is tracking down a drug trafficker named Arturo Braga. When Brian and Dominic cross paths at David Park 's apartment, Dominic is about to drop David out the window. But Brian intervenes, and works a scheme where he enters a street race where the winner would join Braga 's team of drivers. Although Dominic wins the four - car race by bumping Brian 's car, Brian later joins the team by replacing one of Braga 's other drivers.
The team meets Fenix Calderon (Laz Alonso) who directs them to drive the heroin across the border using underground tunnels to avoid detection. Brian realizes that the drivers are to be killed following the mission, and when Fenix reveals to Dominic that he killed Letty, Dominic detonates the nitrous in his car, blowing up a bunch of vehicles. In the chaos, Brian hijacks the Hummer that is carrying the heroin. Dominic and Brian drive back to Los Angeles, hiding the heroin in an impound lot. When Dominic learns Brian was the last person to contact Letty, he attacks him until Brian reveals that Letty was working undercover for Brian, tracking down Braga in exchange for clearing Dominic 's name. Brian negotiates with the agency to free Dominic if they can lure Braga into personally coming to exchange the heroin for cash. However, at the drop site, it is revealed that the Braga they arrested was a decoy, and that the real Braga (John Ortiz) has escaped, fleeing to Mexico.
Suspended from duty, Brian joins Dominic to go to Mexico and in hopes of catching Braga. Although Braga agreeably surrenders, they are pursued by Braga 's men through town and then the tunnels. Fenix T - bones Brian 's car right outside the tunnel exit, but before he can kill Brian, Dominic drives into and kills Fenix. As the police arrive, Dominic refuses to escape, saying he is tired of running. Despite Brian 's request for clemency, the judge sentences Dominic to 25 years to life. During the prison bus ride to Lompoc penitentiary, Brian and Mia, along with Leo and Santos, arrive in their cars and intercept the bus.
When Dominic "Dom '' Toretto is being transported to Lompoc Prison by bus, his sister Mia Toretto and friend Brian O'Conner lead an assault on the bus, causing it to crash and freeing Dom. While the authorities search for them, the trio escapes to Rio de Janeiro. Awaiting Dom 's arrival, Mia and Brian join their friend Vince and other participants on a job to steal three cars from a train. Brian and Mia discover that agents from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) are also on the train and that the cars are seized property. When Dom arrives with the rest of the participants, he realizes that the lead participant, Zizi, is only interested in stealing one car - a Ford GT40. Dom has Mia steal the car herself before he and Brian fight Zizi and his henchmen, during which Zizi kills the DEA agents assigned to the vehicles. Dom and Brian are captured and brought to crime lord Hernan Reyes, the owner of the cars and Zizi 's boss. Reyes orders the pair be interrogated to discover the location of the car, but they manage to escape and retreat to their safehouse.
While Brian, Dom, and Mia examine the car to discover its importance, Vince arrives and is caught trying to remove a computer chip from it. He admits he was planning to sell the chip to Reyes on his own, and Dom forces him to leave. Brian investigates the chip and discovers it contains the complete financial details of Reyes ' criminal empire, including the locations of US $100 million in cash.
Diplomatic Security Service agent Luke Hobbs and his team arrive in Rio to arrest Dom and Brian. With the help of local officer Elena Neves, they travel to Dom 's safehouse, but find it under assault by Reyes ' men. Brian, Dom and Mia escape; Dom suggests they split up and leave Rio, but Mia announces she is pregnant with Brian 's child. Dom agrees to stick together and suggests they steal the money from Reyes to start a new life. They organize a team to perform the heist: Han, Roman, Tej, Gisele, Leo, and Santos. Vince later joins the team after saving Mia from being captured by Reyes ' men.
Hobbs and his team eventually find and arrest Dom, Mia, Brian, and Vince. While transporting them to the airport for extradition to the United States, the convoy is attacked by Reyes ' men, who kill Hobbs ' team. Hobbs and Elena are saved by Dom, Brian, Mia, and Vince as they fight back and escape, but Vince is shot in the process and dies. Wanting to avenge his murdered team, Hobbs and Elena agree to help with the heist. The gang break into the police station and tear the vault holding Reyes ' money from the building using their cars, dragging it through the city. After an extensive police chase, Dom makes Brian continue without him while he attacks the police and the pursuing Reyes, using the vault attached to his car to smash their vehicles. Brian returns and kills Zizi while Reyes is badly injured by Dom 's assault. Hobbs arrives on the scene and executes Reyes to avenge his team. Though Hobbs refuses to let Dom and Brian go free, he gives them a 24 - hour head start to escape on the condition they leave the vault as it is. However, the vault is empty as it had been switched during the chase. After splitting the cash (Vince 's share is given to his family), they go their separate ways.
On a tropical beach, Brian and a visibly pregnant Mia relax. They are met by Dom and Elena. Brian challenges Dom to a final, no - stakes race to prove who is the better driver.
In a mid-credits scene, Hobbs is given a file by Monica Fuentes concerning the hijack of a military convoy in Berlin, where he discovers a recent photo of Dom 's former girlfriend Letty, who had been presumed dead.
Following their successful heist in Brazil, Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and his professional criminal crew have fled around the world: Dom lives with Elena; his sister Mia lives with Brian O'Conner and their son, Jack; Gisele and Han live together; and Roman and Tej live in luxury. Meanwhile, DSS agent Luke Hobbs and Riley Hicks investigate the destruction of a Russian military convoy by a crew led by former British SAS Major and special ops soldier Owen Shaw. Hobbs persuades Dom to help capture Shaw by showing him a photo of the supposedly long - dead Letty Ortiz, Dom 's former lover. Dom and his crew accept the mission in exchange for their amnesty, allowing them to return to the United States.
In London, Shaw 's hideout is found, but this is revealed to be a trap, distracting them and the police while Shaw 's crew performs a heist at an Interpol building. Shaw flees by car, detonating his hideout and disabling most of the police, leaving Dom, Brian, Tej, Han, Gisele, Hobbs, and Riley to pursue him. Letty arrives to help Shaw, shooting Dom without hesitation before escaping. Back at their headquarters, Hobbs tells Dom 's crew that Shaw is stealing components to create a deadly device, intending to sell it to the highest bidder. Meanwhile, Shaw 's investigation into the opposing crew reveals Letty 's relationship with Dom, but she is revealed to be suffering from amnesia. Dominic 's crew learns that Shaw is connected to a drug lord who was imprisoned by Brian, Arturo Braga. Brian returns to Los Angeles as a prisoner to question Braga, who says Letty survived the explosion that seemingly killed her; Shaw took her in after discovering her amnesia. With FBI help, Brian is released from prison, regrouping with the team in London.
Dom challenges Letty in a street racing competition; afterwards, he returns her cross necklace he had kept. After Letty leaves, Shaw offers Dom a chance to walk away, threatening to otherwise hurt his family, but Dom refuses. Tej tracks Shaw 's next attack to a Spanish NATO base. Shaw 's crew assaults a highway military convoy carrying a computer chip to complete his deadly device. Dom 's crew interferes while Shaw, accompanied by Letty, commandeers a tank, destroying cars en route. Brian and Roman manage to flip the tank before it causes further damage, resulting in Letty being thrown from the vehicle and Dom risking his life to save her. Shaw and his crew are captured, but reveal Mia has been kidnapped by Shaw. Hobbs is forced to release Shaw, and Riley, revealed to be Shaw 's covert accomplice, leaves with him; Letty chooses to remain with Dom.
Shaw 's group board a large moving aircraft on a runway as Dom 's crew gives chase. Dom, Letty, and Brian board the craft; Brian rescues Mia, escaping in an onboard car. The plane attempts to take - off, but is held down by excess weight as the rest of the team tether the plane to their vehicles. Gisele sacrifices herself to save Han from Shaw 's henchman, who Han kills, Letty kills Riley and escapes to safety, but Dom pursues Shaw and the computer chip. As the plane crashes into the ground, Shaw is thrown from it, seriously injuring him, and Dom drives a car out of the exploding plane. Dom reunites with his crew, and gives the chip to Hobbs to secure their pardons. Dom and the others return to his old family home in Los Angeles. Hobbs and Elena, now working together, arrive to confirm the crew 's freedom; Elena accepts that Dom loves Letty. As Roman says grace over the crew 's meal, Dom asks Letty if the gathering feels familiar; she answers "no, but it feels like home. ''
In a mid-credits scene, which takes place in Tokyo, Han is involved in a car chase when he is suddenly broadsided by an oncoming car. The driver walks away from the scene after leaving Letty 's cross necklace by the crash, and calls Dom as Han 's car fatally explodes, saying, "You do n't know me. You 're about to. ''
After defeating Owen Shaw and his crew and securing amnesty for their past crimes (depicted in Fast & Furious 6), Dominic "Dom '' Toretto, Brian O'Conner and the rest of their team have returned to the United States to live normal lives again. Brian begins to accustom himself to life as a father, while Dom tries to help Letty Ortiz regain her memory. Meanwhile, Owen 's older brother, Deckard Shaw, breaks into the secure hospital that the comatose Owen is being held in and swears vengeance against Dom and his team, before breaking into Luke Hobbs ' Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) office to extract profiles of Dom 's crew. After revealing his identity, Shaw engages Hobbs in a fight, and escapes when he detonates a bomb that severely injures Hobbs. Dom later learns from his sister Mia that she is pregnant again and convinces her to tell Brian. However, a bomb, disguised in a package sent from Tokyo, explodes and destroys the Toretto house just seconds after Han, a member of Dom 's team, is killed by Shaw in Tokyo. Dom later visits Hobbs in a hospital, where he learns that Shaw is a rogue special forces assassin seeking to avenge his brother. Dom then travels to Tokyo to claim Han 's body, and meets and races Sean Boswell, a friend of Han 's who gives him personal items found at Han 's crash site.
Back at Han 's funeral in Los Angeles, Dom notices a car observing them, and after a chase, confronts its driver, who is revealed to be Shaw. Both prepare to fight, but Shaw flees when a covert ops team arrives and opens fire, led by Mr. Nobody. Nobody says that he will assist Dom in stopping Shaw if he helps him obtain God 's Eye, a computer program that uses digital devices to track down a person, and save its creator, a hacker named Ramsey, from a mercenary named Mose Jakande. Dom, Brian, Letty, Roman Pearce, and Tej Parker then airdrop their cars over the Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, ambush Jakande 's convoy, and rescue Ramsey. The team then heads to Abu Dhabi, where a billionaire has acquired the flash drive containing God 's Eye, and manages to steal it from the owner. With God 's Eye near telecommunications repeaters, the team tracks down Shaw, who is waiting at a remote factory. Dom, Brian, Nobody and his team attempt to capture Shaw, but are ambushed by Jakande and his men and forced to flee while Jakande obtains God 's Eye. At his own request, the injured Nobody is left behind to be evacuated by helicopter while Brian and Dom continue without him. To reduce their disadvantage, the crew returns to Los Angeles to fight Shaw, Jakande and his men. Meanwhile, Brian promises Mia that once they deal with Shaw, he will retire and fully dedicate himself to their family.
While Jakande pursues Brian and the rest of the team with a stealth helicopter and an aerial drone, Ramsey attempts to hack into God 's Eye. Hobbs, seeing the team in trouble, leaves the hospital and destroys the drone with an ambulance. Brian engages Jakande 's henchman Kiet and throws him down an elevator shaft, allowing Ramsey to regain control of God 's Eye and shut it down. Dom and Shaw engage in a one - on - one brawl on top of a public parking garage, before Jakande intervenes and attacks them both. Shaw is defeated when part of the parking garage collapses beneath him. Dom then launches his vehicle at Jakande 's helicopter, tossing Shaw 's bag of grenades onto its skids, before injuring himself when his car lands and crashes. Hobbs then shoots the bag of grenades from ground level, destroying the helicopter and killing Jakande. Dom is pulled from the wreckage of his car, believed to be dead. As Letty cradles Dom 's body in her arms, she reveals that she has regained her memories, and that she remembers their wedding. Dom regains consciousness soon after, remarking, "It 's about time ''.
Shaw is taken into custody by Hobbs and locked away in a secret, high - security prison. At a beach, Brian and Mia play with their son while Dom, Letty, Roman, Tej, and Ramsey observe, acknowledging that Brian is better off retired with his family. Dom silently leaves, Ramsey asks if he 's gon na say goodbye. Dom says, "It 's never goodbye. '' He drives away, but Brian catches up with him at a crossroad. As Dom remembers the times that he had with Brian, they bid each other farewell and drive off in separate directions.
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom 's cousin Fernando gets in trouble owing money to local racer Raldo. Sensing Raldo is a loan shark, Dom challenges Raldo to a race, pitting Fernando 's reworked car against Raldo 's, and wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car.
The next day, Dom is approached by the elusive cyberterrorist Cipher who coerces him into working for her. Shortly afterwards, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high - security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, Deckard and Hobbs are recruited by intelligence operative Mr. Nobody and his protégé to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher. Deckard reveals that Cipher had hired his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and Mose Jakande to steal God 's Eye, Ramsey 's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as the latter two attack the base and steal God 's Eye. When Dom questions Cipher 's motives, she reveals that she has been holding hostage Dom 's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves -- as well as their son, of whose existence Dom was previously unaware. Elena tells Dom that she wanted him to decide the child 's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.
In New York City, Cipher sends Dom to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Prior to the theft, Dom briefly evades Cipher - with the help of Raldo - and persuades Deckard and Owen 's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help him. Cipher hacks into the electronics systems of a large number of cars, causing them to drive automatically and taking out the convoy so that Dom can take the football. The team intercepts Dom, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher 's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes execute Elena in front of Dom.
Dom infiltrates a base in Russia to use the EMP device to disable their security and then to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, who attempt to shut down the sub, and then drive out toward the gates that would prevent the sub from leaving into open waters. Meanwhile, Deckard, whose death was apparently faked, teams up with Owen, and under Magdalene 's behest, infiltrates Cipher 's plane to rescue Dom 's son. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena 's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher fires an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts a defeated Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.
Mr. Nobody and his protégé visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large in Athens. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard delivers Dom his son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs. Dom names his son Brian, after his friend and brother - in - law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.
In February 2016, Diesel announced the ninth film and tenth film would be released on April 10, 2020, and April 2, 2021, respectively, and that the tenth film would serve as the final film in the series. Justin Lin is reportedly in line to direct the ninth installment. It was also announced that Jordana Brewster would return for the ninth installment.
In May 2018, Daniel Casey from Kin, was announced to write a screenplay for the ninth film, making it the first film in the franchise since 2 Fast 2 Furious without long - time screenwriter Chris Morgan.
Vin Diesel announced in an interview with Variety that potential spin - offs were in the early stages of development. A spin - off film centered around two characters Luke Hobbs and Deckard Shaw was announced by Universal and set with release date of July 26, 2019, with Variety reporting that Shane Black was being considered to direct and Morgan returning to write the script. The announcement of the spin - off provoked a response on Instagram by Tyrese Gibson, criticizing Johnson for causing the ninth Fast & Furious film to be delayed for another year.
On October 23, 2017, Dwayne Johnson posted a video on Instagram which showed the finished script for the spin - off, titled Hobbs and Shaw. In February 2018, David Leitch entered talks to direct the film, which was confirmed later that April. In March 2018, it was reported that the film would start production in September 2018. In May 2018, the release date of the film was pushed back a week to August 2, 2019. On July 5, 2018, Idris Elba was cast to play the villain.
On April 23, 2018, it was announced that Universal and DreamWorks Animation are creating an animated series based on the franchise that will be launched on Netflix.
The short film was included on a new print of the DVD of the first film in June 2003 to bridge the first two films.
Brian O'Conner packs his bags and leaves Los Angeles, before the LAPD gets a chance to arrest him for letting Dominic escape. While the FBI launch a national manhunt for him, Brian travels across Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, winning every street race he participates in, with his red Dodge Stealth. However, he is forced to ditch his car at a motel in San Antonio when police officers are notified of his presence. When they collect the car, he manages to hitch a ride from an unknown woman (Minka Kelly), despite her knowing who he really is. She drops him at a used car lot, with him realizing she knows that he is a wanted man. There, he buys a green Nissan Skyline GT - R R34. Later, collecting money from street races, he modifies the car with new rims and repaints it silver before traveling eastbound and winning more races on the way. Upon reaching Jacksonville, Florida, Brian heads south toward Miami, where he sees Slap Jack 's Toyota Supra and Orange Julius ' Mazda RX - 7 (both 2 Fast 2 Furious characters) before the screen reads "2 be continued... ''.
Tego Leo (Tego Calderón) is in a Dominican Republic prison, ranting about corporations holding back the electric car and starting wars for oil. Meanwhile, on the streets, Rico Santos (Don Omar) chats to an old man unable to find enough gas. Han Lue (Sung Kang) arrives and is collected from the airport by Cara (Mirtha Michelle) and Malo (F. Valentino Morales). They drive him back to Santos ' house, where his aunt Rubia (Adria Carrasco) is struggling with rising prices linked to the cost of gasoline and Dominic is working on his car. The team then enjoy a welcome meal with the family. After breaking Leo out of prison, they head to a club, where Han and Cara flirt, while Dominic meets up with local politician Elvis (Juan Fernandez), who informs them of a window of opportunity to hijack a gasoline shipment. While relaxing at the club afterwards, Dominic is surprised by the arrival of Letty, who has tracked him from Mexico. The two drive together to the beach, where they "rekindle their relationship ''.
Below is a table of all films, both short and feature length, in chronological order. Real world release dates are also noted.
Universal has incorporated several theme park attractions involving the Fast & Furious franchise. Universal Studios Hollywood and its Studio Tour has featured several of the picture car vehicles. From 2006 to 2013, The Fast and the Furious: Extreme Close - Up attraction was part of the Studio Tour. On June 25, 2015, Universal Studios Hollywood allotted the final portion of their Studio Tour for the dark ride Fast and Furious: Supercharged. Universal Orlando opened a ride of the same name April 23, 2018.
Fast & Furious Live is a live show that combines stunt drivers, pyrotechnics and projection mapping. The show had two preview shows on January 11 -- 12, 2018 at Liverpool 's Echo Arena. It officially began its tour at London 's The O2 Arena on January 19, 2018, followed by a worldwide tour until later in 2018. On March 1, 2018, it was revealed on the tour 's website that five new dates had been released for September.
The following list is sourced from the tour 's website.
The film series has spawned several racing video games for various systems. The arcade game The Fast and the Furious (known as Wild Speed in Japan) was released by Raw Thrills in 2004. In 2006, the video game The Fast and the Furious was released for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable. Several games (The Fast and the Furious: Pink Slip, Fast & Furious, Fast Five, Fast & Furious: Adrenaline, Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy) have all been released for iOS and are available on the iTunes App Store; for Android devices there is an official version of Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy. In 2013, Fast & Furious: Showdown was released for the PC (Windows OS), Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U and Nintendo 3DS. Various cars, locations and characters from the series have also appeared in the Facebook game Car Town. In 2015, in a deal with Microsoft Studios, a standalone expansion of Forza Horizon 2 for Xbox One and Xbox 360 was released titled Forza Horizon 2 Presents Fast & Furious.
Racing Champions released diecast metal replicas of the film 's cars in different scales from 1 / 18 to 1 / 64. RadioShack sold ZipZaps micro RC versions of the cars in 2002. 1 / 24 scale plastic model kits of the hero cars were manufactured by AMT Ertl. Johnny Lightning, under the JL Full Throttle Brand, released 1 / 64th and 1 / 24th models of the cars from Tokyo Drift. These models were designed by Diecast Hall of Fame designer Eric Tscherne. Greenlight has also sold cars from the new films in the series and some from the previous films. Hot Wheels has released 1 / 64 models since 2013.
The Fast and the Furious franchise was filmed in a number of countries including: Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Spain, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and the United States.
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rick ross rather you than me first week sales | Rather You Than Me - wikipedia
Rather You Than Me is the ninth studio album by American rapper Rick Ross. It was released on March 17, 2017, by Maybach Music Group and Epic Records. The album features guest appearances from Raphael Saadiq, Chris Rock, Young Thug, Wale, Future, Jeezy, Yo Gotti, Gucci Mane, Ty Dolla Sign, Nas, Meek Mill, Anthony Hamilton, Scrilla and Dej Loaf. It was supported by two singles: "I Think She Like Me '' and "Trap Trap Trap ''. Rather You Than Me charted at number three on the US Billboard 200, and received positive critical reviews from critics.
The album 's lead single, "I Think She Like Me '', was released on January 26, 2017. The song features a guest appearance from American recording artist Ty Dolla Sign. The music video for the song was released on January 27, 2017.
"Trap Trap Trap '' was first released as the album 's promotional single on March 10, 2017. The song features guest appearances from American rappers Young Thug and Wale. It was later released as the album 's second official single on May 16, 2017.
The album 's first promotional single, "She on My Dick '', was released on March 13, 2017. The song features a guest appearance from American rapper Gucci Mane.
The album 's second promotional single, "Dead Presidents '', was released on March 15, 2017. The song features guest appearances from American rappers Future, Jeezy and Yo Gotti.
Rather You Than Me received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 71, based on nine reviews. Damiem Morris of The Observer said, "The more modish tracks are somehow less inventive than their titles, but there 's much southern - stewed, offbeat beauty elsewhere to compensate. '' Preezy of XXL said, "Nine albums removed from anonymity, Rather You Than Me secures Rick Ross ' slot within the list Top 5 of rap soloists to emerge from the South over the last 20 years, and is among his more cohesive bodies of work to date. '' Jesse Fairfax of HipHopDX said, "Neither timeless nor immediately disposable, Rather You Than Me is an above average outing that displays why he 's steadily remained within the public eye without having a long line of record - breaking hits. '' Steve "Flash '' Juon of RapReviews.com said, "Rick Ross ' Rather You Than Me is fun to listen to. '' Paul A. Thompson of Pitchfork said, "Rather You Than Me is a smooth, enjoyable attempt to wrestle the spotlight back onto his solo work. '' Kellan Miller of Drowned in Sound said, "Overall, Rather You Than Me is another example of Ross ' gift at making albums, even though he litters the radio with corny one liners. ''
Andy Kellman of AllMusic said, "Ross ' mixtures of outrageous fantasy and sobering reality, side - splitting humor, and piercing vengeance, are intermittently as potent as ever. '' Calum Slingerland of Exclaim! said, "It is n't without its flaws, but Rather You Than Me positions Rick Ross as the boss he 's always claimed to be, his raps reinforced by lofty, gold - plated production and added lyrical depth that 's as refreshing as a glass of Belaire Rosé. '' Mosi Reeves of Rolling Stone said, "Musically, he 's drifting through a mid-career malaise. The beats he uses are the same worn poles of yacht - rap luxury and trap bangers that he 's relied on since his 2010 watermark Teflon Don. Lyrically, he 's still capable of speaking truth to power with remarkable clarity. ''
Rather You Than Me debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 with 106,000 album - equivalent units, of which 70,000 were pure album sales.
Notes
Sample credits
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how would it multiplex phone calls onto a single wire | Multiplexing - wikipedia
In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing) is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share a scarce resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the 1870s, and is now widely applied in communications. In telephony, George Owen Squier is credited with the development of telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.
The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel such as a cable. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the communication channel into several logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, extracts the original channels on the receiver end.
A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).
Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break one data stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several communication channels, and recreate the original data stream.
Multiple variable bit rate digital bit streams may be transferred efficiently over a single fixed bandwidth channel by means of statistical multiplexing. This is an asynchronous mode time - domain multiplexing which is a form of time - division multiplexing.
Digital bit streams can be transferred over an analog channel by means of code - division multiplexing techniques such as frequency - hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct - sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
In wireless communications, multiplexing can also be accomplished through alternating polarization (horizontal / vertical or clockwise / counterclockwise) on each adjacent channel and satellite, or through phased multi-antenna array combined with a multiple - input multiple - output communications (MIMO) scheme.
In wired communication, space - division multiplexing, also known as Space - division multiple access is the use of separate point - to - point electrical conductors for each transmitted channel. Examples include an analogue stereo audio cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right channel, and a multi-pair telephone cable, a switched star network such as a telephone access network, a switched Ethernet network, and a mesh network.
In wireless communication, space - division multiplexing is achieved with multiple antenna elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are multiple - input and multiple - output (MIMO), single - input and multiple - output (SIMO) and multiple - input and single - output (MISO) multiplexing. An IEEE 802.11 g wireless router with k antennas makes it in principle possible to communicate with k multiplexed channels, each with a peak bit rate of 54 Mbit / s, thus increasing the total peak bit rate by the factor k. Different antennas would give different multi-path propagation (echo) signatures, making it possible for digital signal processing techniques to separate different signals from each other. These techniques may also be utilized for space diversity (improved robustness to fading) or beamforming (improved selectivity) rather than multiplexing.
Frequency - division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM achieves the combining of several signals into one medium by sending signals in several distinct frequency ranges over a single medium. In FDM the signals are electrical signals. One of the most common applications for FDM is traditional radio and television broadcasting from terrestrial, mobile or satellite stations, or cable television. Only one cable reaches a customer 's residential area, but the service provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers without interference. Receivers must tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.
A variant technology, called wavelength - division multiplexing (WDM) is used in optical communications.
Time - division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog) technology which uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. TDM involves sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one after the other, and in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate receiver. If done sufficiently quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve another logical communication path.
Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 baud, so rather than acquire four individual circuits to carry such a low - speed transmission, the airline has installed a pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 baud modems and one dedicated analog communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are also installed. Some web proxy servers (e.g. polipo) use TDM in HTTP pipelining of multiple HTTP transactions onto the same TCP / IP connection.
Carrier sense multiple access and multidrop communication methods are similar to time - division multiplexing in that multiple data streams are separated by time on the same medium, but because the signals have separate origins instead of being combined into a single signal, are best viewed as channel access methods, rather than a form of multiplexing.
TDM still is a legacy multiplexing technology still providing the backbone of most National fixed line Telephony networks in Europe, providing the 2m / bit voice and signalling ports on Narrow band Telephone exchanges such as the DMS100, System X and AXE10 's. Each E1 or 2m / bit TDM port provides either 30 or 31 speech timeslots in the case of CCITT7 signalling systems and 30 voice channels for customer connected Q931, DASS2, DPNSS, V5 and CASS signalling systems. Each E1 or 2m / bit TDM port utilises 32 time slots, timeslot zero being used for frame alignment, CRC and alarm indication, signalling such as CCITT7 ISUP / IUP is usually carried in timeslot 16 on national interconnects and timeslot 1 for international interconnects, CCITT7 E1 / 2mbit interconnects that are not part of the CCITT7 linkset will have 31 timeslots available for carrying speech or ISDN services. Each E1 / 2mbit TDM port is then multiplexed further using a PDH hierarchy usually 2meg to 8m / bit to 34mbit to 140m / bit and upto 565m / bit, or an SDH hierarchy where a single VC4 will carry 63 E1 2m / bit ports as VC12 's.
Polarization - division multiplexing uses the polarization of electromagnetic radiation to separate orthogonal channels. It is in practical use in both radio and optical communications, particularly in 100 Gbit / s per channel fiber optic transmission systems.
Orbital angular momentum multiplexing is a relatively new and experimental technique for multiplexing multiple channels of signals carried using electromagnetic radiation over a single path. It can potentially be used in addition to other physical multiplexing methods to greatly expand the transmission capacity of such systems. As of 2012 it is still in its early research phase, with small - scale laboratory demonstrations of bandwidths of up to 2.5 Tbit / s over a single light path. This is a controversial subject in the academic community, with many claiming it is not a new method of multiplexing, but rather a special case of space - division multiplexing.
Code division multiplexing (CDM), Code division multiple access (CDMA) or spread spectrum is a class of techniques where several channels simultaneously share the same frequency spectrum, and this spectral bandwidth is much higher than the bit rate or symbol rate. One form is frequency hopping, another is direct sequence spread spectrum. In the latter case, each channel transmits its bits as a coded channel - specific sequence of pulses called chips. Number of chips per bit, or chips per symbol, is the spreading factor. This coded transmission typically is accomplished by transmitting a unique time - dependent series of short pulses, which are placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different code, can be transmitted on the same fiber or radio channel or other medium, and asynchronously demultiplexed. Advantages over conventional techniques are that variable bandwidth is possible (just as in statistical multiplexing), that the wide bandwidth allows poor signal - to - noise ratio according to Shannon - Hartley theorem, and that multi-path propagation in wireless communication can be combated by rake receivers.
A significant application of CDMA is the Global Positioning System (GPS).
A multiplexing technique may be further extended into a multiple access method or channel access method, for example, TDM into time - division multiple access (TDMA) and statistical multiplexing into carrier - sense multiple access (CSMA). A multiple access method makes it possible for several transmitters connected to the same physical medium to share its capacity.
Multiplexing is provided by the Physical Layer of the OSI model, while multiple access also involves a media access control protocol, which is part of the Data Link Layer.
The Transport layer in the OSI model, as well as TCP / IP model, provides statistical multiplexing of several application layer data flows to / from the same computer.
Code - division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique in which each channel transmits its bits as a coded channel - specific sequence of pulses. This coded transmission typically is accomplished by transmitting a unique time - dependent series of short pulses, which are placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different code, can be transmitted on the same fiber and asynchronously demultiplexed. Other widely used multiple access techniques are time - division multiple access (TDMA) and frequency - division multiple access (FDMA). Code - division multiplex techniques are used as an access technology, namely code - division multiple access (CDMA), in Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) standard for the third - generation (3G) mobile communication identified by the ITU.
The earliest communication technology using electrical wires, and therefore sharing an interest in the economies afforded by multiplexing, was the electric telegraph. Early experiments allowed two separate messages to travel in opposite directions simultaneously, first using an electric battery at both ends, then at only one end.
In telephony, a customer 's telephone line now typically ends at the remote concentrator box, where it is multiplexed along with other telephone lines for that neighborhood or other similar area. The multiplexed signal is then carried to the central switching office on significantly fewer wires and for much further distances than a customer 's line can practically go. This is likewise also true for digital subscriber lines (DSL).
Fiber in the loop (FITL) is a common method of multiplexing, which uses optical fiber as the backbone. It not only connects POTS phone lines with the rest of the PSTN, but also replaces DSL by connecting directly to Ethernet wired into the home. Asynchronous Transfer Mode is often the communications protocol used.
Because all the phone (and data) lines have been clumped together, none of them can be accessed except through a demultiplexer. Where such demultiplexers are uncommon, this provides for more - secure communications, though the connections are not typically encrypted.
Cable TV has long carried multiplexed television channels, and late in the 20th century began offering the same services as telephone companies. IPTV also depends on multiplexing.
In video editing and processing systems, multiplexing refers to the process of interleaving audio and video into one coherent data stream.
In digital video, such a transport stream is normally a feature of a container format which may include metadata and other information, such as subtitles. The audio and video streams may have variable bit rate. Software that produces such a transport stream and / or container is commonly called a statistical multiplexer or muxer. A demuxer is software that extracts or otherwise makes available for separate processing the components of such a stream or container.
In digital television and digital radio systems, several variable bit - rate data streams are multiplexed together to a fixed bitrate transport stream by means of statistical multiplexing. This makes it possible to transfer several video and audio channels simultaneously over the same frequency channel, together with various services.
In the digital television systems, this may involve several standard definition television (SDTV) programmes (particularly on DVB - T, DVB - S2, ISDB and ATSC - C), or one HDTV, possibly with a single SDTV companion channel over one 6 to 8 MHz - wide TV channel. The device that accomplishes this is called a statistical multiplexer. In several of these systems, the multiplexing results in an MPEG transport stream. The newer DVB standards DVB - S2 and DVB - T2 has the capacity to carry several HDTV channels in one multiplex. Even the original DVB standards can carry more HDTV channels in a multiplex if the most advanced MPEG - 4 compressions hardware is used.
On communications satellites which carry broadcast television networks and radio networks, this is known as multiple channel per carrier or MCPC. Where multiplexing is not practical (such as where there are different sources using a single transponder), single channel per carrier mode is used.
Signal multiplexing of satellite TV and radio channels is typically carried out in a central signal playout and uplink centre, such as SES Platform Services in Germany, which provides playout, digital archiving, encryption, and satellite uplinks, as well as multiplexing, for hundreds of digital TV and radio channels.
In digital radio, both the Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) Eureka 147 system of digital audio broadcasting and the in - band on - channel HD Radio, FMeXtra, and Digital Radio Mondiale systems can multiplex channels. This is essentially required with DAB - type transmissions (where a multiplex is called a DAB ensemble), but is entirely optional with IBOC systems.
In FM broadcasting and other analog radio media, multiplexing is a term commonly given to the process of adding subcarriers to the audio signal before it enters the transmitter, where modulation occurs. (In fact, the stereo multiplex signal can be generated using time - division multiplexing, by switching between the two (left channel and right channel) input signals at an ultrasonic rate (the subcarrier), and then filtering out the higher harmonics.) Multiplexing in this sense is sometimes known as MPX, which in turn is also an old term for stereophonic FM, seen on stereo systems since the 1960s.
In spectroscopy the term is used to indicate that the experiment is performed with a mixture of frequencies at once and their respective response unravelled afterwards using the Fourier transform principle.
In computer programming, it may refer to using a single in - memory resource (such as a file handle) to handle multiple external resources (such as on - disk files).
Some electrical multiplexing techniques do not require a physical "multiplexer '' device, they refer to a "keyboard matrix '' or "Charlieplexing '' design style:
In high - throughput DNA sequencing, the term is used to indicate that some artificial sequences (often called barcodes or indexes) have been added to link given sequence reads to a given sample, and thus allow for the sequencing of multiple samples in the same reaction.
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when was the united nations declaration of human rights created | Universal Declaration of Human Rights - wikipedia
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.
The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual 's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.
Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of customary international law. However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez - Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law. '' Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of itself part of domestic law.
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles. Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment.
The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles:
These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation.
During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms -- freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want -- as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the human person '' and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion ''.
When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II, the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter 's provisions on human rights.
In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, comprising 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Commission, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.
The Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, to write the articles of the Declaration. The Committee met in two sessions over the course of two years.
Canadian John Peters Humphrey, Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the United Nations Secretary - General to work on the project and became the Declaration 's principal drafter. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat.
Other well - known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, and P.C. Chang of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission.
According to Allan Carlson, the Declaration 's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement 's influence on Cassin and Malik.
Once the Committee finished its work in May 1948, the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights, the Economic and Social Council, the Third Committee of the General Assembly before being put to vote in December 1948. During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States.
British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation. (It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force, giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.)
The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained and Honduras and Yemen failed to vote or abstain.
The meeting record provides firsthand insight into the debate. South Africa 's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated several articles in the Declaration. The Saudi Arabian delegation 's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration 's articles: Article 18, which states that everyone has the right "to change his religion or belief ''; and Article 16, on equal marriage rights. The six communist countries abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism. Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of Soviet bloc countries to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries.
The 48 countries which voted in favour of the Declaration are:
8 countries abstained:
2 countries did n't vote:
Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later, which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote, and in no way reflects opposition to the universal principles.
The Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year on December 10, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year - long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us ''.
In 1948, the UN Resolution A / RES / 217 (III) (A) adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French, and official translations in Chinese, Russian and Spanish. In 2009, the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world 's "Most Translated Document '' (370 different languages and dialects). The Unicode Consortium stores 431 of the 503 official translations available at the OHCHR (as of June 2017).
In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.
For the first time in international law, the term "the rule of law '' was used in the preamble of the Declaration. The third paragraph of the preamble of the Declaration reads as follows: "Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law. ''
While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words "fundamental freedoms '' and "human rights '' appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community '' to all persons. The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, and many more. The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and constitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights.
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it "an international document of the first order of importance '', while Eleanor Roosevelt -- first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration -- stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere. '' In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time '' but the Vatican never adopted the Declaration. In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community. ''
Turkey -- which was a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population -- signed the Declaration in 1948. However, the same year, Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration, claiming that it violated Sharia law. Pakistan -- which had signed the declaration -- disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position. Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor of including freedom of religion. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie - Khorassani, said that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo - Christian tradition '' which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia. On 30 June 2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah '', without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations ''.
Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties. For example, Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan 's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article 3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR. Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women 's rights.
A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration 's alleged Western bias. These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Riffat Hassan, and Faisal Kutty. Hassan has argued:
What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality '' of the assumptions on which it is based is -- at the very least -- problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.
Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive) ethics.
Kutty writes: "A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home... It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights. ''
Ironically, a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014 are among the most resistant to UN intervention in domestic affairs, played an invaluable role in the creation of the Declaration, with countries such as Syria and Egypt having been strong proponents of the universality of human rights and the right of countries to self - determination.
Groups such as Amnesty International and War Resisters International have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill '' to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from -- but not yet explicit in -- Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.
Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit, but -- to date (2017) -- those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents. Sean MacBride -- Assistant Secretary - General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate -- has said: "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is ' The Right to Refuse to Kill '. ''
The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process. The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which would be unfair to countries outside of that scope. They further argued that the West 's history of colonialism and evangelism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism: "1. The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences '', "2. Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered '', and "3. Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole. ''
During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments ' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights -- in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.
The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any government, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators, musicians, and producers created a 20 - minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration. The video was to bring to life the Declaration 's 30 articles.
Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the "Fire Up! '' event.
The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (UUSC) is a non-profit, nonsectarian organization whose work around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It works to provide disaster relief and promote human rights and social justice around the world.
The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a Curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
In 1997, the council of the American Library Association (ALA) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Along with Article 19, Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights. Censorship, the invasion of privacy, and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA.
In response to violations of human rights, the ALA asserts the following principles:
The American Library Association condemns any governmental effort to involve libraries and librarians in restrictions on the right of any individual to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. Such restrictions, whether enforced by statutes or regulations, contractual stipulations, or voluntary agreements, pervert the function of the library and violate the professional responsibilities of librarians.
The American Library Association rejects censorship in any form. Any action that denies the inalienable human rights of individuals only damages the will to resist oppression, strengthens the hand of the oppressor, and undermines the cause of justice.
The American Library Association will not abrogate these principles. We believe that censorship corrupts the cause of justice, and contributes to the demise of freedom.
Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth, an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa, where she witnessed firsthand the devastating effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights. The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights, specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and inspire them to become advocates for tolerance and peace. YHRI has now grown into a global movement, including hundreds of groups, clubs and chapters around the world.
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how many battles did the confederacy win in the civil war | Texas in the American Civil War - wikipedia
The U.S. state of Texas declared its secession from the United States of America on February 1, 1861, and joined the Confederate States on March 2, 1861, after it replaced its governor, Sam Houston, when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. As with those of other States, the Declaration was not recognized by the United States government at Washington. Some Texan military units fought in the Civil War east of the Mississippi River, but Texas was most useful for supplying soldiers and horses for Confederate forces. Texas ' supply role lasted until mid-1863, after which time Union gunboats controlled the Mississippi River, making large transfers of men, horses or cattle impossible. Some cotton was sold in Mexico, but most of the crop became useless because of the Union naval blockade of Galveston, Houston, and other ports.
In the late winter of 1860, Texan counties sent delegates to a special convention to debate the merits of secession. The convention adopted an "Ordinance of Secession '' by a vote of 166 to 8, which was ratified by a popular referendum on February 23.
Separately from the Ordinance of Secession, which was considered a legal document, Texas also issued a declaration of causes spelling out the rationale for declaring secession. The document specifies several reasons for secession, including its solidarity with its "sister slave - holding States, '' the U.S. government 's inability to prevent Indian attacks, slave - stealing raids, and other border - crossing acts of banditry. It accuses northern politicians and abolitionists of committing a variety of outrages upon Texans. The bulk of the document offers justifications for slavery saying that remaining a part of the United States would jeopardize the security of the two. The declaration includes this extract praising slavery, in which the Union itself is referred to as the "confederacy '':
We hold as undeniable truths that the governments of the various States, and of the confederacy itself, were established exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity; that the African race had no agency in their establishment; that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their existence in this country be rendered beneficial or tolerable.
At this time, African Americans comprised 30 percent of the state 's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. According to one Texan, keeping them enslaved was the primary goal of the state in joining the Confederacy:
Independence without slavery, would be valueless... The South without slavery would not be worth a mess of pottage.
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, public opinion in the cotton states of the Lower South (South Carolina through Texas) swung in favor of secession. By February 1861, the other six states of the sub-region had separately passed ordinances of secession. However, events in Texas were delayed, largely due to the resistance of Southern Unionist governor, Sam Houston. Unlike the other "cotton states '' ' chief executives, who took the initiative in secessionist efforts, Houston refused to call the Texas Legislature into special session to consider the question, relenting only when it became apparent citizens were prepared to act without him.
In early December 1860, before South Carolina even seceded, a group of State officials published via newspaper a call for a statewide election of convention delegates on January 8, 1861. This election was highly irregular, even for the standards of the day. It often relied on voice vote at public meetings, although "viva voce '' (voice) voting for popular elections had been used since at least March 1846, less than three months after statehood. Unionists were often discouraged from attending or chose not to participate. This resulted in lopsided representation of secessionists delegates.
The election call had stipulated for the delegates to assemble in convention on January 28. Houston called the Legislature into session, hoping that the elected body would declare the unauthorized convention illegal. On January 21, 1861, the Legislature met in Austin and was addressed by Houston. Calling Lincoln 's election "unfortunate, '' he nonetheless emphasized, in a reference to the upcoming meeting of the secession convention, it was no justification for "rash action ''. However, the Texas Legislature voted the delegates ' expense money and supplies and -- over Houston 's veto -- made a pledge to uphold the legality of the Convention 's actions. The only stipulation was that the people of Texas have the final say in referendum.
With gubernatorial forces routed, the Secession Convention convened on January 28 and, in the first order of business, voted to back the legislature 140 -- 28 in that an ordinance of secession, if adopted, be submitted for statewide consideration. The following day, convention president Oran Roberts introduced a resolution suggesting Texas leave the Union. The ordinance was read on the floor the next day, citing the failures of the federal government to protect the lives and property of Texas citizens and accusing the Northern states of using the same as a weapon to "strike down the interests and prosperity '' of the Southern people.
After the grievances were listed, the ordinance repealed the one of July 4, 1845, in which Texas approved annexation by the United States and the Constitution of the United States, and revoked all powers of, obligations to, and allegiance to, the U.S. federal government and the U.S. Constitution.
In the interests of historical significance and posterity, the ordinance was written to take effect on March 2, the date of Texas Declaration of Independence (and, coincidentally, Houston 's birthday).
On February 1, members of the Legislature, and a huge crowd of private citizens, packed the House galleries and balcony to watch the final vote on the question of secession. Seventy "yea '' votes were recorded before there was a single "nay. '' One of the negative votes is enshrined in Texas history books. James Webb Throckmorton, from Collin County in North Texas, in response to the roar of hisses and boos and catcalls which greeted his decision, retorted, "When the rabble hiss, well may patriots tremble. '' Appreciating his style, the crowd afforded him a grudging round of applause (like many Texans who initially opposed secession, Throckmorton accepted the result and served his state, rising to the rank of brigadier - general in the Confederate army).
The final tally for secession was 166 -- 7, a vote whose legality was upheld by the Texas Legislature on February 7. Other than in South Carolina, where the vote was unanimous, this was the highest percentage of any other state of the Lower South. On February 7, the Legislature ordered a referendum to be held on the ordinance under the direction of the convention. The decision was further affirmed on February 23 when a statewide referendum resulted in Texas voters approving the measure, 46,129 to 14,697.
The last order of business was to appoint a delegation to represent Texas in Montgomery, Alabama, where their counterparts from the other six seceding states were meeting to form a new Confederacy. On March 4, the convention assembled again to formally declare Texas out of the Union and to approve the "Constitution of the Confederate States of America '', which had been drawn up by its "Provisional Congress '' (as it turned out, Texas had already been admitted into the fold on March 1).
In March, George Williamson, the Louisianan state commissioner, addressed the Texan secession convention, where he called upon Texas and the slave states of the U.S. to declare secession from the Union in order to continue the institution of slavery:
With the social balance wheel of slavery to regulate its machinery, we may fondly indulge the hope that our Southern government will be perpetual... Louisiana looks to the formation of a Southern confederacy to preserve the blessings of African slavery...
Governor Sam Houston accepted secession but asserted that the Convention had no power to link the state with the new Southern Confederacy. Instead, he urged that Texas revert to its former status as an independent republic and stay neutral. Houston took his seat on March 16, the date state officials were scheduled to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. He remained silent as his name was called out three times and, after failing to respond, the office of governor was declared vacant and Houston was deposed from office.
After Texas passed its Ordinance of Secession, the state government appointed four men as "Commissioners of Public Safety '' to negotiate with the federal government for the safe transfer of military installations and bases in Texas to the Confederates. Along with land baron Samuel A. Maverick and Thomas J. Devine, Dr. Philip N. Luckett met with U.S. Army General David E. Twiggs on February 8, 1861, to arrange the surrender of the federal property in San Antonio, including the military stores being housed in the old Alamo mission.
As a result of the negotiations, Twiggs delivered his entire command and its associated Army property (10,000 rifled muskets) to the Confederacy, an act that brought cries of treason from Unionists throughout the state. Almost immediately, Twiggs was dismissed from the U.S. Army by President Buchanan for "treachery to the flag of his country. '' Shortly afterwards, he accepted a commission as general in the Confederate Army but was so upset by being branded a traitor that he wrote a letter to Buchanan stating the intention to call upon him for a "personal interview '' (then a common euphemism to fight a duel). Future Confederate general Robert E. Lee, then still a colonel in the U.S. Army, was in San Antonio at the time and when he heard the news of the surrender to Texas authorities, responded, "Has it come so soon as this? ''
Despite the prevailing view of the vast majority of the state 's politicians and the delegates to the Secession Convention, there were a significant number of Texans who opposed secession. The referendum on the issue indicated that some 25 % favored remaining in the Union at the time the question was originally considered.
The largest concentration of anti-secession sentiment was among the German Texan population in the Texas Hill Country, and in some of the counties of North Texas. In the latter region, most of the residents were originally from states of the Upper South. Some of the leaders initially opposed to secession accepted the Confederate cause once the matter was decided, some withdrew from public life, others left the state, and a few even joined the Union army. Confederate conscription laws forced most men of military age into the Confederate army, regardless of their sentiment. However, at least 2000 Texans joined the Union ranks.
Many Unionists were executed. Conscription into the Confederate Army was unacceptable to many Unionists and some attempted to flee from Texas. Capt. James Duff, Confederate provost marshal for the Hill Country, executed two Unionists, prompting flight. In August 1862, Confederate soldiers under Lt. Colin D. McRae tracked down a band of German Texans headed out of state and attacked their camp in a bend of the Nueces River. After a pitched battle that resulted in the deaths of two Confederates and the wounding of McRae and eighteen of his men, the Unionists were routed. Approximately 19 Unionists were killed in the fighting. After the battle 9 to 11 of the wounded Unionists were murdered with shots to the head in what became known as the Nueces massacre. Another nine Unionists were pursued and executed in the following weeks. Future Republican congressman Edward Degener was the father of two men who were murdered in the massacre. The German population around Austin County, led by Paul Machemehl, was successful in reaching Mexico.
In October 1862, approximately 150 settlers in and around Cooke County on the Red River were arrested by the 11th Texas Cavalry led by Colonel William C. Young on the orders of Colonel James Bourland, Confederate Provost Marshal for northern Texas. A court was convened in Gainesville to try them for allegedly plotting to seize the arsenals at Sherman and Gainesville and to kill their Confederate neighbors, seize their property, and to cooperate with Union army forces poised to invade northern Texas from Arkansas and / or Indian Territory. Several of the settlers were hanged in what is now downtown Gainesville during the first week of October. Nineteen additional men were found guilty and hanged before the end of the month. A total of about forty Unionists were hanged in Gainesville, two were shot while trying to escape, and two more were hanged elsewhere after being turned over to a military tribunal. Under the primitive conditions on the Texas frontier during the Civil War, evidence against the accused was questionable, and the legal proceedings were highly imperfect. A granite monument in a small park marks the spot where the hangings took place.
The Confederacy 's conscription act proved controversial, not only in Texas but all across the South. Despite the referendum result, some opponents argued that the war was being fought by poor people on behalf of a few wealthy slave owners. The Act exempted from the draft men who owned fifteen or more slaves. Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent; many of the latter went to Mexico. Potential draftees went into hiding, Confederate officials hunted them down, and many were shot or captured and forced into the army.
Sam Houston was the premier Southern Unionist in Texas. While he argued for slave property rights and deplored the election of the Lincoln Administration, he considered secession unconstitutional and thought secession at that moment in time was a "rash action '' that was certain to lead to a conflict favoring the industrial and populated North. He predicted: "Let me tell you what is coming. After the sacrifice of countless millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, you may win Southern independence if God be not against you, but I doubt it. I tell you that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of states rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery, impulsive people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move in a given direction, they move with the steady momentum and perseverance of a mighty avalanche; and what I fear is, they will overwhelm the South. ''
Houston rejected the actions of the Texas Secession Convention, believing it had overstepped its authority in becoming a member state of the newly formed Confederacy. He refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy and was deposed from office. In a speech he wrote, but did not deliver, he said:
Fellow - Citizens, in the name of your rights and liberties, which I believe have been trampled upon, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the nationality of Texas, which has been betrayed by the Convention, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the Constitution of Texas, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of my own conscience and manhood, which this Convention would degrade by dragging me before it, to pander to the malice of my enemies, I refuse to take this oath. I deny the power of this Convention to speak for Texas... I protest... against all the acts and doings of this convention and I declare them null and void.
After his ouster from the governor 's office, Houston maintained a low public profile until his death in July 1863. Before he died, Houston wrote a friend: "There comes a time a man 's section is his country... I stand with mine. I was a conservative citizen of the United States... I am now a conservative citizen of the Southern Confederacy. ''
Over 70,000 Texans served in the Confederate army and Texas regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war. Some men were veterans of the Mexican -- American War; a few had served in the earlier Texas Revolution. The state furnished the Confederacy with 45 regiments of cavalry, 23 regiments of infantry, 12 battalions of cavalry, 4 battalions of infantry, 5 regiments of heavy artillery, and 30 batteries of light artillery. The state maintained at its own expense some additional troops that were for home defense. These included 5 regiments and 4 battalions of cavalry, and 4 regiments and one battalion of infantry. In 1862 the Confederate Congress in Richmond, Virginia, passed a conscription law that ordered all men from 18 to 45 years of age to be placed into military service except ministers, state, city, county officers, and certain slave owners; all persons holding 20 slaves or more were exempt from Confederate conscription under the "Twenty Negro Law ''.
When the first companies of Texas soldiers reached Richmond, Virginia, Confederate President Jefferson Davis greeted them with the words: "Texans! The troops of other states have their reputations to gain, but the sons of the defenders of the Alamo have theirs to maintain. I am assured that you will be faithful to the trust. ''
"The Texas Brigade '' (also known as "Hood 's Brigade '') was a unit composed of the 1st, 4th and 5th Texas infantry regiments augmented at times by the 18th Georgia Infantry and Hampton 's (South Carolina) Legion until they were permanently teamed with the 3rd Arkansas Infantry. Often serving as "shock troops '' of General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia, the Texas Brigade was "always favorites '' of General Lee and on more than one occasion Lee praised their fighting qualities, remarking that none had brought greater honor to their native state than "my Texans. '' Hood 's men suffered severe casualties in a number of fights, most notably at the Battle of Antietam, where they faced off with Wisconsin 's Iron Brigade, and at Gettysburg, where they assaulted Houck 's Ridge and then Little Round Top.
"Walker 's Greyhound Division '' was a division composed of four brigades with Texan units; the only division in the Confederate States Army that maintained its single - state composition throughout the War. Formed in 1862 under command of Major General John George Walker it fought in the Western Theater and the Trans - Mississippi Department, and was considered an elite backbone of the army. Detached from the division in 1863, the 4th brigade fought at the Battle of Arkansas Post, where it became isolated and was forced to surrender. A new fourth brigade was added the division in 1865.
Among the most famous mounted units were Terry 's Texas Rangers, a militia of former rangers and frontiersmen, many of whom later became peacekeepers in the Old West; and the 33rd Texas Cavalry Regiment of Colonel Santos Benavides, which guarded the Confederate cotton trade lines from Texas into northern Mexico.
Over 2,000 Texas men joined the Union Army. Notable among them was future Texas governor Edmund J. Davis who initially commanded the Union Army 's 1st Texas Cavalry and rose to the rank of brigadier general.
Texas 's relatively large German population around Austin County led by Paul Machemehl tried to remain neutral in the War but eventually left Confederate Texas for Mexico. East Texas gave the most support to secession, and the only East Texas counties in which significant numbers of people opposed secession were Angelina County, Fannin County, and Lamar County, although these counties supplied many men to Texas regiments, including the 9th Texas Infantry Regiment; the 1st Partisan Rangers; 3rd, 4th, 9th, 27th, and 29th Texas Cavalry; and the 9th Texas Field Battery.
In 1862, Abraham Lincoln named a former United States Congressman, Andrew J. Hamilton, as the Military Governor of Texas. Hamilton held the title throughout the War. During the early stages of Reconstruction Hamilton was named as the first provisional civilian governor. For a time thereafter, active - duty U.S. Army officers served as military governors of Texas.
Years into the war, one Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that "we are fighting for our property '', whereas Union soldiers were fighting for the "flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo ''.
Texas did not experience many significant battles. However, the Union mounted several attempts to capture the "Trans - Mississippi '' regions of Texas and Louisiana from 1862 until the war 's end. With ports to the east captured or under blockade, Texas in particular became a blockade - running haven. Referred to as the "backdoor '' of the Confederacy, Texas and western Louisiana continued to provide loads of harvested cotton that were transported overland to the Mexican border town of Matamoros, Tamaulipas and shipped to Europe in exchange for supplies. Determined to shut off this trade, the Union mounted several attacks, each of them unsuccessful.
The U.S. Navy blockaded the principal seaport, Galveston, for four years, and federal infantry occupied the city for three months in late 1862. Confederate troops under Gen. John B. Magruder recaptured the city on January 1, 1863 and it remained in Confederate hands until the end of the war. A few days later the Confederate raider CSS Alabama attacked and sank the USS Hatteras in a naval engagement off the coast of Galveston.
A few other cities also fell to Union troops at times during the war, including Port Lavaca, Indianola, and Brownsville. Federal attempts to seize control of Laredo, Corpus Christi, and Sabine Pass failed. By the end of the war no territory but Brazos Island and El Paso was in Union hands. The California Column occupied the region around El Paso from 1862 to the end of the war.
The most notable military battle in Texas during the war happened on September 8, 1863. At the Second Battle of Sabine Pass, a small garrison of 46 Confederates from the mostly - Irish Davis Guards under Lt. Richard W. Dowling, 1st Texas Heavy Artillery, defeated a much larger Union force from New Orleans under Gen. William B. Franklin. Skilled gunnery by Dowling 's troops disabled the lead ships in Franklin 's flotilla, prompting the remainder -- 4,000 men on 27 ships -- to retreat back to New Orleans. This victory against such overwhelming odds resulted in the Confederate Congress passing a special resolution of recognition, and the only contemporary military decoration of the South, the Davis Guard Medal. CSA President Jefferson Davis stated, "Sabine Pass will stand, perhaps for all time, as the greatest military victory in the history of the world. ''
In 1864, many Texas forces, including a division under Camille de Polignac, a French prince and Confederate general, moved into Northwestern Louisiana to stall Union Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks ' Red River Campaign, which was intended to advance into Texas from its eastern border. Confederate forces halted the expedition at the Battle of Mansfield, just east of the Texas border.
Union forces from Brazos Island launched the Brazos Santiago Expedition, leading to the last battle of the Civil War, the Battle of Palmito Ranch, fought in Texas on May 12, 1865, well after Robert E. Lee 's surrender on April 9, 1865, at Old Appomattox Court House, Virginia.
In the spring of 1865, Texas contained over 60,000 soldiers of the Army of the Trans - Mississippi under General Edmund Kirby Smith. As garrison troops far removed from the main theaters of the war, morale had deteriorated to the point of frequent desertion and thievery. News of the surrender of Lee and other Confederate generals east of the Mississippi finally reached Texas around April 20. Local Confederate authorities had mixed opinions on their future course of action. Most senior military leaders vowed to press on with the war, including commanding general Kirby Smith. Many soldiers, however, greeted frequent speeches whose theme was "fight on, boys '' with derision, or simply failed to attend them.
The month of May brought increasing rates of desertion. News of Joseph E. Johnston 's and Richard Taylor 's surrenders confirmed that Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas were now essentially alone to continue the Confederate cause. On May 14, troops in Galveston briefly mutinied, but were persuaded to remain under arms. However, morale continued to sink. Generals John B. Magruder and Kirby Smith (who had already corresponded with Union Maj. Gen. John Pope regarding surrender terms on May 9) no longer sought to rally their demoralized troops, but rather began discussing the distribution of Confederate government property. Magruder pleaded that the rapid disbanding of the army would prevent depredations by disgruntled soldiers against the civilian population.
The haste to disband the army, combined with the pressing need to protect Confederate property from Union confiscation, created general mayhem. Soldiers began openly pillaging the Galveston quartermasters stores on May 21. Over the next few days, a mob demanded that a government warehouse be opened to them, and soldiers detained and plundered a train. Several hundred civilians sacked the blockade runner Lark when it docked on May 24, and troops sent to pacify the crowd soon joined in the plunder. On May 23, residents in Houston sacked the ordnance building and the clothing bureau. Riots continued in the city until May 26. Both government and private stores were raided extensively in Tyler, Marshall, Huntsville, Gonzales, Hempstead, La Grange, and Brownsville. In Navasota, a powder explosion cost eight lives and flattened twenty buildings. In Austin, the State Treasury was raided and $17,000 in gold was stolen. By May 27, half of the original confederate forces in Texas had deserted or been disbanded, and formal order had disappeared into lawlessness in many areas of Texas.
The formal remnants of Kirby Smith 's army had finally disintegrated by the end of May. Upon his arrival in Houston from Shreveport, the general called a court of inquiry to investigate the "causes and manner of the disbandment of the troops in the District of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. '' The May 30 findings laid the blame primarily on the civilian population. Kirby Smith addressed his few remaining soldiers and condemned those that had fled for not struggling to the last and leaving him "a commander without an army -- a General without troops. '' On June 2, he formally surrendered what was left of the Army of the "Trans - Mississippi ''.
Federal troops did not arrive in Texas to restore order until June 19, 1865, when Union Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger and 2,000 Union soldiers arrived on Galveston Island to take possession of the state and enforce the new freedoms of former slaves. The Texas holiday Juneteenth commemorates this date. The Stars and Stripes were not raised over Austin until June 25.
President Andrew Johnson appointed Union General Andrew J. Hamilton, a prominent politician before the war, as the provisional governor on June 17. He granted amnesty to ex-confederates if they promised to support the Union in the future, appointing some to office. On March 30, 1870, the United States Congress permitted Texas ' representatives to take their seat in Congress, although Texas did not meet all the formal requirements for readmission.
A number of notable leaders were associated with Texas during the Civil War. John Bell Hood gained fame as the commander of the Texas Brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia and played a prominent role as an army commander late in the war. "Sul '' Ross was a significant leader in a number of "Trans - Mississippi '' Confederate armies. Felix Huston Robertson was the only native Texan Confederate general. Capt. TJ Goree was one of Lt. General James Longstreet 's most trusted aides. John H. Reagan was an influential member of Jefferson Davis 's cabinet. Col. Santos Benavides was a Confederate colonel during the American Civil War. Benavides was the highest - ranking Tejano soldier to serve in the Confederate military.
The office of Governor of Texas was in flux throughout the war, with several men in power at various times. Sam Houston was governor when Texas seceded from the United States, but refused to declare any loyalty to the new Confederacy. He was replaced by Lieutenant Governor Edward Clark. Clark filled the rest of Houston 's term in 1861, and narrowly lost re-election by just 124 votes to Francis Lubbock. During his tenure, Lubbock supported Confederate conscription, working to draft all able - bodied men, including resident aliens, into the Confederate army. When Lubbock 's term ended in 1863, he joined the military. Ardent secessionist Pendleton Murrah replaced him in office. Even after Robert E. Lee surrendered in 1865, Murrah encouraged Texans to continue the revolution, and he and several supporters fled to Mexico.
Although one of the original members of the Confederate States of America, much of Texas was not settled until after the Civil War. However, Confederate Heroes Day is an official state holiday, and the month of April is recognized by the Texas Senate as Confederate History Month. Although not an official holiday, April 26 is, among Southern historical organizations within the state, often observed as "Confederate Memorial Day. '' On the south lawn of the state capitol in Austin is a Confederate monument, and several other memorials to individual Texas Confederate military units are nearby. In addition, most Texas county courthouse grounds feature a Confederate memorial. Texas ' largest city, Houston, features a monument to the Confederacy at its oldest city park, Sam Houston Park, titled "Spirit of the Confederacy. '' It was sculpted in bronze by Louis Amateis in 1908.
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which of the following would not be allowed to take a seat in the senate | Rod Blagojevich corruption charges - wikipedia
Accused
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Federal Investigation
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In December 2008, then - Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich and his Chief of Staff John Harris were charged with corruption by federal prosecutor Patrick Fitzgerald. As a result, Blagojevich was impeached by the Illinois General Assembly and removed from office by the Illinois Senate in January 2009. The federal investigation continued after his removal from office and he was indicted on corruption charges in April 2009. The jury found him guilty of one charge of making false statements with a mistrial being declared on the other 23 counts due to a hung jury after 14 days of jury deliberation. On June 27, 2011, after a retrial, Blagojevich was found guilty of 17 charges (including wire fraud, attempted extortion, and conspiracy to solicit bribes), not guilty on one charge and the jury deadlocked after 10 days of deliberation on the two remaining charges. On December 7, 2011, Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in prison.
The investigation became public knowledge when a federal judge revealed that Blagojevich was the "Public Official A '' in the indictment of Tony Rezko. The case gained widespread attention with the simultaneous arrests of Blagojevich and his chief of staff, John Harris, on December 9, 2008, at their homes by federal agents. Blagojevich and Harris were each charged with one count of conspiracy to commit mail and wire fraud and one count of soliciting bribes. The case involved sweeping pay to play and influence peddling allegations, including the alleged solicitation of personal benefit in exchange for an appointment to the United States Senate as a replacement for Barack Obama, who had resigned after being elected President of the United States (see bribery). United States Attorney Patrick Fitzgerald noted that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing by Obama.
After the arrest, Illinois elected officials began calling on Blagojevich to resign. The 50 members of the U.S. Senate 's Democratic caucus called on Blagojevich to not appoint a senator and pledged not to seat anyone he attempted to appoint. Legislators introduced bills in both houses of the Illinois General Assembly to remove the Governor 's power to appoint a senator and require a special election; however, no such bill passed. Blagojevich did eventually appoint Roland Burris to the seat. Despite attempts to keep Burris from taking the seat in the U.S. Senate, he was eventually allowed to take the oath of office. Within days of Blagojevich 's arrest, Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan filed a motion with the Illinois Supreme Court seeking to declare the Governor "unable to serve '' and strip him of the powers of his office. The court denied the request. Meanwhile, Speaker of the Illinois House of Representatives Mike Madigan (the Attorney General 's father) announced that on December 16 he would begin impeachment proceedings. The state House impeached Blagojevich on January 9, 2009, and the state Senate convicted him on January 29, thereby removing him; they also disqualified him from holding further office in the state.
Blagojevich had been under investigation for corrupt activity for four years, as part of a broader federal investigation by Fitzgerald, code - named Operation Board Games, that had been going on for three years. To date, 15 people have been charged in connection with the investigation. Blagojevich had long been suspected to be a target of the investigation, but it was confirmed by U.S. District Judge Amy St. Eve that he was the "Public Official A '' referred to in the federal indictment of Tony Rezko. Just before the 2008 U.S. general elections, federal investigators were granted authority to tape Blagojevich 's conversations. On December 8, 2008, in a press conference, Blagojevich claimed, "whether you tape me privately or publicly, I can tell you that whatever I say is always lawful and the things I 'm interested in are always lawful. '' He further stated that "if anybody wants to tape my conversations, go right ahead, feel free to do it. I appreciate anybody who wants to tape me openly and notoriously; and those who feel like they want to sneakily, and wear taping devices, I would remind them that it kind of smells like Nixon and Watergate. '' After a meeting between Blagojevich and Jesse Jackson Jr. regarding the Senate seat, when asked his thoughts on being the subject of federal tapings, Blagojevich stated that he "(did n't) believe there 's any cloud that hangs over (him) '' that he "(though) there 's nothing but sunshine hanging over (him). ''
Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich and his Chief of Staff John Harris were arrested at their homes at 6: 15 a.m. on December 9, 2008 by deputies of the United States Marshals Service on behalf of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Blagojevich and Harris were each charged with one count of conspiracy to commit mail and wire fraud and one count of soliciting bribes. The case involved sweeping pay to play and influence peddling allegations, including the alleged solicitation of personal benefit in exchange for an appointment to the United States Senate as a replacement for Barack Obama when the latter resigned after being elected U.S. President. United States Attorney Patrick Fitzgerald noted that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing by Obama. The cases are part of a broader federal investigation by Fitzgerald code - named Operation Board Games that had been going on for three years in which 15 people have been charged by Fitzgerald.
Before the scandal, Blagojevich considered himself as a contender for the 2016 presidential election, but was willing to pursue an interim position as a Cabinet member, United States ambassador, or a high profile corporate titan instead. The governor viewed his statutory power to appoint a replacement for Obama in the U.S. Senate as convertible currency of the form that could assure this future. Soon after the Presidential election, it became very clear to Fitzgerald from his wiretaps that a sale of the Senate seat was imminent; Fitzgerald immediately pressed for Blagojevich 's arrest. After the arrest, the prosecution began proceedings to obtain an indictment from a grand jury; this process was granted an extension to April 7, 2009.
A federal grand jury in Illinois returned an indictment against Blagojevich and five other defendants on April 2, 2009. Blagojevich is the seventh Illinois Governor to have been arrested or indicted; and became the fourth, following Dan Walker, who has been jailed since 1971. As well as the allegations concerning the Senate seat, Blagojevich has also been charged with:
In June 2009, it was determined by the judge overseeing the case that the Blagojevich trial would start on June 3, 2010. In the wake of the scandal, reform measures are being proposed. Wisconsin Senator Russell Feingold, who then served as the chairman of the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary 's Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights and Property Rights, had stated that he would introduce a constitutional amendment requiring vacant Senate seats be filled by special elections, as the House of Representatives requires; however, nothing ever came of it.
Fraud involving the appointment of a senator to fill the Senate seat vacated by Barack Obama is the most notable charge against Blagojevich. Blagojevich was overheard on a recorded phone call saying "I 've got this thing, and it 's f * * king golden. I 'm just not giving it up for f * * king nothing. '' He was also recorded as saying, "it 's af * * king valuable thing, you just do n't give it away for nothing '', and that "If I do n't get what I want... I 'll just take the Senate seat myself. ''
Blagojevich allegedly sought the following in exchange for an appointment:
Following Blagojevich 's arrest, Richard Durbin, the United States Senator for Illinois who had served alongside Obama, issued a statement regarding the prospective gubernatorial appointment to replace Barack Obama in the Senate: "No appointment by this governor, under these circumstances, could produce a credible replacement ''. Durbin urged the Illinois General Assembly to quickly set a special election to replace Obama. Durbin noted that Illinois has a need to call a 2009 House of Representatives special election to replace then - Representative and White House Chief of Staff - designate Rahm Emanuel in Illinois 's 5th congressional district. Both Illinois Senate President Emil Jones and Michael Madigan, Speaker of the Illinois House of Representatives, stated that they would call a session of their respective chambers to consider legislation to establish a special election to fill the Obama Senate seat vacancy. Bills were introduced in both houses that would have revoked the Governor 's statutory authority to appoint a senator, and would have required a special election instead. Neither house debated the bills, nor were they enacted.
In the midst of the controversy, on December 31, 2008, Blagojevich appointed Roland Burris, a former Illinois Attorney General and the first African American to be elected to statewide office in Illinois, to the vacated Senate seat. Blagojevich stated that, per the Illinois state constitution, he had sole authority to make such an appointment and that it was his duty to ensure Illinois was fully represented in the Senate. Illinois Secretary of State Jesse White refused to certify Burris ' selection for the vacant Senate seat.
Senate leaders argued that Senate Rule 2 requires a senator - designate 's credentials to be signed by the state 's governor and secretary of state. On January 6, when the 111th United States Congress opened its session, the Secretary of the United States Senate Nancy Erickson rejected Burris 's credentials because White had not signed the certificate of appointment. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid ordered that Burris be turned away from the Senate. The lone Democrat to show support for Burris ' nomination was Chair of the United States Senate Committee on Rules and Administration Dianne Feinstein, who recognized the propriety of the appointment based on the statutory authority of the Illinois Governor. On January 7, Burris met with Reid and Durbin, the two ranking Senate leaders who stated their support was conditional upon Burris both obtaining the signature of the Illinois secretary of state and testifying under oath before Illinois House of Representatives committee investigating impeachment.
On January 8, Burris testified before the Illinois House committee that he had engaged in no wrongdoing in order to procure the nomination by the Governor. The following day the Illinois Supreme Court ruled that the prevailing statutes do not mandate the signature of the Secretary of State to validate the Governor 's appointment. Further, the court ruled that the only necessary act by the Secretary of State was the registration of the appointment in Illinois 's official records, which Jesse White had performed on December 31, 2008. The Illinois Supreme Court ruled that the US Senate 's recommended certification form are not required to be used by Illinois and its Secretary of State. The court further ruled that the form of certificate contained in Rule 2 of the Standing Rules of the United States Senate was a recommended form and noted that "no explanation has been given as to how any rule of the Senate, whether it be formal or merely a matter of tradition, could supersede the authority to fill vacancies conferred on the states by the federal constitution. ''
After the court 's ruling, White provided Burris with a certified copy, which bears the Seal of the State of Illinois, of the appointment 's registration, which Burris delivered to the Secretary of the Senate. On January 12, 2009, after deeming Burris ' credentials valid, the Senate decided to seat Burris. Burris was sworn in on January 15, 2009, by President of the Senate Dick Cheney.
Burris filed an affidavit with the Illinois House committee that oversaw Governor Blagojevich 's impeachment, dated February 5, to supplement his earlier answer to a question posed by the committee. Burris acknowledged Rob Blagojevich requested "assistance in fund - raising '' for the governor three times in the weeks and months before Blagojevich appointed Burris. Burris said he told Rob Blagojevich that he could not donate to Gov. Blagojevich because "it could be viewed as an attempt to curry favor with him regarding his decision to appoint a successor to President Obama. '' Burris stated that he neither donated to nor raised funds for Blagojevich after a fund - raiser on June 27, 2008. Saying that this is at odds with Burris ' testimony during the impeachment trial, Illinois House Republicans said they would consider pursuing a perjury investigation. Democratic officials, including Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan, supported that announcement.
On February 16, in comments to reporters, Burris acknowledged he sought to raise campaign funds for then - Gov. Rod Blagojevich at the request of the governor 's brother at the same time he was making a pitch to be appointed to the Senate. Burris is accused of lying during his January 8 testimony to the Illinois House of Representatives and the United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics has opened a preliminary investigation into the matter. Illinois Speaker of the House Mike Madigan has forwarded materials for review in the Illinois state capital and expulsion from the United States Senate is considered a possibility even though only 15 persons have previously been expelled, most recently in 1862. Expulsion would require a simple majority vote by the committee and a two - thirds supermajority vote by the full Senate. In the subsequent days, records came out that showed Burris to have misrepresented a list of his lobbying clients. The series of controversies prompted Durbin to refer to it as the embarrassing "Blagojevich burlesque '' and he mentioned that a resignation might relieve the situation. Illinois Governor Quinn called a press conference to request a resignation for the good of the Illinois citizens. Several Democrats called for Burris ' resignation; the Obama Administration asked that he reconsider his future, and a pair of employees resigned from Burris ' staff. On February 21, Burris met with federal authorities regarding his involvement in the matter.
Durbin requested a meeting with Burris on February 24 to discuss the disclosures. Durbin told reporters that during the meeting he advised him to resign: "I told him under the circumstances that I would consider resigning ''. Burris stated that he would not do so. "He said he would not resign. '' Durbin also inquered about Burris ' plans for the 2010 United States Senate elections and relayed to Burris that he would be very unlikely to succeed in the primary or general election. Quinn endorsed a special election to replace Burris, but there was vocal and procedural resistance in the Illinois General Assembly. On February 25, Lisa Madigan confirmed the constitutionality of moving forward a direct election for the seat formerly held by Obama to a targeted May 26 date. The following day, a story unfolded involving Burris ' son who obtained a $75,000 job under Rod Blagojevich on September 10 as a senior counsel for the state 's housing authority -- about six weeks after the Internal Revenue Service placed a $34,163 tax lien on Burris II and three weeks after a mortgage company filed a foreclosure suit on his South Side house.
Blagojevich was aware that Barack Obama would have preferred "Senate Candidate # 1 '' (Valerie Jarrett), and he allegedly made efforts to obtain favors in exchange for appointing Jarrett for the U.S. Senate seat. Blagojevich said in a conversation with his chief of staff, in reference to what Obama would give him in exchange for Jarrett 's appointment, "All they 're going to give me in return is gratitude. The Senate seat 's af * * ing valuable thing. F * * k them. '' There was public speculation as to whether Obama 's Chief of Staff, Rahm Emanuel had a role in any discussions with the governor 's office. An internal investigation by the Obama team stated that Emanuel had communicated with the Governor 's office about who might be appointed to the Obama seat, but nothing unethical or inappropriate had transpired.
On December 10, Obama called for Blagojevich 's resignation.
In a December 11 press conference, Obama stated that he, his staff and his transition team were not involved in any corrupt activity, and that his staff had been exonerated by the 76 - page FBI affidavit. He stated that, not only had he never engaged the governor on the topic of his Senate seat, but he was "confident that no representative of mine would have any part in any deals related to this seat ''. His administration compiled a summary of who might have known what at various times. Obama stated that he did not think Blagojevich could "effectively serve the people of Illinois '' and that his former Senate seat "belongs to the people ''. He also stated that to his knowledge, no representatives of his had engaged in any dealmaking with the governor.
-- Rod Blagojevich
On December 15, the Obama team confirmed that its internal review found no inappropriate contact between Obama 's staff and Blagojevich or his staff, stating "that review affirmed the public statements of the president - elect that he had no contact with the governor or his staff over the selection of his successor as U.S. president - elect 's staff was not involved in inappropriate discussions with the governor or his staff over the selection of his successor as U.S. Senator ''.
In April 2010, Blagojevich moved to subpoena Obama.
Calls for Resignation from Prominent Democrats
Calls for Resignation from Prominent Republicans
After his arrest, Governor Blagojevich appeared before U.S. Magistrate Judge Nan R. Nolan, in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, and was released on a $4,500 signature bond. He was also ordered to surrender his passport and his firearm owner 's identification card. He then returned to work where his office issued a statement saying the "allegations do nothing to impact the services, duties or function of the State ''.
Had he pleaded guilty to the charges, Blagojevich would have been automatically forced to resign as the Illinois Constitution does not allow convicted felons to hold office.
On December 11, 2008, John Fritchey, a Democratic member of the Illinois House of Representatives, circulated a letter to the Illinois House Democratic Caucus to outline options for moving beyond the crisis caused by the criminal allegations against Blagojevich. In the letter, Fritchey mentioned the scenarios to replace Governor Blagojevich:
On December 13 and 14, Blagojevich 's attorney Ed Genson, at hearings by the Illinois House of Representatives ' Special Committee on Impeachment, stated that the Governor would not resign.
Blagojevich faced calls from members of both major parties and prominent politicians to resign. On December 9, Lieutenant Governor Pat Quinn said in a news conference that Blagojevich should temporarily step aside from his office. On December 10, he went further and called for Blagojevich to resign, and also raised questions about his mental health. The state 's other top elected officials -- Attorney General Lisa Madigan, Comptroller Dan Hynes, Treasurer Alexi Giannoulias and Secretary of State Jesse White -- also called for Blagojevich to resign.
Outgoing Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean also called for the governor to step down.
On December 10, 2008, the Democratic Caucus of the United States Senate called for Blagojevich to resign and demanded that he not appoint a replacement for Obama. The letter also mentioned that, if Blagojevich appointed a successor to Obama in the U.S. Senate, the U.S. Senate would be "forced to exercise (its) Constitutional authority under Article I, Section 5, to determine whether such a person should be seated ''. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid indicated that the Senate might not seat a Blagojevich appointment because such an appointee "would be under a cloud of suspicion ''.
Illinois ' remaining Senator, Majority Whip Dick Durbin, urged the state legislature to quickly set a special election to fill Obama 's vacant Senate seat, saying that any appointment by Blagojevich would not be legitimate.
Illinois Senate Minority Leader Frank Watson, Illinois Congressman John Shimkus, and many Illinois state legislators from both parties also called for Blagojevich to resign.
House Speaker Madigan felt it would be inappropriate to make a statement calling for a resignation or a statement supporting an impeachment because he would have to preside over any impeachment debate.
On December 19, 2008, at the Thompson Center, Blagojevich said he "has done nothing wrong '' and would not resign as governor in the face of federal corruption charges. He added that he would "answer (all questions) in the appropriate forum: in a court of law '', where he believed he would be "vindicated '', vowing to fight "false accusations and a political lynch mob. '' He proceeded to quote from Rudyard Kipling 's poem, If --. After reading the prepared statement, Blagojevich exited the room and did not take any questions.
On December 12, 2008, Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan began legal proceedings in the Illinois Supreme Court to have Blagojevich declared "unfit to serve '' in case he did not resign.
Madigan filed a motion with the Illinois Supreme Court asking it to temporarily suspend Blagojevich 's powers by declaring him unable to serve and name Lieutenant Governor Quinn as acting governor. Failing that, Madigan sought a temporary injunction barring Blagojevich from appointing a replacement for Obama. She said that given the nature of the charges, the situation was too severe to wait for the legislature to act. The Supreme Court, however, in orders without opinions, denied Madigan leave to file the complaint and it denied the motion for temporary relief.
According to the FBI affidavit, Blagojevich attempted to have Chicago Tribune writers fired for discussing his possible impeachment. Jan Schakowsky, a Democrat representing Illinois 's 9th congressional district, called for impeachment proceedings to begin should Blagojevich not resign promptly.
On December 15, the sixth day after the scandal broke with no resignation by the Governor, the Illinois House voted unanimously 113 -- 0 to begin impeachment proceedings. This was the first impeachment inquiry against an Illinois Governor. Also, on December 15, Illinois House Speaker Michael Madigan formed a bipartisan committee of inquiry within the House of Representatives.
It is my intention to appoint a special committee to begin immediately an investigation into the governor 's conduct in office and to undertake the preparatory work that is a prerequisite to an impeachment proceeding in the Illinois House
Madigan further stated, "We have given the governor six days to resign. '' He also stated that the committee would work every day except Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, New Year 's Eve, and New Year 's Day until they had completed their report. The Illinois House would decide whether to impeach after the committee completed its review. The Illinois Senate would then have a trial to remove the Governor from office. Illinois House Majority Leader Barbara Flynn Currie was the chairperson of the Special Committee on Impeachment.
Madigan stated the impeachment committee would consider the pending criminal charges as well as review other possible wrongdoing during Blagojevich 's term such as abuse of power, taking action without legal authority, ignoring state laws, and defying lawful requests for information from the General Assembly. Currie further stated that among the controversial actions under review by the committee would be the Blagojevich administration 's purchase of a flu vaccine that was never distributed and his unilateral decision to send a $1 million grant to a private school that was damaged when the historic Pilgrim Baptist Church was destroyed by fire. She also warned that the panel 's interest in investigating alleged criminal activities surrounding Blagojevich might be affected by how much cooperation was forthcoming from federal investigators, which was supported by a formal written request to Prosecutor Fitzgerald. On December 30, Fitzgerald filed a motion to allow the impeachment committee to hear the conversations recorded by wiretap during his federal investigation.
On January 8, after the testimony by Roland Burris, the 21 - member bipartisan committee on impeachment voted unanimously to recommend that the House impeach the Governor. The following day, the full House voted 114 -- 1 to impeach the governor. The lone dissenter was Chicago - area Representative Milton Patterson; three other representatives abstained. After the Illinois House impeached Blagojevich, the Illinois Senate held a trial at which Illinois Supreme Court Chief Justice Thomas R. Fitzgerald presided. Under the Illinois Constitution, Fitzgerald rather than Senate President John Cullerton, presided because the accused was the governor.
Blagojevich was the sixteenth governor in the United States and the first Illinois governor to be impeached. Seven of the fifteen impeached governors were removed from office.
The article of impeachment alleged a pattern of conduct constituting abuse of power, including the events described in the criminal complaint and several instances of ignoring Illinois law in his use of executive power. In particular it accused Blagojevich of engaging in a conduct constituting a pattern of abuse of power. Among the misdeeds were the following:
On January 14, the new session of the Illinois House of Representatives convened and voted to affirm the impeachment vote of the prior session with only Blagojevich 's sister - in - law Deborah Mell dissenting.
The impeachment trial in the Illinois State Senate began on January 26, 2009. Blagojevich boycotted attending his own hearings, referring to them as a kangaroo court. Neither the governor nor his lawyer was present in Springfield, Illinois on the first day of the trial. Blagojevich spent the day in New York City making media appearances on a myriad of shows including Good Morning America and The View. In his absence, a "not guilty '' plea was automatically entered on his behalf. On the same day, in a cable television news interview with Geraldo Rivera, Blagojevich derided the whole process. Lead attorney Ed Genson announced that he was withdrawing from representing Blagojevich, saying "I never require a client to do what I say, but I do require them to at least listen. '' Blagojevich was in New York again the next day continuing an apparent attempt to upstage the hearings with eleven media appointments at places such as The Early Show, and the Associated Press. Blagojevich insisted that unlike Richard Nixon who did not want his tapes heard during Watergate, he wanted his tapes heard in order to reveal the whole truth, which he felt would vindicate him.
On January 27, Federal prosecutors played four recordings from among the thousands of intercepted calls from Blagojevich 's home and campaign offices. Although lawmakers trying to build an impeachment case wanted to hear more, the prosecutors feared further collaboration could jeopardize the criminal case against the governor. The recordings played at the impeachment trial were taped in November and December and revealed efforts by Blagojevich to collect money from a horse track owner in exchange for signing legislation benefiting the racing industry, prosecutors said. State Senator Dan Cronin said hearing the recordings "hits me right here in the stomach. It sort of reminds me of some Hollywood movie or a couple of thugs in a car driving around. '' Daniel Cain, an FBI agent who investigated Blagojevich for years, also testified on January 27 and answered questions that did not extend to information not presented in the affidavit.
On January 28, Blagojevich requested the opportunity to deliver his own closing arguments, although he would not testify or submit himself to cross-examination. The Senate allowed Blagojevich to file an appearance late, enabling him to make a 90 - minute closing argument.
The following day, January 29, the prosecution delivered a 40 - minute closing argument. Blagojevich then delivered his 47 - minute closing arguments in defense. Among Blagojevich 's statement were continuing reminders that he believed the process to be tainted because it did not allow him to call witnesses or challenge the evidence (although, as the Chicago Tribune reported two days earlier, the process did in fact allow the governor to call witnesses and challenge the evidence, but Blagojevich had done neither by the deadline). The prosecution then made a 12 - minute rebuttal. Blagojevich did not remain in the Statehouse for the prosecution 's rebuttal speech or the vote on his impeachment. After giving his closing statement, Blagojevich immediately left Springfield to return to his Chicago home aboard an official state aircraft. Had Blagojevich remained in Springfield for his impeachment, he would have been immediately ineligible to be transported on state aircraft as he would no longer be Governor -- he would have been stranded in Springfield, responsible for his own transportation home.
After a recess, the Senate debated the vote on the article of impeachment. Under the Illinois Constitution, a two - thirds majority, or 41 votes out of 59, was required to convict him on the article of impeachment. After several hours of deliberations, Rod Blagojevich was convicted and removed from office by a unanimous vote of 59 -- 0. State Senator Mike Frerichs then moved that Blagojevich be banned from ever holding office in Illinois again. This motion carried, also by a unanimous vote of 59 -- 0. Shortly after the vote, the lieutenant governor, Pat Quinn was sworn in as the new Governor. Although Blagojevich is disqualified from running for any Government of Illinois office, he is eligible to run for federal office such as his old congressional seat.
During the federal investigation leading up to the arrest, the Federal Bureau of Investigation used wire taps at both the Governor 's campaign offices and his home phone.
Rather than identifying subject individuals by name, the FBI affidavit used aliases to refer to people not necessarily accused of any crimes including the six people Blagojevich was considering appointing to the Senate seat vacated by Barack Obama.
The affidavit said that a representative of Senate Candidate 5 had proposed having the candidate raise up to $1 million for Blagojevich 's campaign in exchange for being appointed to the Senate.
ABC News reported that federal law enforcement officials identified Jesse Jackson, Jr. as Senate Candidate 5. Jackson, who was asked for an interview by federal agents, denied that anyone on his behalf had offered anything for the Senate seat. Jackson claimed not to be a target of an investigation, but admitted to being questioned. Also WLS - TV reported December 15 that Jackson notified investigators that Blagojevich refused to appoint Jackson 's wife, Sandi, as state lottery director because Jackson refused to donate $25,000 to the governor 's campaign fund.
The affidavit says that Blagojevich knew "that the President - elect want (ed) Senate Candidate 1 for the Senate seat '', but Blagojevich was upset that "they 're not willing to give me anything except appreciation, so f * * k them ''. The Washington Post identified Senate Candidate 1 as Valerie Jarrett.
Other prospects for the Senate seat, including Rep. Danny Davis and Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan, said that they had not been contacted by federal authorities. Madigan confirmed that she is Senate Candidate 2 in the indictment. An anonymous source described Louanner Peters as being Senate Candidate 4.
On December 10, 2008, Illinois Deputy Governor Bob Greenlee resigned, with his lawyer saying the reason for the resignation should be obvious. Reportedly, Greenlee was the colleague who advised Blagojevich to pursue the cabinet position of Secretary of Energy because it was the one that "makes the most money ''. Deputy Governor A is also named as the person who supposedly attempted to coerce the Chicago Tribune on Blagojevich 's behalf. Schakowsky, Luis Gutierrez, Jones. and Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs Director Tammy Duckworth were also reportedly under consideration.
The 76 - page FBI affidavit included extensive detail of various acts by the governor including a November 10 call between Blagojevich, Harris, his wife, and a group of advisers in which Harris had formulated an agreement with the Service Employees International Union. Harris proposed that Blagojevich would appoint a new senator who would be helpful to the president in exchange for a job as head of the union - formed group Change to Win. The union would receive an unspecified favor from Obama later under the plan.
On April 2, 2009, a federal grand jury issued a 19 count indictment; 16 of which named Rod Blagojevich, including racketeering conspiracy, wire fraud, extortion, conspiracy, attempted extortion, and making false statements to federal agents. Prosecutors amended the indictment on February 4, 2010, in anticipation of a U.S. Supreme Court ruling on the so - called "Honest Services '' law.
Four of his closest advisors were also indicted on various crimes:
If convicted, the former governor faced up to 20 years in prison on the most serious counts. On July 27, 2010, the final arguments concluded, and the jury began its deliberations.
On Wednesday, August 11, 2010, after eleven days of deliberations (during the course of which they sent Judge James Zagel two notes requesting guidance and instructions) the jury sent the judge a third, rather vague, note (which Rod Blagojevich was summoned to court to hear). The note appeared to state that the jurors may be deadlocked (raising the possibility of a hung jury) on at least some, if not all, the counts.
Judge Zagel advised the jurors that they could find the former governor guilty on some (perhaps lesser) charges while finding him not guilty of others. The judge scheduled a hearing so that he, the defendants and their defense team, and prosecutors could receive further clarification on the matter. He also forbade both sides from discussing the matter further until it had been clarified and resolved.
The ex-governor and his family learned of the indictment while they were vacationing in Florida, near Disney World. Through his publicist, the ex-governor stated, "I 'm saddened and hurt, but I am not surprised by the indictment. I am innocent. I now will fight in the courts to clear my name. ''
Blagojevich 's successor, Gov. Pat Quinn responded, "The events of Dec 9 and the events of today underline for the people of Illinois that there is a serious crisis of integrity in our government, and I think it 's very, very important that we the people confront this crisis, enact the reforms that will solve the problems and make sure they never happen again. ''
A Reform Commission headed by Patrick M. Collins drew up a 95 - page list of recommendations for political reform in Illinois. In an emotional news conference, Collins criticized an Illinois legislative panel for its opposition to the recommendations. Proposed changes included campaign contribution limits and term limits for state legislative leaders. However House Speaker Michael Madigan and Senate president John Cullerton had not supported the reform Commission 's proposals.
On August 17, 2010, Blagojevich was convicted of one count of lying to federal agents but a mistrial was declared on the other 23 charges due to hung jury. Prosecutors pledged to retry the case as soon as possible. The four charges against Robert Blagojevich were dismissed. The retrial was set to begin April 20, 2011. On June 27 after ten days of deliberation, the jury found Blagojevich guilty of 11 counts related to the senate seat and 6 counts related to fundraising extortion of a hospital executive. He was found not guilty of bribery related to a fundraising shakedown of a road - building executive. The jury deadlocked on one count related to another road builder related to a 2006 fundraising pay - to - play involving then - U.S. Rep. Rahm Emanuel, now Chicago Mayor. Unlike the first trial, Blagojevich took the stand in his own defense. Also, for the second trial, the government dropped all racketeering charges and charges against his brother. The verdict followed the conviction of his gubernatorial predecessor five years earlier.
On December 7, 2011, Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in prison. He was also given two other concurrent sentences in addition to the 168 - month sentence. Federal prison does not use parole; he must serve at least 85 % of the 168 - month sentence before becoming eligible to be given supervised release. On March 15, 2012, Blagojevich reported to a federal prison in Colorado to begin serving his sentence. The Federal Bureau of Prisons currently lists Blagojevich 's expected release date from prison May 23, 2024.
On July 21, 2015, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit overturned four of former Illinois Gov. Rod Blagojevich 's 18 convictions, stating that proposals to exchange promises for appointments "is a common exercise in logrolling ''. The Supreme Court of the United States announced on March 28, 2016, that they had deferred the option to hear the appeal, which instead went to the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois.
On August 9, 2016, U.S. District Judge James Zagel ruled that despite the four dropped charges, reports of good behavior, and pleas for leniency, Blagojevich 's 14 - year sentence would stand. In making his decision, Zagel noted that "these are serious crimes that had an impact on the people of Illinois. '' and it 's "an unfortunate reality '' that Blagojevich 's family members are made to suffer consequences. Patti Blagojevich commented on the sentence, calling it "unusually cruel and heartless and unfair. ''
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top ten highest paid athletes in the world | Forbes ' list of World 's Highest - Paid Athletes - wikipedia
This is a list of the highest - paid athletes in the world as ranked by Forbes magazine.
The 2017 list:
The 2016 list:
The 2015 list was released on 10 June 2015.
The 2014 list was released on 11 June 2014.
The 2013 list was released on 5 June 2013.
The 2012 list was released on 18 June 2012.
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holding out for a hero tv theme song | Cover up (tv series) - wikipedia
Cover Up is an American action / adventure television series that aired for one season on CBS from September 22, 1984, to April 6, 1985. Created by Glen A. Larson, the series stars Jennifer O'Neill, Jon - Erik Hexum, Antony Hamilton, and Richard Anderson.
Fashion photographer Dani Reynolds 's life suddenly changes after the death of her husband. It is only then that she discovers that he was actually an undercover CIA agent. When she learns he had been murdered, she recruits Mac Harper, a former Special Forces Operator, to help her find her husband 's killers.
Henry Towler, her husband 's boss, then offers her the late husband 's job. Dani would pretend she was still a photographer and Mac would be her model. Henry would send them anywhere in the world where Americans are in trouble or criminals need to be caught. Once there, they act pretty much on their own.
After the death of actor Jon - Erik Hexum, who played Mac, the episode "Writer 's Block '' introduced Dani 's new assistant, Jack Striker. Jack was a CIA agent who, like Mac, operated under the cover of a model.
During a break between scenes on the set on October 12, 1984, Jon - Erik Hexum became bored with the filming delays. He began playing Russian roulette with what he believed was a harmless. 44 Magnum prop gun and jokingly placed it to his temple and pulled the trigger. The shot sent the wadding from the blank cartridge at Hexum 's skull, driving a bone fragment the size of a quarter into his brain and causing massive hemorrhaging. Hexum was rushed to the hospital, where he eventually was declared brain dead. On October 18, he was taken off life support.
Hexum appeared in only seven episodes of the series, including the pilot. He was replaced by Antony Hamilton for the remainder of the season. Jennifer O'Neill appeared in all of the episodes. As Cover Up continued to air throughout the winter of 1984 -- 85, ratings held up. The network ultimately canceled the series after its first season due to mediocre ratings.
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what is the waveform of the axonemes found in cilia | Axoneme - wikipedia
Numerous eukaryotic cells carry whip - like appendages (cilia or eukaryotic flagella) whose inner core consists of a cytoskeletal structure called the axoneme. The axoneme serves as the "skeleton '' of these organelles, both giving support to the structure and, in some cases, causing it to bend. Though distinctions of function and / or length may be made between cilia and flagella, the internal structure of the axoneme is common to both.
Inside cilia and flagella is a microtubule - based cytoskeleton called the axoneme. The axoneme of primary cilia typically has a ring of nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9 + 0 axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium has two central microtubules in addition to the nine outer doublets (called a 9 + 2 axoneme). The axonemal cytoskeleton acts as a scaffolding for various protein complexes and provides binding sites for molecular motor proteins such as kinesin II, that help carry proteins up and down the microtubules.
The building - block of the axoneme is the microtubule; each axoneme is composed of several microtubules aligned in parallel. To be specific, the microtubules are arranged in a characteristic pattern known as the "9x2 + 2, '' as shown in the image at right. Nine sets of "doublet '' microtubules (a specialized structure consisting of two linked microtubules) form a ring around a "central pair '' of single microtubules.
Besides the microtubules, the axoneme contains many proteins and protein complexes necessary for its function. The dynein arms, for example, are motor complexes that produce the force needed for bending. Each dynein arm is anchored to a doublet microtubule; by "walking '' along an adjacent microtubule, the dynein motors can cause the microtubules to slide against each other. When this is carried out in a synchronized fashion, with the microtubules on one side of the axoneme being pulled ' down ' and those on the other side pulled ' up, ' the axoneme as a whole can bend back and forth. This process is responsible for ciliary / flagellar beating, as in the well - known example of the human sperm.
The radial spoke is another protein complex of the axoneme. Thought to be important in regulating the motion of the axoneme, this "T '' - shape complex projects from each set of outer doublets toward the central microtubules. The inter-doublet connections between adjacent microtubule pairs are termed nexin linkages.
The axoneme structure in non-motile ("primary '') cilia shows some variation from the canonical "9x2 + 2 '' anatomy. No dynein arms are found on the outer doublet microtubules, and there is no pair of central microtubule singlets. This organization of axoneme is referred as "9x2 + 0 ''. In addition, "9x2 + 1 '' axonemes, with only a single central microtubule, have been found to exist. Primary cilia appear to serve sensory functions.
Mutations or defects in primary cilia have been found to play a role in human diseases. These ciliopathies include polycystic kidney disease (PKD), retinitis pigmentosa, Bardet - Biedl syndrome, and other developmental defects.
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how to write a premise for an argument | Premise - Wikipedia
A premise or premiss is a statement that an argument claims will induce or justify a conclusion. In other words, a premise is an assumption that something is true. In logic, an argument requires a set of (at least) two declarative sentences (or "propositions '') known as the premises or premisses along with another declarative sentence (or "proposition '') known as the conclusion. This structure of two premises and one conclusion forms the basic argumentative structure. More complex arguments can use a series of rules to connect several premises to one conclusion, or to derive a number of conclusions from the original premises which then act as premises for additional conclusions. An example of this is the use of the rules of inference found within symbolic logic.
Aristotle held that any logical argument could be reduced to two premises and a conclusion. Premises are sometimes left unstated in which case they are called missing premises, for example:
It is evident that a tacitly understood claim is that Socrates is a man. The fully expressed reasoning is thus:
In this example, the independent clauses preceding the comma (namely, "all men are mortal '' and "Socrates is a man '') are the premises, while "Socrates is mortal '' is the conclusion.
The proof of a conclusion depends on both the truth of the premises and the validity of the argument.
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the flynn effect refers to the increase in iq scores over the years and it may be due to | Flynn effect - wikipedia
The Flynn effect is the substantial and long - sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day. When intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are initially standardized using a sample of test - takers, by convention the average of the test results is set to 100 and their standard deviation is set to 15 or 16 IQ points. When IQ tests are revised, they are again standardized using a new sample of test - takers, usually born more recently than the first. Again, the average result is set to 100. However, when the new test subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average scores are significantly above 100.
Test score increases have been continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to the present. For the Raven 's Progressive Matrices test, a study published in the year 2000 found that subjects born over a 100 - year period were compared in Des Moines, United States, and separately in Dumfries, Scotland. Improvements were remarkably consistent across the whole period, in both countries. This effect of an apparent increase in IQ has also been observed in various other parts of the world, though the rates of increase vary.
There are numerous proposed explanations of the Flynn effect, as well as some skepticism about its implications. Similar improvements have been reported for other cognitions such as semantic and episodic memory. Recent research suggests that the Flynn effect may have ended in at least a few developed nations, possibly allowing national differences in IQ scores to diminish if the Flynn effect continues in nations with lower average national IQs.
The Flynn effect is named for James R. Flynn, who did much to document it and promote awareness of its implications. The term itself was coined by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, authors of The Bell Curve (1994). Although the general term for the phenomenon referring to no researcher in particular continues to be "secular rise in IQ scores '', many textbooks on psychology and IQ testing have now followed the lead of Herrnstein and Murray in calling the phenomenon the Flynn effect.
IQ tests are updated periodically. For example, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), originally developed in 1949, was updated in 1974, in 1991, 2003 and again in 2014. The revised versions are standardized based on the performance of test - takers in standardization samples. A standard score of IQ 100 is defined as the median performance of the standardization sample. Thus one way to see changes in norms over time is to conduct a study in which the same test - takers take both an old and new version of the same test. Doing so confirms IQ gains over time. Some IQ tests, for example tests used for military draftees in NATO countries in Europe, report raw scores, and those also confirm a trend of rising scores over time. The average rate of increase seems to be about three IQ points per decade in the United States, as scaled by the Wechsler tests. The increasing test performance over time appears on every major test, in every age range, at every ability level, and in every modern industrialized country, although not necessarily at the same rate as in the United States. The increase was continuous and roughly linear from the earliest days of testing to the late 1990s. Though the effect is most associated with IQ increases, a similar effect has been found with increases in attention and of semantic and episodic memory.
Ulric Neisser estimated that using the IQ values of 1997 the average IQ of the United States in 1932, according to the first Stanford -- Binet Intelligence Scales standardization sample, was 80. Neisser states that "Hardly any of them would have scored ' very superior ', but nearly one - quarter would have appeared to be ' deficient. ' '' He also wrote that "Test scores are certainly going up all over the world, but whether intelligence itself has risen remains controversial. ''
Trahan et al. (2014) found that the effect was about 2.93 points per decade, based on both Stanford -- Binet and Wechsler tests; they also found no evidence the effect was diminishing.
Raven (2000) found that, as Flynn suggested, data interpreted as showing a decrease in many abilities with increasing age must be re-interpreted as showing that there has been a dramatic increase of these abilities with date of birth. On many tests this occurs at all levels of ability.
Some studies have found the gains of the Flynn effect to be particularly concentrated at the lower end of the distribution. Teasdale and Owen (1989), for example, found the effect primarily reduced the number of low - end scores, resulting in an increased number of moderately high scores, with no increase in very high scores. In another study, two large samples of Spanish children were assessed with a 30 - year gap. Comparison of the IQ distributions indicated that the mean IQ - scores on the test had increased by 9.7 points (the Flynn effect), the gains were concentrated in the lower half of the distribution and negligible in the top half, and the gains gradually decreased as the IQ of the individuals increased. Some studies have found a reverse Flynn effect with declining scores for those with high IQ.
In 1987, Flynn took the position that the very large increase indicates that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but only a minor sort of "abstract problem - solving ability '' with little practical significance. He argued that if IQ gains do reflect intelligence increases, there would have been consequent changes of our society that have not been observed (a presumed non-occurrence of a "cultural renaissance ''). Flynn no longer endorses this view of intelligence and has since elaborated and refined his view of what rising IQ scores mean.
Earlier investigators had discovered rises in raw IQ test scores in some study populations, but had not published general investigations of that issue in particular. Historian Daniel C. Calhoun cited earlier psychology literature on IQ score trends in his book The Intelligence of a People (1973). R.L. Thorndike drew attention to rises in Stanford - Binet scores in a 1975 review of the history of intelligence testing.
There is debate about whether the rise in IQ scores also corresponds to a rise in general intelligence, or only a rise in special skills related to taking IQ tests. Because children attend school longer now and have become much more familiar with the testing of school - related material, one might expect the greatest gains to occur on such school content - related tests as vocabulary, arithmetic or general information. Just the opposite is the case: abilities such as these have experienced relatively small gains and even occasional decreases over the years. Recent meta - analytic findings indicate that Flynn effects occur for tests assessing both fluid and crystallized abilities. For example, Dutch conscripts gained 21 points during only 30 years, or 7 points per decade, between 1952 and 1982. But this rise in IQ test scores is not wholly explained by an increase in general intelligence. Studies have shown that while test scores have improved over time, the improvement is not fully correlated with latent factors related to intelligence. Rushton has shown that the gains in IQ over time (the Lynn - Flynn effect) are unrelated to g. Researchers have shown that the IQ gains described by the Flynn effect are due in part to increasing intelligence, and in part to increases in test - specific skills.
Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend toward smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and heterosis (the occurrence of offspring with more pronounced phenotypical traits from mixing the genes of its parents). Another proposition is the gradual spread of test - taking skills. The Flynn effect has been too rapid for genetic selection to be the cause.
Duration of average schooling has increased steadily. One problem with this explanation is that if in the US comparing older and more recent subjects with similar educational levels, then the IQ gains appear almost undiminished in each such group considered individually.
Many studies find that children who do not attend school score lower on the tests than their regularly attending peers. During the 1960s, when some Virginia counties closed their public schools to avoid racial integration, compensatory private schooling was available only for Caucasian children. On average, the scores of African - American children who did not receive formal education during that period decreased at a rate of about six IQ points per year.
Another explanation is an increased familiarity of the general population with tests and testing. For example, children who take the very same IQ test a second time usually gain five or six points. However, this seems to set an upper limit on the effects of test sophistication. One problem with this explanation and others related to schooling is that in the US, the groups with greater test familiarity show smaller IQ increases.
Early intervention programs have shown mixed results. Some preschool (ages 3 -- 4) intervention programs like "Head Start '' do not produce lasting changes of IQ, although they may confer other benefits. The "Abecedarian Early Intervention Project '', an all - day program that provided various forms of environmental enrichment to children from infancy onward, showed IQ gains that did not diminish over time. The IQ difference between the groups, although only five points, was still present at age 12. Not all such projects have been successful. Also, such IQ gains can diminish until age 18.
Citing a high correlation between rising literacy rates and gains in IQ, David Marks has argued that the Flynn effect is caused by changes in literacy rates.
Still another theory is that the general environment today is much more complex and stimulating. One of the most striking 20th century changes of the human intellectual environment has come from the increase of exposure to many types of visual media. From pictures on the wall to movies to television to video games to computers, each successive generation has been exposed to richer optical displays than the one before and may have become more adept at visual analysis. This would explain why visual tests like the Raven 's have shown the greatest increases. An increase only of particular form (s) of intelligence would explain why the Flynn effect has not caused a "cultural renaissance too great to be overlooked. ''
In 2001, Dickens and Flynn presented a model for resolving several contradictory findings regarding IQ. They argue that the measure "heritability '' includes both a direct effect of the genotype on IQ and also indirect effects such that the genotype changes the environment, thereby affecting IQ. That is, those with a greater IQ tend to seek stimulating environments that further increase IQ. These reciprocal effects result in gene environment correlation. The direct effect could initially have been very small, but feedback can create large differences of IQ. In their model, an environmental stimulus can have a very great effect on IQ, even for adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues (the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition during early childhood, that may cause permanent effects). The Flynn effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that any program designed to increase IQ may produce long - term IQ gains if that program teaches children how to replicate the types of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains outside the program. To maximize lifetime IQ, the programs should also motivate them to continue searching for cognitively demanding experiences after they have left the program.
Flynn in his 2007 book What Is Intelligence? further expanded on this theory. Environmental changes resulting from modernization -- such as more intellectually demanding work, greater use of technology and smaller families -- have meant that a much larger proportion of people are more accustomed to manipulating abstract concepts such as hypotheses and categories than a century ago. Substantial portions of IQ tests deal with these abilities. Flynn gives, as an example, the question ' What do a dog and a rabbit have in common? ' A modern respondent might say they are both mammals (an abstract, or a priori answer, which depends only on the meanings of the words ' dog ' and ' rabbit '), whereas someone a century ago might have said that humans catch rabbits with dogs (a concrete, or a posteriori answer, which depended on what happened to be the case at that time).
Improved nutrition is another possible explanation. Today 's average adult from an industrialized nation is taller than a comparable adult of a century ago. That increase of stature, likely the result of general improvements of nutrition and health, has been at a rate of more than a centimeter per decade. Available data suggest that these gains have been accompanied by analogous increases of head size, and by an increase in the average size of the brain. This argument had been thought to suffer the difficulty that groups who tend to be of smaller overall body size (e.g. women, or people of Asian ancestry) do not have lower average IQs. Richard Lynn, however, claims that while people of East Asian origin may often have smaller bodies, they tend to have larger brains and higher IQs than average whites.
A 2005 study presented data supporting the nutrition hypothesis, which predicts that gains will occur predominantly at the low end of the IQ distribution, where nutritional deprivation is probably most severe. An alternative interpretation of skewed IQ gains could be that improved education has been particularly important for this group. Richard Lynn makes the case for nutrition, arguing that cultural factors can not typically explain the Flynn effect because its gains are observed even at infant and preschool levels, with rates of IQ test score increase about equal to those of school students and adults. Lynn states that "This rules out improvements in education, greater test sophistication, etc. and most of the other factors that have been proposed to explain the Flynn effect. He proposes that the most probable factor has been improvements in pre-natal and early post-natal nutrition. ''
A century ago, nutritional deficiencies may have limited body and organ functionality, including skull volume. The first two years of life is a critical time for nutrition. The consequences of malnutrition can be irreversible and may include poor cognitive development, educability, and future economic productivity. On the other hand, Flynn has pointed to 20 - point gains on Dutch military (Raven 's type) IQ tests between 1952, 1962, 1972, and 1982. He observes that the Dutch 18 - year - olds of 1962 had a major nutritional handicap. They were either in the womb, or were recently born, during the great Dutch famine of 1944 -- when German troops monopolized food and 18,000 people died of starvation. Yet, concludes Flynn, "they do not show up even as a blip in the pattern of Dutch IQ gains. It is as if the famine had never occurred. '' It appears that the effects of diet are gradual, taking effect over decades (affecting mother as well as child) rather than a few months.
In support of the nutritional hypothesis, it is known that, in the United States, the average height before 1900 was about 10 cm (∼ 4 inches) shorter than it is today. Possibly related to the Flynn effect is a similar change of skull size and shape during the last 150 years. Though the idea that brain size is unrelated to race and intelligence was popularized in the 1980s, studies continue to show significant correlations. (Note, however, that size is n't everything -- or maybe anything significant at all. For example, the overall size and asymmetrical shape of Albert Einstein 's brain were normal; whereas the prefrontal, somatosensory, primary motor, parietal, temporal and occipital cortices were extraordinary.) A Norwegian study found that height gains were strongly correlated with intelligence gains until the cessation of height gains in military conscript cohorts towards the end of the 1980s. Both height and skull size increases probably result from a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic selection over this period. With only five or six human generations in 150 years, time for natural selection has been very limited, suggesting that increased skeletal size resulting from changes in population phenotypes is more likely than recent genetic evolution.
It is well known that micronutrient deficiencies change the development of intelligence. For instance, one study has found that iodine deficiency causes a fall, on average, of 12 IQ points in China.
Scientists James Feyrer, Dimitra Politi, and David N. Weil have found in the U.S. that the proliferation of iodized salt increased IQ by 15 points in some areas. Journalist Max Nisen has stated that, with this type of salt becoming popular, that "the aggregate effect has been extremely positive. ''
Daley et al. (2003) found a significant Flynn effect among children in rural Kenya, and concluded that nutrition was one of the hypothesized explanations that best explained their results (the others were parental literacy and family structure).
Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2009) argue that "From an energetics standpoint, a developing human will have difficulty building a brain and fighting off infectious diseases at the same time, as both are very metabolically costly tasks '' and that "the Flynn effect may be caused in part by the decrease in the intensity of infectious diseases as nations develop. '' They suggest that improvements in gross domestic product (GDP), education, literacy, and nutrition may have an effect on IQ mainly through reducing the intensity of infectious diseases.
Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2011) in a similar study instead looking at different US states found that states with a higher prevalence of infectious diseases had lower average IQ. The effect remained after controlling for the effects of wealth and educational variation.
Atheendar Venkataramani (2010) studied the effect of malaria on IQ in a sample of Mexicans. Exposure during the birth year to malaria eradication was associated with increases in IQ. It also increased the probability of employment in a skilled occupation. The author suggests that this may be one explanation for the Flynn effect and that this may be an important explanation for the link between national malaria burden and economic development. A literature review of 44 papers states that cognitive abilities and school performance were shown to be impaired in sub-groups of patients (with either cerebral malaria or uncomplicated malaria) when compared with healthy controls. Studies comparing cognitive functions before and after treatment for acute malarial illness continued to show significantly impaired school performance and cognitive abilities even after recovery. Malaria prophylaxis was shown to improve cognitive function and school performance in clinical trials when compared to placebo groups.
Heterosis, or hybrid vigor associated with historical reductions of the levels of inbreeding, has been proposed by Michael Mingroni as an alternative explanation of the Flynn effect. However, James Flynn has pointed out that even if everyone mated with a sibling in 1900, subsequent increases in heterosis would not be a sufficient explanation of the observed IQ gains.
Jon Martin Sundet and colleagues (2004) examined scores on intelligence tests given to Norwegian conscripts between the 1950s and 2002. They found that the increase of scores of general intelligence stopped after the mid-1990s and declined in numerical reasoning sub-tests.
Teasdale and Owen (2005) examined the results of IQ tests given to Danish male conscripts. Between 1959 and 1979 the gains were 3 points per decade. Between 1979 and 1989 the increase approached 2 IQ points. Between 1989 and 1998 the gain was about 1.3 points. Between 1998 and 2004 IQ declined by about the same amount as it gained between 1989 and 1998. They speculate that "a contributing factor in this recent fall could be a simultaneous decline in proportions of students entering 3 - year advanced - level school programs for 16 -- 18 - year - olds. '' The same authors in a more comprehensive 2008 study, again on Danish male conscripts, found that there was a 1.5 - point increase between 1988 and 1998, but a 1.5 - point decrease between 1998 and 2003 / 2004. A possible contributing factor to the recent decline may be changes in the Danish educational system. Another may be the rising proportion of immigrants or their immediate descendants in Denmark. This is supported by data on Danish draftees where first or second generation immigrants with Danish nationality score below average.
In Australia, 6 -- 11 - year - olds ' IQ, as measured by the Colored Progressive Matrices, has shown no increase from 1975 -- 2003.
In the United Kingdom, a study by Flynn (2009) found that tests carried out in 1980 and again in 2008 show that the IQ score of an average 14 - year - old dropped by more than two points over the period. For the upper half of the results the performance was even worse. Average IQ scores declined by six points. However, children aged between five and 10 saw their IQs increase by up to half a point a year over the three decades. Flynn argues that the abnormal drop in British teenage IQ could be due to youth culture having "stagnated '' or even dumbed down. He also states that the youth culture is more oriented towards computer games than towards reading and holding conversations. Researcher Richard Gray, commenting on the study, also mentions the computer culture diminishing reading books as well as a tendency towards teaching to the test.
Lynn and Harvey have argued that the causes of the above are difficult to interpret since these countries have had significant recent immigration from countries with lower average national IQs. Nevertheless, they expect that similar patterns will occur, or have occurred, first in other developed nations and then in the developing world as there is a limit to how much environmental factors can improve intelligence. Furthermore, during the last century there is a negative correlation between fertility and intelligence although there is not yet any conclusive evidence of the association between the two. They estimate that there has been a dysgenic decline in the world 's genotypic IQ (masked by the Flynn effect for the phenotype) of 0.86 IQ points per decade for the years 1950 -- 2000.
If the Flynn effect has ended in developed nations, then this may possibly allow national differences in IQ scores to diminish if the Flynn effect continues in nations with lower average national IQs.
Also, if the Flynn effect has ended for the majority in developed nations, it may still continue for minorities, especially for groups like immigrants where many may have received poor nutrition during early childhood or have had other disadvantages. A study in the Netherlands found that children of non-Western immigrants had improvements for g, educational achievements, and work proficiency compared to their parents, although there were still remaining differences compared to ethnic Dutch.
There is a controversy as to whether the US racial gap in IQ scores is diminishing. If that is the case then this may or may not be related to the Flynn effect. Flynn has commented that he never claimed that the Flynn effect has the same causes as the black - white gap, but that it shows that environmental factors can create IQ differences of a magnitude similar to the gap. Research that has examined whether g factor and IQ gains from the Flynn effect are related have found there is a negative correlation between the two, which may indicate that group differences and the Flynn effect are possibly due to differing causes
The Flynn effect has also been part of the discussions regarding Spearman 's hypothesis, which states that differences in the g factor are the major source of differences between blacks and whites observed in many studies of race and intelligence.
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what is the history of the development of the solar energy | Solar energy - wikipedia
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever - evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light - dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity. The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575 -- 49,837 exajoules (EJ). This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption, which was 559.8 EJ in 2012.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer - term benefits. It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import - independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared ''.
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30 % is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth 's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near - infrared ranges with a small part in the near - ultraviolet. Most of the world 's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150 -- 300 watts / m2, or 3.5 -- 7.0 kWh / m2 per day.
Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's land surface, oceans -- which cover about 71 % of the globe -- and atmosphere. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth 's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 ° C. By photosynthesis, green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth 's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth 's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,
The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire.
Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.
In addition, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels. Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells, as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way. Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established.
Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all renewable energies, other than Geothermal power and Tidal power, derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun.
Active solar techniques use photovoltaics, concentrated solar power, solar thermal collectors, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.
In 2000, the United Nations Development Programme, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and World Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation, cloud cover, and the land that is usable by humans. The estimate found that solar energy has a global potential of 1,575 -- 49,837 EJ per year (see table below).
Quantitative relation of global solar potential vs. the world 's primary energy consumption:
Source: United Nations Development Programme -- World Energy Assessment (2000)
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation.
In 1897, Frank Shuman, a U.S. inventor, engineer and solar energy pioneer, built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether, which has a lower boiling point than water, and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine. In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power Company with the intent of building larger solar power plants. He, along with his technical advisor A.S.E. Ackermann and British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys, developed an improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon collector boxes, increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used instead of ether. Shuman then constructed a full - scale steam engine powered by low - pressure water, enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912.
Shuman built the world 's first solar thermal power station in Maadi, Egypt, between 1912 and 1913. His plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45 -- 52 kilowatts (60 -- 70 hp) engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres (4,800 imp gal; 5,800 US gal) of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields. Although the outbreak of World War I and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy, Shuman 's vision and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy. In 1916 Shuman was quoted in the media advocating solar energy 's utilization, saying:
We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in the tropics and have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun.
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70 % of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 ° C can be provided by solar heating systems. The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44 %) and glazed flat plate collectors (34 %) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21 %) used mainly to heat swimming pools.
As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was approximately 154 thermal gigawatt (GW). China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GW installed as of 2006 and a long - term goal of 210 GW by 2020. Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90 % of homes using them. In the United States, Canada, and Australia, heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GW as of 2005.
In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for 30 % (4.65 EJ / yr) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50 % (10.1 EJ / yr) of the energy used in residential buildings. Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat -- heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However, they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.
A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses.
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter. Since bare, leafless trees shade 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator - facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain.
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers. The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90 -- 150 ° C (194 -- 302 ° F). Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 ° C (599 ° F) and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.
Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50 % of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid - connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water, and had a one - hour peak load thermal storage. Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the "right to dry '' clothes. Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun - facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 ° C (40 ° F) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45 -- 60 ° C (113 -- 140 ° F). The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost - effective alternative than glazed collection systems. As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 square metres (380,000 sq ft) had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m (9,300 sq ft) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m (14,000 sq ft) collector in Coimbatore, India, used for drying marigolds.
Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first recorded instance of this was by 16th - century Arab alchemists. A large - scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas. The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m (51,000 sq ft), could produce up to 22,700 L (5,000 imp gal; 6,000 US gal) per day and operate for 40 years. Individual still designs include single - slope, double - slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double - slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large - scale applications.
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water - filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions. It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water.
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable.
Molten salt can be employed as a thermal energy storage method to retain thermal energy collected by a solar tower or solar trough of a concentrated solar power plant, so that it can be used to generate electricity in bad weather or at night. It was demonstrated in the Solar Two project from 1995 -- 1999. The system is predicted to have an annual efficiency of 99 %, a reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity, versus converting heat directly into electricity. The molten salt mixtures vary. The most extended mixture contains sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate and calcium nitrate. It is non-flammable and nontoxic, and has already been used in the chemical and metals industries as a heat - transport fluid, so experience with such systems exists in non-solar applications.
The salt melts at 131 ° C (268 ° F). It is kept liquid at 288 ° C (550 ° F) in an insulated "cold '' storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar collector where the focused sun heats it to 566 ° C (1,051 ° F). It is then sent to a hot storage tank. This is so well insulated that the thermal energy can be usefully stored for up to a week.
When electricity is needed, the hot salt is pumped to a conventional steam - generator to produce superheated steam for a turbine / generator as used in any conventional coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100 - megawatt turbine would need a tank about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in diameter to drive it for four hours by this design.
Several parabolic trough power plants in Spain and solar power tower developer SolarReserve use this thermal energy storage concept. The Solana Generating Station in the U.S. has six hours of storage by molten salt. The María Elena plant is a 400 MW thermo - solar complex in the northern Chilean region of Antofagasta employing molten salt technology.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
Solar power is anticipated to become the world 's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption, respectively. In 2016, after another year of rapid growth, solar generated 1.3 % of global power.
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large concentrated solar power plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world 's largest photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are connected to the grid using net metering and / or a feed - in tariff.
Worldwide growth of PV capacity grouped by region in MW (2006 -- 2014)
In the last two decades, photovoltaics (PV), also known as solar PV, has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source. A solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide. Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1 % of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD / watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5 -- 6 %. By 2012 available efficiencies exceeded 20 %, and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics was in excess of 40 %.
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.
The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well - lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates ' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design. The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting, heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance.
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar energy by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white, and to plant trees in the area. Using these methods, a hypothetical "cool communities '' program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 ° C at an estimated cost of US $1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US $530 million from reduced air - conditioning costs and healthcare savings.
Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields. While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age, French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun. Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. More recently the technology has been embraced by vintners, who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses.
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year - round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year - round for the Roman emperor Tiberius. The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers.
Development of a solar - powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar - powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.
Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.
In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. In 1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar - powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the Sun21 catamaran made the first solar - powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006 -- 2007. There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.
In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979, the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar - powered, fully controlled, man - carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 ft (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power. Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the Pathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket - propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in 2001. The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record - breaking solar aircraft, making a 54 - hour flight in 2007, and month - long flights were envisioned by 2010. As of 2016, Solar Impulse, an electric aircraft, is currently circumnavigating the globe. It is a single - seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power. The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days.
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an artificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface - area to payload - weight ratio is relatively high.
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical. A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis. The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon - based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 -- the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel - cell electric power plants and the pure water by - product going directly into the municipal water system. Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth 's surface (i.e., roads, vehicles and buildings) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants.
Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemical processes have also been explored. One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures (2,300 -- 2,600 ° C or 4,200 -- 4,700 ° F). Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods. Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute of Science uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1,200 ° C (2,200 ° F). This initial reaction produces pure zinc, which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen.
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well - designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time - of - use to off - peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber 's salt are another thermal storage medium. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful temperatures (approximately 64 ° C or 147 ° F). The "Dover House '' (in Dover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber 's salt heating system, in 1948. Solar energy can also be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low - cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two project used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 terajoules (400,000 kWh) in its 68 m3 storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99 %.
Off - grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid - tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid, while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls. Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid. This is handled by ' rolling back ' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes. If the net electricity use is below zero, the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month. Other approaches involve the use of two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter. Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions, making a second meter unnecessary.
Pumped - storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water, with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator.
Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the U.S. and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the U.S. (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s. These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels. As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and annual growth rates have averaged 20 % since 1999. Although generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.
The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces:
The development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer - term benefits. It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import - independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared.
In 2011, a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world 's energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. "The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale ''.
We have proved... that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun.
The International Organization for Standardization has established several standards relating to solar energy equipment. For example, ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters.
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what are the benefits to skyscrapers verses other types of construction in the past | Skyscraper design and construction - wikipedia
The design and construction of skyscrapers involves creating safe, habitable spaces in very high buildings. The buildings must support their weight, resist wind and earthquakes, and protect occupants from fire. Yet they must also be conveniently accessible, even on the upper floors, and provide utilities and a comfortable climate for the occupants. The problems posed in skyscraper design are considered among the most complex encountered given the balances required between economics, engineering, and construction management.
Good structural design is important in most building designs, but particularly for skyscrapers since even a small chance of catastrophic failure is unacceptable given the high prices of construction. This presents a paradox to civil engineers: the only way to assure a lack of failure is to test for all modes of failure, in both the laboratory and the real world. But the only way to know of all modes of failure is to learn from previous failures. Thus, no engineer can be absolutely sure that a given structure will resist all loadings that could cause failure, but can only have large enough margins of safety such that a failure is acceptably unlikely. When buildings do fail, engineers question whether the failure was due to some lack of foresight or due to some unknowable factor.
The load a skyscraper experiences is largely from the force of the building material itself. In most building designs, the weight of the structure is much larger than the weight of the material that it will support beyond its own weight. In technical terms, the dead load, the load of the structure, is larger than the live load, the weight of things in the structure (people, furniture, vehicles, etc.). As such, the amount of structural material required within the lower levels of a skyscraper will be much larger than the material required within higher levels. This is not always visually apparent. The Empire State Building 's setbacks are actually a result of the building code at the time, and were not structurally required. On the other hand, John Hancock Center 's shape is uniquely the result of how it supports loads. Vertical supports can come in several types, among which the most common for skyscrapers can be categorized as steel frames, concrete cores, tube within tube design, and shear walls.
The wind loading on a skyscraper should also be considered. In fact, the lateral wind load imposed on super-tall structures is generally the governing factor in the structural design. Wind pressure increases with height, so for very tall buildings, the loads associated with wind are larger than dead or live loads.
Other vertical and horizontal loading factors come from varied, unpredictable sources, such as earthquakes.
A shear wall, in its simplest definition, is a wall where the entire material of the wall is employed in the resistance of both horizontal and vertical loads. A typical example is a brick or cinderblock wall. Since the wall material is used to hold the weight, as the wall expands in size, it must hold considerably more weight. Due to the features of a shear wall, it is acceptable for small constructions, such as suburban housing or an urban brownstone, to require low material costs and little maintenance. In this way, shear walls, typically in the form of plywood and framing, brick, or cinderblock, are used for these structures. For skyscrapers, though, as the size of the structure increases, so does the size of the supporting wall. Large structures such as castles and cathedrals inherently addressed these issues due to a large wall being advantageous (castles), or able to be designed around (cathedrals). Since skyscrapers seek to maximize the floor - space by consolidating structural support, shear walls tend to be used only in conjunction with other support systems.
The classic concept of a skyscraper is a large steel box with many small boxes inside it. By eliminating the inefficient part of a shear wall, the central portion, and consolidating support members in a much stronger material, steel, a skyscraper could be built with both horizontal and vertical supports throughout. This method, though simple, has drawbacks. Chief among these is that as more material must be supported (as height increases), the distance between supporting members must decrease, which actually, in turn, increases the amount of material that must be supported. This becomes inefficient and uneconomic for buildings above 40 stories tall as usable floor spaces are reduced for supporting column and due to more usage of steel.
A new structural system using framed tubes was developed in the early 1960s. Fazlur Khan and J. Rankine defined the framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube - like structural system capable of resisting lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation. '' Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads (primarily wind) are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. Tube structures cut down costs, at the same time allow buildings to reach greater heights. Tube - frame construction was first used in the DeWitt - Chestnut Apartment Building, designed by Khan and completed in Chicago in 1963. It was used soon after for the John Hancock Center and in the construction of the World Trade Center.
A variation on the tube frame is the bundled tube, which uses several interconnected tube frames. The Willis Tower in Chicago used this design, employing nine tubes of varying height to achieve its distinct appearance. The bundle tube design was not only highly efficient in economic terms, but it was also "innovative in its potential for versatile formulation of architectural space. Efficient towers no longer had to be box - like; the tube - units could take on various shapes and could be bundled together in different sorts of groupings. '' The bundled tube structure meant that "buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they could become sculpture. '' Cities have experienced a huge surge in skyscraper construction, thanks to Khan 's innovations allowing economic skyscrapers.
The tubular systems are fundamental to tall building design. Most buildings over 40 - stories constructed since the 1960s now use a tube design derived from Khan 's structural engineering principles, examples including the construction of the World Trade Center, Aon Centre, Petronas Towers, Jin Mao Building, and most other supertall skyscrapers since the 1960s. The strong influence of tube structure design is also evident in the construction of the current tallest skyscraper, the Burj Khalifa.
The invention of the elevator was a precondition for the invention of skyscrapers, given that most people would not (or could not) climb more than a few flights of stairs at a time. The elevators in a skyscraper are not simply a necessary utility like running water and electricity, but are in fact closely related to the design of the whole structure. A taller building requires more elevators to service the additional floors, but the elevator shafts consume valuable floor space. If the service core (which contains the elevator shafts) becomes too big, it can reduce the profitability of the building. Architects must therefore balance the value gained by adding height against the value lost to the expanding service core. Many tall buildings use elevators in a non-standard configuration to reduce their footprint. Buildings such as the former World Trade Center Towers and Chicago 's John Hancock Center use sky lobbies, where express elevators take passengers to upper floors which serve as the base for local elevators. This allows architects and engineers to place elevator shafts on top of each other, saving space. Sky lobbies and express elevators take up a significant amount of space and add to the amount of time spent commuting between floors. Other buildings such as the Petronas Towers use double - deck elevators allowing more people to fit in a single elevator and reaching two floors at every stop. It is possible to use even more than two levels on an elevator although this has yet to be tried. The main problem with double - deck elevators is that they cause everyone in the elevator to stop when only people on one level need to get off at a given floor.
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who plays maggie in how i met your mother | Joanna Garcia - wikipedia
JoAnna García Swisher ((born JoAnna Garcia on August 10, 1979) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Sam in Are You Afraid of the Dark? (1993 -- 96), Vicki Appleby in Freaks and Geeks (1999 -- 2000), and Cheyenne Hart - Montgomery on The WB / CW sitcom Reba (2001 -- 07). She has also gained popularity with her acting roles in Privileged (2008 -- 09), Better with You (2010 -- 11), Animal Practice (2012), Once Upon a Time (2013 -- 18) and The Astronaut Wives Club (2015).
García was born in Tampa, Florida, to a Cuban father. Her mother, Loraine, was a homemaker and former elementary school teacher, and her father, Jay García, was a gynecologist. She has one brother, Michael García. She first started performing at age 10 when she auditioned for a local theater production and landed the lead.
She was discovered by Disney Channel, but her parents put school first and she continued to feed her passion by acting in local plays. She was the homecoming queen at Florida 's Tampa Catholic High School. Garcia is a devout Catholic.
While in Florida, García guest starred in seaQuest DSV, Second Noah, and Superboy and several movies of the week. While attending high school, she was re-discovered by Nickelodeon and starred for three seasons as Samantha on Are You Afraid of the Dark?. She commuted from Florida to Montreal, Canada, where the show was filmed. She was cast at the age of fifteen on the 1994 television drama Party of Five, playing the recurring character Hallie. She had a recurring role on Freaks and Geeks (1999 -- 2000) portraying the character of Vicki Appleby the popular freshman cheerleader who spent seven minutes in heaven with the ultimate geek, Bill Haverchuck (Martin Starr). She then briefly attended college at Florida State University where she was a member of the Delta Delta Delta sorority, but later quit school to pursue acting full - time, moving to Los Angeles, California.
García went on to portray the character of Cheyenne Hart - Montgomery, Reba 's (Reba McEntire) oldest daughter on The WB / CW sitcom Reba (2001 -- 07). She was featured on the short - lived CBS comedy Welcome to the Captain. Beginning in the fall of 2008, she starred as Megan Smith in the CW series Privileged (originally known as How to Survive the Filthy Rich). On the big screen, García was seen in the comedy spoof Not Another Teen Movie. She has also appeared in the original television movies From the Earth to the Moon (1998) and Love 's Deadly Triangle: The Texas Cadet Murder (1997). She also appeared in the ABC Family original movie The Initiation of Sarah, which premiered in October 2006. In 2008, she had a role in A Very Merry Daughter of the Bride, playing Roxanne. She had a leading role in the ABC Family TV movie Revenge of the Bridesmaids.
In 2009, García had a recurring role on The CW drama Gossip Girl playing the role of Bree Buckley, an irreverent evil Miss America - type who is politically progressive, but hails from a conservative Southern family. She appeared in four episodes in season three. In December 2009, she guest starred as Maggie, Ted Mosby 's college buddy on How I Met Your Mother.
García starred in the ABC sitcom Better with You. The show centers on two sisters who were at different points in their romantic relationships: one was unmarried and in a long - term relationship and the other (García) got married after getting pregnant from a one - night stand. It was canceled on May 13, 2011.
Garcia guest - starred on The Penguins of Madagascar in the episode "The Officer X Factor / Love Hurts '', which aired on February 12, 2011. In 2012, Garcia appeared in four episodes of the USA Network dramedy Royal Pains as a nephrologist treating Jack O'Malley (Tom Cavanagh). In 2013, during season three of the series Once Upon a Time she began playing the recurring role of the Ariel from The Little Mermaid.
In 2008, García became engaged to Trace Ayala, co-founder of the clothing company William Rast with his childhood friend Justin Timberlake. (Ayala was Timberlake 's former personal assistant.)
In August 2009, People magazine reported that García was dating baseball player Nick Swisher. They became engaged in May 2010, and married on December 11, 2010 at the Breakers Hotel & Resort in Palm Beach, Florida. Bridesmaids for García included friends and fellow actresses Jamie - Lynn Sigler, Melissa Peterman, and Reba McEntire. Since her marriage, she has been credited as Joanna García Swisher. They have two daughters: Emerson Jay (born May 21, 2013). and Sailor Stevie (born June 28, 2016).
García volunteers as a teacher for children who are learning English as a second language. She is involved with the organization Make the Commitment, whose purpose is to raise awareness about cervical cancer. She has an organization called We Reach, a charity which has assembled an advisory board in the entertainment industry to help young girls around the country organize charity events in their hometowns. The charity also has the goal of empowering young women.
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what areas were affected by the chernobyl disaster | Effects of the Chernobyl disaster - wikipedia
The 1986 Chernobyl disaster triggered the release of substantial amounts of radioactivity into the atmosphere in the form of both particulate and gaseous radioisotopes. It is one of the most significant unintentional releases of radioactivity into the environment to present day.
The work of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), suggests that the Chernobyl incident can not be directly compared to atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons through a single number, with one being simply x times larger than the other. This is partly due to the fact that the isotopes released at Chernobyl tended to be longer - lived than those released by the detonation of atomic bombs, thus producing radioactivity curves that vary in shape as well as size.
According to a 2009 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), the Chernobyl accident had by 2005 caused 61,200 man - Sv of radiation exposure to recovery workers and evacuees, 125,000 man - Sv to the populace of the Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia, and a dose to most of the more distant European countries amounting to 115,000 man - Sv. The same report estimated a further 25 % more exposure would be received from residual radiosotopes after 2005. The total global collective dose from Chernobyl was earlier estimated by UNSCEAR in 1988 to be "600,000 man Sv, equivalent on average to 21 additional days of world exposure to natural background radiation. ''
The inhalation dose (internal dose) for the public during the time of the accident and their evacuation from the area in what is now the 30 km evacuation zone around the plant has been estimated (based on ground deposition of caesium - 137) to be between 3 and 150 mSv.
Thyroid doses for adults around the Chernobyl area were estimated to be between 20 and 1000 mSv, while for one - year - old infants, these estimates were higher, at 20 to 6000 mSv. For those who left at an early stage after the accident, the internal dose due to inhalation was 8 to 13 times higher than the external dose due to gamma / beta emitters. For those who remained until later (day 10 or later), the inhalation dose was 50 to 70 % higher than the dose due to external exposure. The majority of the dose was due to iodine - 131 (about 40 %) and tellurium and rubidium isotopes (about 20 to 30 % for Rb and Te).
The ingestion doses in this same group of people have also been estimated using the cesium activity per unit of area, isotope ratios, an average day of evacuation, intake rate of milk and green vegetables, and what is known about the transfer of radioactivity via plants and animals to humans. For adults, the dose has been estimated to be between 3 and 180 mSv, while for one - year - old infants, a dose of between 20 and 1300 mSv has been estimated. Again, the majority of the dose was thought to be mostly due to iodine - 131, and the external dose was much smaller than the internal dose due to the radioactivity in the diet.
Ukraine, Belarus and parts of Russia received substantial amounts of radiation exposure after the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, but prior to the disaster the number of children affected by thyroid cancer was relatively low globally. Every year about, "0.1 -- 2.2 individuals per million of all aged under 15 years old world wide '' were affected by thyroid cancer. Research has shown after the Chernobyl disaster the level of thyroid cancer, particularly in children near the radiation exposure, had abnormally increased. Although iodine - 131 has a relatively short half - life compared to other radioactive isotopes, iodine - 131 made its way through the food chain through a milk - to - consumer pathway. 95 % of iodine - 131 was ingested through milk shortly after the disaster. Communities were unaware of the contamination deposited in soil and the transforming capabilities of radiation into other food sources. Through the consumption of milk children had received abnormal amounts of radiation exposure.
The high absorption rate discovered in children has also shown to be inversely proportional to age. There is a high number of thyroid cancer among children less than 15 years old who were exposed to the radiation after the disaster and an increasing level of dosage as age decreases. This inverse proportion could be explained by the way in which children absorb iodine - 131. Children have smaller thyroid glands compared to adults and have a different dosage response after the ingestion of iodine - 131. A cohort study conducted in 2013 had discovered a similar trend between age and dosage response. The cohort was composed of 12,000 participants, all of which were exposed to the radiation in Belarus and reported to be under the age of 18 at the time of the exposure.
Studying the populations that were exposed to radiation after the Chernobyl accident has provided important data linking exposure to radiation and the future development of cancer.
Cases of pediatric thyroid cancer, likely caused by absorption of Iodine - 131 into the thyroid gland, increased in Ukraine and Belarus 3 to 4 years after the accident. Children were most at risk, and cases did not seem to increase in adults. The greatest increase was seen in children who were the youngest at the time of exposure, and most of the pediatric thyroid cases were reported in Gomel, Belarus, where the population was exposed to the highest levels of contamination. The majority of the cases that appeared in the exposed population were papillary thyroid cancer.
Before the accident, the rate of thyroid cancer in children in Belarus was less than 1 per million. By 1995, nine years after the disaster, the number of cases of pediatric thyroid cancer in Gomel Oblast rose to 100 per million per year. Even as adults those who were exposed to the radiation as children may still be at risk of developing thyroid cancer decades after the exposure. It is important to study the at risk population throughout their lives, and observe if different patterns arise in tumors that develop with longer latency.
A group of experts who are part of the Agenda for Research on Chernobyl Health (ARCH) have proposed a series of potential studies that would examine the continued effects from the Chernobyl accident, and provide more information on the full extent of related health consequences. Results from lifelong observation of the exposed population could provide more information on risks as well as future protections against radiation exposure.
The explosion at the power station and subsequent fires inside the remains of the reactor resulted in the development and dispersal of a radioactive cloud which drifted not only over Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, but also over most of Europe and as far as Canada. In fact, the initial evidence in other countries that a major release of radioactive material had occurred came not from Soviet sources, but from Sweden, where on 28 April workers at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant (approximately 1100 km from the Chernobyl site) were found to have radioactive particles on their clothing.
It was Sweden 's search for the source of radioactivity (after they had determined there was no leak at the Swedish plant) that led to the first hint of a serious nuclear problem in the Western Soviet Union. In France, the government then claimed that the radioactive cloud had stopped at the Italian border. Therefore, while some kinds of food (mushrooms in particular) were prohibited in Italy because of radioactivity, the French authorities took no such measures, in an attempt to appease the population 's fears (see below).
Contamination from the Chernobyl disaster was not evenly spread across the surrounding countryside but scattered irregularly depending on weather conditions. Reports from Soviet and Western scientists indicate that Belarus received about 60 % of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union. A large area in Russia south of Bryansk was also contaminated, as were parts of northwestern Ukraine.
203 people were hospitalized immediately, of whom 31 died (28 of them died from acute radiation exposure). Most of these were fire and rescue workers trying to bring the disaster under control, who were not fully aware of how dangerous the radiation exposure (from the smoke) was (for a discussion of the more important isotopes in fallout see fission products). 135,000 people were evacuated from the area, including 50,000 from the nearby town of Pripyat, Ukraine. Health officials have predicted that over the next 70 years there will be a 28 % increase in cancer rates in much of the population which was exposed to the 5 -- 12 E Bq (depending on source) of radioactive contamination released from the reactor.
Soviet scientists reported that the Chernobyl Unit 4 reactor contained about 180 -- 190 metric tons of uranium dioxide fuel and fission products. Estimates of the amount of this material that escaped range from 5 to 30 %. Because of the intense heat of the fire, and with no containment building to stop it, part of the ejected fuel was vaporized or particularized and lofted high into the atmosphere, where it spread.
The workers involved in the recovery and clean up after the disaster, called "liquidators '', received high doses of radiation. In most cases, these workers were not equipped with individual dosimeters to measure the amount of radiation received, so experts could only estimate their doses. Even where dosimeters were used, dosimetric procedures varied - some workers are thought to have been given more accurate estimated doses than others. According to Soviet estimates, between 300,000 and 600,000 people were involved in the cleanup of the 30 km evacuation zone around the reactor, but many of them entered the zone two years after the disaster.
Estimates of the number of "liquidators '' vary; the World Health Organization, for example, puts the figure at about 600,000; Russia lists as liquidators some people who did not work in contaminated areas. In the first year after the disaster, the number of cleanup workers in the zone was estimated to be 2,000. These workers received an estimated average dose of 165 millisieverts (16.5 REM).
A sevenfold increase in DNA mutations has been identified in children of liquidators conceived after the accident, when compared to their siblings that were conceived before. However, this effect has diminished sharply over time.
Soviet authorities started evacuating people from the area around Chernobyl only on the second day after the disaster (after about 36 hours). By May 1986, about a month later, all those living within a 30 km (19 mi) radius of the plant (about 116,000 people) had been relocated. This area is often referred to as the zone of alienation. However, significant radiation affected the environment over a much wider scale than this 30 km radius encloses.
According to reports from Soviet scientists, 28,000 square kilometers (km, or 10,800 square miles, mi) were contaminated by caesium - 137 to levels greater than 185 kBq per square meter. Roughly 830,000 people lived in this area. About 10,500 km (4,000 mi) were contaminated by caesium - 137 to levels greater than 555 kBq / m. Of this total, roughly 7,000 km (2,700 mi) lie in Belarus, 2,000 km (800 mi) in the Russian Federation and 1,500 km (580 mi) in Ukraine. About 250,000 people lived in this area. These reported data were corroborated by the International Chernobyl Project.
Some children in the contaminated areas were exposed to high radiation doses of up to 50 gray (Gy), mostly due to an intake of radioactive iodine - 131 (a relatively short - lived isotope with a half - life of 8 days) from contaminated milk produced locally. Several studies have found that the incidence of thyroid cancer among children in Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia has risen sharply since the Chernobyl disaster. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) notes "1800 documented cases of thyroid cancer in children who were between 0 and 14 years of age when the disaster occurred, which is far higher than normal '', although this source fails to note the expected rate. The childhood thyroid cancers that have appeared are of a large and aggressive type but, if detected early, can be treated. Treatment entails surgery followed by iodine - 131 therapy for any metastases. To date, such treatment appears to have been successful in the vast majority of cases.
Late in 1995, the World Health Organization (WHO) linked nearly 700 cases of thyroid cancer among children and adolescents to the Chernobyl disaster, and among these, some 10 deaths are attributed to radiation. However, the rapid increase in thyroid cancers detected suggests some of this increase may be an artifact of the screening process. Typical latency time of radiation - induced thyroid cancer is about 10 years, but the increase in childhood thyroid cancers in some regions was observed as early as 1987.
A large swath of pine forest killed by acute radiation was named the Red Forest. The dead pines were bulldozed and buried. Livestock were removed during the human evacuations. Elsewhere in Europe, levels of radioactivity were examined in various natural foodstocks. In both Sweden and Finland, fish in deep freshwater lakes were banned for resale and landowners were advised not to consume certain types. Information regarding physical deformities in the plant and animal populations in the areas affected by radioactive fallout require sampling and capture, along with DNA testing, of individuals to determine if abnormalities are the result of natural mutation, radiation poisoning, or exposure to other contaminants in the environment (i.e. pesticides, industrial waste, or agricultural run - off).
Animals living in contaminated areas in and around Chernobyl have suffered from a variety of side effects caused by radiation. Oxidative stress and low levels of antioxidants have had severe consequences on the development of the nervous system, including reduced brain size and impaired cognitive abilities. It has been found that birds living in areas with high levels of radiation have statistically significantly smaller brains, which has shown to be a deficit to viability in the wild. Barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) that live in or around Chernobyl have displayed an increased rate of physical abnormalities compared to swallows from uncontaminated areas. Abnormalities included partially albinistic plumage, deformed toes, tumors, deformed tail feathers, deformed beaks, and deformed air sacks. Birds with these abnormalities have a reduced viability in the wild and a decrease in fitness. Moeller et al. claimed in 2007 that these effects were likely due to radiation exposure and elevated teratogenic effects of radioactive isotopes in the environment although these conclusions have been challenged. Various birds in the area appear to have adapted to lower levels of radiation by producing more antioxidants, such as glutathione, to help mitigate the oxidative stress.
Invertebrate populations (including bumblebees, butterflies, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and spiders) significantly decreased. As of 2009, most radioactivity around Chernobyl was located in the top layer of soil, where many invertebrates live or lay their eggs. The reduced abundance of invertebrates could have negative implications for the entire ecosystem surrounding Chernobyl.
Radionuclides migrate through either soil diffusion or transportation within the soil solution. The effects of ionizing radiation on plants and trees in particular depends on numerous factors, including climatic conditions, the mechanism of radiation deposition, and the soil type. In turn, radiated vegetation affects organisms further up the food chain. In general, the upper - level trophic organisms received less contamination, due to their ability to be more mobile and feed from multiple areas.
The amount of radioactive nuclides found to have been deposited into surrounding lakes has increased the normal baseline radioactive amounts by 100 percent. Most of the radionuclides in surrounding water areas were found in the sediments at the bottom of the lakes. There has been a high incidence of chromosomal changes in plant and animal aquatic organisms, and this generally has correlated with the contamination and resulting genetic instability. Most of the lakes and rivers surrounding the Chernobyl exclusion zone are still highly contaminated with radionuclides (and will be for many years to come) as the natural decontamination processes of nucleotides with longer half - lives can take many years.
One of the main mechanisms by which radionuclides were passed to humans was through the ingestion of milk from contaminated cows. Most of the rough grazing that the cows took part in contained plant species such as coarse grasses, sedges, rushes, and plants such as heather (also known as calluna vulgaris). These plant species grow in soils that are high in organic matter, low in pH, and are often very well hydrated, thus making the storage and intake of these radionuclides much more feasible and efficient. In the early stages following the Chernobyl accident, high levels of radionuclides were found in the milk and were a direct result of contaminated feeding. Within two months of banning most of the milk that was being produced in the affected areas, officials had phased out the majority of the contaminated feed that was available to the cows and much of the contamination was isolated. In humans, ingestion of milk containing abnormally high levels of iodine radionuclides was the precursor for thyroid disease, especially in children and in the immunocompromised.
Some plants and animals were able to adapt to the increased radiation levels present in and around Chernobyl. Arabidopsis, a plant native to Chernobyl, was able to resist high concentrations of ionizing radiation and resist forming mutations. This species of plant has been able to develop mechanisms to tolerate chronic radiation that would otherwise be harmful or lethal to other species.
Studies suggest the 19 - mile (30 km) "exclusion zone '' surrounding the Chernobyl disaster has become a wildlife sanctuary. Animals have reclaimed the land including species such as the Przewalski 's horse, Eurasian lynx, wild boar, grey wolf, elk, red deer, moose, brown bear, turtle, voles, mice, shrews, European badger, Eurasian beaver, raccoon dog, red fox, roe deer, European bison, black stork, golden eagle, white - tailed eagle and eagle owl whose populations are all thriving. When the disaster first occurred, the health and reproductive ability of many animals and plants were negatively affected for the first six months. However, 30 years later, animals and plants have reclaimed the abandoned zone to make it their habitat. Even the site of the explosion was flourishing with wildlife in 2012 as birds nested in the wrecked nuclear plant, and plants and mushrooms lived in and on the site. A 2015 study found similar numbers of mammals in the zone compared to nearby similar nature reserves and the wildlife population was probably higher than it had been before the accident.
Due to the bioaccumulation of caesium - 137, some mushrooms as well as wild animals which eat them, e.g. wild boars hunted in Germany and deer in Austria, may have levels which are not considered safe for human consumption. Mandatory radioactivity testing of sheep in parts of the UK that graze on lands with contaminated peat was lifted in 2012.
In 2016, 187 local Ukrainians had returned and were living permanently in the zone.
Despite spurious studies from Germany and Turkey, the only robust evidence of negative pregnancy outcomes that transpired after the accident was the increase in elective abortions, these "indirect effects '', in Greece, Denmark, Italy etc., have been attributed to "anxieties created '' by the media.
In very high doses, it was known at the time that radiation can cause a physiological increase in the rate of pregnancy anomalies, but unlike the dominant linear - no threshold model of radiation and cancer rate increases, it was known, by select researchers who were familiar with both the prior human exposure data and animal testing, that the "Malformation of organs appears to be a deterministic effect with a threshold dose '' below which, no rate increase is observed. This teratology (birth defects) issue was discussed by Frank Castronovo of the Harvard Medical School in 1999, publishing a detailed review of dose reconstructions and the available pregnancy data following the Chernobyl accident, inclusive of data from Kiev 's two largest obstetrics hospitals. Castronovo concludes that "the lay press with newspaper reporters playing up anecdotal stories of children with birth defects '' is, together with dubious studies that show "selection bias '', the two primary factors causing the persistent belief that Chernobyl increased the background rate of birth defects. When the vast amount of pregnancy data simply does not support this perception as no pregnant individuals took part in the most radioactive liquidator operations, no pregnant individuals were exposed to the threshold dose.
The issue of long - term effects of the Chernobyl disaster on civilians is very controversial. The number of people whose lives were affected by the disaster is enormous. Over 300,000 people were resettled because of the disaster; millions lived and continue to live in the contaminated area. On the other hand, most of those affected received relatively low doses of radiation; there is little evidence of increased mortality, cancers or birth defects among them; and when such evidence is present, existence of a causal link to radioactive contamination is uncertain.
An increased incidence of thyroid cancer among children in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia affected by the Chernobyl disaster has been firmly established as a result of screening programs and, in the case of Belarus, an established cancer registry. The findings of most epidemiological studies must be considered interim, say experts, as analysis of the health effects of the disaster is an ongoing process. Multilevel modelling indicates that long - term psychological distress among Belarusians affected by the Chernobyl disaster is better predicted by stress - moderating psychosocial factors present in one 's daily life than by level of residential radiation contamination.
Epidemiological studies have been hampered in the Ukraine, Russian Federation and Belarus by a lack of funds, an infrastructure with little or no experience in chronic disease epidemiology, poor communication facilities and an immediate public health problem with many dimensions. Emphasis has been placed on screening rather than on well - designed epidemiological studies. International efforts to organize epidemiological studies have been slowed by some of the same factors, especially the lack of a suitable scientific infrastructure.
Furthermore, the political nature of nuclear energy may have affected scientific studies. In Belarus, Yury Bandazhevsky, a scientist who questioned the official estimates of Chernobyl 's consequences and the relevancy of the official maximum limit of 1,000 Bq / kg, was imprisoned from 2001 to 2005. Bandazhevsky and some human rights groups allege his imprisonment was a reprisal for his publication of reports critical of the official research being conducted into the Chernobyl incident.
The activities undertaken by Belarus and Ukraine in response to the disaster -- remediation of the environment, evacuation and resettlement, development of uncontaminated food sources and food distribution channels, and public health measures -- have overburdened the governments of those countries. International agencies and foreign governments have provided extensive logistic and humanitarian assistance. In addition, the work of the European Commission and World Health Organization in strengthening the epidemiological research infrastructure in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus is laying the basis for major advances in these countries ' ability to carry out epidemiological studies of all kinds.
Immediately after the disaster, the main health concern involved radioactive iodine, with a half - life of eight days. Today, there is concern about contamination of the soil with strontium - 90 and caesium - 137, which have half - lives of about 30 years. The highest levels of caesium - 137 are found in the surface layers of the soil where they are absorbed by plants, insects and mushrooms, entering the local food supply. Some scientists fear that radioactivity will affect the local population for the next several generations. Note that caesium is not mobile in most soils because it binds to the clay minerals.
Tests (c. 1997) showed that caesium - 137 levels in trees of the area were continuing to rise. It is unknown if this is still the case. There is some evidence that contamination is migrating into underground aquifers and closed bodies of water such as lakes and ponds (2001, Germenchuk). The main source of elimination is predicted to be natural decay of caesium - 137 to stable barium - 137, since runoff by rain and groundwater has been demonstrated to be negligible.
An increased incidence of thyroid cancer was observed for about 4 years after the accident and slowed in 2005. The large increase in incidence of thyroid cancer happened amongst individuals who were adolescents and young children living during the time of the accident, and residing in the most contaminated areas of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. High levels of radioactive iodine were released in the environment from the Chernobyl reactor after the accident, and accumulated in pastures which were eaten by cows. The milk was later consumed by children who already had an iodine deficient diet, therefore causing more of the radioactive iodine to be accumulated. Radioactive iodine has a short half - life, 8.02 days, if the contaminated milk would have been avoided or stopped, it is likely that most of the rise in radiation - induced thyroid cancer would n't have happened.
Within the highly contaminated areas -- Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, there were around 5000 cases of thyroid cancer that have been diagnosed since the accident. These cases were found in individuals who were aged 18 and younger during the time of the accident.
The Chernobyl Tissue Bank (CTB) was created in 1998, 6 years after research was published showing a rise in childhood thyroid cancer. Supported by the Russian Federation and Ukraine, The European Commission, the National Cancer Institute of the USA, and the Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation, the project is the first international co-operation that collects biological samples from patients who were exposed to radioiodine during childhood. The project started collecting a variety of biological samples from patients on October 1, 1998 and since July 2001, has been a source for ethically available tissue samples - specifically extracted nucleic acids and tissue sections, for 21 research projects in Japan, Europe and the USA. The CTB serves as a model for tissue banking for cancer research in the molecular age.
Twenty - five years after the incident, restriction orders had remained in place in the production, transportation and consumption of food contaminated by Chernobyl fallout. In the UK, only in 2012 the mandatory radioactivity testing of sheep in contaminated parts of the UK that graze on lands was lifted. They covered 369 farms on 750 km and 200,000 sheep. In parts of Sweden and Finland, restrictions are in place on stock animals, including reindeer, in natural and near - natural environments. "In certain regions of Germany, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Finland, Lithuania and Poland, wild game (including boar and deer), wild mushrooms, berries and carnivorous fish from lakes reach levels of several thousand Bq per kg of caesium - 137 '', while "in Germany, caesium - 137 levels in wild boar muscle reached 40,000 Bq / kg. The average level is 6,800 Bq / kg, more than ten times the EU limit of 600 Bq / kg '', according to the TORCH 2006 report. The European Commission has stated that "The restrictions on certain foodstuffs from certain Member States must therefore continue to be maintained for many years to come ''.
As of 2009, sheep farmed in some areas of the UK are still subject to inspection which may lead to them being prohibited from entering the human food chain because of contamination arising from the accident:
Some of this radioactivity, predominantly radiocaesium - 137, was deposited on certain upland areas of the UK, where sheep - farming is the primary land - use. Due to the particular chemical and physical properties of the peaty soil types present in these upland areas, the radiocaesium is still able to pass easily from soil to grass and hence accumulate in sheep. A maximum limit of 1,000 becquerels per kilogramme (Bq / kg) of radiocaesium is applied to sheep meat affected by the accident to protect consumers. This limit was introduced in the UK in 1986, based on advice from the European Commission 's Article 31 group of experts. Under power provided under the Food and Environment Protection Act 1985 (FEPA), Emergency Orders have been used since 1986 to impose restrictions on the movement and sale of sheep exceeding the limit in certain parts of Cumbria, North Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland... When the Emergency Orders were introduced in 1986, the Restricted Areas were large, covering almost 9,000 farms, and over 4 million sheep. Since 1986, the areas covered by restrictions have dramatically decreased and now cover 369 farms, or part farms, and around 200,000 sheep. This represents a reduction of over 95 % since 1986, with only limited areas of Cumbria, South Western Scotland and North Wales, covered by restrictions.
369 farms and 190,000 sheep are still affected, a reduction of 95 % since 1986, when 9,700 farms and 4,225,000 sheep were under restriction across the United Kingdom. Restrictions were finally lifted in 2012.
In Norway, the Sami people were affected by contaminated food (the reindeer had been contaminated by eating lichen, which accumulates some types of radioactivity emitters).
Data from a long - term monitoring program from 1998 to 2015 (The Korma Report II) shows a significant decrease in internal radiation exposure of the inhabitants of small villages in Belarus 80 km north of Gomel. Resettlement may even be possible in parts of the prohibited areas provided that people comply with appropriate dietary rules.
According to reports from Soviet scientists at the First International Conference on the Biological and Radiological Aspects of the Chernobyl Accident (September 1990), fallout levels in the 10 km zone around the plant were as high as 4.81 G Bq / m. The so - called "Red Forest '' of pine trees, previously known as Wormwood Forest and located immediately behind the reactor complex, lay within the 10 km zone and was killed off by heavy radioactive fallout. The forest is so named because in the days following the disaster the trees appeared to have a deep red hue as they died because of extremely heavy radioactive fallout. In the post-disaster cleanup operations, a majority of the 4 km forest was bulldozed and buried. The site of the Red Forest remains one of the most contaminated areas in the world.
In recent years there have been many reports suggesting the zone may be a fertile habitat for wildlife. For example, in the 1996 BBC Horizon documentary ' Inside Chernobyl 's Sarcophagus ', birds are seen flying in and out of large holes in the structure itself. Other casual observations suggest biodiversity around the massive radioactivity release has increased due to the removal of human influence (see the first hand account of the wildlife preserve). Storks, wolves, beavers, and eagles have been reported in the area.
Barn swallows sampled between 1991 and 2006 both in the Chernobyl exclusion zone had more physical abnormalities than control sparrows sampled elsewhere in Europe. Abnormal barn swallows mated with lower frequency, causing the percentage of abnormal swallows to decrease over time. This demonstrated the selective pressure against the abnormalities was faster than the effects of radiation that created the abnormalities. "This was a big surprise to us, '' Dr. Mousseau said. "We had no idea of the impact. ''
It is unknown whether fallout contamination will have any long - term adverse effect on the flora and fauna of the region, as plants and animals have significantly different and varying radiologic tolerance compared with humans. Some birds are reported with stunted tail feathers (which interferes with breeding). There are reports of mutations in plants in the area. The Chernobyl area has not received very much biological study, although studies that have been done suggest that apparently healthy populations may be sink instead of source populations; in other words, that the apparently healthy populations are not contributing to the survival of species.
Using robots, researchers have retrieved samples of highly melanized black fungus from the walls of the reactor core itself. It has been shown that certain species of fungus, such as Cryptococcus neoformans and Cladosporium, can actually thrive in a radioactive environment, growing better than non-melanized variants, implying that they use melanin to harness the energy of ionizing radiation from the reactor.
The Exclusion Zone around the Chernobyl nuclear power station is reportedly a haven for wildlife. As humans were evacuated from the area 25 years ago, existing animal populations multiplied and rare species not seen for centuries have returned or have been reintroduced, for example Eurasian lynx, wild boar, Eurasian wolf, Eurasian brown bear, European bison, Przewalski 's horse, and Eurasian eagle owls. Birds even nest inside the cracked concrete sarcophagus shielding the shattered remains of Reactor 4. In 2007 the Ukrainian government designated the Exclusion Zone as a wildlife sanctuary, and at 488.7 km it is one of the largest wildlife sanctuaries in Europe.
According to a 2005 U.N. report, wildlife has returned despite radiation levels that are presently 10 to 100 times higher than normal background radiation. Although radiation levels were significantly higher soon after the accident, they have fallen because of radioactive decay.
Møller and Tim Mousseau have published the results of the largest census of animal life in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. (2) It said, contrary to the Chernobyl Forum 's 2005 report, (3) that the biodiversity of insects, birds and mammals is declining. Møller and Mousseau have been criticized strongly by Sergey Gaschak, a Ukrainian biologist who did field work for the pair beginning in 2003. He regards their conclusions to be the result of a biased and unscientific anti-nuclear political agenda, unsupported by the data he collected for them. "I know Chernobyl Zone, '' he says. "I worked here many years. I ca n't believe their results. '' (4)
Some researchers have said that by halting the destruction of habitat, the Chernobyl disaster helped wildlife flourish. Biologist Robert J. Baker of Texas Tech University was one of the first to report that Chernobyl had become a wildlife haven and that many rodents he has studied at Chernobyl since the early 1990s have shown remarkable tolerance for elevated radiation levels.
Møller et al. (2005) suggested that the reproductive success and annual survival rates of barn swallows are much lower in the Exclusion Zone; 28 % of barn swallows inhabiting Chernobyl return each year, while at a control area at Kanev, 250 km to the southeast, the return rate is around 40 %. A later study by Møller et al. (2007) furthermore claimed an elevated frequency of eleven categories of subtle physical abnormalities in barn swallows, such as bent tail feathers, deformed air sacs, deformed beaks, and isolated albinistic feathers.
Smith et al. (2007) have disputed Møller 's findings and instead proposed that a lack of human influence in the Exclusion Zone locally reduced the swallows ' insect prey and that radiation levels across the vast majority of the exclusion zone are now too low to have an observable negative effect. But the criticisms raised were responded to in Møller et al. (2008). It is possible that barn swallows are particularly vulnerable to elevated levels of ionizing radiation because they are migratory; they arrive in the exclusion area exhausted and with depleted reserves of radio - protective antioxidants after their journey.
Several research groups have suggested that plants in the area have adapted to cope with the high radiation levels, for example by increasing the activity of DNA cellular repair machinery and by hypermethylation. Given the uncertainties, further research is needed to assess the long - term health effects of elevated ionizing radiation from Chernobyl on flora and fauna.
In 2015, long - term empirical data showed no evidence of a negative influence of radiation on mammal abundance.
In September 2005, a comprehensive report was published by the Chernobyl Forum, comprising a number of agencies including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. This report titled: "Chernobyl 's legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio - Economic Impacts '', authored by about 100 recognized experts from many countries, put the total predicted number of deaths due to the disaster around 4,000 (of which 2,200 deaths are expected to be in the ranks of 200,000 liquidators). This predicted death toll includes the 47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome as a direct result of radiation from the disaster, nine children who died from thyroid cancer and an estimated 4000 people who could die from cancer as a result of exposure to radiation. This number was subsequently updated to 9000 excess cancer deaths.
An IAEA press officer admitted that the 4000 figure was given prominence in the report "... to counter the much higher estimates which had previously been seen... "It was a bold action to put out a new figure that was much less than conventional wisdom. '' ''
The report also stated that, apart from a 30 kilometre area around the site and a few restricted lakes and forests, radiation levels had returned to acceptable levels. For full coverage see the IAEA Focus Page.
The methodology of the Chernobyl Forum report, supported by Elisabeth Cardis of the International Agency for Research on Cancer, has been disputed by some advocacy organizations opposed to nuclear energy, such as Greenpeace and the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), as well as some individuals such as Dr. Michel Fernex, retired medical doctor from the WHO and campaigner Dr. Christopher Busby (Green Audit, LLRC). The main criticism has been with regard to the restriction of the Forum 's study to Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Furthermore, it only studied the case of 200,000 people involved in the cleanup, and the 400,000 most directly affected by the released radioactivity. German Green Party Member of the European Parliament Rebecca Harms, commissioned a report on Chernobyl in 2006 (TORCH, The Other Report on Chernobyl). The 2006 TORCH report claimed that:
In terms of their surface areas, Belarus (22 % of its land area) and Austria (13 %) were most affected by higher levels of contamination. Other countries were seriously affected; for example, more than 5 % of Ukraine, Finland and Sweden were contaminated to high levels (> 40,000 Bq / m caesium - 137). More than 80 % of Moldova, the European part of Turkey, Slovenia, Switzerland, Austria and the Slovak Republic were contaminated to lower levels (> 4,000 Bq / m caesium - 137). And 44 % of Germany and 34 % of the UK were similarly affected. (See map of radioactive distribution of caesium - 137 in Europe)
While the IAEA / WHO and UNSCEAR considered areas with exposure greater than 40,000 Bq / m, the TORCH report also included areas contaminated with more than 4,000 Bq / m of Cs - 137.
The TORCH 2006 report "estimated that more than half the iodine - 131 from Chernobyl (which increases the risk of thyroid cancer) was deposited outside the former Soviet Union. Possible increases in thyroid cancer have been reported in the Czech Republic and the UK, but more research is needed to evaluate thyroid cancer incidences in Western Europe ''. It predicted about 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths, 7 to 15 Times greater than the figure of 4,000 in the IAEA press release; warned that predictions of excess cancer deaths strongly depend on the risk factor used; and predicted excess cases of thyroid cancer range between 18,000 and 66,000 in Belarus alone depending on the risk projection model. However, elevated incidence thyroid cancer is still seen among Ukrainians who were exposed to radioactivity due to Chernobyl accident during their childhood, but who were diagnosed the malignancy as adults.
Another study claims possible heightened mortality in Sweden.
Greenpeace quoted a 1998 WHO study, which counted 212 dead from only 72,000 liquidators. The environmental NGO estimated a total death toll of 93,000 but cite in their report that "The most recently published figures indicate that in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine alone the disaster could have resulted in an estimated 200,000 additional deaths in the period between 1990 and 2004. '' In its report, Greenpeace suggested there will be 270,000 cases of cancer alone attributable to Chernobyl fallout, and that 93,000 of these will probably be fatal compare with the IAEA 2005 report which claimed that "99 % of thyroid cancers would n't be lethal ''.
According to the Union Chernobyl, the main organization of liquidators, 10 % of the 600,000 liquidators are now dead, and 165,000 disabled.
According to an April 2006 report by the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), entitled "Health Effects of Chernobyl - 20 years after the reactor catastrophe '', more than 10,000 people are today affected by thyroid cancer and 50,000 cases are expected. In Europe, the IPPNW claims that 10,000 deformities have been observed in newborns because of Chernobyl 's radioactive discharge, with 5,000 deaths among newborn children. They also state that several hundreds of thousands of the people who worked on the site after the disaster are now sick because of radiation, and tens of thousands are dead.
Revisiting the issue for the 25th anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster, the Union of Concerned Scientists described the Forum 's estimate of four thousand as pertaining only to "a much smaller subgroup of people who experienced the greatest exposure to released radiation ''. Their estimates for the broader population are 50,000 excess cancer cases resulting in 25,000 excess cancer deaths.
The majority of premature deaths caused by Chernobyl are expected to be the result of cancers and other diseases induced by radiation in the decades after the event. This will be the result of a large population (some studies have considered the entire population of Europe) exposed to relatively low doses of radiation increasing the risk of cancer across that population. Interpretations of the current health state of exposed populations vary. Therefore, estimates of the ultimate human impact of the disaster have relied on numerical models of the effects of radiation on health. Furthermore, the effects of low - level radiation on human health are not well understood, and so the models used, notably the linear no threshold model, are open to question.
Given these factors, studies of Chernobyl 's health effects have come up with different conclusions and are the subject of scientific and political controversy. The following section presents some of the major studies on this topic.
In September 2005, a draft summary report by the Chernobyl Forum, comprising a number of UN agencies including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), other UN bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, put the total predicted number of deaths due to the accident at 4000. This death toll predicted by the WHO included the 47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome as a direct result of radiation from the disaster and nine children who died from thyroid cancer, in the estimated 4000 excess cancer deaths expected among the 600,000 with the highest levels of exposure.
The full version of the WHO health effects report adopted by the UN, published in April 2006, included the prediction of 5000 additional fatalities from significantly contaminated areas in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine and predicted that, in total, 9000 will die from cancer among the 6.9 million most - exposed Soviet citizens. This report is not free of controversy, and has been accused of trying to minimize the consequences of the accident.
In 2006 German Green Party Member of the European Parliament Rebecca Harms commissioned two UK scientists for an alternate report (TORCH, The Other Report on CHernobyl) in response to the UN report. The report included areas not covered by the Chernobyl forum report, and also lower radiation doses. It predicted about 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths and warned that predictions of excess cancer deaths strongly depend on the risk factor used, and urged more research stating that large uncertainties made it difficult to properly assess the full scale of the disaster.
Greenpeace claimed contradictions in the Chernobyl Forum reports, quoting a 1998 WHO study referenced in the 2005 report, which projected 212 dead from 72,000 liquidators. In its report, Greenpeace suggested there will be 270,000 cases of cancer attributable to Chernobyl fallout, and that 93,000 of these will probably be fatal, but state in their report that "The most recently published figures indicate that in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine alone the accident could have resulted in an estimated 200,000 additional deaths in the period between 1990 and 2004. '' Blake Lee - Harwood, campaigns director at Greenpeace, believes that cancer was likely to be the cause of less than half of the final fatalities and that "intestinal problems, heart and circulation problems, respiratory problems, endocrine problems, and particularly effects on the immune system, '' will also cause fatalities. However, concern has been expressed about the methods used in compiling the Greenpeace report. It is not peer reviewed nor does it rely on peer review science as the Chernobyl Forum report did.
According to an April 2006 report by the German affiliate of the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), entitled "Health Effects of Chernobyl '', more than 10,000 people are today affected by thyroid cancer and 50,000 cases are expected. The report projected tens of thousands dead among the liquidators. In Europe, it alleges that 10,000 deformities have been observed in newborns because of Chernobyl 's radioactive discharge, with 5000 deaths among newborn children. They also claimed that several hundreds of thousands of the people who worked on the site after the accident are now sick because of radiation, and tens of thousands are dead.
Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment is an English translation of the 2007 Russian publication Chernobyl. It was published online in 2009 by the New York Academy of Sciences in their Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. It presents an analysis of scientific literature and concludes that medical records between 1986, the year of the accident, and 2004 reflect 985,000 deaths as a result of the radioactivity released. The authors suggest that most of the deaths were in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, but others were spread through the many other countries the radiation from Chernobyl struck.
The literature analysis draws on over 1,000 published titles and over 5,000 internet and printed publications discussing the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. The authors contend that those publications and papers were written by leading Eastern European authorities and have largely been downplayed or ignored by the IAEA and UNSCEAR. Author Alexy V. Yablokov was also one of the general editors on the Greenpeace commissioned report also criticizing the Chernobyl Forum finds published one year prior to the Russian - language version of this report.
A critical review by Dr. Monty Charles in the journal Radiation Protection Dosimetry states that Consequences is a direct extension of the 2005 Greenpeace report, updated with data of unknown quality. The New York Academy of Sciences also published a severely critical review by M.I. Balonov from the Institute of Radiation Hygiene (St. Petersburg, Russia) which stated that "The value of (Consequences) is not zero, but negative, as its bias is obvious only to specialists, while inexperienced readers may well be put into deep error. ''
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) produced a detailed report on the effects of Chernobyl for the General Assembly of the UN in 2011. This report concluded that 134 staff and emergency workers suffered acute radiation syndrome and of those 28 died of radiation exposure within three months. Many of the survivors suffered skin conditions and radiation induced cataracts, and 19 had since died, but from conditions not necessarily associated with radiation exposure. Of the several hundred thousand liquidators, apart from some emerging indications of increased leukaemia, there was no other evidence of health effects.
In the general public in the affected areas, the only effect with ' persuasive evidence ' was a substantial fraction of the 6,000 cases of thyroid cancer in adolescents of whom by 2005 15 cases had proved fatal. There was no evidence of increased rates of solid cancers or leukaemia among the general population. However, there was a widespread psychological worry about the effects of radiation.
The total deaths reliably attributable by UNSCEAR to the radiation produced by the accident therefore was 62.
The report concluded that ' the vast majority of the population need not live in fear of serious health consequences from the Chernobyl accident '.
Since March 2001, 400 lawsuits have been filed in France against "X '' (the French equivalent of John Doe, an unknown person or company) by the French Association of Thyroid - affected People, including 200 in April 2006. These persons are affected by thyroid cancer or goitres, and have filed lawsuits alleging that the French government, at the time led by Prime Minister Jacques Chirac, had not adequately informed the population of the risks linked to the Chernobyl radioactive fallout. The complaint contrasts the health protection measures put in place in nearby countries (warning against consumption of green vegetables or milk by children and pregnant women) with the relatively high contamination suffered by the east of France and Corsica. Although the 2006 study by the French Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety said that no clear link could be found between Chernobyl and the increase of thyroid cancers in France, it also stated that papillary thyroid cancer had tripled in the following years.
After the Chernobyl Disaster, many countries were reluctant to expand their own nuclear programs. Some countries, such as Italy and Switzerland tried to ban nuclear power all together. Others, such as the Dutch and Finland postponed the addition of nuclear power plants. The disaster reaffirmed policy made by Austria and Sweden to terminate use of all nuclear energy. Germany set up regulatory organizations and new policy including the Federal Ministry of Environment and Reactor Safety and a new act for precaution protection against nuclear radiation.
Policy levers were not only implemented on a national level, but on an international level as well. In June 1986, the European Community implemented new standards for cesium. They attempted to do the same for iodine, but could not reach an agreement. Additionally several international programs were formed, including the World Association of Nuclear Operators. This association essentially linked 130 operators in 30 different countries. Nuclear engineers would visit nuclear plants worldwide to learn and work towards better safety precautions.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was also created. Funded by the Nuclear Safety Assistance Coordination Centre, the IAEA is an example of the international, multilateral cooperation resulting from the disaster (World Nuclear, 2016). They created the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency. Nations called for a more comprehensive set of obligatory regulations for nuclear power plants from safe management of installation to safe management of radioactive waste. They also created the Joint Convention of Safety of Spent Fuel Management in which obliged nations to create proper policy to control nuclear power plant management.
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when did dog the bounty hunter go off the air | Dog the Bounty Hunter - Wikipedia
Dog the Bounty Hunter is an American reality television series which aired on A&E and chronicled Duane "Dog '' Chapman 's experiences as a bounty hunter. With a few exceptions, the series took place in Hawaii or Dog 's home state of Colorado.
On May 21, 2012, A&E canceled the series after eight seasons. The series began airing in syndication on September 16, 2013. Dog and Beth then starred in a spin - off series, Dog and Beth: On the Hunt on CMT, before that series ended in August 2015. On November 14, 2017 A&E announced that there would be a 2 hour special called "Dog and Beth: Fight Of Their Lives ''. The special aired on November 27, 2017. The 120 minute special documented Beth Chapman and her family as she was fighting throat cancer.
The program spun off from Chapman 's appearance on the show Take This Job, a program about people with unusual occupations. Dog the Bounty Hunter captured an audience immediately by drawing viewers into the interaction of Chapman and his family / team, mixing street smarts, romance, arguments, teamwork, adrenaline - laced arrests and a philosophy of hope and second chances.
Viewers are taken along as Chapman and his family / team locate and arrest people who have broken the terms of their bail agreements. Bounty hunts and arrests segue into the rides to jail, during which Chapman and his team show compassion and strongly counsel the fugitives to start over, leaving behind drugs and / or crime to become dependable members of their families and society. Rounding out most episodes are scenes featuring Dog, Beth and their large family of children, grandchildren and friends.
As the show progressed, viewers were taken further behind the scenes during Baby Lyssa 's training as a licensed bail bondswoman and bounty hunter; Dog 's capture of Andrew Luster and the ensuing arrests of Chapman, Tim and Leland in Mexico; the deaths of Beth 's father (Garry Smith) and Dog 's oldest daughter (Barbara Katie Chapman); Chapman and Beth 's 2006 wedding; Baby Lyssa 's wedding and the birth of her second child; and the shock and fear of the family after Dog, Tim and Leland were arrested by federal marshals in Hawaii to await possible extradition to Mexico.
Chapman and Beth freely invited viewers into their lives, sharing personal stories about Chapman 's 1976 imprisonment; his ex-wives and custody battles; While Chapman was serving his sentence, his first wife LaFonda filed for divorce, and married his best friend. Chapman did field work for the prison, in addition to serving as the warden 's barber. When an inmate was attempting to escape, Chapman tackled him, which prevented the escapee from being shot at by guards. This, in addition to Chapman 's overall good behavior, led to him being paroled after only 18 months. Inspired by his tackle, Chapman decided to pursue becoming a bounty hunter once released. Dog was seen in 2016 making an appearance with his wife using a cane, which is surprising for the active bounty hunter we saw for so many years.
Production and airing of the show was halted by A&E on November 2, 2007, after an audio tape was released, featuring Duane Chapman using the word "nigger '' repeatedly in a discussion about the word itself with son Tucker regarding Tucker 's black girlfriend 's probable sensitivity to the word. Tucker had sold the tape to the National Enquirer, and it quickly was picked up by numerous print and broadcast media outlets. This media exposure led Duane to make an apology on CNN 's Larry King Live for his lack of sensitivity on the matter, and vowed to educate himself and make amends. On February 19, 2008, A&E announced that the show would return. Reruns of Dog the Bounty Hunter, along with never - before - seen episodes from season 4, began airing on June 25, 2008, and the show continued, along with special episodes about the arrest and fallout from the Luster situation.
On April 21, 2009, during filming of Season 6, Chapman was allegedly shot at with a handgun while his crew, along with bail bondsman Bobby Brown, were attempting to arrest a fugitive named Hoang Nguyen in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The suspect escaped on a motorcycle and was captured by Chapman about six hours later. This is contrary to evidence shown in the A&E airing of the episode titled "Easy Rider '', on December 16, 2009. According to Chapman 's website and TMZ, Nguyen was arrested and charged with attempted murder related to the shooting attempt of Chapman and the Chapman family. On May 15, 2009, the El Paso County, Colorado Assistant District attorney dropped the attempted murder charge against the alleged shooter due to lack of evidence and conflicting statements by Chapman, his son Leland, and bail bondsman Bobby Brown. The prosecutors also state that they have not received the requested video footage from the incident, which was allegedly filmed by the television crew. In March 2011, Nguyen filed a lawsuit against Chapman, Brown, and Chapman 's sons Duane Chapman II and Leland Chapman. In the lawsuit, Nguyen claims he lost his job as a result of the incident and had to relocate. He also says he was injured by pepper pellets that were allegedly fired at him. Chapman 's attorney, James A. Quadra, told Celebrity Crime Reporter the lawsuit has no basis "in law or fact ''. The lawsuit was in mediation the first week of March 2011 with a trial date on November 28, 2011.
In 2011, Leland and Duane Lee quit working with their father and stepmother and severed ties with their family. The March 21, 2012 episode showed Duane Lee telling Beth "You want me fired, you got ta fire me, '' and then Leland weighed in, saying "I quit too. '' In January 2012, the two brothers confirmed leaving the show. Leland now operates his own bail bond company on the Big Island of Hawaii and heads Bounty Hunter Tactical Supply Co. while Duane Lee moved to Florida. Beth tweeted, "It will take 6 weeks to get through the whole thing tonight 's jus (sic) the beginning. ''
In September 2011 Bobby Brown, who appeared in 30 episodes, sued A&E Television Networks, Hybrid Films, and D&D Television Productions in Colorado federal court, claiming he was promised to be a full cast member, but received only $6,000 for his contributions. The lawsuit is for "the misappropriation of his publicity rights as well as claims of breach of contract and promises.
Heavy metal artist Ozzy Osbourne sings the show 's theme song, "Dog the Bounty Hunter ''. The song can be heard on Osbourne 's Prince of Darkness box set. Many episodes feature at least one song from a band that is either unsigned or with an independent label, usually played during an action scene. These songs are plugged at the end of each episode, following the closing credits. Several episodes in season three and four have music from New York City - based dub reggae group Subatomic Sound System 's On All Frequencies album. Featured songs include: "Criminal '', "Doin ' It '', and "Ghetto Champion ''. Soulja Boy 's music video for "Yahhh! '' includes an impersonation of "Dog Woof Woof ''
The following summarizes the original broadcast presentation:
All the hour - long episodes were split into two parts for broadcast syndication. Full episodes are shown on streaming sites and DVD.
Note that not all episodes have been released on DVD.
The television series led to a 2007 autobiographical book, You Can Run But You Ca n't Hide, which chronicles Chapman 's years before becoming a bounty hunter and some of his more infamous hunts, including the controversial hunt that took him and his team to Mexico to capture serial rapist Andrew Luster. It also delves into his criminal past as well as his family background, imprisonment in Texas, marriages and children. A second book, Where Mercy Is Shown, Mercy Is Given, was published in 2009. Its title reflects Chapman 's overriding philosophy of second chances, which he writes about at length as he asks the public for a second chance of his own. The book largely deals with the fallout from two factors: the federal marshals ' arrest and the scandal over his use of the word "nigger ''.
Chapman has been parodied in live action productions:
Chapman has also been parodied in both animation and print:
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who is the first batsman to be given out using drs | Umpire decision review system - wikipedia
The Umpire Decision Review System (abbreviated as UDRS or DRS) is a technology - based system used in the sport of cricket. The system was first introduced in Test cricket, for the sole purpose of reviewing controversial decisions made by the on - field umpires as to whether or not a batsman / batswoman had been dismissed. The system was first tested in an India v Sri Lanka match in 2008, and was officially launched by the International Cricket Council (ICC) on 24 November 2009 during the first Test match between New Zealand and Pakistan at the University Oval in Dunedin. It was first used in One Day Internationals (ODI) in January 2011, during England 's tour of Australia. The ICC initially made the UDRS mandatory in all international matches, but later made its use optional, so that the system would only be used if both teams agree. The ICC has agreed to continue to work on the technology and will try to incorporate its use into all ICC events.
In October 2012, the ICC made amendments on lbw protocols, increasing the margin of uncertainty when the ball hits the batsman / batswoman 's pad. In July 2016, the rules were amended once again, reducing the margin of uncertainty. The updated rules were first used in the ODI match between Ireland and South Africa in September 2016.
In September 2013, the ICC announced that for a trial period starting in October 2013, a team 's referrals would be reset to two after 80 overs in an innings in Test matches. Previously each team had a maximum of two unsuccessful reviews in an innings.
In February 2017 the ICC agreed the use for all future ICC World Twenty20 tournaments, with one review per team. The first T20 tournament scheduled to use the technology will be the 2018 ICC Women 's World Twenty20. It was used in Knockout stages of Pakistan Super League 2017 It was the first time DRS used in a T20 league.
There are three components in UDRS. The use of Snickometer was suspended but was reintroduced in 2013. Ultra Edge was introduced in 2016, as a better option to Snickometer.
Each team may make no more than two unsuccessful review requests per 80 overs during a Test match, and no more than one unsuccessful review request per innings during a One Day International. A fielding team may use the system to dispute a "not out '' decision and a batting team may use it to dispute an "out '' decision. The fielding team captain or the batsman / batswoman being dismissed invokes the challenge by signalling a "T '' with the arms. Once the challenge is invoked, acknowledged, and agreed, the Third Umpire reviews the play. Additionally, at their discretion, field umpires may request the Third Umpire to review certain close calls such as line calls (to determine run outs and stumpings), boundary calls (to see if a batsman / batswoman hit a four or a six), or for close catch calls where neither umpire is sure if a catch was made. A challenge is only used in situations that did or could result in a dismissal: for example, to determine if the ball is a legal catch (making contact with the batsman / batswoman ' s bat or glove and not touching the ground before being held by a fielder) or if a delivery made the criteria for a leg before wicket dismissal (hitting the ground in line or on the off side and hitting the batsman / batswoman in line with a path that would have hit the wicket). The Third Umpire then reports to the on - field umpire whether his analysis supports the original call, contradicts the call, or is inconclusive. The on - field umpire then makes the final decision: either re-signalling a call that is standing or revoking a call that is being reversed and then making the corrected signal. Each team can initiate referrals up to the limit on unsuccessful reviews.
Under the DRS rule, only clearly incorrect decisions are reversed; if the Third Umpire 's analysis is within established margins of error or is otherwise inconclusive, the on - field umpire 's original call stands.
In 2013, ICC tested a broadcaster - free replay system. Under the experiment, a non-match umpire sits in a separate room with a giant monitor and has discretion over which replays to see rather than relying on the broadcaster. The non-match umpire mirrors the role of the third umpire without having the duty of making adjudications. The system was first used in an Ashes Test (where Nigel Llong performed the duties of non-match umpire) and was repeated in a Pakistan - Sri Lanka ODI.
The Decision Review System has generally received positive response from players and coaches since its launch, however there have been some criticisms as well. West Indies legend Joel Garner labelled the system a "gimmick ''. Another West Indian Ramnaresh Sarwan said that he was not a supporter of the experimental referral system. Former umpire Dickie Bird also criticised the system, saying it undermines the authority of on - field umpires. The cricketing board of India has expressed a skeptical view on the adoption of the system if it is near perfect. Pakistani spinner Saeed Ajmal expressed dissatisfaction over the Decision Review System after a semi-final of the 2011 Cricket World Cup against India. He said that DRS showed the line of the ball deviating more than it actually did. Hawk - Eye officials admitted in December 2014 that their review technology made an error in a decision to give Pakistan opener Shan Masood out in the second Test against New Zealand in Dubai (17 - 21 November 2014). At a meeting held at the ICC office in Dubai two weeks later, Hawk - Eye is understood to have conceded to Pakistan captain Misbah - ul - Haq and team manager Moin Khan that the projection used by their technology for the Leg before wicket decision was incorrect. Also, a challenge can only be made by the captain within a 15 - second window from when an initial decision is made, but it can be lengthened if no clear decision is made, especially they are assumed not out if there is no reaction by the umpire.
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how many seasons of the assassination of gianni | The Assassination of Gianni Versace: American Crime Story - wikipedia
The Assassination of Gianni Versace: American Crime Story is the second season of the FX true crime anthology television series American Crime Story. The season premiered on January 17, 2018, and concluded on March 21, 2018. It consists of a total of 9 episodes, and explores the murder of designer Gianni Versace by spree killer Andrew Cunanan, based on Maureen Orth 's book Vulgar Favors: Andrew Cunanan, Gianni Versace, and the Largest Failed Manhunt in U.S. History.
The season received positive reviews from critics, with praise for most of the performances. For the 70th Primetime Emmy Awards, it received the most nominations with nine, including Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series.
The Assassination of Gianni Versace: American Crime Story was picked up on October 18, 2016, and was announced as the third season of the series, following the season about Katrina. The announcement also revealed that English author Tom Rob Smith would be the writer of multiple episodes of the season, including the first two, while executive producer Ryan Murphy would be directing the season premiere. Following the airing of the first season 's finale in April 2016, it was revealed that series creators Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski would not be returning for the second season.
In June 2017, it was announced that Katrina would not begin production until early 2018 and that Versace would air in early 2018, replacing Katrina as the show 's official second installment.
On October 2, 2017, American Horror Story veteran Matt Bomer was announced as the director of the eighth episode, making it his directorial debut. During its production, the working title of the season was American Crime Story: Versace / Cunanan.
In December 2017, after the first public screening, it was revealed that Versace would have nine episodes, despite being originally reported to consist of ten episodes.
In February 2017, Édgar Ramírez and Darren Criss joined the cast of The Assassination of Gianni Versace as Gianni Versace and Andrew Cunanan, respectively. Murphy confirmed the reports announcing Lady Gaga would portray Donatella Versace in The Assassination of Gianni Versace were false; Penélope Cruz was later cast in the role. In April 2017, it was announced that Ricky Martin was joining the cast of The Assassination of Gianni Versace as Antonio D'Amico, Versace 's longtime partner. On April 28, 2017, Annaleigh Ashford was seen filming on the set of The Assassination of Gianni Versace with Criss. On June 21, 2017, it was announced through Entertainment Weekly that Ashford 's role in the series would be as Elizabeth Cote, a friend of Cunanan 's since high school, while Nico Evers - Swindell would play her husband, Philip Merrill.
On May 5, 2017, Murphy announced via his Instagram account that Max Greenfield joined the casting, by publishing a photo of Greenfield and Criss on the set. On June 21, 2017, it was announced that Finn Wittrock will star in The Assassination of Gianni Versace, playing Jeffrey Trail, Cunanan 's first victim.
In November 2017, the official Twitter account for the series revealed that Judith Light and Dascha Polanco are part of the cast. In December 2017, the official webpage for the series released cast and character bios revealing that Max Greenfield would play Ronnie, whilst confirming the casting of Judith Light as Marilyn Miglin, Dascha Polanco as Detective Lori Wieder, Jon Jon Briones as Modesto Cunanan, Cody Fern as David Madson, and Mike Farrell as Lee Miglin.
According to multiple set reports and photos, principal photography of season 2 took place at the beginning of May 2017, in Miami. As revealed by Darren Criss via his Twitter account, shooting ended during the week of November 13.
In September 2017, FX released the first promotional teaser for The Assassination of Gianni Versace, showing doves sitting outside Versace 's former mansion and flying away when two gunshots ring out. A second teaser was released that same month, depicting Versace 's sister Donatella placing flowers on a casket. In October, a new teaser was released, depicting some police radio communications as a black clothes cover, with the name Versace on it, is being closed. The same month, a second teaser was released, showing Donatella kissing the stairs where Gianni was murdered, before entering in his mansion. On Halloween day, FX aired a new promotional video during a commercial break of the ninth episode of American Horror Story: Cult, which announced that the season would premiere on January 17, 2018.
In November 2017, four new teasers were released. The first one shows Versace relaxing next to his pool, as Cunanan comes out of it. The second one depicts D'Amico leaving Gianni 's house, as he hears two gunshots (the unseen murder) and runs to see what happened; while a voice - over by Ricky Martin as D'Amico says that he was Gianni 's partner and lover. The third one shows Donatella and Gianni hugging and watching themselves in front of a mirror, as the latter tells his sister that she would be Versace without him. The fourth one depicts a running sewing machine, which ends up having some issues and not being able to finish its work.
On November 15, 2017, the first full trailer for the season was released via the Twitter account of the series. It shows some moments of Cunanan 's unstable past and the first aftermaths of Versace 's assassination. The same day, it was announced that the first episode of the season would be available five days before the official premiere for FX+ subscribers. On November 28, 2017, FX released a new short trailer depicting the main cast of the season: Cruz, Ramírez, Martin and Criss; while a voice - over by Criss as Cunanan reveals how he feels the same as Versace.
In December 2017, more teasers were released. The first one opposes Versace and Cunanan as they speak about themselves and their past. The second one features a Versace fashion show where models start crying, as news reports about Versace 's death are being heard. The third one shows Cunanan trying to convince someone that he really has a date with Versace, while the scene is being cut by shots of the assassination and its aftermaths. The fourth one features Donatella Versace in a black dress for her brother 's funeral; the fifth one shows different rooms of Versace 's mansion, with multiple voice - overs by different characters; and the sixth one features a showering Cunanan, surrounding his face with duct tape, as Max Greenfield 's Ronnie asks him what he is doing. On December 28, a first look at the series was released, with multiple interviews from the crew and the cast. That same day, a new teaser was also revealed, depicting Cunanan as he is about to kill his sexual partner and then Versace.
At the start of January 2018, a new teaser was released. It features Cunanan changing the license plate of his car and greeting a young girl, while a voice - over is saying that the police are looking for him and that he is very dangerous. On January 16, 2018, the full red band trailer was released, and a short version premiered the next day.
The second season of American Crime Story received generally positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the season an approval rating of 87 % based on 83 reviews, with an average rating of 7.09 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Assassination of Versace starts with a bang and unfurls slowly, moving backward through an intricate (and occasionally convoluted) murder mystery anchored by a career - defining performance from Darren Criss. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 74 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
In January 2018, the Versace family released a statement criticizing the series. They explained they have "neither authorized nor had any involvement whatsoever '' in the production of the season, before adding that it "should only be considered as a work of fiction. '' Executive producer Ryan Murphy answered that the series was "not a work of fiction '' as it is based on a non-fiction book, Maureen Orth 's Vulgar Favors, and that the production team and FX stand by the author and her work. Comparing it to The People v. O.J. Simpson, Murphy added that the season is "a work of non-fiction obviously with docudrama elements, '' and not a documentary. Following this answer, the Versace family released a second statement, still slamming the series as "a work of fiction '' because "the Orth book itself is full of gossip and speculation. '' They also heavily criticized Orth 's work, calling it an "effort to create a sensational story '' with "second - hand hearsay that is full of contradictions. '' They gave the example of Gianni Versace 's medical condition, as Orth claims that Versace was HIV positive at the time of his death.
Antonio D'Amico also criticized the series, deeming some scenes as "ridiculous '' and insisting that "so much has been fictionalised ''. He also revealed that he does not plan to watch it, but that he would have been happy if Ricky Martin, who plays his role, got in contact to get some insight into his relationship with Versace.
According to Ryan Murphy, Donatella Versace was very supportive that Penélope Cruz played her role. As Cruz and Versace are friends, Murphy explained that, when he offered her the role, Cruz asked the permission of Versace before agreeing to do it. He also revealed that, while Cruz was representing the series at the 75th Golden Globe Awards, Versace "very graciously sent (her) a lovely and huge flower arrangement saying ' good luck. ' ''
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when does the last season of pll come out | Pretty Little Liars (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh and final season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars, based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard, was renewed on June 10, 2014, for two additional seasons, making the show Freeform 's longest running original series.
The season consisted of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes aired in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes aired from April 2017. The season 's premiere aired on June 21, 2016, on Freeform. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016, which was confirmed by showrunner I. Marlene King. The season premiere was written by I. Marlene King and directed by Ron Lagomarsino. King revealed the title of the premiere on Twitter on March 17, 2016. On August 29, 2016, it was confirmed that this would be the final season of the series.
A.D. gives the Liars 24 hours to find Charlotte 's real killer or Hanna dies. While discussing possible suspects, the girls ' suspicion fell on Alison. Aria suspects the red jacket blonde she saw entering the church was Alison. Emily finds the jacket in Alison 's things and Caleb gives it to A.D. Meanwhile, Hanna manages to escape. Elliot 's true motive is later revealed to Alison; she managed to use his phone to alert the girls to her location when he takes her out in his car one night. She jumps out of the car and he gives chase but Hanna accidentally runs him over and they bury him in the woods.
The Liars find out Jenna is calling Elliot as "Archer '' on his burner phone. Mona then traces most of the sent messages from a secret apartment where they find out his real name is "Archer Dunhill ''. Toby discovers this and gets the cops to release Alison who reveals that she was the red jacket blonde but only tried to comfort Charlotte. Jenna befriends Sara and Noel begins helping them. Emily confronts Jenna and Sara. Jenna reveals that she became Charlotte 's friend after feeling sympathy for her in Welby and helped Archer fake his identity to be with Charlotte. Sara reveals that they are all looking for the same thing but is killed soon after. A.D. tricks Hanna into believing Archer is alive and records her digging up his grave.
The Liars find videos in Noel 's cabin of him torturing them in the dollhouse. Hanna kidnaps Noel after negotiating with him does n't work and films an interrogation video. He manages to escape and lures the Liars to an abandoned blind school. They leave the dollhouse videos on a table and someone takes them but Noel and Jenna attempt to murder them. In the confrontation, Noel is accidentally killed, and Spencer is shot by A.D., while Jenna corners Spencer. Jenna prepares to kill Spencer, but is knocked out by Mary. She then reveals that Spencer is her second child. A.D. saves Jenna who asks if they shot Spencer.
One week later, Spencer has recovered and A.D. sends Jenna to confess to the cops that Noel wanted money Charlotte left Jenna for another eye surgery, killed Sara and tried to kill Jenna in the blind school. Peter returns and reveals that Mary is the one who killed Jessica. Hanna and Spencer follow the trail of a private investigator he hired to find Mary and bump into Ted who reveals he has been hiding her as she is his college fling with whom he conceived Charles. Mary reveals to Spencer that Peter and Jessica were planning to kill her, thus she used his pills to kill Jessica. A.D. then uses Emily 's stolen eggs to impregnate Alison, as a way to further torture the liars. Meanwhile, A.D. hires Sydney Driscoll as their helper and she fakes being A.D. to recruit Aria into joining the A.D. team. Aria is forced into playing and becomes A.D. 's new helper, destroying Emison 's baby nursery and leaving an "A '' message in Spencer 's house, until the Liars catch her in the act and she defects. Mona, who is becoming addicted to the A-game again, reveals that she tried to scare Charlotte into not resuming the A-game but Charlotte attacked her and she killed her in self - defense. Mary confesses to Rollins and Jessica 's murder. A.D. ends the game as they have finally learned that Mona was Charlotte 's killer.
One year later, Mary escapes from prison and Mona is released from Welby but rejoins the A-Team and is sent to kidnap Spencer, who comes face - to - face with A.D. - Alex Drake, her twin sister. Mary reveals she sold Alex to a London family to get out of Radley. Alex ran away and met Wren who revealed everything about Spencer to her and introduced her to Charlotte who left her everything. She became A.D. to use the Liars to find Charlotte 's killer and killed Wren as he always saw her as Alex while she wanted to become Spencer to have her "perfect life ''. She explains that Sara was looking for Charlotte 's false treasure in the Radley which was actually the secret fall and Jenna recruited Noel to look for "Charlotte 's sister ''. Jenna uses her enhanced sense of smell to figure out "Spencer 's not Spencer '' and alerts Toby who tells the others. Mona reveals to them that Wren was going to kill her but she convinced him she could get Mary out. The Liars, Toby, Mona, and Caleb come face to face with Alex and Spencer as they can not tell them apart, until Toby makes the distinction by asking what Spencer 's favorite poem from a book she gave him. Mona tracked A.D. 's location has a cop arrest her. The Liars then say goodbye to one another as Aria leaves for her honeymoon with Ezra. Mona moves to Paris and the "cop '' is revealed to be her boyfriend who has imprisoned Alex and Mary in her basement dollhouse. In the finale moment, a new set of liars are awaken to find their leader, Addison, has just gone missing.
After putting herself in danger, Hanna is rescued by Mary Drake. After Alison calls Emily about her current condition, this leads the Liars to grow suspicious of Elliott. Spencer and Caleb 's relationship is on the rocks after Hanna tells Caleb about her feelings towards him. Liam is assigned to help Aria and Ezra on their book and after Aria breaks up with him, he unleashes on Ezra. Hanna breaks off her engagement with Jordan, and later signs a contract with Lucas to construct a fashion company.
The Rosewood P.D. begin to question Elliott 's disappearance and explore the possibility of him being dead. The investigation leads the Liars to question Elliott 's murder altogether, with Hanna being conflicted about whether or not to tell the police the truth. Spencer talks with Marco in order to make things clear regarding the kiss they had in the Radley elevator. Meanwhile, Aria and Ezra struggle with their relationship after Aria turns down Ezra 's proposal because of Elliott 's murder. Emily questions the fact that Sara and Jenna have teamed up together, and finds out that Charlotte enlisted Jenna 's help to find her birth mother and make Archer the alias of Elliott Rollins in order to purposely meet Ali and take advantage of her good intentions for her eventual release. Spencer and Caleb finally have a conversation about their relationship and break up. "A.D. '' unsuccessfully attacks Alison at her house wearing a mask. After hearing everything from Aria, Ezra proposes to her again -- and, this time, she says yes. Sara is murdered by an unseen figure and her body is discovered in a bathtub at The Radley.
Jason comes back to Rosewood in order to stop Alison from becoming too close to Mary. Meanwhile, Noel Kahn 's behaviour starts to worry the girls when they find out he broke into Toby 's house to steal Mary 's Radley file. The Liars discover new information about Mary and Jessica, leading them to a secret cellar in Carol Ward 's house where they discover that Jessica had files about them and that Mary had a second child while at Radley. They then begin to think that this child, a cousin of Alison, may be behind the "A.D. '' mask, and wanting revenge for something. The cellar explodes right after the girls leave, and someone writes "I see you '' on the rear window of their car. Ezra and Aria decide to elope in Italy, but right before they are about to leave, the FBI contacts Ezra and tells him that Nicole may be alive.
The Liars, Alison, Mona, and Caleb team up with Rosewood P.D. to find Hanna. Emily and Paige continue to rebuild their friendship. Alison reveals to Emily that she 's pregnant. Spencer learns that Toby and Yvonne are planning to leave Rosewood. Aria finds out that Nicole is alive. Noel manages to escape and leads the Liars to an abandoned school for the blind where Jenna, armed with a gun, attempts to murder the Liars with Noel. However, Noel, while attacking Hanna and Emily, trips on his axe and accidentally kills himself. Jenna then shoots at the Liars and gets Spencer. Jenna corners her and is about to execute her when Mary Drake knocks her out and reveals that she is Spencer 's biological mother. While leaving town, Toby and Yvonne are in a car accident.
One week after the events of the last episode, Toby is well but Yvonne is in a coma while Spencer has recovered. Ezra arrives and reveals he has n't told Nicole about him and Aria getting married. Hanna and Caleb are back together and Mona helps her get back into the fashion business. Emily is appointed coach of the varsity swimming team and Paige is made an athletics supervisor at Rosewood High. The Liars are given a interactive board game by "A.D. '' which shows the area of notable places of Rosewood and figurines of the Liars. Spencer plays the game and receives a puzzle piece and a letter from Mary. Hanna tries to destroy the game but a video appears showing that "A.D. '' knows they killed Rollins.
After being blackmailed by "A.D. '', Aria supplies info to them about the Liars findings. Detective Furey reveals to Spencer that she used Archer 's credit card to buy drinks when they first met and she is now a suspect in Archer 's death. After some arguing, Ezra finally agrees to leave Nicole behind for Aria, while Emily encourages Ali to not get an abortion and raise her child. Paige discovers Emily is going to help Alison raise her child. That night Paige and Alison discuss Emily, while finally making up after years of hate. Realizing that Emily loves Alison, Paige leaves Rosewood and Emily for good. After learning about Lucas ' relation with Charles, Hanna sets out to prove he is innocent, but finds more evidence that he is "A.D '', when the Liars find a comic book made by Lucas and Charles, that heavily resembles the "A '' game. Hanna tells Mona about the game and tries to convince her to help. Meanwhile, "A.D. '' sends Aria to retrieve the comic book for them, and in return she is gifted the official "A '' uniform.
Spencer steals a flash drive from Marco 's apartment about Lucas ' alibi confession to the police the night Archer was killed. "A.D. '' sends Aria to destroy Alison and Emily 's nursery. In Hanna 's turn at the game, "A.D. '' makes her pick up something at the computer repair shop and bring it to Rosewood High School. The Liars have a confrontation with Lucas where he explains to them that he did n't know Charles and Charlotte were the same person, or that Charlotte was "A ''. A second comic book exists and depicts turning vengeance into a game. Aria breaks down in remorse after her plot to destroy the nursery. Meanwhile, Caleb and Hanna return to Lucas 's loft with the hard drive Hanna picked up. The audio file contains a Patsy Cline song. Hanna remembers that "A '' played a different Patsy song in the Dollhouse. Alison finally admits her feelings to Emily.
The Liars are told by Caleb that Mona has the board game and jump to conclusions that Mona is "A.D. ''. Mary meets with Spencer at Lost Woods Resort and gives her ownership of the building. Mona reveals that Charlotte never recovered and was going to resume the A-game. She confronted Charlotte and threatened to push her out the window but never planned to go through with it. When Hanna, Caleb and Spencer take Mona back to their car, the final two puzzle pieces are waiting. Later, the Liars gather in a room at the Lost Woods and put the two final puzzle pieces in. When the pieces are in place, the game says "Congratulations. Claim the grand prize '', a picture of Archer. Augmented reality shows a man walking toward Aunt Carol 's house. The Liars are arrested by Tanner at Aunt Carol 's where Archer 's body is found. Mary lies and says she killed Archer, also confessing to Jessica 's murder, saving the Liars from a murder charge. Mona reveals that after she stopped threatening her, Charlotte attacked Mona and in the struggle she accidentally killed Charlotte in self - defense.
The seventh season was ordered with the sixth season on June 10, 2014, right before the fifth - season premiere aired, which made Pretty Little Liars ABC Family 's longest running original series, surpassing The Secret Life of the American Teenager, which was ABC Family 's previous longest running original series. The season will consist of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes will air in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes beginning to air in April 2017. Charlie Craig, who served as writer / consulting producer on the second season, will return for the seventh season as executive producer / co-showrunner. I. Marlene King revealed the title of the premiere "Tick - Tock, Bitches '' on Twitter. Variety announced that season premiere would air on June 21, 2016, the latest for a season premiere in the show 's history. Additionally, series star Troian Bellisario would make her directorial debut this season. Bellisario is set to direct the fifteenth episode of the season. A promo was released on May 12, 2016. Freeform released a promotional poster for the season, on June 7, 2016. After the season premiere, Freeform released another poster which included Ashley Benson. On August 29, 2016, I. Marlene King with the principal cast of the show announced that Pretty Little Liars would end after the seventh season. King also announced that the show would start airing the second half of the season later than usual, in April 2017 and that the series finale would be a two - hour episode event. It was reported on October 26, 2016, that a tell - all special will air after the series finale "Till Death Do Us Part '', where the main cast and showrunner I. Marlene King talked about the show and behind - the - scenes exclusive.
The seventh season had been speculated by both fans and the cast and crew of the show to being the final season of Pretty Little Liars ever since the show was renewed for two additional seasons. In an interview with BuzzFeed, Troian Bellisario said "This is the beginning of the end. But the best part about these last two years is that, because it 's the beginning of the end, we can actually start telling the story I think we 've been waiting to tell for a long time. '' Regarding the show 's ending, Lucy Hale said to E! News that "Seven seasons will definitely end the show. '' Showrunner I. Marlene King commented on these rumors to TVLine as she said "We have enough story to take us to the end of Season 7, and we 're going to let the fans tell us if they 're ready to say goodbye to this world and these characters. '' She confirmed to being open for an eighth season and a movie and a new book.
In an interview with Variety regarding the five - year time - jump, King said "I think that this story when we 're back will end next year at the end of Season 7 ''. She later took to Twitter where she confirmed that the current storyline that began in the second half of the sixth season would end after the seventh season, but would not necessarily mean that the show would end after the seventh season. Hale said on The Late Late Show with James Corden that the show was ending after the seventh season. Bellisario 's fiancé Patrick J. Adams said in June 2016, that the show was ending in 2017, as the couple has decided to get married after the show ends. Freeform gave out a statement not long after saying that "There has been no official decision made for PLL beyond a season 7. '' It was announced on August 29, 2016, the day before the mid-season finale would air, that Pretty Little Liars will end after the seventh season.
Production began on February 1, 2016, when King announced on Twitter that the writers were in full swing brainstorming and mapping the seventh season. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016 and officially wrapped up in October 2016.
The seventh season has nine roles receiving star billing, with eight of them returning from the previous season, six of which was part of the original cast from the first season. The season saw the four protagonists of the series continue the roles as they try to take down the new ' A '. Troian Bellisario played Spencer Hastings, who has relationship problems with Caleb, while Ashley Benson played Hanna Marin, who was kidnapped at the end of last season. Lucy Hale continued her role as Aria Montgomery as she is set in a love triangle with Ezra and her boyfriend Liam. Shay Mitchell portrayed Emily Fields who begins to rekindle her relationship with Alison. Sasha Pieterse continued to portray Alison DiLaurentis as Alison struggles with being in a psych - ward. Janel Parrish returned as Mona Vanderwaal who seems to be finally on their side. Tyler Blackburn continues to play Caleb Rivers and Ian Harding also continued his role as Ezra Fitz. Andrea Parker was added as a series regular, playing Jessica DiLaurentis ' twin sister Mary Drake.
After the sixth - season finale, it was announced that Andrea Parker would return to the show as Mary Drake, Jessica DiLaurentis ' identical twin sister and biological mother to Charlotte DiLaurentis. TVLine later confirmed that Parker was added as a series regular for the upcoming season. Deadline reported on May 10, 2016, that actor Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Detective Vic Furey, a character who will oversee the Rosewood Police Department. The character was later renamed Det. Marco Furey. Tammin Sursok announced that she will return to the show as Jenna Marshall after last appearing in the fifth - season episode "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas ''. On June 2, 2016, Variety reported that Brant Daugherty would be returning as Noel Kahn; Brant has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the fifth season.
On June 10, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lindsey Shaw would be returning as Paige McCullers after leaving in the fifth season mid-season premiere. The actress playing Sydney Driscoll, Chloe Bridges, posted an image on social media, confirming that she would return to the show after last appearing in the Christmas special episode. On July 28, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Shane Coffey would be returning as Holden Strauss; Shane has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the third season. It was announced on August 8, 2016, that Ava Allan will appear on the show, and will first appear in the second half of the season as Addison. On August 17, 2016, TVLine reported that Edward Kerr would be returning to the show as Pastor Ted Wilson in the second half of the season. Kerr had not been on the show since towards the end of the fifth season.
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how old was wayne rooney when he signed for man utd | Wayne Rooney - wikipedia
Wayne Mark Rooney (/ ˈruːni /; born 24 October 1985) is an English professional footballer who plays for Premier League club Everton. He has played much of his career as a forward, and he has also been used in various midfield roles. He is the record goalscorer for the England national team and for Manchester United. At club level, he has won every honour available in English, Continental and European football, with the exception of the European Super Cup. Along with Michael Carrick, he is the only English player to win the Premier League, FA Cup, UEFA Champions League, League Cup, UEFA Europa League and FIFA Club World Cup.
Rooney joined the Everton youth team at the age of 9, and made his professional debut for the club in 2002 at the age of 16. He spent two seasons at the Merseyside club, before moving to Manchester United for £ 25.6 million in the 2004 summer transfer window. He won 16 trophies with the club, including five Premier League titles, the FA Cup and the Champions League in 2008. He scored 253 goals for the club in all competitions which makes him their top goalscorer of all time. His 200 Premier League goals make him the competition 's second top scorer of all time, behind Alan Shearer. Rooney holds the record for most goals for one club in the Premier League, with 183 for Manchester United.
Rooney made his senior international debut for England in February 2003 aged 17, becoming the youngest player to represent England (a record since broken by Theo Walcott) and he is England 's youngest ever goalscorer. He played at UEFA Euro 2004 and scored four goals, briefly becoming the youngest goalscorer in the history of the European Championship. Rooney has since featured at the 2006, 2010 and 2014 World Cups and is widely regarded as his country 's best player. He has won the England Player of the Year award four times, in 2008, 2009, 2014 and 2015. With 53 goals in 119 international caps, Rooney is England 's all - time record goalscorer and second most - capped player, behind Peter Shilton. Along with David Beckham, Rooney is the most red carded player for England, having been sent off twice.
In 2009 -- 10, Rooney was awarded the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and the FWA Footballer of the Year. He has won the Premier League Player of the Month award five times, a record only bettered by Steven Gerrard. He came fifth in the vote for the 2011 FIFA Ballon d'Or and was named in the FIFPro World 11 for 2011. Rooney has won the Goal of the Season award by the BBC 's Match of the Day poll on three occasions, with his bicycle kick against rivals Manchester City winning the Premier League Goal of the 20 Seasons award.
Rooney was born in Croxteth, Liverpool, to Jeanette Marie (née Morrey) and Thomas Wayne Rooney. He is of Irish descent and was brought up as a Roman Catholic with younger brothers Graham and John; all three attended Our Lady and St Swithin 's primary school and De La Salle School. He grew up supporting Everton.
Rooney began playing for Liverpool Schoolboys and scored 72 goals in one season, a record which stood until May 2010. At age nine, Rooney played for Copplehouse boys ' club in the local Walton and Kirkdale junior league and scored 99 goals in his final season before being spotted by Everton scout Bob Pendleton. Rooney joined Everton at age nine, and was the Everton mascot for the Merseyside derby against Liverpool as an 11 - year - old. In the 1995 -- 96 season, he scored 114 goals in 29 games for Everton 's under - 10s and 11s, and by the age of 15, he was playing for the under - 19s. He scored eight goals in eight games during Everton 's run to the FA Youth Cup final in 2002. This included one goal in the final defeat against Aston Villa and, upon scoring, he revealed a T - shirt that read, "Once a Blue, always a Blue. '' Rooney was included in Everton 's first team squad for their training camp in Austria in the summer of 2002 and scored his first senior goal in a 3 -- 1 friendly victory over SC Weiz on 15 July.
Rooney was an unused substitute in Everton 's 1 -- 0 away win over Southampton on 20 April 2002. He made his senior debut on 17 August in a 2 -- 2 home draw against Tottenham Hotspur, starting the match and assisting the first goal by Mark Pembridge. He became the second youngest first - team player in Everton history behind Joe Royle. In that match, he was booed by the Spurs fans who shouted "Who are ya? '' whenever he touched the ball. His first senior goals came on 2 October when he scored twice in a 3 -- 0 away win over Wrexham in the second round of the League Cup. These goals meant that Rooney was Everton 's youngest - ever goalscorer at the time.
On 19 October, five days before his 17th birthday, Rooney scored a last - minute winning goal against Arsenal. The goal ended Arsenal 's 30 - match unbeaten run, and also made Rooney the youngest goalscorer in Premier League history, a record that has since been surpassed twice, by James Milner and James Vaughan. He scored the only goal in a 1 -- 0 away win over Leeds United 15 days later.
In December, Rooney was named 2002 's BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year. Six days after claiming the award he scored the winning goal against Blackburn Rovers in a 2 -- 1 home win. His first career red card came on Boxing Day in a 1 -- 1 away draw against Birmingham City for a late challenge on Steve Vickers. In January 2003, Rooney signed his first professional contract, which made him one of world football 's highest - paid teenagers. Rooney 's first goal of 2003 came on 23 March, netting Everton 's only goal in a 2 -- 1 loss at Arsenal. In April, he scored a goal in Everton 's 2 -- 1 home win over Newcastle United, before hitting a last - minute winner against Aston Villa in another 2 -- 1 home win. He ended his debut season with 8 goals in 37 appearances in all competitions for the Toffees.
Rooney scored his first goal of the 2003 -- 04 season in a 2 -- 2 away draw against Charlton Athletic on 26 August 2003. He did not find the net again until December when he scored in a 2 -- 1 away win over Portsmouth, and a 3 -- 2 home win over Leicester City. His final goal of 2003 came on his 50th league appearance, netting the only goal in a 1 -- 0 home win over Birmingham City on 28 December. On 21 February 2004, Rooney scored two goals in a Premier League game for the first time in a 3 -- 3 away draw against Southampton. He scored the sole goal in a 1 -- 0 win over Portsmouth on 13 March, before scoring in a 1 -- 1 away draw against Leicester City one week later. He scored his final goal of the season in a 1 -- 1 away draw against Leeds United on 13 April.
Rooney submitted a transfer request in August 2004, despite Everton having made a new contract offer valued at £ 50,000 per week. Everton then rejected a bid of £ 20 million from Newcastle, and ultimately signed for Manchester United at the end of the month after a £ 25.6 million deal was reached. It was the highest fee ever paid for a player under 20 years old; Rooney was still only 18 when he left Everton. Sir Alex Ferguson, then manager of United, said that "There were plenty of eyebrows raised '' when he persuaded the club 's board of directors to sanction "a multi-million pound '' move to try to sign Rooney from Everton.
Rooney was given the number 8 shirt upon his arrival at Old Trafford. He made his United debut on 28 September in a 6 -- 2 home win over Fenerbahçe in the UEFA Champions League, scoring a hat - trick and laying on an assist. These goals made Rooney the youngest player to score a hat - trick in the Champions League aged 18 years 335 days. His first season with Manchester United, however, ended without winning a trophy as they could only manage a third - place finish in the league, and failed to progress to the last eight of the Champions League. United had more success in the cup competitions, but were edged out of the League Cup in the semi-finals by a Chelsea side who also won the Premier League title that season, and a goalless draw with Arsenal in the FA Cup final was followed by a penalty shoot - out defeat. Rooney was United 's top league scorer that season with 11 goals, and was credited with the PFA Young Player of the Year award.
In September 2005, Rooney was sent off in a goalless Champions League match against Villarreal of Spain for sarcastically clapping the referee, who had booked him for an unintentional foul on an opponent. His first trophy with United came in the 2005 -- 06 League Cup, and he was also named man of the match after scoring twice in the final as United won 4 -- 0 against Wigan Athletic. His club finished the season as Premier League runners up, with their title hopes ended in late April when they lost 3 -- 0 away to champions Chelsea. Rooney sustained a broken metatarsal in that game after a tackle from Paulo Ferreira. Rooney scored a total of 16 goals in 26 Premier League games in the 2005 -- 06 season.
Rooney was sent off in an Amsterdam Tournament match against Porto on 4 August 2006 after hitting Porto defender Pepe with his elbow. He was punished with a three - match ban by the FA, following their receipt of a 23 - page report from referee Ruud Bossen that explained his decision. Rooney threatened to withdraw the FA 's permission to use his image if they did not revoke the ban, although the FA had no power to make such a decision.
During the first half of the 2006 -- 07 season, Rooney endured a ten - game scoreless streak before scoring a hat - trick against Bolton Wanderers. He subsequently signed a two - year contract extension the following month that tied him to United until 2012. In April 2007, he scored two goals in an 8 -- 3 aggregate Champions League quarter - final win over Roma and two more in the same competition later in the month, in a 3 -- 2 semi-final first leg victory over Milan. Rooney collected his first Premier League title winner 's medal at the end of the 2006 -- 07 season. He scored 14 league goals that season.
In June 2007, Rooney was given squad number 10, last worn by Ruud van Nistelrooy. Rooney reasoned that he always loved that number. He fractured his left metatarsal in United 's opening - day goalless draw against Reading on 12 August, the same injury he had suffered to his right foot in 2004. After being sidelined for six weeks, he returned for United 's 1 -- 0 Champions League group stage win over Roma on 2 October, scoring the only goal of the match. Rooney was again injured on 9 November, hurting his ankle during a training session and missing an additional two weeks. His next match after injury was against Fulham on 3 December, in which he played 70 minutes. Rooney missed a total of ten games and finished the 2007 -- 08 season with 18 goals (12 of them in the league), as United clinched the Premier League. In the Champions League 's first - ever all - English final, United defeated league rivals Chelsea to win another trophy.
Rooney played in 2008 UEFA Super Cup where United lost to Zenit Saint Petersburg and was unable to make an impact. On 4 October 2008, in an away win over Blackburn, Rooney became the youngest player to make 200 Premier League appearances. On 18 December, Rooney scored twice in the 5 -- 3 semi-final victory over Japanese club Gamba Osaka in the FIFA Club World Cup, and, after scoring the winning goal as United beat LDU Quito 1 -- 0 in the final in Yokohama, was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player in the tournament. On 14 January after scoring the only goal of the game 54 seconds into the 1 -- 0 win over Wigan, Rooney limped off with a hamstring injury in the eighth minute. On 25 April 2009, Rooney scored his final league goals of the season against Tottenham; United scored five goals in the second half to come from 2 -- 0 down to win 5 -- 2; Rooney scored two goals, set up two and provided the assist that led to the penalty for United 's first goal. On 27 May, Rooney played against Barcelona in the 2009 Champions League Final in Rome, with United losing 2 -- 0. Rooney ended the season with 20 goals in all competitions. Once again, he managed 12 goals in the league.
Rooney scored in the 90th minute of the season - opening 2009 Community Shield, although United lost the game to Chelsea on penalties. He then scored the only goal of the first league game of the 2009 -- 10 season against Birmingham City, taking his overall United tally to 99. On 22 August, he became the 20th Manchester United player to score 100 goals for the club, when he found the net twice in a 5 -- 0 away win at Wigan.
On 29 August, United played Arsenal at Old Trafford. Rooney scored a goal from the penalty spot to level the game after Andrey Arshavin had put the Gunners ahead. The game finished 2 -- 1 to Manchester United after Abou Diaby scored an own goal. On 28 November 2009, Rooney scored his first hat - trick for three years in a 4 -- 1 away victory against Portsmouth, with two of the goals being penalties. On 27 December 2009, he was awarded Man of the Match against Hull City. He was involved in all the goals scored in the game, hitting the opener and then giving away the ball for Hull 's equalising penalty. He then forced Andy Dawson into conceding an own goal and then set up Dimitar Berbatov for United 's third goal which gave them a 3 -- 1 victory. On 30 December 2009, Rooney scored another goal as United beat Wigan 5 -- 0 in their final game of the decade.
On 23 January 2010, Rooney scored all four goals in Manchester United 's 4 -- 0 win over Hull; three of the goals came in the last ten minutes of the match. This was the first time in his career that he registered four goals in a single match. On 27 January 2010, he continued his scoring run by heading the winner in the second minute of stoppage time against derby rivals Manchester City. This gave United a 4 -- 3 aggregate win, taking them into the final; it was his first League Cup goal since netting two in the 2006 final. On 31 January 2010, Rooney scored his 100th Premier League goal in a 3 -- 1 win over Arsenal for the first time in the league at Emirates Stadium, notably his first Premier League goal also came against Arsenal.
On 16 February 2010, Rooney hit his first European goals of the season, scoring two headers in the 3 -- 2 away win against Milan in Manchester United 's first ever win against them at the San Siro. On 28 February 2010, he scored another header against Aston Villa (his fifth consecutive headed goal) which resulted in Manchester United winning the League Cup final 2 -- 1. In the second leg of United 's European tie against Milan, Rooney scored a brace in a resounding 4 -- 0 home victory, taking his tally of goals that season to 30. He then added two more to his tally five days later at Old Trafford, in a 3 -- 0 league win over Fulham.
On 30 March 2010, during United 's Champions League quarter - final first leg defeat against Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena, Rooney crumpled when he twisted his ankle in the last minute, hobbling off while Bayern were producing the buildup that led to their second goal. There were fears that he had received serious ligament damage or even a broken ankle, but it was announced that the injury was only slight ligament damage, and that he would be out for two - to - three weeks, missing United 's crunch match with Chelsea and the return leg against Bayern the following week. The team list for second leg yielded a massive surprise when Rooney was given a starting place in the United line - up. Despite a 3 -- 0 lead by the 41st minute, Bayern snatched a goal back and United were later forced down to 10 men after Rafael was sent - off. Bayern won the match after netting a second away - goal and Rooney was substituted after re-damaging his ankle. On 25 April, Rooney was named the 2010 PFA Players ' Player of the Year.
On 28 August 2010, Rooney scored his first goal of the season as he netted a penalty in a 3 -- 0 home win over West Ham United. In October, Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson stated at a press conference that Rooney wanted to quit the club. This came after a period of dispute as to the extent of Rooney 's ankle injury, where Rooney had refuted Ferguson 's claim that the injury was the reason Rooney had been dropped to the bench. Rooney and his representatives released a statement regarding his decision to leave the club, insisting it was not down to money but ambition. Following this statement, Rooney made a dramatic U-turn and agreed a new five - year contract at Manchester United until June 2015.
Rooney made his return to the first team as a substitute against Wigan on 20 November. Four days later, he returned to the starting line - up and scored a penalty in a 1 -- 0 away win over Rangers in the Champions League. He missed a penalty in a 1 -- 0 home win over Arsenal on 13 December. His first goal of the season from open play came on 1 January 2011 in a 2 -- 1 away win over West Bromwich Albion. On 1 February, Rooney scored twice and assisted Nemanja Vidić 's goal in a 3 -- 1 home win over Aston Villa. On 12 February, Rooney scored an overhead bicycle kick in the 78th minute of the Manchester derby, which proved to be the winning goal in their 2 -- 1 win over Manchester City. After the match, Rooney said it was the best goal of his career, before Sir Alex Ferguson described the strike as the best goal he had ever witnessed at Old Trafford. Two weeks later, he scored the third goal in a 4 -- 0 away win over Wigan, before opening the scoring in a 2 -- 1 away loss to Chelsea on 1 March. Rooney scored the second goal in a 2 -- 0 home win over Arsenal in an FA Cup tie on 12 March.
On 2 April, United came from two goals down as Rooney scored his first hat - trick of the season in a 4 -- 2 away win over West Ham. This was his fifth hat - trick for Manchester United, whilst the second goal was his 100th in the Premier League for the club. He became the third Manchester United player to score 100 Premier League goals, joining Ryan Giggs and Paul Scholes. During Rooney 's celebrations following his third goal, he swore into a pitchside camera and was subsequently charged by the FA for using offensive language. Rooney accepted the charge, but not the automatic two - match ban which was handed to him. He appealed against the length of the suspension, calling it "excessive '', but failed to overturn the ban, which ruled him out of the FA Cup semi-final against Manchester City on 16 April. The following game on 6 April saw Rooney score the only goal in a 1 -- 0 away win against Chelsea in the Champions League quarter - final first leg. He followed this goal up with another strike in the semi-final first leg against German side Schalke 04 on 26 April, scoring the second of a 2 -- 0 away win. This was the first time Rooney had returned to the Veltins - Arena in Gelsenkirchen since his sending off during the 2006 FIFA World Cup against Portugal.
On 14 May 2011, Rooney scored a penalty for United to equalise in a 1 -- 1 draw against Blackburn at Ewood Park in the penultimate game of the Premier League season -- enough to secure a record 19th top division title for United, and giving Rooney his fourth Premier League title winner 's medal.
Rooney started the season with a goal in the first league game at The Hawthorns against West Bromwich Albion. Rooney played a one - two with Ashley Young before a sharp turn and finish from outside the box which found the bottom corner of the goal. He also scored in the second game of the season, at home to Tottenham Hotspur, when he headed in a Ryan Giggs cross.
In late August, Rooney scored his 150th goal for United, the first of a hat - trick, helping to beat Arsenal 8 -- 2. Rooney won man of the match, scoring two free kicks, a penalty, and also contributing an assist for Nani. On 10 September, Rooney scored another hat - trick in a 5 -- 0 away win over Bolton Wanderers on 10 September, becoming only the fourth player in Premier League history to score a hat - trick in consecutive games. These goals brought him level with Bobby Charlton on seven United hat - tricks, joint fourth on the all - time list behind Denis Law, Jack Rowley and Dennis Viollet.
After the fallout from his red card against Montenegro on international duty, Rooney was left out of the starting line - up against Liverpool on 15 October 2011. He returned to action on 18 October 2011, where he scored two goals in the Champions League group stage match against Oțelul Galați and surpassed his former teammate Paul Scholes as the highest - scoring Englishman in Champions League history.
On 10 December, Rooney ended an 8 - game goal drought with a brace against Wolverhampton Wanderers in a 4 -- 1 win at Old Trafford. On 18 December, Rooney continued his goal scoring form heading home the opening goal against Queens Park Rangers, making it Manchester United 's quickest goal of the season so far after just 52 seconds at Loftus Road. He was assisted by Antonio Valencia 's cross. On 21 December, Rooney scored his 130th Premier League goal in his 300th Premier League appearance against Fulham at Craven Cottage with a long - range effort that crashed in off the inside of the post in a 5 -- 0 win.
On 8 January, Rooney scored two goals in the FA Cup third round 3 -- 2 away win against Manchester City at Etihad Stadium. His first goal was assisted by Antonio Valencia. With these goals, Rooney passed Mark Hughes in United 's all - time top goalscorers table, moving up to seventh place overall with 164 goals. On 14 January, Rooney made a big contribution to his team in a 3 -- 0 home win against Bolton. Although he missed a penalty, he did create two goals by assisting Paul Scholes for the first goal and Danny Welbeck for the second. On 5 February, Rooney scored twice from the penalty spot as United came back from a 3 -- 0 deficit to draw 3 -- 3 in a Premier League clash against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge.
On 11 February 2012, Rooney marked his 500th senior career game by scoring two goals as Manchester United beat rivals Liverpool 2 -- 1 at Old Trafford. This was also his 350th game for United in all competitions. On 4 March, Rooney scored the first goal in a 3 -- 1 away win against Tottenham at White Hart Lane and passed Joe Spence in Manchester United 's all - time top goalscorers table, moving up to sixth place overall with 169 goals. He scored another brace in his next game, against Atletico Bilbao in the UEFA Europa League. On 11 March, Rooney scored the two goals that brought United the victory against West Brom in a 2 -- 0 home win. On 15 March, Rooney scored in the second leg of the Europa League tie against Athletic Bilbao in Bilbao despite United losing 2 -- 1 on the night and 5 -- 3 on aggregate.
Despite starting the opening game of the season against Everton, Rooney was dropped to the bench for the second game against Fulham in favour of new signing Robin van Persie. After coming on for Shinji Kagawa in the 68th minute, Rooney suffered a severe gash to his right leg caused by Fulham 's Hugo Rodallega that kept him out for four weeks. He made his comeback on 29 September in a 3 -- 2 loss against Tottenham.
Rooney scored his first goals of the season in a 4 -- 2 league win at home to Stoke City on 20 October, where he reached his 200th club goal. On 7 November, he scored his first Champions League goal of the season, scoring a penalty in a 3 -- 1 win against Braga. He scored twice and assisted a goal in a 4 -- 3 win against Reading on 1 December. He scored a brace in the Manchester derby at the City of Manchester Stadium on 9 December 2012 which United won 3 -- 2. On 16 January, he scored a goal against West Ham in the FA Cup. A fortnight later, he scored twice in a 2 -- 1 win against Southampton. He continued to score goals in FA Cup consecutive matches against Fulham and Chelsea. On 12 May, Sir Alex Ferguson announced, after United 's 2 -- 1 win against Swansea City, that Rooney had handed in his transfer request, a match in which Rooney also requested not to play.
On 5 July 2013, new United manager David Moyes announced that Rooney was not for sale, after speculation that Chelsea, Arsenal, Real Madrid and Paris Saint - Germain were among the clubs looking to sign him. On 17 July 2013, Chelsea confirmed that they had made a bid for Rooney the previous day, thought to be in the region of £ 20 million, however it had been rejected by Manchester United. He suffered a head gash in training on 31 August after a collision with Phil Jones which kept him out of the match against Liverpool. He scored his first goal of the season with a free - kick in a 2 -- 0 win against Crystal Palace.
On 17 September, Rooney scored twice in a 4 -- 2 win against Bayer Leverkusen in the Champions League, marking his 200th goal for United in the process. On 22 September, Rooney scored a wonderful free - kick at the 11th hour to grab a consolation goal in the 4 -- 1 thrashing against their neighbour, Manchester City, in the Manchester derby. He scored a brace against Tottenham at White Hart Lane in a 2 -- 2 draw on 1 December. He scored his 150th league goal for the club with a volley against Hull City on 26 December as United came back from 2 -- 0 deficit to win the match 3 -- 2; he also provided assists for the other two goals.
On 21 February 2014, Rooney signed a contract extension with Manchester United, which will keep him at Old Trafford until 2019. Rooney provided one assist to Robin van Persie as Manchester United defeated Olympiacos in the second leg of Champions League round of 16 tie. On 22 March 2014, Rooney scored two goals for United at West Ham, moving him to third place on the club 's all - time scoring list with 212 career goals.
Rooney ended the season as both the top scorer and assist for Manchester United in the league with 17 goals and 10 assists. He also had the most assists in the 2013 -- 14 Champions League with eight, beating second - placed Ángel Di María who had six.
After the departure of Nemanja Vidić from Manchester United in July 2014, Rooney was named by new manager Louis van Gaal as his replacement as club captain ahead of the 2014 -- 15 season. On the opening day of the Premier League season on 16 August, Rooney scored a bicycle kick to equalise against Swansea, although United eventually lost 1 -- 2. On 27 September 2014, Rooney became the third highest Premier League top - scorer of all time moving ahead of Thierry Henry with 176 goals after he netted a goal in a 2 -- 1 victory against West Ham. In the same match, he was sent off for a foul on Stewart Downing and received a three - game suspension.
On 22 November 2014, Rooney scored for United in a 2 -- 1 win against rivals Arsenal, their first away win of the season. He continued to score in the following match, in a 3 -- 0 win over Hull City. On 14 December, he scored the opening goal in a 3 -- 0 win over rivals Liverpool. On 26 December, Rooney scored two goals against Newcastle United, a match which his side won 3 -- 1 -- United 's 50th successive Boxing Day match. For his performances, Rooney was voted as United 's Player of the Month for December. During the season, Rooney was often deployed as a midfielder by Van Gaal.
On 16 February 2015, in an FA Cup match against Preston North End, Rooney was the subject of criticism for having dived to get a penalty; United would go on to win the match 3 -- 1. Replay seemed to have shown that Rooney had n't come in contact with the goalkeeper. England manager Roy Hodgson, however, defended Rooney, saying that he was forced to take evasive action. Rooney later apologised for his behaviour, saying, "that was my chance to get a penalty. I had to use that. '' The penalty was also Rooney 's first goal in 2015, ending a goalless run. On 28 February 2015, he scored a brace in a 2 -- 0 victory over Sunderland, thus becoming the first player to score more than 10 goals in 11 successive seasons. On 15 March, Rooney scored the third goal in a 3 -- 0 win over Tottenham.
Rooney was Manchester United 's top goalscorer for the 2014 -- 15 campaign, but his tally of 14 is the lowest by a leading scorer since 1982. United 's total goals of 62 were also their second worst in the Premier League era.
On 26 August 2015, Rooney ended an 878 - minute scoreless streak by scoring a hat - trick in a 4 -- 0 win (7 -- 1 aggregate) over Belgian side Club Brugge in the second leg of their Champions League play - off. It was his first treble in European competition since his United debut against Fenerbahçe in 2004. He netted in a 3 -- 0 win away to Everton on 17 October, putting him on 187 Premier League goals, joint second with Andy Cole and behind only Alan Shearer. After an injury - related absence, Rooney returned to the starting line - up on 19 December, making his 500th Manchester United appearance in a 2 -- 1 home loss to Norwich City.
On 2 January 2016, Rooney scored in a 2 -- 1 win over Swansea to move ahead of Cole as the Premier League 's second top scorer of all time, and with 238 he surpassed Denis Law in United 's top scorers of all time, behind only Bobby Charlton 's 249. Fifteen days later, he scored the only goal in a win at Liverpool, his 176th league goal for United, taking Thierry Henry 's record for most goals for one club in the Premier League. After being ruled out since 13 February due to a knee injury, Rooney returned to the starting line - up in a 1 -- 0 home win over Aston Villa on 16 April.
On 21 May 2016, Rooney captained Manchester United in the 2016 FA Cup Final against Crystal Palace. He played the full 120 minutes in central midfield, winning the competition for the first time in his career after a 2 -- 1 extra time victory at Wembley Stadium.
On 7 August, Rooney set up Jesse Lingard 's opening goal in Manchester United 's 2 -- 1 victory over Leicester City in the 2016 FA Community Shield, lifting his second title as the club 's captain. On 6 November 2016, Rooney became only the third player ever to achieve 100 Premier League assists, setting up both of Zlatan Ibrahimović 's goals in a 3 -- 1 away win against Swansea City. On 24 November, Rooney overtook Ruud van Nistelrooy to become Manchester United 's all - time leading scorer in European competitions with 39 goals, opening the scoring in a 4 -- 0 home win over Feyenoord in the Europa League.
On 7 January 2017, Rooney scored against Reading in the third round of the FA Cup to equal Bobby Charlton as Manchester United 's top goalscorer of all time. Rooney 's goal was his 249th in 543 games for Manchester United, reaching the landmark in 215 matches and four seasons quicker than Charlton. On 21 January 2017, Rooney finally surpassed Charlton to become the outright leading scorer for Manchester United after scoring his 250th goal for the club and the equaliser from a free kick against Stoke City at the Bet365 Stadium in the game 's final minutes to secure a 1 -- 1 draw. On 29 January, prior to playing his part in the 4 -- 0 triumph in the FA Cup fourth round against Wigan Athletic, Rooney was presented with a commemorative Golden Boot to acknowledge him becoming the club 's all - time leading goal scorer. It was presented by Charlton whose record Rooney broke.
After much speculation over the previous few months, it was confirmed on 9 July 2017 that Rooney would return to his boyhood club, Everton, on a two - year contract, after Manchester United allowed him to leave on a free transfer. Rooney was assigned the number 10 shirt for the 2017 -- 18 campaign. He made his first official appearance on his return to the club in a 1 -- 0 win over MFK Ružomberok in the UEFA Europa League third qualifying round first leg. Rooney made his mark when he scored on his second Everton league debut on 12 August 2017, when his club beat Stoke City 1 -- 0 at Goodison Park. On 21 August, Rooney scored his 200th Premier League goal in a 1 -- 1 away draw against Manchester City, becoming only the second player since Alan Shearer to reach this landmark.
Rooney was eligible to represent the Republic of Ireland, through an Irish grandmother. In 2015, he confirmed that he had rejected an approach from Ireland at the age of 16, describing himself as "English through and through ''.
Rooney became the youngest player to play for England when he earned his first cap in a friendly defeat against Australia at the Boleyn Ground on 12 February 2003 at 17 years and 111 days, coming on at half - time as manager Sven - Göran Eriksson fielded a different team in each half. On 6 September of that year, aged 17 years and 317 days, he became the youngest player to score for England, equalising in a 2 -- 1 away victory over Macedonia in a UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying match.
His first tournament action was at UEFA Euro 2004, in which he became the youngest scorer in competition history on 17 June 2004, when he scored twice in England 's second group match against Switzerland, which ended in a 3 -- 0 victory; however, this record was topped by Swiss midfielder Johan Vonlanthen four days later. Rooney added two more goals in the competition in England 's final group match on 21 June, a 4 -- 2 win over Croatia, but subsequently suffered an injury in the quarter - final match against hosts Portugal on 24 June, and England were eliminated on penalties. After scoring four goals in four matches, Rooney was named in UEFA 's Team of the Tournament.
Following a foot injury in an April 2006 Premier League match, Rooney faced a race to fitness for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. England attempted to hasten his recovery with the use of an oxygen tent, which allowed Rooney to enter a group match against Trinidad and Tobago and start the next match against Sweden. However, he never got back into game shape and went scoreless as England bowed out in the quarter - finals, again on penalty kicks.
Rooney was red - carded in the 62nd minute of the quarter - final for stamping on Portugal defender Ricardo Carvalho as both attempted to gain possession of the ball, an incident that occurred right in front of referee Horacio Elizondo. Rooney 's Manchester United teammate Cristiano Ronaldo openly protested his actions, and was in turn shoved by Rooney. Elizondo sent Rooney off, after which Ronaldo was seen winking at the Portugal bench. Rooney denied intentionally targeting Carvalho in a statement on 3 July, adding, "I bear no ill feeling to Cristiano but I 'm disappointed that he chose to get involved. I suppose I do, though, have to remember that on that particular occasion we were not teammates. '' Elizondo confirmed the next day that Rooney was dismissed solely for the infraction on Carvalho. Rooney was fined CHF 5,000 for the incident.
Rooney top scored for England in their 2010 World Cup qualifying campaign with nine goals; one behind the UEFA section 's overall top goalscorer, Theofanis Gekas of Greece. On 14 November 2009, Rooney captained England for the first time in a pre-tournament friendly with Brazil.
Rooney was given the England number 10 shirt by manager Fabio Capello ahead of the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. During the tournament, England drew 0 -- 0 in their second group match against Algeria on 18 June, and the England players were booed off the pitch by their supporters; Rooney was at the centre of controversy when he criticised the England fans for booing the team after the match, and subsequently apologised for his actions. Rooney went scoreless throughout the tournament, and England were eliminated in the second round, following a 4 -- 1 defeat to Germany on 27 June.
The Euro 2012 qualification campaign went well for England, as they qualified at the top of their group, winning five and drawing three games. Rooney scored three goals, one against Switzerland and two against Bulgaria. In the last qualifier against Montenegro (2 -- 2), Rooney was sent off for a tackle on Miodrag Džudović in the 74th minute. It was anticipated that Rooney would miss at least one match in the opening round of the first phase at Euro 2012. After the game, Rooney sent a personal letter to UEFA in which he apologised and expressed regret for the tackle on Džudović which earned him the red card.
Despite the letter, UEFA punished Rooney with a three - game ban, meaning that he could not play in any of the group stage matches. After UEFA 's announcement, Džudović stated that he believed the sentence for Rooney was too severe and that he would defend him if needed. He later asked the UEFA to pardon Rooney. The FA then decided they would appeal to UEFA against the ban. On 8 December 2011, after the FA had appealed the ban, UEFA reduced the sentence to two matches. This meant that Rooney missed the matches against France and Sweden. He was able to play in the final match of the group stage against Ukraine on 19 June 2012, scoring the only goal of the game, allowing England to progress to the quarter - finals. England were eventually knocked out in the quarter - finals against Italy, who, after a scoreless 120 minutes, won 4 -- 2 on penalties, although Rooney was able to net his spot - kick. After another international tournament in which the English media criticised Rooney 's performances, Fabio Capello claimed Rooney "only plays well in Manchester ''.
On 12 October 2012, Rooney became England 's 5th highest goalscorer of all time after scoring his 30th and 31st international goals in a 2014 World Cup qualifier against San Marino. Rooney captained England for the first time in a competitive match in the same game. On 6 February 2013, Rooney scored in a 2 -- 1 win against five - time world champions Brazil at Wembley in a friendly. In March, he scored goals against San Marino and Montenegro in World Cup qualifying, before scoring against Brazil again in a 2 -- 2 draw on 2 June, in the official re-opening of the refurbished Maracanã Stadium. On 11 October 2013, Rooney became England 's all - time top goalscorer in competitive internationals when he scored his 27th competitive goal in a 4 -- 1 World Cup qualifier against Montenegro. Rooney ended the 2014 World Cup qualification campaign as England 's top scorer with seven goals.
At the 2014 World Cup, Rooney started in England 's first group match against Italy, setting up Daniel Sturridge 's temporary equaliser, in a 2 -- 1 loss. In England 's second 2014 World Cup group match against Uruguay at the Arena Corinthians, Rooney scored his first ever goal at a World Cup finals with a 75th - minute equaliser in a 2 -- 1 loss. England drew their final group match 0 -- 0 against Costa Rica, and were eliminated from the World Cup, finishing last in their group; despite playing a part in both of England 's goals, Rooney was criticised by English pundits for his performance in the tournament.
Following Steven Gerrard 's international retirement after the 2014 World Cup, Roy Hodgson named Rooney as England 's new captain. On 3 September 2014, in the first match of his captaincy, Rooney scored a penalty against Norway to give England a 1 -- 0 friendly win. Later on, he showed his leadership attribute by calling player - only meetings in September 2014 to reflect on the players ' performance and discuss how they can do better as a team. Rooney said, "Obviously the manager gives us our game plan, but because we do n't spend that much time together as a team we need to know and feel confident in what we 're doing as a team together. In the meetings, you 're having the players speak up who would n't normally speak up when coaches are there. '' On 15 November 2014, Rooney won his 100th England cap against Slovenia in a Euro 2016 qualifying match, scoring a penalty to equalise in a 3 -- 1 win. In another qualifier away to the same opponents on 14 June 2015, Rooney scored the winner with four minutes remaining for a 3 -- 2 victory, his 48th international goal putting him joint second in England 's list alongside Gary Lineker, and one behind Bobby Charlton. In his 106th England appearance, he equalled Charlton 's record of 49 goals (also in 106 matches) on 5 September 2015 by scoring a penalty against San Marino. On 8 September 2015, Rooney broke Charlton 's England goalscoring record, netting his 50th international goal from a penalty in a Euro 2016 qualifying match against Switzerland, at Wembley, in his 107th appearance for England, also equalling Ashley Cole as his country 's fifth - highest capped player; this was also his 300th professional career goal.
In England 's opening match of Euro 2016 against Russia at the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille on 11 June, Rooney was selected to start in central midfield and was named man of the match by the BBC after a 1 -- 1 draw. On 27 June, he scored the opening goal in a 2 -- 1 defeat to Iceland from a penalty in the round of 16, which saw England eliminated from the tournament.
On 4 September 2016, Rooney earned his 116th appearance for England in 1 -- 0 away win over Slovakia in the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, making him the nation 's most - capped outfield player of all time, and England 's second highest appearance maker behind Peter Shilton. A few days earlier, he had confirmed that he would retire from international football after the finals in Russia. In March 2017, Rooney had been left out of the England squad by England boss Gareth Southgate. Following Rooney 's return to Everton in July, which saw him put on a string of impressive performances, Southgate wanted to recall Rooney back to the England squad for the upcoming 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers. However, Rooney announced his early retirement from international football with immediate effect on 23 August 2017, snubbing Southgate 's recall. His final England appearance came on 11 November 2016 in a 3 -- 0 win over Scotland, in which he provided the assist for the third goal, scored by Gary Cahill.
Rooney is a creative, energetic forward who combines technical skill with strength and physicality, while also excelling in the air despite his lack of height. He is a versatile attacker, capable of playing anywhere along the front line; although his preferred role is as a striker, he has also been used as a supporting forward, or even as a winger. In more recent years, he has even been deployed in a deeper, more creative role, as an attacking midfielder, or even as a central or box - to - box midfielder under former manager Louis van Gaal, due to his vision, range of passing and team - work. A prolific goalscorer, Rooney is a powerful striker of the ball and an accurate finisher, who is capable of scoring goals both inside and outside the penalty area, as well as from volleys. In addition to his offensive attributes, he has been praised for his work - rate and stamina by players, managers and the media, and is highly regarded for his dedication and willingness to press opponents when possession has been lost in order to win back the ball and start attacking plays.
Due to his precocious displays as a teenager, Wayne Rooney was given the nicknames "Wazza '' (a reference to former England international Paul "Gazza '' Gascoigne, who was also a gifted player troubled by off - field issues), "The Wonder Boy '', and "The White Pelé ''. Rooney was a fast, agile player in his youth; however, several injuries throughout his career have affected his speed and mobility in recent years, which has led to some in the game accusing him of not quite living up to his full potential, on occasion. Despite his reputation as one of the top strikers of his generation, and as one of England 's greatest ever players and all - time leading goalscorer, Rooney has been criticised for his behaviour and aggression on the pitch at times, which has led him to pick up unnecessary bookings.
In addition to Everton, Rooney also supports Celtic. He is also a supporter of the Leeds Rhinos rugby league club.
Rooney, originally a boxer, still pursues the sport recreationally for stress relief. In June 2011, he visited the Harley Street Hair Clinic and had a hair transplant. He has a number of tattoos, including one of a Celtic cross on his arm.
Rooney met his wife, Coleen Rooney (née McLoughlin), while both were at secondary school. They married on 12 June 2008 after six years of dating, during which Rooney admitted to soliciting prostitutes in Liverpool in 2004. "I was young and stupid. It was at a time when I was very young and immature and before I had settled down with Coleen. '' He has a tattoo of the words "Just Enough Education to Perform '', the title of an album by his favourite band, the Stereophonics; Coleen arranged for the group to play at their wedding reception. The wedding ran into some controversy with the Catholic Church. The couple held a religious ceremony at the Abbey of Cervara, a converted monastery near Genoa, despite being warned by the local bishop 's office against the plan. The bishop 's office told the Rooneys that La Cervara is deconsecrated and not suitable for a wedding. It suggested a different church, five miles away. Nevertheless, the couple ignored the advice and Father Edward Quinn, their local Catholic priest from Croxteth, presided over the ceremony.
In April 2006, Rooney was awarded £ 100,000 in libel damages from tabloids The Sun and News of the World, who had claimed that he had assaulted Coleen in a nightclub. Rooney donated the money to charity.
Rooney 's wife gave birth to a son on 2 November 2009, Kai Wayne. The couple 's second child, Klay Anthony, was born on 21 May 2013. The couple 's third child, Kit Joseph, was born on 24 January 2016.
Rooney 's younger brother, John Rooney, is also a professional footballer who plays for Guiseley. He has previously played with Macclesfield Town, Barnsley and Bury, and in January 2011 signed a contract to play in Major League Soccer (MLS) in the United States. John was selected by the New York Red Bulls in the second round of the 2011 MLS SuperDraft. Rooney 's cousin, Tommy, is also a footballer.
Rooney has endorsement deals with Nike (he is the face of their T90 Laser IV boots), Nokia, Ford, Asda, and Coca - Cola. He appeared on six consecutive UK - version covers of Electronic Arts ' FIFA series from FIFA 06 (2005) to FIFA 12 (2011). In October 2010, Rooney was dropped by Coca - Cola from one of its advertising campaigns following issues surrounding his private life. In 2012, Rooney was listed as the fifth highest - paid player in the world, behind Lionel Messi (1st), David Beckham (2nd) and Cristiano Ronaldo (3rd), with an annual income of US $ 32.6 million.
It was announced in July 2011, that jerseys with Rooney 's name and number were the best - selling sports product under the auspices of the Premier League. During the 2009 -- 10 season, Manchester United sold between 1.2 million and 1.5 million shirts and it is estimated that of that, Rooney 's name was printed on several hundred thousand. The account is taken from official jerseys sales across the globe, not just in England.
On 9 March 2006, Rooney signed the largest sports book deal in publishing history with HarperCollins, who granted him a £ 5 million advance plus royalties for a minimum of five books to be published over a 12 - year period. The first, My Story So Far, an autobiography ghostwritten by Hunter Davies, was published after the 2006 World Cup. The second publication, The Official Wayne Rooney Annual, was aimed at the teenage market and edited by football journalist Chris Hunt. His third book, My Decade in the Premier League, was published in September 2012.
In July 2006, Rooney 's lawyers went to the United Nations ' World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) to gain ownership of the Internet domain names waynerooney.com and waynerooney.co.uk, both of which Welsh actor Huw Marshall registered in 2002. Three months later, the WIPO awarded Rooney the rights to waynerooney.com.
In October 2014, Rooney became the first Premier League footballer to reach ten million followers on social networking site Twitter. As of October 2014, Rooney is the fifth most - followed footballer (and sixth most - followed sportsperson) globally on Twitter. In terms of top UK Twitter individuals, Rooney ranked at number 9 in October 2014.
In July 2002, while Rooney was with Everton, agent Paul Stretford encouraged Rooney and his parents to enter the player into an eight - year contract with Proactive Sports Management. However, Rooney was already with another representation firm at the time, while Stretford 's transaction went unreported to the FA, and he was thus charged with improper conduct. Stretford alleged in his October 2004 trial that he had secretly recorded boxing promoter John Hyland and two other men threatening and attempting to blackmail him for an undisclosed percentage of Rooney 's earnings.
Stretford 's case collapsed due to evidence that conflicted with his insistence that he had not signed Rooney, and on 9 July 2008, he was found guilty of "making of false and / or misleading witness statements to police, and giving false and / or misleading testimony ''. In addition, the contract to which Stretford had signed Rooney was two years longer than the limit allowed by the FA. Stretford was fined £ 300,000 and given an 18 - month ban as a football agent, a verdict he appealed.
Stretford left Proactive in 2008 and took Rooney with him. Proactive later sued Rooney, claiming £ 4.3 million in withheld commissions. In July 2010, Proactive was awarded £ 90,000 as restitution.
On 1 September 2006, Everton manager David Moyes sued Rooney for libel after the tabloid newspaper the Daily Mail published excerpts from Rooney 's 2006 autobiography that accused the manager of leaking Rooney 's reasons for leaving the club to the press. The case was settled out of court for £ 500,000 on 3 June 2008, and Rooney apologised to Moyes for "false claims '' he had made in the book regarding the matter.
Helen Wood claims Rooney paid £ 1,000 for a threesome with her and Jennifer Thompson in a Manchester hotel while his wife was five months pregnant. It was reported his solicitors unsuccessfully tried to fight the allegations when they first surfaced in early August 2010.
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how far do you run in middle school cross country | Cross country running - wikipedia
Cross country running is a sport in which teams and individuals run a race on open - air courses over natural terrain such as dirt or grass. Sometimes the runners are referred to as harriers (dogs). The course, typically 4 -- 12 kilometres (2.5 -- 7.5 mi) long, may include surfaces of grass, and earth, pass through woodlands and open country, and include hills, flat ground and sometimes gravel road. It is both an individual and a team sport; runners are judged on individual times and teams by a points - scoring method. Both men and women of all ages compete in cross country, which usually takes place during autumn and winter, and can include weather conditions of rain, sleet, snow or hail, and a wide range of temperatures.
Cross country running is one of the disciplines under the umbrella sport of athletics, and is a natural terrain version of long - distance track and road running. Although open - air running competitions are pre-historic, the rules and traditions of cross country racing emerged in Britain. The English championship became the first national competition in 1876 and the International Cross Country Championships was held for the first time in 1903. Since 1973 the foremost elite competition has been the IAAF World Cross Country Championships.
Cross country courses are laid out on an open or woodland area. The IAAF recommends that courses be grass - covered, and have rolling terrain with frequent but smooth turns. Courses consist of one or more loops, with a long straight at the start and another leading to the finish line.
Terrain can vary from open fields to forest hills and even across rivers. It also includes running down and up hills. Because of variations in conditions, international standardization of cross country courses is impossible, and not necessarily desirable. Part of cross country running 's appeal is the distinct characteristics of each venue 's terrain and weather, as in other outdoor sports like motor racing, cycling and golf.
According to the IAAF, an ideal cross country course has a loop of 1,750 to 2,000 metres (1,910 to 2,190 yd) laid out on an open or wooded land. It should be covered by grass, as much as possible, and include rolling hills "with smooth curves and short straights ''. While it is perfectly acceptable for local conditions to make dirt or snow the primary surface, courses should minimize running on roads or other macadamized paths. Parks and golf courses often provide suitable locations.
While a course may include natural or artificial obstacles, cross country courses support continuous running, and do not require climbing over high barriers, through deep ditches, or fighting through the underbrush, as do military - style assault courses.
A course at least 5 metres (5.5 yd) full allows competitors to pass others during the race. Clear markings keep competitors from making wrong turns, and spectators from interfering with the competition. Markings may include tape or ribbon on both sides of the course, chalk or paint on the ground, or cones. Some classes use colored flags to indicate directions: red flags for left turns, yellow flags for right turns, and blue flags can mean continue straight ahead or stay within ten feet (of the flag). Courses also commonly include distance markings, usually at each kilometer or each mile.
The course should have 400 to 1,200 m (440 to 1,310 yd) of level terrain before the first turn, to reduce contact and congestion at the start. However, many courses at smaller competitions have their first turn after a much shorter distance.
Courses for international competitions consist of a loop between 1750 and 2000 meters. Athletes complete three to six loops, depending on the race. Senior men compete on a 12 - kilometre course. Senior women and junior men compete on an 8 - kilometre course. Junior women compete on a 6 - kilometre course.
In the United States, college men typically compete on 8 km (5.0 mi) or 10 km (6.2 mi) courses, while college women race for 5 km (3.1 mi) or 6 km (3.7 mi). High school courses are generally 5 km (3.1 mi).
All runners start at the same time, from a starting arc (or line) marked with lines or boxes for each team or individual. An official, 50 meters or more in front of the starting line, fires a pistol to indicate the start. If runners collide and fall within the first 100 meters, officials can call the runners back and restart the race, however this is done only once. Crossing the line or starting before the starting pistol is fired is considered a false start and most often results in disqualification of the runner.
The course ends at a finish line located at the beginning of a funnel or chute (a long walkway marked with flags) that keeps athletes single - file in order of finish and facilitates accurate scoring.
Depending on the timing and scoring system, finish officials may collect a small slip from each runner 's bib, to keep track of finishing positions. An alternative method (standard in the UK) is to have four officials in two pairs. In the first pair, one official reads out numbers of finishers and the other records them. In the second pair, one official reads out times for the other to record. At the end of the race, the two lists are joined along with information from the entry information. The primary disadvantage of this system is that distractions can easily upset the results, particularly when scores of runners finish close together.
Chip timing has grown in popularity to increase accuracy and decrease the number of officials required at the finish line. Each runner attaches a transponder with RFID to his or her shoe. When the runner crosses the finish line, an electronic pad records the chip number and matches the runner to a database. Chip timing allows officials to use checkpoint mats throughout the race to calculate split times, and to ensure runners cover the entire course. This is by far the most efficient method, although it is also the most expensive. The drawback to chip timing is its inability to separate a close finish properly. Chips times the feet, when the rule books say it is the torso that counts. It is technically possible for an athlete to fall across the finish line, legally crossing the finish line, but with their feet too far away from the sensor to have their finish recorded.
Contemporary races have now started to use fully automatic timing systems for photo finish accuracy to their results. This has dramatically improved the timing mechanisms of Cross Country over the last few years.
Scores are determined by summing the top four or five individual finishing places on each team. In international competition, a team typically consists of six runners, with the top four scoring. In the United States, the most common scoring system is seven runners, with the top five scoring. Points are awarded to the individual runners of eligible teams, equal to the position in which they cross the finish line (first place gets 1 point, second place gets 2 points, etc.). The points for these runners are summed, and the lowest score wins. Individual athletes, and athletes from incomplete teams (teams consisting of less than 5 athletes or teams) and individuals who have been disqualified are excluded from scoring. Ties are usually broken by the position of each team 's sixth runner.
The lowest possible score in a five - to - score match is 15 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5), achieved by a team 's runners finishing in each of the top five positions. If there is a single opposing team then they would have a score of 40 (6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10), which can be considered a "sweep '' for the winning team. In some competitions a team 's sixth and seventh runner are scored in the overall field and are known as "pushers '' or "displacers '' as their place can count ahead of other runners, giving other teams more points. In the above match, if there are two non-scoring runners and they came 6th and 7th overall, the opponent 's score would be 50 (8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12). Accordingly, the official score of a forfeited dual meet is 15 -- 50.
Because of differences between courses in running surface, frequency and tightness of turns, and amount of up and downhill, cross country strategy does not necessarily simplify to running a steady pace from start to finish. Coaches and cross country runners debate the relative merits of fast starts to get clear of the field, versus steady pacing to maximize physiological efficiency. Some teams emphasize running in a group in order to provide encouragement to others on the team, while others hold that every individual should run his or her own race. In addition, whether you run ahead ' of the pack ' or behind it and pull ahead in the end is important, but can vary according to the runner 's individual skill, endurance, and the length of the race. Runners should also account for food intake prior to the race. Most important, however, is the training beforehand.
Cross country running involves very little specialized equipment. Most races are run in shorts and vests or singlets, usually in club or school colours. In particularly cold conditions, long - sleeved shirts and tights can be worn to retain warmth without losing mobility. The most common footwear are cross country spikes, lightweight racing shoes with a rubber sole and five or more metal spikes screwed into the forefoot part of the sole. Spike length depends on race conditions, with a muddy course appropriate for spikes as long as 25 millimetres (0.98 in). If a course has a harder surface, spikes as short as 6 millimetres (0.24 in) may be most effective. While spikes are suitable for grassy, muddy, or other slippery conditions, runners may choose to wear racing flats, rubber - soled racing shoes without spikes, if the course includes significant portions of paved surfaces or dirt road.
Formal cross country competition traces its history to the 19th century and an English game called "hare and hounds '' or "the paper chase ''. English schools started competing in cross country races in 1837, and established a national championship on December 7, 1867. It was held on Wimbledon Common in south - west London. It was the first cross country race that was considered "open '', or could be run by anyone. Its original purpose was to imitate steeplechase for off - season training, and was considered a bit of a joke. The race was about 3.5 miles long, and went through very boggy and hilly terrain. The course was not well marked, and many competitors got lost. Matters were not helped by the fact that the race was run in the dark, as it began at 5 pm.
Cross country was contested as a team and individual event at the 1912, 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics. Sweden took gold in 1912, and Finland, led by Paavo Nurmi, captured the gold in 1920 and 1924. During the 1924 race in the Paris heat wave, only 15 of the 38 competitors reached the finish. Eight of those were taken away on stretchers. One athlete began to run in tight circles after reaching the stadium and later knocked himself unconscious, while another fainted 50 meters from the finish. José Andía and Edvin Wide were reported dead, and medics spent hours trying to find all the competitors who had blacked out along the course. Although the reports of deaths were unfounded, spectators were shocked by the attrition rate and Olympic officials decided to ban cross country running from future Games. Since 1928, cross country has been contested only as the fifth discipline of the modern pentathlon, and until 2016 it was the only discipline where the Olympic competition was only part of the modern pentathlon. The sport will have a separate medal event at the 2018 Youth Olympic Games in Buenos Aires.
Europeans dominated early International Cross Country Championships, first held at the Hamilton Park Racecourse in Scotland on 28 March 1903. England won the first 14 titles, and 43 of 59 until the IAAF took over the competition in 1973. France was the next most successful country in the early years, winning 12 championships between 1922 and 1956. Belgium is the only other country to win at the International Cross Country Championship, capturing titles in 1948, 1957, 1961 and 1963. The English also dominated the individual competition, with an Englishman winning the individual title 35 times, including three wins by Jack Holden (1933 -- 1935).
The first international cross country championship for women was held in 1931, and thirteen more times through 1972. England won 12 of these early championships, losing only in 1968 and 1969 (to the United States). American Doris Brown won five consecutive individual titles between 1967 and 1971.
Beginning in 1973, the IAAF began hosting the renamed World Cross Country Championships each year. In 1975, the New Zealand men and United States women won, marking the first championships by non-European countries. In 1981 an African nation (Ethiopia) won the men 's race for the first time, and a decade later an African nation (Kenya) won the women 's race for the first time. Ethiopia or Kenya has captured every men 's title since 1981 and every women 's title since 2001. Through 2010, Kenya has won 40 World Cross Country Championships and Ethiopia has won 23.
In addition to the World Cross Country Championships, the IAAF sponsors six annual area - level competitions: the African Cross Country Championships, Asian Cross Country Championships, European Cross Country Championships, NACAC Cross Country Championships, Oceania Cross Country Championships and South American Cross Country Championships.
Beyond championships, IAAF world cross country meetings include the Great Edinburgh International Cross Country, Cross Internacional de Itálica, Antrim International Cross Country, Cinque Mulini, Nairobi Cross, Chiba International Cross Country, Fukuoka International Cross Country meet, Eurocross and Almond Blossom Cross Country.
Cross country running is organized at the state level by the athletics association for each state. In Queensland this Queensland Athletics. In the Masters category (over 30), this is organized by Australian Masters Athletics. Brisbane will host the Australian Masters Nationals Championships, April 21 -- 24, 2011 with the Cross Country hosted by Thompson Estate and Eastern Suburbs Athletics at Minnippi Parklands.
The cross country season in Brisbane is usually March -- September. During the season there is usually one race each week in a different park, generally organized and hosted by one of the participating clubs. Photos of such events can be found here.
Cross country running is a far - reaching sport in Canada. In middle school, races are more serious and are divided by grade and gender. In high school, the races are far - reaching and tend to be the main talent pool (especially at the senior level) for university or national - level runners. At the university level, the sport is administered by Canadian Interuniversity Sport.
The organization of cross country running in the United Kingdom has continued to be mostly devolved to the four national associations: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The sport is based around the clubs, which usually are mixed cross country and road running clubs. The current position (which is changing) is that in England, the English Cross Country Association is part of the Amateur Athletic Association.
Cross country running takes place from roughly September until March. Most matches are parts of different cross country leagues, which are organized on an ad hoc basis. These vary from large, high quality leagues, such as the London Metropolitan Cross Country League, Birmingham League, Hampshire League, Essex League and Surrey League (which is unusual in requiring ten runners to score) to small, local leagues (such as the Gloucestershire AA league), and individual clubs can (and typically are) member of several leagues.
Typically there will be four or five fixtures a season. Also, there are county championships, area championships (north, south, and Midlands), the national championship (whose location rotates around the three areas), and the Inter-Counties Championship (which is often the best quality race owing to its restricted entry and its role as the trial for the World Championships).
Also there can be many inter-club matches, particularly among the older clubs. Most league matches are around 10 km (6.2 mi) long, and most championships 12 to 15 km (c. 71⁄2 to 9 miles) long. Most clubs are mixed, though men 's and women 's races tend to be run separately.
Secondary school aged students are also to compete at local schools races, with a set number of students qualifying for county level, at which there is a further race to be eligible for the relevant national schools cross country race (e.g. the English Schools Cross Country).
At University level, there is considerable competition available. University clubs typically compete both locally (via English Athletics) as well as between universities - with larger fixtures organized through BUCS (formerly known as BUSA).
Primary schools, although more often the juniors, also participate in cross country events and some areas of England have done so since the late 1960s. An example would be schools near Ouston, County Durham which compete as part of Chester - le - Street & District Primary Cross Country Association.
USA Track & Field hosts four annual national cross country championships. The USA Cross Country Championships, first held in 1890, include six races: masters women (8 km), masters men (8 km), junior women (6 km), junior men (8 km), open women (8 km) and open men (12 km). In addition to crowning national champions, the championships serve as the trials race to select the Team USA squad for the IAAF World Cross Country Championships. The USA Masters 5 a km Cross Country Championships, first held in 2002, incl men 's race and a women 's race. The USATF National Club Cross Country Championships, first held in 1998, feature the top clubs from across the United States as they vie for honors and bragging rights as the nation 's top cross country team. The USATF National Junior Olympic Cross Country Championships, first held in 2001, has raced for boys and girls in five different two - year age divisions.
Most American universities and colleges field men 's and women 's cross country teams as part of their athletic program. Over 900 men 's cross country teams and over 1000 women 's cross country teams compete in the three divisions of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Men usually race 10 km (6.2 mi) or 8 km (5.0 mi), and women usually race 6 km (3.7 mi) or 5 km (3.1 mi). The season culminates in men 's and women 's championships. Jr. College men often race 4 miles.
Every state offers cross country as a high school sport for boys and girls. Over 440,000 high school students compete in cross country each year, making it the sixth-most popular sport for girls, and seventh most popular for boys. The standard high school cross country race distance is 5 km (3.1 mi) for most states with California high schools running 3 mile races, though some counties run a shorter, 3 - to 4 - kilometer course for girls. Beginning in 1979, the Foot Locker Cross Country Championships have offered a national championship for high school cross country runners. Since 2004, the Nike Cross Nationals have offered an alternative national championship, focused on teams rather than individuals. A 2008 film, The Long Green Line, documented the success of Joe Newton, cross country coach at York Community High School in Elmhurst, Illinois.
While many middle schools (grades 6 -- 8) in the U.S. offer cross country as a school sport, youth running clubs dominate in this age group. A typical middle school course is 3 km (1.9 mi) or 2 mi (3.2 km), and races may not split up boys and girls. Few elementary schools in the U.S. have school teams, but many running clubs exist for youth runners. Youth running clubs compete in local, regional, and national championships sanctioned by the AAU or USATF. Course distances for this age group vary depending on the age of the athlete. Common championship distances are:
Mt. San Antonio College in Walnut, California hosts the largest cross country invitational in the United States, with over 22,000 runners from community colleges, high schools and elementary schools competing. The meet started in 1948 and continued today.
Outstanding American cross country runners include Don Lash, who won seven consecutive national championships from 1934 to 1940, Pat Porter, who won eight titles from 1982 to 1989, and Steve Prefontaine, who won three NCAA national titles in cross country. Only two American athletes have won the IAAF World Cross Country Championships: Craig Virgin, who won in 1980 and again in 1981 and Lynn Jennings from 1990 -- 1992.
The 2015 Disney movie McFarland, USA revolves around a cross-country team at a small high school.
One variation on traditional cross country is mountain running, which incorporates significant uphill and / or downhill sections as an additional challenge to the course.
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when was the painted cave fire in santa barbara | Painted Cave fire - wikipedia
The Painted Cave Fire was a devastating wildfire that burned in the Santa Ynez Mountains and the city of Santa Barbara, within Santa Barbara County, California.
The fire, which began near Painted Cave, was intentionally set near at the intersection of Highway 154 (San Marcos Pass Road) and Painted Cave Road, burned 5,000 acres (20 km), destroyed 427 buildings, and killed 1 civilian.
The day had already been a long one for the Santa Barbara County Fire Department which had battled a 3 - alarm fire in the county dump. While still mopping up from the dump fire, the call went out at 6: 02pm for a brush fire on Highway 154 and Painted Cave Road. On this Wednesday evening temperatures topped off at 109 degrees, an all - time record for that date, fueling some of the worst sundowner winds ever recorded. The first engine arrived on scene at 6: 05pm and was met with winds gusting over 40 miles per hour (64 km / h) with about 2 acres (0.81 ha) actively burning. Less than 20 minutes later, the fire had traveled over 2 miles (3.2 km) and flames were reaching 70 feet (21 m) into the air.
The fire proceeded into residential neighborhoods of Santa Barbara, fueled by sundowner winds, eventually jumping U.S. Route 101 at 7: 42PM. In less than two hours the fire had traveled nearly 4 miles (6.4 km), destroying 430 structures and killing one person. It was the largest loss of structures since the Bel Air Fire of 1961. The state fire marshal called it the "fastest - moving fire of its type ever in the United States. ''
The sole fatality of the fire, Andrea Lang Gurka, age 37, died while fleeing the flames along San Marcos Pass Road.
Very quickly after the fire started, investigators determined that the blaze was the work of an arsonist and were able to trace it back to its origin. From there, however, the case ran cold and sat unsolved for over 5 years. The case was reopened in 1995 when Peggy Finley, a former girlfriend to Leonard Ross, told her minister that Ross had confessed to igniting the fire in an attempt to "burn out his neighbor '' but the fire "got out of hand. '' After an investigation of Ross, Santa Barbara County District Attorney Thomas W. Sneddon, Jr. decided not to file criminal charges saying that the case against Ross was too weak. However, Ross then sued the county for investigating him and the county saw an opening. A countersuit was filed accusing Ross of starting the fire and the jury ruled in the county 's favor, 9 - 3.
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where did the name off white come from | Virgil Abloh - wikipedia
Virgil Abloh (/ æbloʊ /; born September 30, 1980) is an American fashion designer who has been the artistic director of Louis Vuitton 's men 's wear collection since March 2018. Apart from his work at Louis Vuitton, Abloh serves as the chief executive officer of the Milan - based label Off - White, a fashion house he founded in 2013.
Born in Chicago, Illinois to Ghanaian parents, he graduated from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison in 2002 and the Illinois Institute of Technology in 2006, with degrees in civil engineering and architecture, respectively. He entered the world of fashion with an internship at Fendi in 2009 alongside rapper Kanye West. The two began an artistic collaboration that would launch Abloh 's career into founding Off - White. Time magazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2018.
Virgil Abloh was born on September 30, 1980 in Rockford, Illinois to Ghanaian immigrant parents. His mother was a seamstress. Abloh was raised in Rockford, where he attended Boylan Catholic High School, graduating in 1998. He met his future wife, Shannon, in high school. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison in 2002 with an undergraduate degree in civil engineering. He received his Master of Architecture at the Illinois Institute of Technology in 2006.
After graduating from university, he interned at Fendi in the same class as rapper Kanye West in 2009. Placed in the company 's Rome, Italy office, the two began a collaborative relationship. A year later, West appointed Abloh the creative director of his creative agency, DONDA. In 2011, West asked him to serve as the artistic director for the 2011 Jay - Z / Kanye West album Watch the Throne. In 2012, Abloh launched his first company, Pyrex Vision, a small boutique of couture streetwear. Abloh purchased deadstock clothing from Ralph Lauren for $40, screen - printed designs on them and sold them for prices upward of $550. He closed the company down a year later as he did not intend it to be a commercial enterprise but an artistic experiment.
Abloh on the inspiration behind founding high - end streetwear label, Off - White.
Abloh founded his first fashion house and second business overall in 2013 with the high - end streetwear brand Off - White. Based in Milan, Italy, the company was described by Abloh as "the gray area between black and white as the color off - white '' to investors and fashion critics. He launched the company 's women 's wear line in 2014 and showed the collections at the Paris Fashion Week. His collections were selected as a finalist for the LVMH Prize, an industry award, but lost to Marques'Almeida and Jacquemus. Abloh launched his first concept store for Off - White in Tokyo, Japan where he started the company 's furniture arm, Grey Area. In 2017, he was asked to design a new collection in conjunction with Nike entitled "The Ten '' where he re-designed a variety of the company 's best - selling shoes. Virgil also partnered up with the Swedish furniture company IKEA to design furniture for apartments and houses. It is aimed primarily at Millennials looking for furnish their first home. The collection will be named Markerad which is a Swedish word meaning "clear - cut; crisp; pronounced '' and is scheduled to release in 2019.
On March 25, 2018, Abloh was named artistic director of Louis Vuitton 's menswear line, marking him the first person of African descent to lead the brand 's menswear line, as well as one of the few black designers at the helm of a major French fashion house. Upon his acceptance of the position, he stated, "It is an honor for me to accept this position. I find the heritage and creative integrity of the house are key inspirations and will look to reference them both while drawing parallels to modern times ''. Abloh is set to showcase his first collection for Louis Vuitton at the 2018 Men 's Fashion Week in Paris.
Virgil 's employs quotation marks stylistically in order to convey ironic detachment from society and social norms.
Abloh maintains a house in Chicago 's Lincoln Park where he has lived with his wife and two children. He travels 350,000 miles a year for his work. He is of the Ewe tribe in the Volta region in Ghana
During the rise in neo-nationalism in 2017 Abloh worked with conceptual artist Jenny Holzer to create a line emphasizing the positive aspects of immigration, cultural integration, and globalization. In December 2017, he worked with Holzer again to design t - shirts for Planned Parenthood in response to the Women 's March on Washington.
Abloh received his first major award in 2011 when his work designing the 2011 Jay - Z / Kanye West album Watch the Throne 's cover art was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Recording Package. He received the Urban Luxe award at the 2017 British Fashion Awards. Abloh was listed as one of Time magazine 's 100 most influential people in the world in 2018, one of two designers.
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what is the meaning behind the song broken halos | Broken Halos - wikipedia
"Broken Halos '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Chris Stapleton. It was released on April 14, 2017 as a promotional single from his second studio album From A Room: Volume 1. Written by Stapleton and Mike Henderson, it is the lead track on the album. It was serviced to country radio on July 17 as the second single from the album.
Musically, it was defined by critics as a multi-genre song. Stapleton said the song was inspired by "people who have passed away before their time. '' The singer recorded the song a day after a longtime friend passed away. "Broken Halos '' is a mid-tempo country rock number in which Stapleton "meditates on the wounds people suffer and the road toward healing that they travel, '' as noted by a Los Angeles Times ' reviewer. An NPR editor described it as Southern gospel, and a Rolling Stone reviewer, as folk rock. Another Rolling Stone writer, Chris Parton, named it country gospel after listenting to a live performance of the song, and interpreted it as:
... (The track) offers a tender, lump - in - your - throat reminder to keep the faith, even in the midst of tragedy. Angels appear to help us on our way, Stapleton sings, but when their job is done they leave... and we 're not meant to understand why.
Writing for Billboard, Spotify editors opined the song "helps build a strong argument that (Stapleton) is one of the most refreshing and consistent country artists to emerge in recent memory. '' Laura McClellan of Taste of Country wrote "the stripped - down tune is a commentary on, essentially, stumbling along this life together as human beings, and its lyrics are poignant enough to affect even the most cynical of us. '' She commented its mid-tempo, "laid - back '' feel with only guitar and vocals featuring prominently "makes it easy listening, but its core is significant. '' In Paste, Ben Salmon described it a "a perfectly paced song that lyrically spans the spiritual and the earthbound. ''
In Rolling Stone, Robert Crawford commented, "Equal parts folk - rock anthem and Sunday - morning spiritual, (the song) begins with five seconds of Stapleton in solo mode, howling over an acoustic guitar. When the band joins him halfway through the first verse, it 's an understated entrance, stripped free of radio - friendly gloss... (The song) is a straightforward, uncluttered opener, designed to welcome -- not overwhelm -- the listener. ''
The song has sold 127,000 copies in the United States as of July 2017.
Stapleton premiered the song during Dolly Parton 's Tennessee wildfires telethon in December 2016. The song is featured on the setlist of his All - American Road Show Tour. On July 18, 2017 the singer performed it on The Today Show, along with "Tennessee Whiskey '' and "Second One to Know ''.
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can love happen twice is a real story or fiction | Ravinder Singh (author) - wikipedia
Ravinder Singh (Punjabi: ਰਵਿੰਦਰ ਸਿੰਘ) (born 4 February 1982) is an Indian author. He has written five novels entitled "I Too Had a Love Story '', "Can Love Happen Twice? '', "Like it happened Yesterday '', "Your Dreams are Mine Now '' and "This Love That Feels Right ''. Sss
Ravinder Singh was born in a Sikh family in Burla, Sambalpur, Odisha. He spent his childhood days in Burla Sambalpur City. He completed his schooling from Guru Nanak Public School, Sambalpur, Odisha. He received a Bachelor of Engineering in computer science engineering from Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College in Karnataka. Then he moved to Bhubaneshwar to work at Infosys Technologies for five years. He did his MBA from Indian School of Business in Hyderabad. He was working as a Sr. Program Manager at Microsoft when he decided to become a full - time author.
His girlfriend died in 2007 before they got formally engaged. He adapted his own story into a novel. The book I Too Had a Love Story was reviewed by N.R. Narayana Murthy, Chairman Emeritus of Infosys Technologies, who called it "Simple, honest and touching ''. Now married to Khusboo Chauhan who was one of the readers of his first novel and was so deeply moved that she went to a Gurudwara to pray for him, without imagining that one day she would get married to him. That event occurred on September, 23, 2012.
Singh 's first book is based on a real - life incident of his meeting a girl and his love life. After a six - month search, an editing team sent the manuscript to the publisher Shristi, who published the book. The book was unveiled at a press conference in Chandigarh by Anupam Mittal. He also launched the audio version of I Too Had a Love Story in mid-2011. I Too Had a Love Story is also published in Kannada language, entitled Nannadu Ondu prema kathe.
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who saved the knowledge and books of ancient greece and rome | Transmission of the Greek classics - wikipedia
The introduction of Greek philosophy and science into the culture of the Latin West in the Middle Ages was an event that transformed the intellectual life of Western Europe. It consisted of the discovery of many original works, such as those written by Aristotle in the classical period. Greek manuscripts had been maintained in the Greek - speaking world in Constantinople, the Near East and Egypt. Interest in Greek texts and their availability was scarce in the Latin West until traffic increased to the East, particularly the medieval Islamic world from where Arabic translations were translated to Latin, and the Byzantine Empire during the time of the Crusades and the Latin rule of Constantinople following the sack of the Byzantine capital in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade. Finally, the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottoman Empire caused many Byzantine Greek scholars to flee to Western Europe bringing with them manuscripts of classical works in the original Greek, thus fueling the Renaissance.
As knowledge of Greek declined in the west with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, so did knowledge of the Greek texts, many of which had remained without a Latin translation. The fragile nature of papyrus, as a writing medium, meant that older texts not copied onto expensive parchment would eventually crumble and be lost.
After the Fourth Crusade (1202 - 4) and the Sack of Constantinople (1204), scholars such as William of Moerbeke gained access to the original Greek texts of scientists and philosophers, including Aristotle, Archimedes, Hero of Alexandria and Proclus, that had been preserved in the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, and translated them directly into Latin.
The final decline and collapse of the Byzantine empire in the fifteenth century heightened contact between its scholars and those of the west. Translation into Latin of the full range of Greek classics ensued, including the historians, poets, playwrights and non-Aristotelian philosophers. Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 1355 -- 1415) translated portions of Homer and Plato. Guarino da Verona (1370 -- 1460) translated Strabo and Plutarch. Poggio Bracciolini (1380 -- 1459) translated Xenophon, Lucan and Diodorus. Francesco Filelfo (1398 -- 1481) translated portions of Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias. Lorenzo Valla (1407 -- 1457) translated Thucydides and Herodotus. Marsilio Ficino (1433 -- 1499) and his Platonic Academy translated Plato. Poliziano (1454 -- 1494) translated Herodian and portions of Epictetus and Plutarch. Regiomontanus and George of Trebizond translated Ptolemy 's Almagest. Important patrons were Basilios Bessarion (1403 -- 1472) and Pope Nicholas V (1397 -- 1455).
Syriac translations play an important role in modern text - criticism even today. The Oxford Classical issue of the Greek text of Aristotle 's Organon uses the sigla Ρ, Ι, and Γ, which are texts dating from Christian possessions from the 6th to 8th century.
Syriac translations played a major role for the later reception into Arabic. These translators from Syriac were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the Abbasid period. The most important translator of this group was the Syriac - speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809 - 873), known to the Latins as Joannitius.
Classical Greek learning was firmly found in every metropolis of the Roman empire, including in Rome itself.
In Rome, Boethius propagated works of Greek classical learning. Boethius intended to pass on the great Greco - Roman culture to future generations by writing manuals on music and astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.
Several of Boethius ' writings, which were largely influential during the Middle Ages, drew from the thinking of Porphyry and Iamblichus. Boethius wrote a commentary on the Isagoge by Porphyry, which highlighted the existence of the problem of universals: whether these concepts are subsistent entities which would exist whether anyone thought of them, or whether they only exist as ideas. This topic concerning the ontological nature of universal ideas was one of the most vocal controversies in medieval philosophy.
Besides these advanced philosophical works, Boethius is also reported to have translated important Greek texts for the topics of the quadrivium. His loose translation of Nicomachus 's treatise on arithmetic (De institutione arithmetica libri duo) and his textbook on music (De institutione musica libri quinque, unfinished) contributed to medieval education. De arithmetica, begins with modular arithmetic, such as even and odd, evenly even, evenly odd, and oddly even. He then turns to unpredicted complexity by categorizing numbers and parts of numbers.
His translations of Euclid on geometry and Ptolemy on astronomy, if they were completed, no longer survive. Boethius made Latin translations of Aristotle 's De interpretation and Categories with commentaries. These were widely used during the Middle Ages.
In the Western Provinces (what today is considered the Western Europe 's heartland), the collapsing Roman empire lost many Greek manuscripts which were not preserved by monasteries. However, due to the expense and dearth of writing materials, monastic scribes could recycle old parchments. The parchments could be reused after scraping off the ink of the old texts, and writing new books on the previously used parchment, creating what is called a palimpsest. Fortunately for modern scholars, the old writing can still be retrieved, and many extremely valuable works, which would have otherwise been lost, have been recovered in this way. As the language of Roman aristocrats and scholars, Greek died off along with the Roman Empire in the West, and by 500 CE, almost no one in Western Europe was able to read (or translate) Greek texts, and with the rise of the Islamic Empire, the west was further cut off from the language. After a while, only a few monasteries in the west had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works (mainly the Irish). Some Irish monks had been taught by Greek and Latin missionaries who probably had brought Greek texts with them.
William of Moerbeke was one of the most prolific and influential translators of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century. Very little is known of William 's life. He was born probably in 1215 in the village of Moerbeke, now in Belgium, and probably entered the Dominican priory in Leuven as a young man. Most of his surviving work was done during 1259 - 72.
Though William 's contribution to the "recovery '' of Aristotle, in the 13th century, was not as significant as is sometimes claimed, his work undoubtedly helped in forming a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, and particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied, and which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy. William 's translation of Proclus was also important, demonstrating that the influential book Liber de Causis, was not a genuine work of Aristotle, but rather derived from Proclus ' Elementatio Theologica.
According to a tradition originating in the later Middle Ages, William knew Thomas Aquinas and was commissioned by him to make some of the translations. But there is no contemporary record of the friendship or the commissions. If they did meet, it is most likely during the three or four years Aquinas was working at Orvieto, i.e. not before the election of Pope Urban IV in August 1261, who invited Aquinas to serve at the Papal court, and not after 1265, when Aquinas left for Rome. His translation of De motu animalium is cited by Thomas in Summa Contra Gentiles, probably completed in 1264.
Arabic logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.
Western Arabic translations of Greek works (found in Iberia and Sicily) originates in the Greek sources preserved by the Byzantines. These transmissions to the Arab West took place in two main stages.
The first period of transmission during 8th and 9th centuries was preceded by a period of conquest, as Arabs took control of previously Hellenized areas such as Egypt and the Levant in the 7th century. At this point they first began to encounter Greek ideas, though from the beginning, many Arabs were hostile to classical learning. Because of this hostility, the religious Caliphs could not support scientific translations. Translators had to seek out wealthy business patrons rather than religious ones. Until Abbasid rule in the 8th century, however, there was little work in translation. Most knowledge of Greek during Umayyad rule was gained from those scholars of Greek who remained from the Byzantine period, rather than through widespread translation and dissemination of texts. A few scholars argue that translation was more widespread than is thought during this period, but theirs remains the minority view.
The main period of translation was during Abbasid rule. The 2nd Abbasid Caliph al - Mansur moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. Here he founded the great library with texts containing Greek Classical texts. Al - Mansur ordered this rich fund of world literature translated into Arabic. Under al - Mansur and by his orders, translations were made from Greek, Syriac, and Persian, the Syriac and Persian books being themselves translations from Greek or Sanskrit.
The 6th - century King of Persia, Anushirvan (Chosroes I) the Just, had introduced many Greek ideas into his kingdom. Aided by this knowledge and juxtaposition of beliefs, the Abbasids considered it valuable to look at Islam with Greek eyes, and to look at the Greeks with Islamic eyes. Abbasid philosophers also pressed the idea that Islam had from the very beginning stressed the gathering of knowledge as important to the religion. These new lines of thought allowed the work of amassing and translating Greek ideas to expand as it never before had.
The Caliph al - Mansur was the patron who did most to attract the Nestorian physicians to the city of Baghdad which he had founded, and he was also a prince who did much to encourage those who set themselves to prepare Arabic translations of Greek, Syriac, and Persian works. Still more important was the patronage given by the Caliph al - Ma'mun, who in A.H. 217 (= A.D. 832) founded a school at Baghdad, suggested no doubt by the Nestorians and Zoroastrian schools already existing, and this he called the Bayt al - Hikma or "House of Wisdom '', and this he placed under the guidance of Yahya ibn Masawaih (d. A.H. 243 = A.D. 857), who was an author both in Syriac and Arabic, and learned also in the use of Greek. His medical treatise on "Fevers '' was long in repute and was afterwards translated into Latin and into Hebrew.
The most important work of the academy however was done by Yahya 's pupils and successors, especially Abu Zayd Hunayn ibn Ishaq al - Ibadi (d. 263 A.H. = A.D. 876), the Nestorian physician to whom we have already referred as translating into Syriac the chief medical authorities as well as parts of Aristotle 's Organon. After studying at Baghdad under Yahya he visited Alexandria and returned, not only with the training given at what was then the first medical school, but with a good knowledge of Greek which he employed in making translations in Syriac and Arabic.
Later the Caliph al - Mamun also sent emissaries to the Byzantines to gather Greek manuscripts for his new university, making it a center for Greek translation work in the Arab world. At first only practical works, such as those on medicine and technology were sought after, but eventually works on philosophy became popular.
Most scholars agree that during this period rhetoric, poetry, histories, and dramas were not translated into Arabic, since they were viewed as serving political ends which were not to be sought after in Arab states. Instead, philosophical and scientific works were almost the entire focus of translation. This has been disputed by a minority of scholars, however, who argue that stories such as the Arabian Nights carry clear parallels to Greek literature -- evidence that many Arabs were familiar with Greek humanities more than is thought.
Al - Kindi (Alkindus), a famous logician and prominent figure in the House of Wisdom, is unanimously hailed as the "father of Islamic or Arabic philosophy ''. His synthesis of Greek philosophy with Islamic beliefs met with much opposition, and at one point he was flogged by those opposed to his ideas. He argued that one could accept the Koran and other sacred texts, and work from that point to determine truth. Whenever he ran into an impasse, he would abandon the Greek ideas in favor of the Islamic faith. He is considered to be largely responsible for pulling the Arab world out of a mystic and theological way of thinking into a more rationalistic mode. Previous to al - Kindi, for example, on the question of how the immaterial God of the Koran could sit on a throne in the same book, one theologist had said, "The sitting is known, its modality is unknown. Belief in it is a necessity, and raising questions regarding it is a heresy. '' Few of al - Kindi 's writings have survived, making it difficult to judge his work directly, but it is clear from what exists that he carefully worked to present his ideas in a way acceptable to other Muslims.
After Al - Kindi, several philosophers argued more radical views, some of whom even rejected revelation, most notably the Persian logician, Al - Razi or "Rhazes. '' Considered one of the most original thinkers among the Persian philosophers, he challenged both Islamic and Greek ideas in a rationalist manner. Also, where Al - Kindi had focused on Aristotle, Al - Rhazi focused on Plato, introducing his ideas as a contrast.
After Al - Kindi, Al - Farabi (Alpharabius) introduced Neoplatonism through his knowledge of the Hellenistic culture of Alexandria. Unlike Al - Kindi or Al - Rhazi, Al - Farabi was hesitant to express his own feelings on issues of religion and philosophy, choosing rather to speak only through the words of the various philosophies he came across.
Decades after Al - Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) compiled the ideas of many Muslim philosophers of the previous centuries and established a new school which is known as Avicennism. After this period, Greek philosophy went into a decline in the Islamic world. Theologians such as Al - Ghazali argued that many realms of logic only worked in theory, not in reality. His ideas would later influence Western European religious ideas. In response to Al - Ghazali 's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes), the most famous commentator on Aristotle and founder of Averroism, wrote a refutation entitled The Incoherence of the Incoherence.
By 1200, when philosophy was again revived in the Islamic world, Al - Kindi and Al - Farabi were no longer remembered, while Ibn Sina 's compilation work still was. Ibn Sina, otherwise known as Avicenna, would later heavily influence European philosophical, theological and scientific thought, becoming known as "the most famous scientist of Islam '' to many Western historians.
While Greek ideas gradually permeated the Islamic world, Muslims conquests extended to the European continent. Spain was conquered by the Arabs around 700 AD, even reaching as far as Poitiers, France by 732 (Battle of Tours). By 902 Sicily was conquered. With the aid of Greek and other ideas, Spain in particular quickly became the most heavily populated and thriving area in Europe. One of the rulers of Muslim Spain, Al - Hakam II, made an effort to gather books from all over the Arab world, creating a library which would later become a center for translation into Latin.
As books were gathered, so were many Arab scholars who had studied Greek ideas in the east. For example, Muhammud ibn ' Abdun and ' Abdu'l - Rahman ibn Ismail came to Spain and introduced many ideas about medicine as well as several of the works of Aristotle and Euclid. Ibn Bajjah (known as "Avempace '') and Ibn Rushd (known as "Averroes '') were among the other famous philosophers of Spain who furthered the expansion of Greek ideas in medicine and philosophy.
Prior to Averroes, many Arab philosophers had confused Aristotle with Plotinus, a Hellenized Egyptian who founded Neoplatonism and had mixed Aristotle 's ideas with Plato 's. Averroes rediscovered the "true '' Aristotle by translating key texts reintroducing him to Arab Spain. He also challenged Al - Ghazali 's largely anti-Greek philosophies and offered some of the best reconciliation of Islam and philosophy of the time. Key to his arguments was the idea that although there was only one truth, that truth could be expressed in many ways, including both philosophy and religion. He even used the Qur'an to back up his arguments in favor of Greek philosophy and logic, especially the passage: "It is He, (O Muhammad) who has revealed the Book to you... some of its verses are unambiguous... and the others are ambiguous... only God and those confirmed in knowledge know its interpretation. '' Averroes argued that "those confirmed in knowledge '' were philosophers.
The Scholastic philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages such as Aquinas later called Averroes "The Commentator, '' and Michael the Scot translated several of Averroes ' works within fifty years of the Arab 's death. However, Averroes ' reception in Western Europe contrasted with his ultimate rejection by Arabs in Spain. Soon after Averroes, Greek ideas in the Arab world were largely opposed by those who disliked anything not "truly Arab. ''
While Muslims were busy translating and adding their own ideas to Greek philosophies, the Latin West was still suspicious of pagan ideas. Leaders of the Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire also frowned upon philosophy, and the Empire had just gone through a period of plague, famine, and war. Further west, several key figures in European history who came after Boethius had strengthened the overwhelming shift away from Greek ideas. For centuries, Greek ideas in Europe were all but non-existent, until the Eastern part of the Roman Empire -- Byzantine -- was sacked during the crusades unlocking numerous Greek texts. Within Western Europe, only a few monasteries had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works.
There was a brief period of revival, when the Anglo - Saxon monk Alcuin and others reintroduced some Greek ideas during the Carolingian Renaissance of the 8th century. After Charlemagne 's death, however, intellectual life again fell into decline. By the 12th century, however, scholastic thought was beginning to develop, leading to the rise of universities throughout Europe. These universities gathered what little Greek thought had been preserved over the centuries, including Boethius ' commentaries on Aristotle. They also served as places of discussion for new ideas coming from new translations from Arabic throughout Europe.
By the 12th century, European fear of Islam as a military threat had lessened somewhat. Toledo, in Spain, had fallen from Arab hands in 1085, Sicily in 1091, and Jerusalem in 1099. These linguistic borderlands proved fertile ground for translators. These areas had been conquered by Arab Greek and Latin - speaking peoples over the centuries and contained linguistic abilities from all these cultures. The small and unscholarly population of the Crusader Kingdoms contributed very little to the translation efforts, until the Fourth Crusade took most of the Byzantine Empire. Sicily, still largely Greek - speaking was more productive; it had seen rule under Byzantines, Arabs, and Italians, and many were fluent in Greek, Arabic, and Latin. Sicilians, however, were less influenced by Arabs and instead are noted more for their translations directly from Greek to Latin. Spain, on the other hand, was an ideal place for translation from Arabic to Latin because of a combination of rich Latin and Arab cultures living side by side.
As early as the 10th century, scholars in Andalusia had begun to gather translated texts, and in the latter half of that century began transmitting them to the rest of Europe. After the Reconquista of the 12th century, however, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, who were now able to work in "friendly '' religious territory. As these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, their previously held fears turned to admiration, and from Spain came a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Foreigners came to Spain to translate from all over Europe, and Toledo became a center for such travelers, since so many of its citizens wrote daily in both Arabic and Latin - based languages.
Although there was a huge amount of work being accomplished in Spain, there was no central school for translating and no real organized effort, as there had been at times among the Arabs. Translators came from many different backgrounds and translated for many different reasons. For example, non-Christian Jewish scholars participated by translating Arabic works which had already been translated into Hebrew, into Latin and Vulgate languages. Some scholars, however, have suggested that Raymond de Sauvetât the Archbishop of Toledo, seems to have started an organized movement of support for translations, and many scholars who seem to be associated with him in documents may have translated two - by - two, working together.
Whether Raimond actually started a truly central, organized effort at translation, later generalized as the Toledo School of Translators, remains unknown. What is known is that most translations coming out of Spain dealt with either medicine or astronomy. Hugo of Santalla, for example, translated a large selection of Arabic works all dealing with astronomy, as well as tracing the history of astronomic thought through history, underscoring the work of the Greeks, Persians, Hellenists, and Arabs in one large preface to his volume.
By the 13th century, translation had declined in Spain, but it was on the rise in Italy and Sicily, and from there to all of Europe. Adelard of Bath, an Englishman, traveled to Sicily and the Arab world, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid 's Elements. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of high knowledge from Italy, and other areas, into their courts, as signs of prestige. Even the Byzantines experienced an Aristotelian revival in the mid-12th century, and gathered men from Italy as well.
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who won rupauls drag race all stars three | RuPaul 's Drag Race All Stars (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of RuPaul 's Drag Race All Stars began airing on January 25, 2018. The season was announced in August 2017, and 9 of the 10 cast members were revealed during a VH1 television special titled "Exclusive Queen Ruveal, '' which aired on October 20, 2017. This season featured ten All Star contestants, selected from the show 's first season through to its ninth season, who competed to be inducted into the "Drag Race Hall of Fame ''.
As in the previous season, the top two queens in the challenge compete in a "Lip Sync for Your Legacy, '' with the winner of the lip sync earning $10,000 and choosing which of the bottom queens gets eliminated. A new twist on how the top queens of the season were chosen was revealed in the seasons last episode. The previously eliminated queens returned in the finale and voted for the top two out of the remaining top four finalists, from there on the two queens with the most votes advanced and the others were subsequently eliminated. The prizes for the winner of the competition are a one - year supply of Anastasia Beverly Hills cosmetics and a cash prize of $100,000.
The winner of the third season of RuPaul 's Drag Race All Stars was Trixie Mattel, with Kennedy Davenport being the runner - up.
The drag queens that competed are:
(Ages and names stated are at time of contest.)
Guest judges for this season include (in order of appearance):
Guests who appeared in episodes but did not judge on the main stage (in order of appearance):
Nine formerly eliminated queens from past seasons of RuPaul 's Drag Race enter the workroom to win a spot in the Drag Race Hall of Fame, and also to win a cash prize of $100,000. Upon entering the room, RuPaul introduces the final 10th queen, season one winner BeBe Zahara Benet, stating that he wants to showcase the contestant to a new generation of fans. For the episode 's maxi - challenge, each queen is to prepare a live talent presentation for the second All Star Variety Show. Upon judgement, BeBe Zahara Benet, Milk, and Trixie Mattel are deemed safe. During the critiques, Aja and BenDeLaCreme are selected as the top two all stars of the week. Contestants Shangela and Thorgy Thor receive positive reviews from the judges. Chi Chi DeVayne and Morgan McMichaels are placed in the bottom for their performances. Aja and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Nicki Minaj 's "Anaconda ''; BenDeLaCreme wins the lip sync and eliminates Morgan McMichaels.
In episode two, the nine remaining queens are assigned female musicians to embody in the Divas Lip Sync Live battle, a tribute act in the form of a live medley of RuPaul songs. Aja performs as Amy Winehouse, BeBe Zahara Benet as Diana Ross, BenDeLaCreme as Julie Andrews, Chi Chi DeVayne as Patti LaBelle, Kennedy Davenport as Janet Jackson, Milk as Celine Dion, Shangela as Mariah Carey, Trixie Mattel as Dolly Parton, and Thorgy Thor as Stevie Nicks. The runway theme on the main stage is "RuDemption, '' a theme for which each contestant recreates a look from their original season. Upon judgement, Aja, Milk, and Trixie Mattel are deemed safe. During the critiques, BeBe Zahara Benet, BenDaLeCreme, and Shangela receive positive feedback on their performances and runway looks, with the latter two winning the challenge. Chi Chi DeVayne, Kennedy Davenport and Thorgy Thor are all criticized for their performances, while their runway looks receive praise. DeVayne is declared safe from the bottom two. Shangela and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to The Pointer Sisters ' "Jump (For My Love). '' Shangela wins the lip sync and eliminates Thorgy Thor.
The eight remaining queens are each assigned a personality by RuPaul for The Bitchelor, a satire based on the show The Bachelor. Aja plays the Needy Girl, BeBe Zahara Benet the Shy Virgin, BenDeLaCreme the Cougar, Chi Chi DeVayne and Shangela a polyamorous couple, Kennedy Davenport the Party Girl, Milk the Stalker, and Trixie Mattel the Fake Bitch. Jeffrey Bowyer - Chapman participates as the main love interest of the show. The main - stage runway theme is "Wigs on Wigs on Wigs ''. Upon judgement, Benet and Shangela are both deemed safe. BenDeLaCreme, Davenport and Mattel are praised for their performances and looks, with the former two contestants winning the challenge. Aja, Chi Chi DeVayne, and Milk are placed in the bottom three. Davenport and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Lorde 's "Green Light. '' Davenport wins the lip sync and eliminates Milk.
The seven remaining queens prepare for the Snatch Game, where each contestant picks a celebrity to impersonate. Aja appears as Crystal LaBeija, BeBe Zahara Benet as Grace Jones, BenDeLaCreme as Paul Lynde, Chi Chi DeVayne as Maya Angelou, Kennedy Davenport as Phaedra Parks, Shangela as Jenifer Lewis and Trixie Mattel as RuPaul. Guest judge Kristin Chenoweth partakes in the challenge, playing herself. The runway theme on the main stage is "Flower Power. '' Upon judgement, BenDeLaCreme and Shangela are deemed the winners of the challenge. Aja and Benet receive positive remarks for their runway looks, though reviews are divided on Benet 's Snatch Game performance. Both are ultimately declared safe. DeVayne, Davenport and Mattel are placed in the bottom three. Shangela and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Katy Perry 's "I Kissed a Girl. '' The lip sync is declared a tie, and both contestants eliminate DeVayne.
The six remaining queens participate in a mini-challenge where they dress up in "Quick Drag '' and model in an Andy Warhol - inspired photoshoot. Aja wins the challenge, receiving a year 's supply of burgers from Hamburger Mary 's and a cash tip of $2,000. For the main challenge, each contestant is asked to prepare two runway looks for the Pop Art Ball: one inspired by Warhol 's Campbell 's Soup Cans and a second inspired by Studio 54. Additionally, each contestant has to record a voice - over narrative to be played during her runway presentation. During the judges ' critiques, Aja and Shangela are criticized for both of their runway looks, and they fall into the bottom two. BeBe Zahara Benet and Trixie Mattel are both commended for their runway looks, winning the challenge. BenDeLaCreme and Kennedy Davenport attract mixed commentary but are ultimately declared safe. Benet and Mattel lip - sync against each other to Diana Ross 's "The Boss ''. Benet wins the lip sync and eliminates Aja. At the end of the episode, RuPaul brings previous winners Chad Michaels and Alaska back onto the main stage, and they reveal three queens in cloaks that will be returning for the next episode.
RuPaul reintroduces all the eliminated queens to the competition. Everyone is tasked with writing and performing original lyrics to audition for RuPaul 's new all - star supergroup, The Kitty Girls. The queens are split equally into two teams: the eliminated queens on one team, and the remaining queens on the other. Each member creates a character to perform: Benet appears as Jungle Kitty, BenDeLaCreme as Goth Kitty, Davenport as Diva Kitty, Shangela as Sparkle Kitty, and Mattel as IQ Kitty. On the opposite team, Aja appears as Lil ' Banjee, DeVayne as Cajun Kitty, Milk as Milky Kitty, McMichaels as Bimbo Kitty, and Thor as Cardio Kitty.
During the judges ' critiques, Benet and BenDeLaCreme are praised for their performances, and they are deemed the top two contestants. Davenport, Shangela and Mattel are placed in the bottom three. Benet and BenDeLaCreme are instructed to eliminate one of the bottom queens and to select an eliminated contestant to return to the competition. Benet and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Deborah Cox 's "Nobody 's Supposed To Be Here, '' and the latter wins. BenDeLaCreme chooses McMichaels to return to the competition and subsequently eliminates herself, making her the second queen to leave the competition voluntarily. Upon the episode 's premiere, critics deemed her move one of the most controversial and "unthinkable '' moments on the show.
The five remaining queens are asked to act in a trailer for a movie titled My Best Squirrelfriend 's Dragsmaids Wedding Trip, comedically portraying Academy Award - winning female characters. Morgan McMichaels is tasked with handing out roles to each contestant: Bebe Zahara Benet plays The Queen (The Queen), Kennedy Davenport plays La La (La La Land), McMichaels plays Beige Swan (Black Swan), Shangela plays Actavia (The Help / Hidden Figures), and Trixie Mattel plays Sharon Frokovich (Erin Brockovich). The runway theme for the episode is "Red for Filth. '' During critiques, Shangela 's and Mattel 's performances and looks are praised, and they are chosen as the top two contestants. Although Benet, Davenport and McMichaels receive compliments for their runway looks, all three are placed in the bottom three. Shangela and Mattel lip - sync against each other to RuPaul 's "Freaky Money. '' Shangela wins the lip sync and chooses to eliminate McMichaels.
The final four queens were asked to write, sing and dance in an ambitious production number to RuPaul 's song "Kitty Girl. '' Choreographer Todrick Hall accompanied the girls choreography, but also revealed that the entire music video would be shot in one - take throughout the backstage of RuPaul 's Drag Race, including the runway The music video opens with Kennedy Davenport, and follows with Shangela, Bebe Zahara Benet and Trixie Mattel; the judges, and eliminated contestants, all appeared as cameo to the video. During the critiques, all four queens were given positive comments about their performances and runway looks. RuPaul reveals that each eliminated queen gets to vote two contestants to enter the top two spots, whereas each remaining contestant got the chance to plead why they deserved to be in the top positions. Subsequently, the four remaining queens were asked to change costumes for the lip - sync to Miley Cyrus 's "Wrecking Ball ''. After deliberation, eliminated contestant Morgan McMichaels announces Davenport and Mattel as the top two All - Stars, effectively eliminating both Benet and Shangela. After the lip - sync, RuPaul announces Mattel as the season three winner, and earns a spot in the Drag Race Hall of Fame.
On February 15, 2018, the series production company World of Wonder filed a lawsuit against an anonymous leaker using the alias RealityTVLeaks. According to the lawsuit, RealityTVLeaks posted several visuals from the season on various social media websites such as Reddit, Twitter, and Instagram before each episode 's airing -- including runway themes, challenges, episode titles, and eliminated queens. Additionally, a producer from the show stated that the leaker removed "information identifying (World of Wonder) as the copyright owner and author '' before adding "misleading copyright management information falsely identifying (the defendants) as the copyright owners and authors. '' World of Wonder launched the suit because of the defendant 's "unlawful theft and public dissemination of episodes of the popular and critically - acclaimed reality television show, '' and the production company confirmed it is seeking damages of $300,000, including $150,000 for each infringed episode and $25,000 per violation of "actual damages '' and defendants ' profits.
Although a ratings success, the season was not critically well received, following the high bar set by All Stars 2. Vulture, in writing a summation review, described the season as "truly one of the roughest seasons of the show ever. After a stellar, jaw - unhingingly good All Stars 2, this season felt more like an embarrassing cousin you brought to gay happy hour who wears double polos ''. The A.V. Club similarly described the season as disappointing; in their final review of the season, they wrote, "I should be celebrating the crowning of a new queen in the Drag Race hall of fame, but Drag Race All Stars season three has left me feeling totally underwhelmed and wondering, What 's the point? ''
Vulture did however make the point that although the season did not live up to expectations, "even at its worst, it 's still one of one the best, if not the best goddamn reality competition show on television ''.
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which two states in the united states of america are not connected to the other 48 states | Contiguous United States - wikipedia
The contiguous United States consists of the 48 adjoining U.S. states plus Washington, D.C. (federal district), on the continent of North America. The term excludes the non-contiguous states of Alaska and Hawaii and all off - shore United States territories and possessions, which are American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
The greatest distance (on a great circle route) entirely within the 48 contiguous states is 2,802 miles (4,509 km, between Florida and the State of Washington); the greatest north - south line is 1,650 miles (2,660 km).
Together, the 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C. occupy a combined area of 3,119,884.69 square miles (8,080,464.3 km), which is 1.58 % of the total surface area of Earth. Of this area, 2,959,064.44 square miles (7,663,941.7 km) is contiguous land, composing 83.65 % of total U.S. land area, similar to the area of Australia. Officially, 160,820.25 square miles (416,522.5 km) of the contiguous United States is water area, composing 62.66 % of the nation 's total water area.
The contiguous United States would be placed 5th in the list of sovereign states and dependencies by area; the total area of the country, including Alaska and Hawaii, ranks fourth. Brazil is the only country that is larger in total area than the contiguous United States, but smaller than the entire United States, while Russia, Canada and China are the only three countries larger than both. The 2010 census population of this area was 306,675,006, comprising 99.33 % of the nation 's population, and a density of 103.639 inhabitants / sq mi (40.015 / km), compared to 87.264 / sq mi (33.692 / km) for the nation as a whole.
While conterminous U.S. has the precise meaning of contiguous U.S. (both adjectives meaning "sharing a common boundary ''), other terms commonly used to describe the 48 contiguous states have a greater degree of ambiguity.
Because Alaska is also on the North American continent, the term continental United States would also include that state, so the term is sometimes qualified with the explicit inclusion or exclusion of Alaska to resolve any ambiguity. The term was in use prior to the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states of the United States and at that time usually excluded outlying territories of the United States. However, even before Alaska became a state, it was sometimes included within the "Continental U.S. ''
CONUS, a technical term used by the U.S. Department of Defense, General Services Administration, NOAA / National Weather Service, and others, has been defined both as the continental United States, and as the 48 contiguous states. The District of Columbia is not always specifically mentioned as being part of CONUS.
OCONUS is derived from CONUS with O for outside added, thus referring to Outside of Continental United States (OCONUS).
The term lower 48 is also used to refer to the conterminous United States. The National Geographic style guide recommends the use of contiguous or conterminous United States instead of lower 48 when the 48 states are meant, unless used in the context of Alaska.
During World War II, the first four numbered Air Forces of the USAAF were said to be assigned to the Zone of the Interior by the American military organizations of the time -- the future states of Alaska and Hawaii, then each only territories of the Union, were respectively covered by the Eleventh Air Force and Seventh Air Force during WW II.
Both Alaskans and Hawaiians have unique labels for the contiguous United States because of their own locations relative to them.
Alaska became the 49th state of the United States on January 3, 1959. Alaska is on the northwest end of the North American continent, but separated from the rest of the United States Pacific coast by the Canadian province of British Columbia. In Alaska, given the ambiguity surrounding the usage of continental, the term "continental United States '' is almost unheard of when referring to the contiguous 48 states. Several other terms have been used over the years. The term Lower 48 has, for many years, been a common Alaskan equivalent for "contiguous United States ''; today, more Alaskans use the term "Outside '', though a few persons may use "Outside '' to refer to any location not within Alaska.
Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States on August 21, 1959. It is the southernmost and so far, the latest state to join the Union. Not part of any continent, Hawaii is located in the Pacific Ocean, about 2,200 miles (3,500 km) from North America and almost halfway to Asia. In Hawaii and overseas American territories, for instance, the terms the Mainland or U.S. Mainland are often used to refer to the continental United States.
Apart from off - shore US islands, a few continental portions of the contiguous US are accessible by road only by traveling through Canada. Point Roberts, Washington; Elm Point, Minnesota; and the Northwest Angle in Minnesota are three such places. Alburgh, Vermont, is not directly connected by land, but is accessible by road via bridges from within Vermont and from New York.
The 48 contiguous United States are:
Washington, D.C. (the U.S. capital, also referred to as the District of Columbia) is distinct from the state of Washington.
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joseph his brothers and the coat of many colors | Coat of many colors - wikipedia
In the Hebrew Bible, the coat of many colors (Hebrew: כְּתֹנֶת פַּסִּים kəṯōneṯ passîm) is the name for the garment that Joseph owned, which was given to him by his father, Jacob.
According to the King James Version, Genesis 37: 3 reads, "Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old age: and he made him a coat of many colours. ''
The Hebrew phrase kethoneth passim is translated here as "coat of many colors '', but some have suggested that the phrase may merely mean a "coat with long sleeves '' or a "long coat with stripes. ''
The Septuagint translation of the passage uses the word ποικίλος (poikilos), which indicates "many colored ''; the Jewish Publication Society of America Version also employs the phrase "coat of many colors ''. On the other hand, the Revised Standard Version translates kethoneth passim as "a long robe with sleeves '' while the New International Version notes the translation difficulties in a footnote, and translates it as "a richly ornamented robe ''.
Aryeh Kaplan, in The Living Torah gives a range of possible explanations:
James Swanson suggests that the phrase indicates a "tunic or robe unique in design for showing special favor or relationship '' and that "either the robe was very long - sleeved and extending to the feet, or a richly - ornamented tunic either of special color design or gold threading, both ornamental and not suitable for working. ''
The phrase is used one other time in the Hebrew Scriptures, to describe the garment worn by Tamar, daughter of David, in 2 Samuel 13: 18 - 19. This is the relevant comparison. Joseph lived among the tents with the women, rather than going out to the fields and hunting with his brothers. As it was with Tamar, the "coat of many colors '' was, essentially, a dress (which his brothers found offensive).
Joseph 's father Jacob (also called Israel) favored him and gave Joseph the coat as a gift; as a result, he was envied by his brothers, who saw the special coat as an indication that Joseph would assume family leadership. His brothers ' suspicion grew when Joseph told them of his two dreams (Genesis 37: 11) in which all the brothers bowed down to him. The narrative tells that his brothers plotted against him when he was 17, and would have killed him had not the eldest brother Reuben interposed. He persuaded them instead to throw Joseph into a pit and secretly planned to rescue him later. However, while Reuben was absent, the others planned to sell him to a company of Ishmaelite merchants. When the passing Midianites arrived, the brothers dragged Joseph up and sold him to the merchants for 20 pieces of silver. The brothers then dipped Joseph 's coat in goat blood and showed it to their father, saying that Joseph had been torn apart by wild beasts.
Recent scholarship, especially among literary critics, has noted how the exhortation to "identify '' and the theme of recognition in Genesis 37: 32 - 33 also appears in 38: 25 - 26, in the story of Judah and Tamar. This serves to connect the chapters and unify the narrative. Victor Hamilton calls these "intentional literary parallels, '' while Robert Alter suggests that the verb "identify '' plays "a crucial thematic role in the dénouement of the Joseph story when he confronts his brothers in Egypt, he recognizing them, they failing to recognize him. ''
The envy of his brothers may also have stemmed from the fact that Joseph was the son of Rachel, Jacob 's first love. However, Joseph 's brothers were the sons of Rachel 's older sister Leah and the sons of the handmaidens, who were given to Jacob during a time when Rachel could not conceive. There was a battle between Leah and Rachel to compete for Jacob 's attention. Jacob had told Joseph, when he was seventeen years old, to go check on his brothers. Joseph would report back to his father of their evil deeds. In addition to this he shares his dreams of them bowing down to him. Their anger towards him only increased.
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why is it important to maintain the balance of nature | Balance of nature - wikipedia
The balance of nature is a theory that proposes that ecological systems are usually in a stable equilibrium or homeostasis, which is to say that a small change in some particular parameter (the size of a particular population, for example) will be corrected by some negative feedback that will bring the parameter back to its original "point of balance '' with the rest of the system. It may apply where populations depend on each other, for example in predator / prey systems, or relationships between herbivores and their food source. It is also sometimes applied to the relationship between the Earth 's ecosystem, the composition of the atmosphere, and the world 's weather.
The Gaia hypothesis is a balance of nature - based theory that suggests that the Earth and its ecology may act as co-ordinated systems in order to maintain the balance of nature.
The theory that nature is permanently in balance has been largely discredited by scientists working in ecology, as it has been found that chaotic changes in population levels are common, but nevertheless the idea continues to be popular in the general public. During the later half of the twentieth century the theory was superseded by catastrophe theory and chaos theory.
The concept that nature maintains its condition is of ancient provenance; Herodotus commented on the wonderful relationship between predator and prey species, which remained in a steady proportion to one another, with predators never excessively consuming their prey populations. The "balance of nature '' concept once ruled ecological research, as well as once governing the management of natural resources. This led to a doctrine popular among some conservationists that nature was best left to its own devices, and that human intervention into it was by definition unacceptable. The validity of a "balance of nature '' was already questioned in the early 1900s, but the general abandonment of the theory by scientists working in ecology only happened in the last quarter of that century when studies showed that it did not match what could be observed among plant and animal populations.
Predator - prey populations tend to show chaotic behavior within limits, where the sizes of populations change in a way that may appear random, but is in fact obeying deterministic laws based only on the relationship between a population and its food source illustrated by the Lotka -- Volterra equation. An experimental example of this was shown in an eight - year study on small Baltic Sea creatures such as plankton, which were isolated from the rest of the ocean. Each member of the food web was shown to take turns multiplying and declining, even though the scientists kept the outside conditions constant. An article in the journal Nature stated; "Advanced mathematical techniques proved the indisputable presence of chaos in this food web... short - term prediction is possible, but long - term prediction is not. ''
Although some conservationist organizations argue that human activity is incompatible with a balanced ecosystem, there are numerous examples in history showing that several modern day habitats originate from human activity: some of Latin America 's rain forests owe their existence to humans planting and transplanting them, while the abundance of grazing animals in the Serengeti plain of Africa is thought by some ecologists to be partly due to human - set fires that created savanna habitats.
Possibly one of the best examples of an ecosystem fundamentally modified by human activity can be observed as a consequence of the Australian Aboriginal practice of "Fire - stick farming ''. The legacy of this practice over long periods has resulted in forests being converted to grasslands capable of sustaining larger populations of faunal prey, particularly in the northern and western regions of the continent. So thorough has been the effect of these deliberate regular burnings that many plant and tree species from affected regions have now completely adapted to the annual fire regime in that they require the passage of a fire before their seeds will even germinate. One school in Los Angeles states, ""We have let our kids go to the forest area of the playground. However, five years later, we found that none of the flowers were growing, the natural damp soil had been hardened, and all of the beautiful grass had been plucked, ''.
Despite being discredited among ecologists, the theory is widely held to be true by the general public, with one authority calling it an "enduring myth ''. At least in Midwestern America, the "balance of nature '' idea was shown to be widely held by both science majors and the general student population. In a study at the University of Patras, educational sciences students were asked to reason about the future of ecosystems which suffered human - driven disturbances. Subjects agreed that it was very likely for the ecosystems to fully recover their initial state, referring to either a ' recovery process ' which restores the initial ' balance ', or specific ' recovery mechanisms ' as an ecosystem 's inherent characteristic. In a 2017 study, Ampatzidis and Ergazaki discuss the learning objectives and design criteria that a learning environment for non-biology major students should meet to support them challenge the "balance of nature '' idea.
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when did usa start driving on the right | Left - and right - hand traffic - wikipedia
The terms left - hand traffic (LHT) and right - hand traffic (RHT) refer to regulations requiring all bidirectional traffic, unless otherwise directed, to keep to the left side or to the right side of the road, respectively. This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road.
One hundred and sixty - three countries and territories use RHT, with the remaining seventy - six countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the world 's area and a quarter of its roads. In the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, mostly to conform with regional custom. In 1919, 104 of the world 's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT.
Many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, and Indonesia are among those LHT countries outside the former British Empire. In Europe, only four countries still drive on the left: the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are on islands that have no direct road connections with countries driving on the right.
Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory. Most exceptions are due to historical considerations and / or involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong and Macau. The United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar and British Indian Ocean Territory are RHT.
According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, both in the air and on water.
On a double - track railways, rail traffic generally runs to one side of a line, not always the same side as road traffic. Thus in Belgium, China, France (apart from the former German Alsace and Lorraine), Sweden (apart from Malmö and further south), Switzerland and Italy for example, the railways use LHT, while the roads use RHT, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems. In countries such as Indonesia, it is the reverse (RHT for railways and LHT for roads). Light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as road traffic in a country.
There is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. In healthy populations, traffic safety is thought to be the same regardless of handedness, although some researchers have speculated that LHT may be safer for ageing populations since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant.
Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching. In 1998, archaeologists found a well - preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty.
The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge.
Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left. In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.
In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters ' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver 's seat, so the (typically right - handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons.
In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others.
Meanwhile, LHT was introduced by the British in Atlantic Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate, British India, Southern Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, East Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Angola.
The first keep - right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821.
Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right - hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left - hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro - Hungarian Empire. However, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938 - 39.
Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967, despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left - hand drive (LHD) vehicles. A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change, but soon rose back to near its original level. The day was known as Dagen H ("H - Day ''), the ' H ' being for Högertrafik ("right traffic ''). When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H - dagurinn, again meaning "H - Day ''.
In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built - up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.
China adopted RHT in 1946. Taiwan changed to driving on the right at the same time. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT.
Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japan which was defeated and surrendered by the Allies.
Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970.
Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009, being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right hand drive (RHD) vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People 's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge, and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it. The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa 's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion. After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05: 50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6: 00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat - belt laws. That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three - day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.
The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as during the Commonwealth era. During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT, also because LHT had been required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945.
A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965.
Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54 % of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents. In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.
While most LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area.
LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.
There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one - way streets with a main road.
The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.
Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year, by rail, between the UK and France.
In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver 's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.
Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car '' and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger. '' By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford 's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.
In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or kerbside. Examples include:
Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle 's offside.
Most low - beam headlamps produce an asymmetrical beam distribution suitable for use on only one side of the road. Low beam headlamps for use in LH - traffic countries throw most of their light forward - leftward; those for RH - traffic countries throw most of their light forward - rightward, thus illuminating obstacles and road signs an adequate distance ahead on the driver 's own side of the road while limiting glare to oncoming traffic on the other side of the road.
Within Europe, headlamps designed and approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road, as for example on holiday or in transit. This adaptation may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded. Some varieties of the projector - type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LH - or RH - traffic beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car 's GPS detects that the vehicle has moved from LH to RH traffic or vice versa.
Because blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, most countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semi-permanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for the correct traffic - handedness.
Without sidecars attached, motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and bicycles are almost symmetric with their handlebars in the centre. However, motorcycles are often equipped with automotive - type asymmetrical - beam headlamps that likewise require adjustments or replacement when brought into a country with opposite traffic - handedness.
Within the European Union, vehicles must be equipped with one or two rear - facing red rear fog lamps. A single rear fog lamp must be located between the vehicle 's longitudinal centreline and the outer extent of the driver 's side of the vehicle. When importing a vehicle to a country which drives on the opposite side of the road, this sometimes requires the purchase and installation of local - market lighting components.
Some crash test results indicate that the RHD variant of a vehicle primarily developed for a LHD country may not protect the driver as well as the LHD variant, although differences in testing methodology could also cause the results to vary.
One of the possible causes of this difference in crash test results is the RHD variant will not be an exact mirror image of the LHD variant. The number of differences in chassis, bodywork and parts needed to produce the RHD variant will be minimised to reduce the cost. The RHD vehicle is usually a variant of the LHD markets, due to potentially lower sales volumes of the RHD variant. When minimising the changes needed for the RHD variant, there is a possibility that key strengthening structures that would protect the driver in a crash may not be transferred to the driver side in the RHD variant. (There are no easily reference - able sources for LHD variant performing less well in crash testing than the RHD variant where the vehicle is primarily manufactured for / in RHD markets).
It is commonplace in Europe for only the LHD variant of a vehicle to be tested under the Euro NCAP crash testing scheme, although the result will be used in the promotion of the RHD variant in European countries which operate LHT.
Of the 193 countries currently recognised by the United Nations (and the unrecognised Palestine), 140 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once.
Gibraltar is RHT (since 1929)
A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia
Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge.
Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland
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what is the story of the child of prague | Infant Jesus of Prague - wikipedia
The Infant Jesus of Prague or Child of Prague (Czech: Pražské Jezulátko; Spanish: Niño Jesús de Praga) is a 16th - century Roman Catholic wax - coated wooden statue of child Jesus holding a globus cruciger, located in the Discalced Carmelite Church of Our Lady Victorious in Malá Strana, Prague, Czech Republic. Pious legends state that the statue once belonged to Saint Teresa of Avila.
The statue of Infant Jesus is ornate, studded with diamonds and crowned with gold, with his left hand holding a golden orb symbolizing kingship and the right hand raised with the palm in a blessing posture. The statue 's clothes are routinely changed by the Carmelite sisters of the church. It is especially venerated during the Christmas season and the first Sunday of May every year on a day of feast of coronation and public procession.
Pope Leo XIII approved the devotion to the Infant Jesus of Prague statue in 1896, and instituted a sodality in its favour. On 30 March 1913, Pope Saint Pius X further organised the Confraternity of the Infant Jesus of Prague. Pope Pius XI granted its first Canonical Coronation on 27 September 1924. Pope Benedict XVI crowned the image for the second time during his Apostolic visit to the Czech Republic on 26 September 2009.
Over its history, copies of the Infant of Prague statue have attracted Catholic devotional worship in numerous countries. Outside of the Czech Republic, the statue is particularly popular in Portugal, Spain, Ireland, Poland, Philippines and Latin American countries that were previously colonies of Portugal and Spain.
The exact origin of the Infant Jesus statue is not known, but historical sources point to a 19 ‐ inch (48 cm) sculpture of the Holy Child with a bird in his right hand currently located in the Cistercian monastery of Santa María de la Valbonna in Asturias, Spain which was carved around the year 1340. Many other Infant Jesus sculptures were also carved by famous masters throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. Often found in early medieval work, the significance of the bird symbolizes either a soul or the Holy Spirit. The sculptures of the Holy Child were dressed in imperial regalia reflecting the aristocratic fashion of that period.
One legend says that a monk in a desolated monastery somewhere between Cordoba and Sevilla had a vision of a little boy, telling him to pray. The monk had spent several hours praying and then he made a figure of the child.
The House of Habsburg began ruling the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1526; the kingdom developed close ties with Spain. The statue first appeared in 1556, when María Manriquez de Lara y Mendoza brought the image to Bohemia upon her marriage to Czech nobleman Vratislav of Pernstyn. An old legend in the Lobkowicz family reports that María 's mother, Doña Isabella, had been given the statue by Saint Teresa of Avila herself. María received the family heirloom as a wedding present. It later became the property of her daughter, Polyxena, 1st Princess Lobkowicz (1566 -- 1642). In 1628, Princess Polyxena von Lobkowicz donated the statue to the Discalced Carmelite friars (White Friars).
Upon presenting it, the pious Princess Polyxena is said to have uttered a prophetic statement to the religious:
Venerable Fathers, I bring you my dearest possession. Honour this image and you shall never want.
The statue was placed in the oratory of the monastery of Our Lady of Victory, Prague, where special devotions to Jesus were offered before it twice a day. The Carmelite novices professed their vow of poverty in the presence of the Divine Infant. Upon hearing of the Carmelites ' devotions and needs, the Emperor Ferdinand II of the House of Habsburg sent along 2,000 florins and a monthly stipend for their support.
In 1630, the Carmelite novitiate was transferred to Munich. Disturbances in Bohemia due to the Thirty Years War brought an end to the special devotions, and on 15 November 1631, the army of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden took possession of Bohemia 's capital city. The Carmelite friary was plundered and the image of the Infant of Prague was thrown into a pile of rubbish behind the altar. Here it lay forgotten for seven years, its hands broken off, until in 1637 it was found again by Father Cyrillus and placed in the church 's oratory. One day, while praying before the statue, Father Cyrillus claimed to have heard a voice say,
Have pity on me, and I will have pity on you. Give me my hands, and I will give you peace. The more you honour me, the more I will bless you.
Since then, the statue has remained in Prague and has drawn many devotees worldwide to honour the Holy Child. Claims of blessings, favours and miraculous healings have been made by many who petitioned before the Infant Jesus.
In 1739, the Carmelites of the Austrian Province formed a special devotion apart from their regular apostolate. In 1741, the statue was moved to the epistle side of the church of Our Lady of Victory in Prague.
Copies of the Infant Jesus of Prague statue have been distributed widely. A similar statue arrived in the Philippines with Ferdinand Magellan and the Augustinian missionaries in 1521, during the first circumnavigation of the Earth. During the first years of the christianization of Archipelago, the sacred image helped convert the Filipino people to Catholicism and is locally called Santo Niño (literally, "holy child ''). It is currently housed in a Spanish - style church built in 1739. A yearly nine - day celebration was introduced in 1889 that includes a procession held in the statue 's honour, attracting over a million pilgrims each January. The expressions, accessories and hand posture of Santo Niño de Cebú are similar to the Infant Jesus of Prague, and it is believed that both statues originated from the same European source, with the devotion to Santo Niño starting earlier of the two. Copies of the statue have been venerated by Spanish - speaking Catholic faithful in churches around the world.
Copies of the Infant Jesus arrived in Poland in 1680, and has been popular in Polish homes, and Bohemia in general, where copies of the statue are typically placed in glass - enclosed gables. After the start of the Counter-Reformation era of the 17th century, the statue spread among the Christian communities of South Africa, Australia, Caribbean, Thailand and Sri Lanka.
The statue is a 19 ‐ inch (48 cm), wooden and coated wax representation of the Infant Jesus. The surface of the wax is quite fragile. In order to protect the fragile wax surface, the bottom half below the waist is enclosed in a silver case.
Since 1788, the statue 's raised two fingers have worn two rings, as a thanksgiving gift by a noble Czech family for healing their daughter, along with its golden blond hair. Some earlier records indicate that the original wig was possibly white.
Several costly embroidered vestments have been donated by benefactors. Among those donated are those from Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, which are preserved to this day. A notable garment in the collection is an ermine cloak placed on the statue the first Sunday after Easter, which is the anniversary day of the coronation of the statue by the Archbishop of Prague Ernst Adalbert von Harrach on 4 April 1655. In 1713 the clothing began to be changed according to the liturgical norms. Other valuable garments worn by the image are vestments studded with various gemstones, embroidered with gold, and silk fabrics as well as handmade lace customised purposely for the statue.
In April 1639, the Swedish army began a siege of the city of Prague. The frightened citizens hurried to the shrine of the Infant Jesus of Prague as services were held day and night at the Church of Our Lady Victorious in the Little Quarter. When the army decided instead to pull out, the grateful residents ascribed this to the miraculous Holy Infant. The tradition of the Infant Jesus procession and the coronation continues to this day. This ceremony is the closing highlight of the annual Feast of the Infant Jesus in Prague.
The Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus is the principal feast of the miraculous Infant.
Many saints have had a particular devotion to the Infant Jesus, such as St. Athanasius, St. Jerome, Bernard of Clairvaux, Francis of Assisi, and Anthony of Padua. The 1984 miniseries Teresa de Jesús, shows Saint Teresa of Avila with a statue in a number of scenes. As novice mistress, Therese of the Child Jesus placed the statue in the novitiate at Lisieux, because she knew the many blessings the Divine Child brought to the Carmelite novices in Prague when it was placed in their midst.
Today, numerous Catholic pilgrims pay homage to the Infant of Prague every year. It is one of the major pilgrimage centres in Central Europe, with the Prague church housing the Infant Jesus statue offering regular mass in Czech, Spanish, Italian and German languages. Statuettes of the Infant Jesus are placed inside many Catholic churches, sometimes with the quotation, "The more you honour me, the more I will bless you. ''
Devotion to the Child of Prague and belief in its power to influence the weather is still strong in many parts of Ireland. A wedding gift of a statue of the Child of Prague is particularly auspicious. It is also common to see the Child Of Prague displayed in the window of houses in some of the older parts of Dublin and the practice of putting it out in the hedge or burying it in the garden as a solicitation for good weather is widespread in areas as far apart as Cork, Dublin, Sligo and Leitrim.
Copies of the Infant of Prague statue are venerated in many countries of the Catholic world. In the church where the original is housed, it is ritually cared for, cleaned and dressed by the Carmelite sisters of the church, who change the Infant Jesus ' clothing to one of the approximately one hundred costumes donated by the faithfuls as gifts of devotion. The statue has had a dedicated robe for each part of the ecclesiastical calendar. The statue is venerated, with the faithful believing that it has powers to give favours to those who pray to the Infant of Prague. Copies of the statue are also venerated in Spanish speaking Catholic faithfuls around the world.
Once every four years, two wooden statues of Infant Jesus made in Prague are sent to various Catholic churches of the world. The Prague church also has a dedicated service that every week ships copies of the statue, cards, religious souvenirs and other items globally to Catholic devotees.
Churches modelled on the Prague church have been founded elsewhere, such as in the United States and Africa, where the devotees sing, dance, preach and shout. The devotional worship of Infant Jesus of Prague is not limited to Prague, and during the 18th century it expanded to churches in Central Europe. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as plaster and metal moulding became more affordable, the statues of the Infant of Prague spread rapidly into the homes of early modern Europe.
In the Iberian peninsula, among communities of Portugal and Spain, copies of the infant Jesus of Prague are popular, though known with different names, such as Menino Deus (literally, "boy god ''). In Italy, a statue similar to it is called Santo Bambino (literally, "holy child ''), and ritually revered during the Christmas season such as at the Basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli in Rome. The copy of the Infant of Prague in the Philippines is anointed with oil by its devotees. In Ireland, the statue is popular and is called "Child of Prague ''. Irish brides hoping for good luck and good weather on the wedding day ritually place a copy of the statue outside their homes. In Irish history, the Catholic devotional worship to the "Child of Prague '' soared during famines and epidemics. Statues of the Infant of Prague have been consecrated in churches of the U.S. states of Oklahoma, Connecticut and Michigan.
Coordinates: 50 ° 05 ′ 08 '' N 14 ° 24 ′ 12 '' E / 50.08556 ° N 14.40333 ° E / 50.08556; 14.40333
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who is considered the father of social science | List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field - wikipedia
The following is a list of people who are considered a "father '' or "mother '' (or "founding father '' or "founding mother '') of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and / or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as "a '' rather than "the '' father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial. As regards science itself, the title has been bestowed on the ancient Greek philosophers Thales -- who attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to mythology -- and Democritus, the atomist.
Henrietta Leavitt (mother) Edwin Hubble (father)
Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620).
Jean - François Champollion
Noam Chomsky
Carey (the passage to be looked up later) therefore denounces him as the father of communism.
"Mr. Ricardo 's system is one of discords... its whole tends to the production of hostility among classes and nations... His hook is the true manual of the demagogue, who seeks power by means of agrarianism, war, and plunder. '' (H.C. Carey, The Past, the Present, and the Future, Philadelphia, 1848, pp. 74 -- 75.)
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who won i'm a celebrity get me out of here 2018 | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (Australia season 4) - Wikipedia
The fourth season of Australia 's I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here, which was commissioned by Network Ten on 8 November 2017, premiered on 28 January 2018 and concluded on 12 March 2018. The season contained the show 's 100th episode which was broadcast on 5 February 2018. Comedian Fiona O'Loughlin won the series, beating singer Shannon Noll and boxer Danny Green, and was crowned "Queen of the Jungle '', the $100,000 prize money, was won for her selected charity, Angel Flight.
The contestants take part in daily trials to earn food. These trials aim to test both physical and mental abilities. Success is usually determined by the number of stars collected during the trial, with each star representing a meal earned by the winning contestant for their camp mates.
Two or more celebrities are chosen to take part in the "Celebrity Chest '' challenge to win luxuries for camp. Each challenge involves completing a task to win a chest to take back to camp. However, to win the luxury item in the chest, the campmates must correctly answer a question. If they fail to answer correctly, the luxury item is forfeited and a joke prize is won... This process is used in ' most ' of the Chest Challenges. The luxury item is "donated '' by a celebrity from the outside, mostly one who previously competed on a previous season.
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what is a breach of the peace uk | Breach of the peace - wikipedia
Breach of the peace, or disturbing the peace, is a legal term used in constitutional law in English - speaking countries, and in a wider public order sense in the several jurisdictions of the United Kingdom. It is a form of disorderly conduct.
In the United States, the Speech or Debate Clause of Article One of the United States Constitution provides that members of Congress shall be immune from arrest in going to and departing from sessions and while Congress is in session except for cases of "Treason, Felony, and Breach of the Peace. ''
The first two are somewhat self - explanatory; it has been suggested that the third is deliberately somewhat vague. The doctrine thus established is called congressional immunity; it arose out of the necessity to prevent a vengeful executive from arresting members of the legislature under a pretext to prevent them from taking actions that the executive might find to be displeasing. In recent years, this doctrine has been used to prevent members from being stopped and held for speeding on their way to sessions; this apparently is not a "breach of the peace '', whereas perhaps another misdemeanour such as "drunk and disorderly '' might be construed to be such.
Most states of the United States and most other English - speaking jurisdictions have extended this privilege to members of their legislatures on the theory outlined above.
Disturbing the peace is a crime generally defined as the unsettling of proper order in a public space through one 's actions. This can include creating loud noise by fighting or challenging to fight, disturbing others by loud and unreasonable noise (including loud music), or using profanity.
Disturbing the peace is typically considered a misdemeanour or an infraction depending on the jurisdiction and is often punishable by either a fine or a brief term in jail. On other rare occasions, it is considered an ordinance violation, the lowest level of offence. In most Commonwealth jurisdictions, a person held in breach of the peace will not have a criminal record entered against their name, which record could otherwise hurt the person 's employment prospects (often seriously) and could adversely affect how he or she is viewed and treated by law - enforcement authorities, e.g., what if any bond he or she is granted if arrested in the future.
A violation of a noise ordinance is in most jurisdictions not considered a disturbance of the peace unless the perpetrator has disregarded an affirmative request that he or she reduce the noise to a reasonable level.
Standards for whether to charge someone with disturbance of the peace are highly subjective, and in many jurisdictions, courts are highly deferential to the opinion of the arresting / charging officer as to whether the accused 's actions violated the law (even though in theory the officer 's testimony addresses only questions of fact, whereas questions of the law 's applicability to those facts are left to the trying court alone). Many local ordinances prohibiting disturbance of the peace exhibit a problematic degree of vagueness, occasionally to the point that courts deem them unconstitutional (in United States law) or violative of due process (in both United States and Commonwealth jurisdictions).
In England and Wales, theoretically all criminal offences cognizable by English law involve "a breach of the Queen 's peace '', and all indictments formerly concluded "against the peace of our Lady the Queen, her crown and dignity '' before the passage of the Indictments Act 1915 and the Rules that formed that Act 's first schedule. The conclusion has also found its way into constitutional law in many United States state constitutions, which mandate that indictments within the state end in a similar manner to the above, usually omitting the "crown '' part or substituting "government ''. For example, New Jersey 's is "against the peace of this State, the government and dignity of the same ''.
Historically that concluding phrase, now legally superfluous, represents the last trace of the process by which the royal courts assume jurisdiction over all offences, and gradually eroded the jurisdiction of the sheriff and of lords of manor and franchises, making crime a matter of national concern as distinguished from civil wrongs or infractions of the rights of local magnates. The Peace of the King was sworn on his accession or full recognition, and the jurisdiction of his courts to punish all violations of that peace was gradually asserted. The completion of this process is marked by the institution of the office of Justice of the Peace.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, breach of the peace is descended from the Justices of the Peace Act 1361, which refers to riotous and barratous behaviour that disturbs the peace of the King. More modern authority defines a breach of the peace as existing whether harm is actually done, or is likely to be done, to a person or his property, or a person is in fear of being harmed through an assault, an affray, a riot, an unlawful assembly, or some other form of disturbance.
The power to arrest for a breach of the peace is usually used to remove violent, potentially violent or provocative offenders (it is not necessary for the offender themselves to be physically involved in any violence) from a scene rapidly.
In England and Wales, breach of the peace is a civil proceeding, although the case must be proved to the criminal standard of proof, ' beyond reasonable doubt ', rather than the civil standard of proof, ' on the balance of probabilities '. Sometimes the Crown Prosecution Service conduct the case on behalf of the police, but the police service is liable for any costs awarded in favour or against the prosecutor. Breach of the Peace is not an offence, in the sense that it is not punishable either by a fine or imprisonment either at statute or common law and nor do proceedings for breach of the peace give rise to any conviction. In England and Wales, constables (or other persons) are permitted to arrest a person to "prevent a further breach of the peace '' which allows for the police or the public to arrest a person before a breach of the peace has occurred. This is permitted when it is reasonable to believe should the person remain, that they would continue with their course of conduct and that a Breach of the Peace would occur.
The only immediate sanction that can be imposed by a court for breach of the peace is to bind over the offender to keep the peace: that is, justices of the peace can require a person to enter into a recognizance to keep the peace. Any punishment (in the sense of a loss of freedom or permanent financial penalty) takes the form of loss of the surety if the defendant fails to keep the peace or be of good behaviour during the period for which he is bound over. The binding over itself does not amount to a conviction (but any following behaviour causing loss of the surety might well result in conviction for an associated offence). A failure to enter into a recognizance may of itself lead to a person being committed to custody under s. 115 (3) Magistrates ' Courts Act 1980.
There are major differences between English law and Scottish law with respect to dealing with breach of the peace; unlike England and Wales where criminal penalties apply to the behaviour leading to or liable to cause a breach of the peace, it is a specific criminal offence in Scotland which is prosecuted daily in the sheriff courts and due to its common law definition it can be applied to a number of scenarios. The maximum punishment if a case is remitted to the High Court remains imprisonment for life although such severe punishment is now rarely applied, usually being associated with breaches of licence during an existing life sentence.
The Scottish law definition of a breach of the peace is "conduct severe enough to cause alarm to ordinary people and threaten serious disturbance to the community ''.
A constable may arrest any person, without warrant, who commits a breach of the peace. A member of the public may not arrest a person for behaviour which amounts to no more than a breach of the peace (i.e. an arrest is not always for the offence for which someone is eventually prosecuted but can be for a more serious crime that appears to be occurring).
Breach of the peace can include, but is not limited to, any riotous behaviours (which includes "rowdiness '' or "brawling '') and any disorderly behaviour. This behaviour need not be noisy but still of a nature that would cause concern to other people. Examples include voyeurism, persistently following someone, delivering "threatening '' letters and "streaking '' or "mooning ''.
To prove a breach of the peace, the most important things to prove is that someone was alarmed, annoyed or disturbed by the incident.
This offence can take place anywhere, for example, a public street or any public space.
One of the leading cases in Scottish Law is that of Smith v Donnelly, a case concerning a Faslane protester.
Cox v. Louisiana was a United States Supreme Court decision that held that a Louisiana statute criminalizing breaches of the peace "as authoritatively interpreted by the Louisiana Supreme Court is unconstitutionally broad in scope ''. The statute read in part:
Whoever with intent to provoke a breach of the peace, or under circumstances such that a breach of the peace may be occasioned thereby... crowds or congregates with others... in or upon... a public street or public highway, or upon a public sidewalk, or any other public place or building... and who fails or refuses to disperse and move on... when ordered so to do by any law enforcement officer of any municipality, or parish, in which such act or acts are committed, or by any law enforcement officer of the state of Louisiana, or any other authorized person... shall be guilty of disturbing the peace.
The Crown Prosecution Service Guidance for Breach of the Peace and Bind Over Orders (Applies to England & Wales)
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who plays madison in the secret life of the american teenager | Renee Olstead - wikipedia
Renee Olstead (born June 18, 1989) is an American actress and singer. Active since childhood as an actress, she is best known for her roles on the CBS sitcom Still Standing and on the drama The Secret Life of the American Teenager as Madison Cooperstein. In addition, she has recorded four studio albums, primarily of jazz music.
Olstead was born in Kingwood, Texas, to Christopher Eric Olstead and Rebecca Lynn Jeffries. Olstead is of Norwegian ancestry. As a child actress, she made films and commercials from age eight onwards. She also attended Centre Stage theatrical school and is mentioned on their website 's list of alumni.
From 2002 to 2006, she appeared in the TV sitcom Still Standing as middle sister Lauren Miller. Olstead was presented with the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy) - Supporting Young Actress for Still Standing in 2002. She also had a small part in the 2004 film 13 Going on 30. She co-starred in the ABC Family series The Secret Life of the American Teenager, about fifteen - year - old Amy Juergens 's struggle through her unexpected pregnancy and how it affected her peers. Olstead played the character Madison Cooperstein, one of Amy 's best friends.
In 2004, Olstead released a self - titled album of jazz songs and pop standards for Warner Bros. Records to good reviews. Since her previous releases had limited distribution, this album was considered her official debut. She subsequently performed in Berlin during the Live 8 concert on July 2, 2005.
Olstead also recorded with trumpeter Chris Botti on his 2005 album To Love Again: The Duets and appeared on the 2006 DVD Chris Botti Live with Orchestra and Special Guests. Her singing style is influenced by such great jazz vocalists as Ella Fitzgerald and Sarah Vaughan. Reportedly, her musical talent was discovered by composer David Foster, who produced her 2004 album. She later performed with him on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
A follow - up album entitled Skylark, also produced by Foster, was originally announced for release in 2005, but it was subsequently pushed back several times, with release dates in the summer of 2006 and early 2007 being mentioned on online retailers such as Amazon.com. It was then scheduled for a June 2008 release, but was delayed once again. It was finally released on January 27, 2009, nearly four years after it was originally announced.
On September 14, 2011, as the result of a criminal complaint initially made by actress Scarlett Johansson, the FBI announced it was investigating the alleged hacking of celebrity cellphone and email accounts and the dissemination of explicit nude photographs of Johansson and approximately 50 other celebrities, including Olstead. As a result of the investigation, 35 - year - old Christopher Chaney of Jacksonville, Florida, was arrested in October 2011. During the trial, Olstead testified that she attempted suicide after the nude photographs were leaked, adding that she had never before considered suicide before the hacking. Chaney was sentenced to 10 years in prison in December 2012.
Olstead most recently starred as Kaitlan in the 2013 supernatural thriller The Midnight Game and as Jess Felton in the 2014 technology - themed thriller film Unfriended.
Renee is married to pianist Tommy King, and legally took his last name.
Olstead is a vegan. She appeared in a PETA ad, Fish Are Friends Not Food, urging her fans to become vegan themselves. In 2012, Olstead joined PETA 's campaign to free the elephant Mali from captivity at the Manila Zoological and Botanical Garden, where she has been alone for the last three decades.
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who won the men's olympic gold medal hockey game | Miracle on ice - wikipedia
The "Miracle on Ice '' refers to a medal - round game during the men 's ice hockey tournament at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, played between the hosting United States, and the defending gold medalists, the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more in Lake Placid. The team consisted primarily of professional players with significant experience in international play. By contrast, the United States ' team -- led by head coach Herb Brooks -- consisted exclusively of amateur players, and was the youngest team in the tournament and in U.S. national team history. In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were undefeated; the U.S. achieved several notable results, including a 2 -- 2 draw against Sweden, and a 7 -- 3 upset victory over second - place favorites Czechoslovakia.
For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2 -- 2, and the Soviets leading 3 -- 2 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead during the third and final period, winning the game 4 -- 3 in a major upset against the Cold War rival. Following the game, the U.S. went on to clinch the gold medal by beating Finland in their final match of the tournament. Likewise, the Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden.
The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well - known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he famously declared in the final seconds, "Do you believe in miracles?! YES! '' In 1999, Sports Illustrated named the "Miracle on Ice '' the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the "Miracle on Ice '' as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years.
The Soviet Union entered the Lake Placid games as the heavy favorite, having won the previous four ice hockey gold medals dating back to the 1964 games. In the four Olympics following their 1960 bronze medal finish with two losses and one tie at Squaw Valley, Soviet teams had gone 27 -- 1 -- 1 (wins - losses - ties) and outscored their opponents 175 -- 44. In head - to - head match - ups against the United States, the cumulative score over that period was 28 -- 7.
Until 1977, professional players were not able to participate in the World Championship, and it was not until 1988 that they could play in the Winter Olympics. The Soviet team was populated with amateur players who were actually full - time athletes hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after - hours social sports society hockey team for their workers. Soviet Championship League was on par with the National Hockey League at the time. Soviets were led by legendary players in world ice hockey, such as Boris Mikhailov (a top line right winger and team captain), Vladislav Tretiak (the consensus best goaltender in the world at the time), the speedy and skilled Valeri Kharlamov, as well as talented, young, and dynamic players such as defenseman Viacheslav Fetisov and forwards Vladimir Krutov and Sergei Makarov. From that team, Tretiak, Kharlamov, Makarov, and Fetisov would eventually be enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame. Many of the Soviet players had gained attention in the Summit Series eight years before and, in contrast to the American players, were de facto seasoned professionals with long histories of international play.
U.S. head coach Herb Brooks had tryouts in Colorado Springs in the summer of 1979. Of the 20 players who eventually made the final Olympic roster, Buzz Schneider was the only one returning from the 1976 Olympic team. Nine players had played under Brooks at the University of Minnesota, which included Rob McClanahan, Mike Ramsey, and Phil Verchota; while four more were from Boston University: Dave Silk, Jack O'Callahan, goalie Jim Craig, and team captain Mike Eruzione. Boston University and Minnesota were perennial rivals in college hockey and the hostility carried over from some of the players on the Olympic team for the first few months. But part of Brooks ' selection process was a 300 - question psychological test that would give him insight on how every player would react under stress. Anyone who refused to take the test would be flunked. Brooks had to select from 68 players who started the tryout.
The average age of the U.S. team was 21 years old, making it the youngest team in U.S. team history to play in the Olympics. It would be the youngest team in the Olympic tournament. But Brooks had selected carefully and knew the limits of every player. As forward John Harrington said, "He knew exactly where to quit. He 'd push you right to the limit where you were ready to say, ' I 've had it, I 'm throwing it in ' -- and then he 'd back off. '' Brooks continued the organization by campaigning for the players ' selection of Eruzione as the captain, and Craig had been the goalie for him in the 1979 World Championship tournament. Assistant coach Craig Patrick had played with Brooks on the 1967 U.S. national team.
The Soviet and American teams were natural rivals due to the decades - old Cold War. In addition, President Jimmy Carter was at the time considering a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics, to be held in Moscow, in protest of the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. On February 9, the same day the American and Soviet teams met in an exhibition game in New York City, U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance denounced the impending Moscow games at a meeting of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). President Carter eventually decided in favor of the boycott.
In exhibitions that year, Soviet club teams went 5 -- 3 -- 1 against National Hockey League (NHL) teams, and a year earlier, the Soviet national team had routed the NHL All - Stars 6 -- 0 to win the Challenge Cup. In 1979 -- 80, virtually all the top North American players were Canadians, although the number of U.S. - born professional players had been on the rise throughout the 1970s. The 1980 U.S. Olympic team featured several young players who were regarded as highly promising, and some had signed contracts to play in the NHL immediately after the tournament.
In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play. They played a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and America. Through these games, Herb Brooks instilled a European style of play in the American team, emphasizing wide open play with sufficient body contact. He believed it would be the only way for the Americans to compete with the Soviets. From the start of the exhibitions, he conducted the team through skating windsprints consisting of end line to blue line and back, then end line to red line and back, then end line to far blue line and back, and finally end line all the way down and back. Some of the players took to calling these Herbies. On September 17, 1979, the team played to a 3 - 3 tie in Norway. Brooks had them skate Herbies after the game, and after a while, the lights were turned off by custodians and the practice continued in the dark. Near the end of the exhibition season, although he had supported them throughout, Brooks threatened because of subpar play to cut Eruzione (the captain) and replace Craig as the starting goalie with Steve Janaszak.
In the last exhibition game against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden on February 9, 1980, the Soviets crushed the Americans 10 -- 3. Soviet head coach Viktor Tikhonov later said that this victory "turned out to be a very big problem '' by causing the Soviets to underestimate the American team. The game was also costly for the Americans off - ice, as defenseman Jack O'Callahan pulled a ligament in his knee; however, Brooks kept O'Callahan on the roster which meant virtually playing with only 19 players throughout the tournament. O'Callahan would eventually return for the game against the Soviets playing limited minutes.
In Olympic group play, the Americans surprised many observers with their physical, cohesive play. In their first game against favored Sweden, Team USA earned a dramatic 2 -- 2 draw by scoring with 27 seconds left after pulling goalie Jim Craig for an extra attacker. Had Team USA not scored this goal and all other results remained the same, the Soviet Union would have emerged with the gold medal on goal differential over the U.S. in the medal round. Then came a stunning 7 -- 3 victory over Czechoslovakia, who were a favorite for the silver medal. With its two toughest games in the group phase out of the way, the U.S. team reeled off three more wins, beating Norway 5 -- 1, Romania 7 -- 2, and West Germany 4 -- 2 to go 4 -- 0 -- 1 and advance to the medal round from its group, along with Sweden.
In the other group, the Soviets stormed through their opposition undefeated, often by grossly lopsided scores. They defeated Japan 16 -- 0, the Netherlands 17 -- 4, Poland 8 -- 1, Finland 4 -- 2, and Canada 6 -- 4 to easily qualify for the next round, although both the Finns and the Canadians gave the Soviets tough games for two periods. In the end, the Soviet Union and Finland advanced from their group.
The U.S. and Soviet teams prepared for the medal round in different ways. Soviet coach Viktor Tikhonov rested most of his best players, preferring to let them study plays rather than actually skate. U.S. coach Herb Brooks, however, continued with his tough, confrontational style, skating hard practices and berating his players for perceived weaknesses and to build stamina. Brooks ' goal was to have his team be able to keep up with the Soviets through all three periods.
The day before the match, columnist Dave Anderson wrote in The New York Times, "Unless the ice melts, or unless the United States team or another team performs a miracle, as did the American squad in 1960, the Russians are expected to easily win the Olympic gold medal for the sixth time in the last seven tournaments. ''
Prior to the game, ABC requested that it be rescheduled from 5: 00 p.m. to 8: 00 p.m. Eastern Time, so that it could be broadcast live in primetime hours. However, the request was declined by the IIHF, after the Soviets complained that it would cause the game to air at 4 a.m. Moscow Time, as opposed to 1 a.m. Moscow Time. As a result, ABC decided not to broadcast the game live for the U.S. audience, and tape delayed it for broadcast during its primetime block of Olympics coverage instead. Before the game aired, ABC 's Olympics host Jim McKay openly stated that the game had already occurred, but that they had promised not to spoil its results. In order to accommodate coverage of the men 's slalom competition, portions of the game were also edited for time. To this day some of the people that watched the game on television still believe that it was live.
With a capacity of 8,500, the Field House was packed. The home crowd waved U.S. flags and sang patriotic songs such as "God Bless America ''. Before the game, Brooks read his players a statement he had written out on a piece of paper, telling them that "You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours. '' Brooks believed they could win and later said, "The Russians were ready to cut their own throats. But we had to get to the point to be ready to pick up the knife and hand it to them. So the morning of the game I called the team together and told them, ' It 's meant to be. This is your moment and it 's going to happen. ' It 's kind of corny and I could see them thinking, ' Here goes Herb again... ' But I believed it. ''
As in several previous games, the U.S. team fell behind early. Vladimir Krutov deflected a slap shot by Alexei Kasatonov past U.S. goaltender Jim Craig at the 9: 12 mark to give the Soviets a 1 -- 0 lead, and after Buzz Schneider scored for the United States on a 50 - foot shot from the left boards at 14: 03 to tie the game, the Soviets struck again with a Sergei Makarov goal with 17: 34 gone. With his team down 2 -- 1, Craig improved his play, turning away many Soviet shots before the U.S. team had another shot on goal (the Soviet team had 39 shots on goal in the game, the Americans 16).
In the waning seconds of the first period, Dave Christian fired a slap shot on Tretiak from 100 feet (30 m) away. The Soviet goalie saved the shot but misplayed the rebound, which bounced out some 20 feet (6.1 m) in front of him. Mark Johnson sliced between the two defenders, found the loose puck, and fired it past a diving Tretiak to tie the score with one second left in the period. This would be an important judgment call by the officials, as an official announcement confirming the goal did not come until many Soviet players were off the ice and heading to the locker room for intermission. The first period ended with the game tied 2 -- 2.
Tikhonov replaced Tretiak with backup goaltender Vladimir Myshkin immediately after Johnson 's tying goal, a move which shocked players on both teams. Tikhonov later identified this as the "turning point of the game '', and called it "the biggest mistake of my career ''. Years later, when Johnson asked Viacheslav Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the move, Fetisov responded with "Coach crazy ''. Myshkin allowed no goals in the second period. The Soviets dominated play in the second period, outshooting the Americans 12 -- 2, but scored only once, on a power play goal by Aleksandr Maltsev 2: 18 into play. After two periods the Soviet Union led 3 -- 2.
Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6: 47 mark of the third period for high - sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27 minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson. Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8: 39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3. Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4 -- 3 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play.
The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione 's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, "Play your game. Play your game. '' Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that "we were panicking ''. As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Soviets never pulled Myshkin for an extra attacker, much to the Americans ' disbelief. Starikov later explained that "We never did six - on - five '', not even in practice, because "Tikhonov just did n't believe in it ''. Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33 seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20 seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:
11 seconds, you 've got 10 seconds, the countdown going on right now! Morrow, up to Silk. Five seconds left in the game. Do you believe in miracles? YES!
As his team ran all over the ice in celebration, Herb Brooks sprinted back to the locker room and cried. In the locker room afterwards, players spontaneously broke into a chorus of "God Bless America '' and received a congratulatory phone call from President Jimmy Carter.
During the broadcast wrap - up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty).
The United States did not immediately win the gold medal upon defeating the USSR. In 1980, the medal round was a round - robin, not a single elimination format as it is today. Under Olympic rules at the time, the group game with Sweden was counted along with the medal round games versus the Soviet Union and Finland so it was mathematically possible for the United States to finish anywhere from first to fourth.
Needing to win to secure the gold medal, Team USA came back from a 2 -- 1 third period deficit to defeat Finland 4 -- 2. According to Mike Eruzione, coming into the dressing room in the second intermission, Brooks turned to his players, looked at them and said, "If you lose this game, you 'll take it to your fucking graves. He then walked towards the locker room door, paused and looked over his shoulder and said to us again "Your fucking graves ''. ''
At the time, the players ascended a podium to receive their medals and then lined up on the ice for the playing of the national anthem, as the podium was only meant to accommodate one person. Only the team captains remained on the podium for the duration. After the completion of the anthem, Eruzione motioned for his teammates to join him on the podium. Today, podiums are not used for ice hockey; the teams line up on their respective bluelines after the final game.
The cover of the March 3, 1980, issue of Sports Illustrated was a photograph by Heinz Kluetmeier of the American players celebrating and waving an American flag; it did not feature any explanatory captions or headlines, because, as Kluetmeier put it, "It did n't need it. Everyone in America knew what happened ''. The U.S. team also received the magazine 's "Sportsmen of the Year '' award, as well as being named as Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press and ABC 's Wide World of Sports. In 2004, ESPN, as part of its 25th anniversary, declared the Miracle on Ice to be the top sports headline moment, and game of the period 1979 -- 2004. The victory was voted the greatest sports moment of the 20th century by Sports Illustrated.
At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4 -- 1 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8 -- 4.
Of the 20 players on Team USA, 13 eventually played in the NHL. Five of them went on to play over 500 NHL games, and three would play over 1,000 NHL games.
In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first - line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, "This is your loss! '' Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9 -- 2, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media.
Despite the loss, the USSR remained the pre-eminent power in Olympic hockey until its 1991 break - up. The Soviet team did not lose a World Championship game until 1985 and did not lose to the United States again until 1991. Throughout the 1980s, NHL teams continued to draft Soviet players in hopes of enticing them to eventually play in North America. Soviet emigrant Victor Nechayev made a brief appearance with the Los Angeles Kings in the 1982 -- 83 season, and during the 1988 -- 89 season, the Soviet Ice Hockey Federation agreed to let veteran Sergei Pryakhin join the Calgary Flames.
In the 1989 / 90 season, six 1980 Soviet Olympians joined NHL clubs: Helmuts Balderis, Viacheslav Fetisov, Alexei Kasatonov, Vladimir Krutov, Sergei Makarov and Sergei Starikov. Fetisov was a teammate of Mike Ramsey on the 1995 Detroit Red Wings team that lost the Stanley Cup Final. Fetisov completed his career by winning Cups with the Red Wings in 1997 and 1998; the first Cup win also made Fetisov a member of the Triple Gold Club, consisting of individuals who have won a Stanley Cup plus gold medals at the Olympics and World Championships. Makarov won the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL Rookie of the Year in 1989 / 90, becoming the oldest player to win that award. That same season, younger Soviet star Alexander Mogilny defected to play for the Buffalo Sabres, followed the next year by Sergei Fedorov who defected to play for the Detroit Red Wings. Then, with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, a flood of ex-Soviet stars joined the NHL, including Pavel Bure and Vladimir Konstantinov. Since then, many of the NHL 's top players have come from the post-Soviet states.
The U.S. and the Soviet Union next met at the Olympics at the 1988 games. The Soviets won the first round encounter 7 -- 5. The Soviets went on to win the gold medal, while the U.S. placed seventh.
The two teams met again at the 1992 Olympics in a semi-final. There, the Unified Team (the successor to the Soviet Union) won 5 -- 2. The Unified Team eventually won the gold medal, while the U.S. placed fourth.
The U.S. and Russia met twice at the 1996 World Cup of Hockey, Americans won both games 5 - 2 en route to the gold medal.
The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Slava Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2 -- 2 round robin draw and a 3 -- 2 semi-final in favor of USA, with the semi-final match coming 22 years to the day after the "Miracle on Ice '' game.
The two teams met at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey. The U.S. obtained a decisive victory 5 - 3 in the quarterfinal.
The U.S. and Russia played each other in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The round robin game was tied 2 -- 2 after overtime and was won by the Americans in an 8 - round shootout, with T.J. Oshie scoring on 4 of 6 attempts for the USA. The match has been dubbed by some as the "Marathon on Ice ''.
A made - for - TV movie Miracle on Ice, starring Karl Malden as Brooks and Steve Guttenberg as Craig, aired on ABC television in March 1981. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games.
Miami punk band Principles recorded their lone cash - in single, ' USA 423, ' on Grey Dome Records in 1980 in celebration of the United States victory.
The documentary film Do You Believe in Miracles?, narrated by Liev Schreiber, premiered on HBO in February 2001 and was subsequently released on home video.
In 2004, Walt Disney Pictures released the film Miracle, starring Kurt Russell as Brooks. Al Michaels recreated his commentary for most of the games. The final ten seconds, however, and his "Do you believe in miracles? YES! '' call, were from the original broadcast and used in the film since the filmmakers felt that they could not ask him to recreate the emotion he felt at that moment. The film was dedicated to Herb Brooks, who died shortly after principal photography was completed. The movie was released by Walt Disney Pictures, by that point a sister company to ABC.
The documentary Of Miracles And Men, which was directed by Jonathan Hock, premiered on ESPN on February 8, 2015 as part of the channel 's 30 for 30 series. The story of the 1980 matchup is told from the Soviet perspective while also branching out to include what happened in the years that immediately followed. Slava Fetisov 's return to Lake Placid was focused on heavily, as he takes his daughter Anastasia on the trip to reminisce.
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